MASTER'S THESIS M-587

CLARK, Donald Olson. COMMERCIAL AVIATION AND NATIONALISM IN WEST .

The Am erican University, M,A„ 1964 Political Science, international law and relations

University Microfilms, Inc., Anh Arbor. Michigan Copyright by Donald Olson Clark 1964

\ CCMMBaCIAL AVIATION AMD MATTCMALTSIC IM

\3J Donald Qlaon Clark

Submitted to the Faoultj of the School of International Service of The American Univereity in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement# for the Degree of MASTER OP ARTS

Signature# of C

D ate: / f i f y

D ate: AMERICAN UNIVERSITY, LIBRARY m a r 2 71964 WASHINGTON D. C

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WEST AFRICA

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A^AP X A/?EA OF /N T £ N £ S T TABI£ OF GMITBNTS CHAPTER PAGE PREFACE...... rULi 1 . INTRODUCTKXi...... 1 Th« Problem of Commercial Aviation In West Africa ...... 1 The Piirpoee of Thle Study...... 5 lim iting the Area of Interest...... 6 Evaluation of Sources of Inform ation ...... 7 I I . EARLY CCKMBRCIAL AVIATION IN WEST AFRICA . 10 Origins of Aviation In West Africa ...... 10 First Flights...... 10 Early Commercial Operations ...... 11 French Operations...... 11 British Operations ...... 13 Other European N ations ...... 15 Pan American Airways In A frica ...... 15 Route Establishment * ...... 16 Aviation In Post-war^ Pre-Independence West Africa ..... 1? French Operations* ...... IS B ritish Operations ...... 19 American Operations...... 20 Other Post-war Operations In West Africa ...... 20 S u o u try ...... 22 I I I . COMMERCIAL AVIATION: A MULTIPLE FACTOR APPROACH...... 23 Transportation in West A frica...... 23 i v CHAPTER PAGE Water Transportation ...... 24 Road Transportation ...... 25 Rail Transportation...... 27 The Transport Problem In West A frica ...... 28 Distances to be Covered...... 29 Response to Need ...... 30 Progressive Response ..... 30 Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Transportation ..... 31 Advantages of Air Transportation ...... 32 Speed...... 32 Less Infrastructure...... 32 E conom y...... 33 S a f e t y ...... 33 Increasing Dependability ...... 34 Comfort...... 34 Frequency of Service ...... 35 Route V ariability...... 35 Disadvantages of Air Transportation...... 36 Load Carrying Capacity ...... 36 Cost of Equipment and Fares...... 36 W e a th e r...... 37 S a fe ty ...... 38 Requirement for landing Facilities ...... 38 Com fort ...... 39 CHAPTER PAŒ R eliability ...... 39 Multiple Factor Approach to West African A viation ...... 39 Physiographic ...... AO Technological ...... 41 Economic...... 42 Political • ...... 44 S o c ia l...... 47 Demographic ...... 48 Ideological ...... 49 IV . THE NATIONAL OF WEST AFRICA...... 51 The Republic of ...... 52 The Republic of ...... 53 ...... 57 The Republic of ...... 59 The Republic of ...... 62 The Republic of ...... 64 The Republic of ...... 69 The R epublic o f Dahomey ...... 70 The Republic of ...... 71 The Republic of the N iger...... 76 The Republic of the Upper Volta ...... 78 The Republic of . 79 Colonial Areas in West Africa ...... 61 v i CHAPTER PAGE V. : A MULTI-NATIONAL ...... 82 The Conference o f Yaounde ...... 82 Organisational Structure...... 83 Administration of the Corporation ...... 84 Tax Holiday for Air A frique ...... 84 The H isto ry o f A ir A frique...... 85 Current Operations...... 88 Future Operations ...... 89 71. CONCLUSIONS ...... 94 Economic Change ...... 94 Political Change...... 96 Medical Change...... 97 Individual Change ...... 98 Conclusion...... 99 BIBLIOC&APHY...... 100 v i l LIST OF MAPS

MAP PAGE 1. West Africa: Area of Interest...... 11 2. Air Qulnee: Internal Routes...... 55 3. : Internal Routes. . 58 4. U-berlan National AlrUnes: Internal Routes...... 60 5. Air Ivorie: Internal Routes ...... 63 6. : Internal Routes ...... 68 7. Nigerian Airways: Internal Routes ...... 75 8. Air Afrique: Internal Routes in ...... 77 9. Air Hall: Internal Routes...... 80 10. Air Afrique: Long Range and Intercontinental Routes...... 90 11. Air Afrique: Local Services In West A frica ...... 91 T i l l PREFACE In conducting rosoarch for this thssls, ths author cans In contact with many poopls and organisations idio wore most hslpful In furnishing asslstancs. Research took ths author to England^ and to seven nations along the coast of West Africa. Six of the airlines described In this thesis were sampled by the author and a doseh flin ts were taken in West Africa. Valuable assistance In Europe was given by BOAC, and the Institut du Transport Aerlen In . The R^fal Aeronautical Society in Londmr allowed me the use of their library. Excellent assistance was given in West Africa by the personnel of Pan American Wbrld Airways* Nigerian Airways and Chans Airways. All through Africa* Ssbassy and Consular O fficials readily furnished information, lb:. Thomas Carter* U. S. Civil Air Attache for West Africa* was most helpful. Dr. John M. Hunter* Department of GeograiAy* U n iv e rs ity o f Ghana* g re a tly a s s is te d i n organizing the project while the author was In Ghana. Back In the United States* representatives of Pan American and the Department of State furnished late Inforsatlw and constructive criticism * Finally* thanks must be given to my wife who typed, polished* reviewed and corrected much of this thesis. Without her help and loyalty* this thesis would have been most difficult to c o s ^ le te . CHAPTER I

