Class Notes on Thermal Energy Conversion System For the students of Civil & Rural 3rd semester
Ramesh Khanal Assistant Professor
Nepal Engineering College Bhaktapur, Nepal 2015 Class Notes on Thermal Energy Conversion System
Course Structure MEC 209.3: Thermal Energy Conversion System (3-1-2)
Theory Practical Total Sessional 30 20 50 Final 50 - 50 Total 80 20 100 Course Objective The objective of this course is to make the students familiar with air standard cycles, principle and systems of internal combustion engines and fuels and their combustion properties. Course Contents: 1. Gas Power Cycles and Reversibility (6 hours) Introduction; Air Standard Efficiency of a Cycle; Thermodynamic Reversibility; Carnot’s Cycle; Otto Cycle and actual pV diagram for Otto Cycle; Diesel Cycle and actual pV diagram for Diesel Cycle; Dual Combustion Cycle; Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Combustion Cycles; Brayton Cycle; Stirling Cycle. 2. Reciprocating Steam Engine: (5 hours) The Rankine Cycle; Comparison of Rankine and Carnot’s Cycle; Rankine Cycle applied to steam engine plant; Rankine Cycle on TS diagram; Steam Engine Indicators; Hypothetical and Actual Indicator Diagram of Steam Engine. 3. Internal Combustion Engines (7 hours) Introduction; Classification of Internal Combustion Engines; Working Cycles of Internal Combustion Engines; Two Stroke Cycle Petrol and Diesel Engines; Four Stroke Cycle Petrol and Diesel Engines; Basic Parameters of Internal Combustion Engines; Components of Internal Combustion Engines. 4. Performance of Internal Combustion Engines (12 hours) Indicated Power, Brake Power, Mean Effective Pressure; Engine Efficiency; Heat Balance for Internal Combustion Engines; Power, Torque, Speed Relationship; Specific Fuel Consumption; Gasoline and Gaseous Fuel Systems: carburation system, temperature and altitude effects, gaseous fuel storage, air-mixing, relative efficiency; Ignition Systems: spark ignition engines, conventional system- primary and secondary circuits, electronic ignition, comparison and effects on engine performance, compression ignition engines, fuel injector characteristics, engine output and efficiency; Cooling Systems: liquid (water/anti-freeze) coolant, dry and wet liners corrosion inhibitors, air cooling, temperature limitations, fan power requirement, comparative advantage of liquid and air cooling system; Lubrication i Class Notes on Thermal Energy Conversion System
System: lubrication requirements of spark ignition and compression ignition engines, low pressure splash lubrication system, high pressure gear pumps and distribution system. 5. Reciprocating Air Compressor (8 hours) Primary Components of a Reciprocating Air Compressor; Reciprocating Compression, Clearance Volume Effects, p-V diagram and work done; Volumetric and Adiabatic Efficiencies, Compression Process on T-s Diagram; Multi-stage compression, Intercooling, Optimum pressure distribution Work done, Representation of p-V and T-s diagram; Positive Displacement Compressor Types, Axial flow compressors, Roots Blower, Rotary compressors. 6. Fuels and Combustion (7 hours) Introduction; Classification of Fuels; Solid Fuels; Liquid Fuels; Gaseous Fuels; Calorific and Heating Values of Fuels; Determination of Calorific Values for Solid, Liquid and Gaseous Fuels; Combustion Equations for Hydrocarbon Fuels; Combustion in Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition Engines; Pre-Ignition and Ignition Delays; Detonation and Effects of Operating Variables on Detonation. Total Lectures 45 hours Laboratories: Five laboratory Exercises to be performed in this course, as stated hereunder: i. Studies on Parallel Flow and Counter Flow Heat Exchangers ii. Performance Evaluation of Reciprocating Air-Compressor iii. Study of Systems and Components of Internal Combustion Engines iv. Performance Testing of Spark Ignition Engine: Ignition Timing, Fuel Combustion, Losses, Mechanical Efficiency, Air-Fuel Ratio, Volumetric Efficiency, Compression Ratio, Exhaust Emission, Energy Balance v. Performance Testing of Compression Ignition Engine: BMEP, Injection Timing, Fuel Consumption, Losses, Mechanical Efficiency, Air-Fuel Ratio, Volumetric Efficiency, Compression Ratio, Exhaust Emission, Energy Balance Tutorial: Problem Solving and Assignments Text Books and References: i. J.B. Heywood. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw Hill Book Co. ii. C.R. Ferguson. Internal Combustion Engine. Wiley Publishers (latest edition). iii. P.L. Ballaney. Thermal Engineering (Heat Engines). Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
