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Berlin Embassy of James Watson Gerard: Reflections of a Diplomatic Paradigm Shift 1913-1917 University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1997 Berlin embassy of James Watson Gerard: Reflections of a diplomatic paradigm shift 1913-1917 Timothy Leo Lohof The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Lohof, Timothy Leo, "Berlin embassy of James Watson Gerard: Reflections of a diplomatic paradigm shift 1913-1917" (1997). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 4713. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/4713 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Maureen and Mike MANSFIELD LIBRARY The University of I V I O N T A I V A Permission is granted by the author to reproduce this material in its entirety, provided that this material is used for scholarly purposes and is properly cited in published works and reports. ♦* ** Please check "Yes" or "No" and provide signature Yes, I grant permission "T , I do not grant permission Author's Signature —r r r Date ■ J t t^ ? -__________ Any copying for commercial purposes or financial gain may be undertaken only with the author's explicit consent. THE BERLIN EMBASSY OF JAMES WATSON GERARD: REFLECTIONS OF A DIPLOMATIC PARADIGM SHIFT, 1913-1917 by Timothy Leo Lohof B. S. Montana State University, 1986 presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts The University of Montana 1997 (roved by: Dean, Graduate School Date UMI Number: EP40177 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI EP40177 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Lohof, Timothy L., M.A., December 1997 History The Berlin Embassy of James Watson Gerard: Reflections of a Diplomatic Paradigm Shift, 1913-1917 (179 pp.) Director: Dr. Paul Gordon Lauren American Ambassador James Watson Gerard’s embassy in the imperial German capital of Berlin (1913- 1917) directly reflected the remarkable paradigm shift in and professionalization of American diplomacy occurring around the turn of the century. Prior to the 1890s, domestic matters absorbed the nation, including post-Civil War reconstruction, settling the West, and building an immensely successful industrial society. Those priorities considered foreign relations unessential, and the nation, therefore, largely disregarded international affairs and neglected its diplomatic and consular services, allowing political patronage to populate them with unskilled amateurs. Beginning in the early 1890s, however, developments compelled the country to leave its isolation and ' increasingly involve itself in world affairs. Explosive expansion of the national economy, a global revolution in communications and transportation technology, rise to world power status, alarm at perceived threats to her shores and her overseas markets, a lengthy economic depression, and loss of national confidence helped prompt a shift in the nation’s foreign relations paradigm that would last into the early 1920s. The country’s increasingly purposeful involvement abroad required competent, reliable foreign representatives to serve its widening interests, thus stimulating by the early 1900s initial, though uneven, moves towards the professionalization of the American foreign services. The First World War’s demands— felt so keenly by the Gerard embassy—laid stark once and for all the inadequacies of a non-professional diplomatic service, and gave renewed urgency to reform, culminating with the Rogers Act’s establishment of the United States Foreign Service in 1924. Coming at the inflection point of these institutional and paradigmatic transitions, the Gerard embassy reflected the transformation of American diplomacy from nineteenth-century amateurism to twentieth- century professionalism. The embassy’s personnel displayed both vestiges of the old paradigm and the rising careerism of the new. Gerard’s trials in securing suitable housing for his embassy highlighted a glaring deficiency, even as embassy use of the telegraph, telephone/automobile, cinema, and other new technology accelerated modern diplomacy’s pace and changed its very character. And, finally, the sharp increase in work quantity, and its quality abruptly expanding to include such novel issues as human rights, public relations, intelligence gathering, and propaganda, demonstrated the new diplomacy’s growing complexity. The Berlin Embassy of James Watson Gerard: Reflections of a Diplomatic Paradigm Shift, 1913-1917 Contents Abstract............................................................. ii I. Introduction: Ambassador Gerard and His Embassy at the Crossroads, 1913-1917 ....................... 1 IT. New Pressures and Old Diplomacy: American World Power Status and a Foreign Relations Paradigm Shift, 1898-1913.................................................................................. ;......... 14 III. The Embassy and Its Staff......................................................... 42 IV. The Embassy and Its Tools............................................................................................ 79 V. The Embassy and Its Work in War and the New Century ............................................................................118 VI. Conclusion: Paradigm Shift, the Gerard Embassy, and the Professionalization of American Diplomacy......................................... 164 Bibliography................................................ 177 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION: AMBASSADOR GERARD AND HIS EMBASSY AT THE CROSSROADS, 1913-1917 There are at the present time two great nations in the world...I allude to the Russians and the Americans-.Their starting point is different and their courses are not the same; yet each of them seems marked out by the will of heaven to sway the destinies of half the globe.1 —Alexis de Tocqueville (1835) As we would not put a ship into the hands of a commander ignorant of navigation, an army under the control of a general without military training...so we should not put the foreign affairs of our government into the hands of men without knowledge of the various subjects which go to make up the diplomatic science.2 —Herbert H.D. Peirce (1897) Congressman Peirce’s pronouncement the year before the seminal Spanish-American War, while eminently reasonable, stood very far from being foregone. Despite the prophetic Frenchman Tocqueville’s early divination, young America’s preoccupation with major'domestic concerns absented her from world involvement for virtually the entire nineteenth-century. As the country maintained little real use for foreign representation, her consular and diplomatic services slipped into serious neglect, and even so late as Peirce’s day largely remained despised havens for political patronage and amateur mediocrity/ Beginning in the late nineteenth-century, however, a seachange occurred in American foreign relations and diplomacy. In a state of chronic neglect into the 1890s, the importance of foreign affairs to the United States’ well-being began a steady resurrection in that decade in response to changing conditions and 1 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Penguin Books, 1956), p. 142. 1 In the “Arena” periodical, May, 1897, as quoted in Kenneth W. Thompson, American Diplomacy and Emergent Patterns (New York University Press, 1962), p. 77. 3 Before the Rogers Act of 1924 merged them, the “diplomatic service” and the “consular service” remained two, separate, often divorced components of America’s foreign representation. /This work focuses on the professionalization of the diplomatic service, but does make occasional reference to the consular. 1 2 perceptions. By Peirce’s time the initial stirrings of America’s coming dominance in world affairs had produced noticeable ripples. A shift in perspective had begun asserting itself in which Americans perceived a more deliberate and active role for their nation; a changing paradigm was setting the stage that would soon prove Baron de Tocqueville a shrewd observer. Its progress saw an initial marked upturn of American interest abroad starting in the early 1890s. An increased assertiveness in foreign involvement, the evolution of actual foreign “policy,” and the transformation from amateurism to professionalism of the American diplomatic and consular services followed. Caught in the midst of this protracted metamorphosis which would continue into the 1920s, the Berlin embassy of Ambassador James Watson Gerard (1913-1917) mirrored the transition and highlighted the unusual difficulties, challenges, and successes of American diplomacy’s twentieth-century debut. After the War of 1812, the United States
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