UnRODUCTIOH

"Th# m aterial development of Africa may be summed up in caom word* transport*” Lord Logard included this statement in this early pages of The Dual Mandate In B ritish Tropical Africa published in 1926.

I . THE FBGBUM OF COMMERCIAL AVIATION IN WEST AFRICA

Many factors confront the nations of West Africa* Transport* êlih oagn pezhaps not the only problem* is certainly one that w ill have a major effect in the development of West Africa* The transportation of both peoples and goods is extremely important in the growth of a sound economy and a s tro n g country* Within the past seven years most of the nations of West Africa have achieved their independence and have had to furnish their own means of transportation* idiers they formerly relied on the coloniser to provide the more sophisticated means of transportation. Air transportation has had a particularly interesting effect on the peoples and nations of West Africa as it is a means of transportation new* not only to the nations of West Africa* but also new to the Twentieth Century* The question has been raised as to whether th is means of movemsnt is to be used as an instrument of eoonomdLc gain amd a method of oenvienenoe or whether a ir transportation is another method of ezpres^ng the African Personality through the use of the airplane as a means of "showing the flag” of the new nations to their neighbors and to other parts of the world* 2 Air transportation certainly existed in West Africa during the colonial tines* bat the problems inherent in operating and maintaining an airline were the problems of tbs mstropole and were not the basic concern of the African* Now* with ths advent of Indepoadsnee* the hugs financial cost of aircraft and maintenance equipment plus the provision of hi^ily skilled personnsl to operate the airline has been foreeably brought home to the citisens and the governments of the independent West African nations* There are two extremes in the operation of the air­ lines of Vest Africa* One extreme is the ultra-nationalistic operation of Qiana Airways* where i t is the announced purpose of the government not to concern itself with profit and loss as the primary motivating factor* but rather to eoqpress Pan-Africanism and project the African Personality* "There are two kinds of airline operators - the commercial operator and the national operator* Ghana Airways is a national operator*" These words were spoken by James Mercer of Ghana Airways in early 1962* He continued* "Me are charged with the duty of carrying the national flag to a ll parts of Africa and projecting the African Per#ônality* The profit that a national airline makes is reflected with the prestige that the country gets and the number of people who comm in and get out e a sily * " ^ This positive example of nationalism as the amtivating factor for

^Anthony Yandyk* "Inside Report on A frica's Airlines", A irlift. March* 1962* pp* 34^36* 3 an airlin# is counterbalanced by Air Afrique* a ■oltiHaatioaal airline operated jointlly by eleven French-speaking nations. The other airlines * based within Mtst Africa fa ll in between these two extremes. The purpose of Air Afrique* as stated to the author by the General Manager is "to link the eleven states through a modem transportation system as a feeder airline and to provide long line carrier service to Europe and other parts of the world. This approach* as will be discussed later* is a considerably more logical method and is based on much more sound economic principles. The eleven member nations have pooled their re- dburces to establish the airline and have called on two highly experi­ enced airlines* Air Arance and Union Aeroaaritime de Transport (UAT) to provide the equipment and personnsl to operate the airline until the Africans can be trained to operate the system for themselves. In between these two extremes are found the airlines as operated by Guinea* Mali* Sierra Leone* liberia* Ivory Coast and lüggerla. There is no question that a multi-million dollar is an imposing status qpmbol and is an excellent means of displaying the flag of a nation throughout the world. But the question m i^t be resolved down to "What Price Glory?" The in itial capital outlay is just a portion of the eapsnse. The maintenance cost* high costs of special aviation fuel* and certainly ths h i^ degree of skill and training required are just a few of the expensive items in continuing the operation of the modem jet aircraft. In order to make the operation of