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Content Chapter 1. Gas Power Cycles and Reversibility ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Air standard efficiency of a cycle ...... 1 1.3 Thermodynamic reversibility ...... 2 1.4 Carnot cycle ...... 2 1.5 Brief introduction to petrol and diesel engine operation ...... 4 1.6 Approximation of real cycle with air standard cycle ...... 5 1.7 Otto cycle ...... 6 1.8 Diesel cycle ...... 8 1.9 Dual cycle ...... 11 1.10 Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle ...... 13 1.11 Brayton cycle ...... 17 1.12 Stirling Cycle ...... 20 Chapter 2. Reciprocating Steam Engine ...... 32 2.1 Rankine cycle ...... 32 2.2 Mean temperature of heat addition ...... 33 2.3 Comparison of Rankine and Carnot cycle ...... 34 2.4 Effect of pressure and temperature on Rankine cycle ...... 35 2.5 Working principle of reciprocating steam engine ...... 36 2.6 Steam engine indicators ...... 37 2.7 Hypothetical indicator diagram ...... 37 2.8 Hypothetical and actual indicator diagram ...... 39 Chapter 3. Internal Combustion Engine ...... 45 3.1 Introduction ...... 45 3.2 Classification of IC engines ...... 46 3.3 Working cycle of IC engines ...... 46 3.4 Valve timing diagram of four stroke IC engine ...... 49 3.5 Components of IC engines ...... 51 3.6 Parts common to SI engine ...... 54 3.7 Parts common to CI engine ...... 55 3.8 Basic engine parameters ...... 55 Chapter 4. Performance of Internal Combustion Engine ...... 57 4.1 Mean effective pressure (MEP) ...... 57 4.2 Indicated power (IP) ...... 57
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4.3 Brake power (BP) ...... 58 4.4 Engine efficiencies ...... 59 4.5 Heat balance for IC engine ...... 60 4.6 Torque-power-speed relationship ...... 61 4.7 Gasoline and gaseous fuel system ...... 62 4.8 Ignition system ...... 68 4.9 Engine cooling system ...... 71 4.10 Advantage of liquid cooling ...... 73 4.11 Disadvantage of liquid cooling ...... 74 4.12 Advantage of air cooling ...... 74 4.13 Disadvantage of air cooling ...... 74 4.14 Engine lubricating system ...... 74 Chapter 5. Reciprocating air compressor ...... 77 5.1 Reciprocating compression ...... 77 5.2 Work done in compressor ...... 78 5.3 Isothermal compression ...... 80 5.4 Effect of polytropic index on work required ...... 80 5.5 Compression process in T-s diagram ...... 81 5.6 Clearance volume effects, P-v diagram and work done ...... 82 5.7 Work done in single stage compressor with clearance volume ...... 83 5.8 Volumetric and adiabatic efficiencies ...... 85 5.9 Effect of delivery pressure on the performance of air compressor ...... 86 5.10 Multi-stage compression ...... 87 5.11 Representation of P-v and T-s diagram ...... 88 5.12 Optimum pressure distribution work done ...... 89 5.13 Positive displacement compressor ...... 91 Chapter 6. Fuels and Combustion ...... 99 6.1 Introduction ...... 99 6.2 Classification of fuels ...... 99 6.3 Calorific and heating values of fuels ...... 99 6.4 Determination of caloric values ...... 99 6.5 Combustion equation for hydrocarbon fuels ...... 99 6.6 Combustion in SI and CI engine ...... 103 6.7 Abnormal combustion in SI engine ...... 104 6.8 Abnormal combustion in CI engine ...... 105
iv Class Notes on Thermal Energy Conversion System
v Class Notes on Thermal Energy Conversion System
Chapter 1. Gas Power Cycles and Reversibility 1.1 Introduction In the study of thermodynamics, a cycle is defined as a set of processes involving transfer of heat and work. The cycle starts from one state and after completion of set of processes return back to the initial state. The cycle is capable of continuing same process repeatedly. If the purpose of the cycle is to receive heat from surrounding and transfer work to the surrounding, it is called power cycle. We also know that some kind of medium is required for a cycle to transfer heat and work. If a device that operates in thermodynamics power cycle uses gas as working medium then it is called gas power cycle. We also know that according to the second law of thermodynamics, heat can be converted into work and while doing so some part of heat received from the source must be rejected to the surrounding. The difference in heat received from source and heat rejected to surrounding is work done by the cycle to the surrounding. Generally, four processes are required to complete a gas power cycle and they are: a. Compression of gas b. Head addition from source c. Expansion of gas d. Heat rejection to the surrounding 1.2 Air standard efficiency of a cycle We know that air is freely and abundantly available in our atmosphere. For this reason air is commonly used as working medium in gas power cycle. Though the composition of air in some power cycle may change during the cycle (fuel is burned in presence of air in petrol engine and diesel engine), working medium is always treated as ideal gas. All power- producing engines such as petrol engine, diesel engine, gas turbine; which use air as working medium are approximated as air standard cycle for analysis. One of the parameters used to measure the performance of a power cycle is thermal efficiency. Thermal efficiency of power cycle working with air is also known as air standard efficiency. From the second law of thermodynamics, we know that efficiency of a power cycle can be expressed as,
Eq. 1.1 = ℎ Let us consider that qin amount of heat is supplied to an air standard cycle to produce wout
amount of work and in the process qout amount heat is rejected.
wout = q in – qout Eq. 1.2
So, the equation of air standard efficiency of a cycle can be written as
1 Class Notes on Thermal Energy Conversion System