Statem ent made to the author by Monsieur Mercier* General Manager of Air Afrique at * Ivory Coast* on June 6* 1963. 4 modem miroraft a financial euooees* the aircraft muet be in almost continuous operation as the 17*000*000.00 Douglas DC-8 je t can cam its owner no income while it is resting on the apron of an airport. It must not only be flying* but i t must also be flying about 60% occupied with either passengers or freight* according to a concensus of airline officials contacted by the author. The new airlines of Meet Africa, when faced by experienced cospetition of airlines such as Pan American* Air France and the B ritish Overseas Airways Corporation (BQAC)* have a difficult job to convince the international traveler of the advantages of an African airline as opposed to an older* more experienced airline. there is little doubt of the need for or the importance of com­ mercial aviation in Meet Africa. Transportation has long been one of the major problems of West Africa. . Geography has not provided West Africa with good natural routes for movement as the rivers are frequent­ ly blocked by rapids or falls or perhaps are only navigable seasonally. As yet there are few good roads and maintenance of motorways is d iffi­ cult. In addition, the absence of good harbors was and continues to bs a great restrlctim to development. Furthemore* the railroads of the former colonial powers* were built with the idea not of connecting countries* but rather to facilitate the saqport of primary products. The movement of passengers was purely secondary. In fact* there are rail­ roads such as those found in Liberia* that have no passenger equipment at a ll and exist solely for the purpose of moving iron ore from the m ountains down to th e p o r ts . Perhaps* then* there is an extremely Imqwrtant job for commercial 5 aviation to play thKongÿiout a ll of Africa. Small aircraft, operating Arom rudiaintary airfields cam play an Important part in local govern­ ment. Medium range aircraft can speed people from nation to nation, and the international long range aircraft can transport people and high priority goods aiqrwhere in the world in less than 24 hours. Comssxoial aviation is not the panacea to a ll of the transportation ills of West Africa, but it can and certainly w ill play an extremely important role in the people of Africa by conveying businessmen between various financial capitols and allowing the heads of state rea^y access to political forums, as for example, the 1963 conference held at .

I I . THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

The purpose of this studÿ- is to examlns the airlines of West Africa as they operate today considering both their econcmic structure and the underlying political ideology. The historical background w ill be examt- ined showing the origins of commercial aviation in West Africa and the development of cosmmrcial services by the former colonial powers. Phrther analysis w ill be carried out on a cOuntry-by-country basis describing the operations that exist within each country. Air Afrique w ill be examined in some detail as it is one of the first working examples of economic ceeperation by a large number of states within West Africa. The operation of an airline in a developing area w ill also be discussed covering various fhotors to be analysed in airline operations. It is, as yet, too early to te ll if the airlines of West Africa 6 will be able to contiane operations in the hi^iljr competitive world aviation market. If these airlines are to exist without large govern­ ment assistance, then perhaps Air Afrique is a positive approach to the problems and cost of operating a modem commercial aviation system. In preparing this study, the author has found that there is very little information published on this problem. If the author's premise that économie llrdring is the firs t step towards unity asmng the nations of Africa is true, then scholars of African affairs would do well to observe the problems and progress made by the airlines of West A frica, with parüonlar attention to be given to Air Afrique.

I I I . LIMITING THE AREA OF INTEREST

The definitim as to idilch nations constitute West Africa depends t largely on the particular author or scholar that one is reading. After examining several variations of what is West Africa, the author has defined West Africa as follows: the nations of the West Coast starting with Senegal and extending to Nigeria along the Gulf of Guinea and then the northern tier of nations of former French West Africa from Senegal to N iger. Thus tiw naUons included in th is paper are; Senegal, Mali, Upper Vdta, Niger, Nigeria, Dahomey, Togo, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Portuguese Guinea and Gambia. A ll of these countries are independent states, with the excepticm of Gamihia and Portuguese Guinea, and a ll have received th eir independence ainoe 1957, with the axceptioB of Liberia idiich has been independent for more than 7 140 years. With the ezeeptlon of Portuguese Quimea, a ll of the nations are either English or French-speaking and about three/fourtha of the area was formerly called French Meat Africa* being adninistered by the French from in Senegal. In area these fourteen nations and territories total approodnately 2*000*000 square miles and include more than 70*000*000 people* based on 1959 and I960 population figures and estimates. Niger is the largest country in area with about 490*000 square miles and Gamibia is the small­ est in population with a mid-1959 population estimate of 295*000 people and Nigeria is the moat populous with an estimate in excess of 40*000*000 Inhabitants.

IV . EVALUATION OF SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Review was made of English and French books and periodicals on the subject of aviation in West Africa. In addition* other leas traditional sources have been used in gathering the data for this study. The author conducted interviews with airline and diplomatic officials in the United States* Europe and West Africa. Almost without exception these officials were very candid and only in rare instances did they evade any questions or give circumspect answers. The officials at BQAC in London allowed the author to review the reference library files on aviation in West Africa. Ghana Airways furnished the author with minutes of recent s a le s co n feren ces, a most un u su al and h e lp fu l g e s tu re . Top management officials of Air AArique and Nigerian Airways w illingly discussed plans for future operatiwzs. O fficials of Pan American World Airways talked 8 of oporatloas in Africa with complete frankness. Ths personal contacts ■ads by the author* though not always documented for obvious reasons* contributed a gyeat deal to the comprehensiveness of this study and provided a depth of infoimation not available in the literature# Some of the infomaation obtained from diploewitic sources cannot be listed in the footnotes as a number of the conversations were "off the record". In conducting interviews with airline officials* the author pre­ pared questions to provide information not available from other sources. Prior correspondence and a letter of introduction were used by 'Uie author as a means of coordinating interviews both in Europe and Vest A frica. Hons of the interviews were restricted by a time factor and the autbw was always received in a most courteous fashima. Although some of ths questions were answered from memory* there were frequent times vdien the official would check data by reference to files or other recorded sources. The information gained from these interviews greatly exceeded expectations and has contributed greatly in areas idiere literature was scarce. Information was also obtained by the author and his traveling companions from actual experiences while traveling with airlines serving A frica. During the overseas research* the authmr traveled in exce's^ of 27*000 miles by air and had 31 flifjits on thirteen different airlinek^ As a result of extensive background reading by the author* certain references listed in the bibliography were not used directly in this study. They are still listed in the bibliography as a contribution to other scholars who may wish to do other work on this or related fields. 9 While the bibliegraphy is not complete* it is a start in a field where little formal study has been performed. Maps included with this study have a ll been designed and drafted b y the author. Data showing the internal routes of the airlines of West A frica was com piled from th e O ffic ia l A irlin e Guide. Volume 20* Number 1* October* 1963. It is hoped that this study will* in some small way* be a contri­ bution to the understanding of scum of the problems of ccsmmrcial aviaticn and nationalism in West Africa. CHAPTER I I

EARLY CGMMERCIAL AVIATION IN WEST AFRICA

The hletozy of the development of the airplane as a means of trans­ port in Africa is parallel with the history of the use of the airplane throughout the world. After the flight of Orville U ri^t at Kitty Hawk* North Carolina* on December 17* 1903* the world was to see a revolution in transportation that had effect not only on the world* but also on Africa. This chapter w ill discuss briefly the early beginning^ of flight in Africa and then the starting of comswrcial operations in West Africa. A final section w ill deal with cosmsercial aviation in West Africa just prior to the movement to independence of the colonial areas of West Africa.

I . ORIGINS OF AVIATION IN WEST AFRICA

First Flishts

I n 1 9 1 1, just eight years after man's first flight in an airplane* aviation came to Africa. The days of the long sea journey or the hot* dusty caravan across the Sahara began to recede as a new mode of trans­ portation came alive in the 20th Century. The historic first flight landed in Senegal, after starting in France and skipping to French West Africa.^ The change in modes of transportation began slowly and did not r e a l ly reach a strong mcmentvm u n t i l a f t e r World War II* b u t th e

^Thompson A Adloff * French West Africa (London* George Allen and Unwin* L td., 1958)* p. 3031: 11 beginning# were in the early 1900'e. The longest early flight route in Africa warn flown by the B ritish in 1920* when* in February and March of that year* S ir H# A. van Tyneveld and Sir J. C« Brand flew singjle-engins biplanes from to the Cape of Good Hope* Five pilots and aircraft stsirted out* but only two planes smde the cosq^te journey.^ Total flying time was 109 hours and 30 minutes. Just 40 years later* a modem je t can complete the same fli^ t in about 10 hours. But the impact of this achievement was lost on many people . Leo Malmsley was not convinced that the airpOane had a place in the tropics and had this to say; I am convinced that for a regular trans-African service the airplaae* even when worked in relays* is not a practicable commercial undertakimg. It has been clearly proved that the heavy type of airplane is mot suitable for the tropics; and the lighter type would not have sufficient cargo space to make i t pay.^ It would be interesting to note Mr. Malmsley's reaction to a 6G-tom je t landing in Tropical Africa today.

n . EARLY CGMMERCIAL OPERATIONS

French Operations The French were the first to develop commercial aviation in West Africa. In 1919* the Ligaes Aeriemnes Lateooere began ea^rimemtal flights between France and . Sbqperimentation continued to other

^Benjamin Bennett* Down A frica's Skyways (London: Hutchinson and Coaqpany* Ltd.* 1932)* pp. ljH37. %eo Nhlmsley* The Recent Trans-African Flight and its Lesson*" Oeoaraphical Review. Toluns 9* 1920* pp. 149-160. 12 points and the first cosmercial service* for mail only began in 1925 with stops at * Saint Louis de Senegal and DakarA The original Air Afrique began service to Africa* first called Société Air Afrique in 1925* then Transafricaine D'Aviation in 1928* later Regie Air^Afrique in 1936 and finally Air Afrique in 1937* also carried mail to * the Cmago and Madagascar in the early 1930* s.^ These early French operations were extremely hasardons* particular­ ly on the Casablanca-Dakar flight as not only extremely variable weather and the lack of landing facilities, but also the nomadic MOprs killed or held for ransom a number of French pilots. The appearance of the multi- engine plane finally was the solution to the problem created by the Moors

1 9 3 0 Barked the end of the eaqmrimsntal period and the beginning of an era of French aviation expansion. The number of landing fields was increased and passengers were carried for the first time between Paris and Dakar. It was in that year that Air France began a long association of service to Africa.^ Dakar was the headquarters for both colonial administration and ccsmmrcial aviation in French West Africa. As the closest point to South America* the airport at Dakar* Toff* was continually increased in sise to handle larger aircraft. In 1937 tb o .

iRenry L. Smith* Airwave ^road (Madison* WLsemuin* The University of Mlscomsin Frees* 1950}* p. 329. ^Air France* "Air France Serving Africa" (Paris: I960)* p. 2.

3Thcmpson and Adloff* 0 £. c it.. pp. 306-307. ^Air France* ^^.* pp. 2-3. A rst ccnnerelal f lin ts took place between Europe and South America* using Dakar as the jump-off point for South America» In 1939 Dakar* X Tpff* had the longest runways of any airport in the world. In August of the saam year* Air France was serving twenty points in West and with major airports at Dakar* * * Port Lamy, * Bramsaville and Cotonou. A main line was .established in 193S serving Paris* Dakar* * * Cotonou and with a shuttle 2 service from Cotonou to Niamey and the interior of French West Africa, On the eve of Wbrld War II* three commercial coaqpanies* Air France* Air Afrique and Aero Maritime* were operating regular schedules in West Africa. Aero Maritime was the only French airline operating «cclusive- ly in West Africa. By 1939 over 300 airfields were established in French West Africa* but most were usable only in the daytime and with good weather conditions.

British Operations British flying in West Africa began several years after the first flights of tiie French. It is believed that the R.A.F. flew to Nigeria from in about 1925. Several private individuals flew occasion­ al charter flights near in 1930 and another flew passengers for one pound per passenger in Northern Nigeria.^ The real start of

^Thompson and Adloff* loc. c it. 2 S ir H. Osborne Mance* In te rn a tio n a l A ir T ran sp o rt (New York: Oxford University Press* 1944), p. 59. % ir Hubert Walker* "Some Problems in the Development of Air Transport in Wbst Africa*" of the Roval Aer

l"The British Fart in Nigerian Aviation", A|r News Frem Press Branch, B ritish Overseas AirwAjm Corporation, London, A pril, 1961.

^N hlkor, 15 la August of 1939 ths B ritish Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) was formed as a government corporation pursuant to the British Overseas Airways Act. The interests of Imperial Airways and Ltd. were bought out by the government and service began under the new name on April 1, 1940.^

Other European Nations SABEHA, the Belgian national airlin e, firs t flew in Wie Congo in 1919 under the name of SNETA (Syndicat Nationale pour l'Etude des Transport Aérions) and flew air mail to and from Europe beginning in 1920. Their route to Europe was through Northern Nigeria with a major 2 stop at Kano. Faseengere were first carried in 1935. In 1937, L ufthansa, the German a i r l i n e , used B ath u rst in Gambia a s a jusqpini^ff point for flights to South America. The Germans built the runway with a steel grid fraam and stationed a ship in the South Atlantic to assist in navigation across the ocean.^ This service was discontimued with the outbreak of World War II.

Fan American Airwave in Africa Although Pan American À i r w y did not fly in Africa prior to World War II, some mention of their activities in the pre-war years fits

^Bmith, og. c it., p. 334. ?Boadeap and Associates. WorM Airline Record. 5th Edition (Chicago: Roadcap and Associates, 1955), p. id . ^Walker, loc. d t. 16 properly in this time freme. Ban Anerlcnn was incorporated on March 6 , 1927 and use the only American airline to fly overseas prior to World War II* Fan American's first fligi&t to Europe took lûnce on May 2 0 , 1939» exactly twelve years after Lindberg's historic flight to Baris* Elapsed time was 26 hours and 54 minutes for the f li^ t from Mew York to » a flight that is made today in about seven hours* Pan American gained African eaqperience during World War II ehen two companies» Atlantic Airlines and Pan American Air Terries* were established to fly lend-lease equipment to Europe tia South America and Europe* These two companies later became a portion of the Air Transport Cceseand (A*T.C.) uhich flew tremendous amounts of men and supplies to Europe during World War II* Incoming flights landed at Bathurst* Treetoun* Monrovia (Robertefield) or Takoradi* depending on wea-Uier conditions* F irst flin ts took place in August* 1941 and Pan American personnel completed 10*459 transoceanic crossings during World War 11*^

Bouts Establishment It ie interesting to note that each of the colonial powers estab­ lished routes to serve only their own colonies* connecting them to the métropole* No effort was made to inter-connect the African territories and the only stops allowed were technical or from necessity* So the airplane also contributed to the growing pattern of creating cultural gape between the colonies. le t the airplane allowed for a more rapid

^ p t* Burr W* Leyson* Wnss Around tiie World (Mew York: B* P* Dutton and Company* Inc.* 194S/» pp* 140-153* 17 exchange of l i ^ t goode and information and the colonial admiidstrator was able to return to Europe in a mudi shorter period of time.

I I I . AVIÀTIOM IN POST-WAR* PBE-lHD&FSNI£NCB WEST AFRICA

The end of World War II saw a great increase in commercial aviation activity throughout the world. Tremendous strides in aircraft develop­ ment in epeed* sise* range and ability to carry great loads gave birth to a new generation of civil air transports. In Africa* many airfields were carved out of the bush* lif^tihg for night flying was added* exist­ ing runways were added and iaqproved weather forcasting a ll enhanced the develqpent of coammrcial aviation. In French West Africa alone there were more than 120 well-eqpiped airfields with fifty additional emerg­ ency landing strips in operation in 1954. Civil aviation flew in West Africa during Wxe war years* but it was entirely under the control of the m ilitary. Routes that were formerly flown over the Mediterranean were now rerouted along the Weet Coast of Africa to Lisbon and London# Areas that had previously been without air sexvice were now introduced to the airplane by the m ilitary. WSLth new equijamnt and the end of the war* London and Paris were now within 24 hours of Accra and Abidjan where the flif^ ts took between three and six days with the old aircraft.^ It was during this period that the DC-3 (known as the Dakota or the C-47) became the wcrk-*orse of civilian aviation. Over 10*000 of theee craft were manufactured during the war

^Walker* og. db^.* p. 480. 18 year# and even now* in 1963* more than 1500 are s till in use through*nt the world.^ It was during this post-war period that a great increase in the meeber of airlines operating in West Africa to à kplace. Prior to the war* only a handful! of airlines operated and in 1955 more than fifteen airline# were operating in Tdest Africa. Even with the increase in the number of airlines* the B ritish and the French s till had the largest share of the business in Wést Africa with several of the airlines using Dakar only as a jueqping-off point for flights to South America.

French Operations In 1946 Air France became a Société Rationale* then in 1948 changed its name slii^tly to become Air France Ccmpagde Rationale* and now lays claim to being the largest airline in the world.^ After 1949 major Air France facilities ware aaqpaaded from the original Dakar office to inr elude major installations at BrassaviUe and Dakar with regional office# at * Douala* Bangui* Fort Laey* Tmanda and Lagos. In addition to Air France* four other French airline# operated in West Africa althougi two of the four had only a short existence. Aigle Amur and Air A.O.F. lasted briefly iriaile Union Aeronaritime dee Transports (UAT) and Transports Aeriens Intercontinentaux (TAI) are s till operating in Africa. The old Air Afrique* which operated prior to the war* merged

V iliam Green* 2 ^ Observer «s WorM A ircraft Plreotory (London: F re d erick Whme and Gcmpany# L td .* 1961) p . 289. 2"Air France* A Short H istorical Record"* Documentary Rote I* Air France* Public Belations Department* Paris* 1958. 19 with Air France as have several enaller airlines»^ In the mid 1950's* Air Arance operated 12*500 route miles in West Africa.^ In addition to local services* main cities served by Air France included Dakar* * * Bobertsfield in liberia* Abidjan* Niamey and Kano. UAT is an independent French airline and wae formed in 1949.^ It began service to Dakar Wxat same year and expanded its operations to Conakry and Abidjan. In its early years UAT faced extremely tou^ competition from Air France and TAI. It operated a eubsidiary airline* Aeromaritime (AKA)* in West Africa serving as a feeder airline and providing service to many smaller cities. ANA began its operations in

1953. TAI was formed after World War II and began to fly to West Africa in 1949 and 1950. The competition of three major French lines almost caused the collapse of TAI and UAT u n til conferences between the tiiree divided the routes and the passengers into equitable shares.

British Operations With the end of the war* the withdrawl of R A F. services created a void in B ritish air operations in West Africa. BGAC and the West African Airways Corporation (WAAC) fille d the void. BOAC operated planes a t first* u n til WAAC could acquire equipment. WAAC was a

^cmpsbn and Adloff* loc. cit. ^Air France* og. cit.. p. 5. ^ o avoid excessive footnote duplication* unless otherwise noted* information cm pages 18-21 has been Cbtained from the following two sources* World Airline Record. 5th Editima. Roadcap and Associates* 1955» and The Cbserver's World A ircraft Ibirectorr; William Green» 1961. 20 m ultinational company with Nigeria* the Gold Coast* Sierra Leone and Gambia a ll owning stock. WAAC developed u n til i t was flying almost 9*000 route miles in West Africa in 1955. BOAC continued to provide the long distance flights* with WAAC providing local and feeder services. BOAC introduced the pure jet to African aviation with the advent of the Cceeet in 1952. In 1946 the Hunting-Clan Air Transport* Ltd. was formed by a steams ship coBipany. By 1955 Hunting-Clan was operating Safari flights between Accra and London on a fortni'gitly basis with Colonial Coaches providing eceqparable service on alternate weeks. Overnight stops at Las Palmas were part of the flight plan and even though this airline had good equipeent (Viscounts)* the airline ceased to operate within a few years.

Ams^Lceg O perations As mentioned earlier* Pan American Airways gained a foothold in Africa during World War II by providing ferry service for planes and equipment. Pan American began coasmrcial service shortly after the end of the war with stops at Lisbon* Dakar* BbbertsfleU and Accra in West Africa enroute to Southern Africa. Pan American continues to be the only American airline flying south of the Sahara although Trans World A irlines services North Africa. In June of 1947» Pan American became the first airline to offer around-the-world service.

Other Post-War Operations in West Africa Other nations* with lesser interests in West Africa* began to fly in that area after the war. Seem of the more important airlines that 21 established service are comscmted on below. SAHCTA* the Belgian national airline* re-established its service to Africa and the Congo with stops at Kano in Mcrthem Nigeria. Prior to the cosdng of the jet* Kano was an extremely iiqportant stop for servic­ ing either before or after the long hop over the Sahara. K oninklijke L uehtvaart M aatsehappij N. 7 (KIJC)* p erh ap s b e t t e r known as the Boyal Dutch Airline* began service in West Africa in 1955 with stops a t Dakar* enroute to South America and Kano* enroute to Southern Africa. Transportes Aereos Portugneses (TAP) was founded in 1944 as a part of the government. After many years of losing money* i t was sold to private investors in 1953. West African stops include Bolama* in Portuguese Guinea* and the ielands of Principe and Sac Tcms enroute to Angola and Mosaabique. Spain had two cceqmnies operating in West Africa shortly after Wbrld War II. Aviacion T Comercio* S. A. began operations in 1948 and provided service to Freetown* Lome and Bata* but excessive competition from Ccmpenia Kercantil De Idneas Aereas Espandas (Iberia) the national airline caused the private cocpany to suspend operations in West A frica. Scandinavian Airlines System* a consortium of Swedish* Danish and Norwegian companies* began to fly to Weet Afkica in 1955» using Dakar as a departure point for flights to South America. Schweiserisohe Luftvexhehr A. 6. () also began flin ts to South America with Dakar as a departure point. Swissair did seme experlmsntal flights in West Africa in 1946-7» but did not establish permansnt service at that 22 tim e.

IV . SUHNARX

The period after the war wae one of great expansion and faster airplanes brou^t West Africa closer to Europe. But the establishment of cceseercial aviation was not without much tria l and error. Fan American'e experiences are best summed-up as follows; "No undertaking in the glorious days of early American railroading ever offered more adventure* color or test of ingenuity than did the building of the African airways.^ Weather* terrain* poor airfields* bad communications and unfriendly natives were just a few of the obetaclee to civil aviation in West Africa* In 1955 competition for business wae great and was to become even greater with the introduction of mom airlines into the West African aviation picture in the I960's.

^Bmith* eg. c it.. p. 82. CHAPTER I I I

COMMERCIAL AVIATIOM: A MULTIPLE FACTOR APPROACH

In Volume One of Tropical Africa by George H. T. Kimble* the etato- ment is made that "Of a ll the modem iseane of transportation* the air­ plane is at once the most and the least flexible. It can fly almost anywhere* but it can land almoet nowhere."^ Seme hare likened the air­ plane as a panacea to the traneport ills of Africa* but Professor Kimble's statement points out one of the problems of the aircraft* that of requiring a place to land. In this chapter* the authmr w ill discuss this and other problems of the airlines of West AfXica relating to economics and geography and how they must be considered in the develop­ ment of the commercial aviation program in West Africa.

I . TRAMSPORTATICN IN WEST AFRICA

Improved transport is certainly a prerequisite for any type of development. It ie also obvious that the general inadequacy of the transport qrstem has been one of the principal obstacles to such development in practically the «diole of West Africa. There are ne broad rivers allowing continuous access to the interior of the area ae are found in other parts of the world. The general presence of an eeearp- ment a short distance inland from the ccaet hae created rapide and other barriers to water transportation. Railroads* where they are present*

^

Water Transportation Water has been used as a vehicle for transporting large amounts of goods for hundreds of years. Althou^ it is not always the most direct route between two points* it is the maost economical idien considering the cost of transportation of goods and peojgde. It is generally accepted that a ton of goods can be transported at less cost by watsr transport­ ation than by land transportation means. This economic fact hae aided the developsmnt of some areas* but has hindered West Africa* because other than along the coast* there are no major rivers in West Africa that have long stretches of productive waterways for the transportation of goods. The Niger hae the length* but its seasonal flow precludes the development of a major shipping industry on most of its length until a system of dams is installed to guarantee the flow of water a ll through th e y e a r.

^Marcel Capet* "Traits d'Bccaomic Tropicale* Lee Economies D'A.O.F."* Paris* 1958* p. 103. 25 Mature bas not been kind to Weet Africa for the encouragement of coastal and ocean shipping. There are few natural harbors alwig the coast* with only Freetown in Sierra Leone having a good* natural harbor that did not require man's efforts to adopt it for the use of ocean shipping. Monrovia* Abidjan* Takoradi* Tema (Accra) and Dakar are a ll either manHsade or improved harbors as are the harbors at Lagos* Port Harcourt and Conakry. The rolling surf along the Gulf of Guinea has always made loading and unloading operations most d ifficu lt. While recently in West Africa* the author noted much dredging equipment in operation keeping the harbors open to ocean-going vessels. Canoe transportation has been used extensively for hundreds of years in West Africa* but its scmKmic value is extremely lim ited when considering the large tonnages of goods that snst be moved in develop­ ing a strong nation. Traffic continues the year around

Bead Transportation There has been a tremendous growth in tb o road milage and the quality of the roads in West Africa since World War II. Although the number of milee of road is small in relation to the large area covered* the increaee in adlage hae been great. The total area covered by this study ie 1*382*820 square miles and in this area there are 107*144 isilee

^^Tansport Rroblems in Relation to Bconnsri c Develemsenb in West c a . united MaticnsTPec v ent Musber o2. U . K. 2 * * April* * p. 2 3 . 26 of all-weather and dry weather roads £{y oaeqxarlson, metropolitan France has an area of 344*750 square nUee and has 487*500 m iles of roads* or about one-fourth the area and sore than three times as many miles of roads,^ Road transport is the most flexible system of transportation of goods and people. It is flexible* adaptable to a variety of needs and does not involve the cost for special-purpose equipamnt. Roads also perform the important function of "feeding* other means of transport- atien. In developed countries* road traffic is motor traffic* but in West Africa* as in other less-developed areas* road traffic is frequent­ ly by foot or livestock-drawn vehicles# Problems of the road system in Wést Africa include the clixm tic conditioas* which cause excessive costs in the construction of good* all-weather roads and the situation where ircade do not connect states to each other# Many roads terminate either at borders* or within a few miles of a frontier. The lack of ccnnsetion of roads between states can be traced* in many instances* to ths colmsial policies of the fommr colonial powers. Intercourse between colcoies was not in the objectives of the powers. And the newly independent nations have shown little interest* ae yet* in trading with each other.

llbid.. p. 67. 2s. H. Steinberg* (Editor)* Tto Statesmam's Yearbook. 99th Edition (New York: S t M a rtin 's Press* 1923?* pp. 966* ^SO. 27 Ball Tranaportatlom Again* using Francs as anaans of conparlson* ths following table is used to Casparsra il netwoxks in # s s t Africa and in Francs.

• Area (Sq. Milee) Miles of Railroad

West Africa 1*382*820 5,807 France 344*750 30*429

The railroads were the first modem mode of transport to penetrate West Africa* easing as the first alternative to human porterage* or pack animals. Studying the first railroads* one finds that they were built to move goods to the seacoast* and not with the purpose of moving people. Only in former-JPTench areas* does one find railroads connecting nations. Railroads cmmect Senegal and Mali and ths other connecting railroad joins Upper Volta with the Ivory Coast. As mentioned earlier* railroads were not built for transporting people. In liberia* for exaiqGe* the two railroads carry only iron ore and have no passenger equipm ent. In addition to colonial poliqr* eUmate* adverse terrain* dense vegetation and eccnusdcs have retarded the growth of ra il lines in Meet Aficiea. The joining of states by rail links hae been made difficult* if not isqpoeeible* by the great variety of gauges in the existiag rail

^ e h e T. Sachs* »r1dmark EnwrClmpedia of tgm Rations (New York: Harper and Brothers* i960)* pp. 326-327. 28 lines. It seems that no two adjoining nations in West Africa* except for the four with common railroads* operate with rail systems of ths same gauge# Independence gives birth to grand dreams. Some of the new leaders of West Africa have talked of uniting their countries ly rail and other transportation media. Geography and economics* however* pose serious problems to the development of extensive x ^ l netwoxks of the type that are found in the United States and Western Europe. Most of the ra il­ roadmen have found that passengers are not a paying propoeition* and that freight twnage is required to keep operations In the black. This w ill probably hold true in Africa. There w ill be additional railroads where there are minerals and agricultural products to be transported* and passengers w ill be transported as a secondary factor. It remains that large qpanities of bulk goods must be carried to operate a financ­ ially advent railroad and althou^ political dreams are not to be underestimated* the eoqmnse of cmcstruction may place substantial ra il qrstems beyond the means of many of the West African states.

I I . THE TBANSPGBT PBOBLEM Di WEST AFRICA

West Africa has a nmsber of problems or situations that mske the consideration of effective transportation pertiaps more difficult than they might be in other parts of the world. West AArica* and Tropical Africa for that matter* must be considered as an under-developed area. It is undsr-developed in the sense that the productien potential (Agriculture* mining* industry* etc ..) is ill-e3q>lcited because of the 29 lack of one of soveral oosontial oloment# auch a# capital* labor* transport* power* consvmsr market and export markets.^ To open up a region and to develop its ecomcmie potential* there must be a means of transport* and aviation ie w ell-suited for strong development in West Africa. Tranapwtation of gcods can make the product a reality by bringing* to the production or aoqploitation site* the technical necess­ ities vital for its aq^oitation and which by moving the product and distributing it gives it a market value. In the last resort* riches are worthless* as Imag as they resiain inaccessible for lack of transport.^

Distances to be Covered In West Africa* distances are not only great in miles* but also in the barriers* both topographic and clim atic. While the airplans* at least in the forseeable future, w ill not carry ircm ore to the smelter in an economical sense* the airplane is a great means for crossing barriers. The airplane has a definite value for transporting low-bulk* high-value items to the remote reaches of West Afkica. The airplane does not require the oostly infrastructure present in a road or rail net. It does require bases from idiich to operate* however it can fly over the more difficult geographic obstacles. The distance factor with the airplane is reduced to a stra i^ t line and is not bound to a valley*

Ijacqaes Jodeau* "Air Transport's Contribution to All-round progress in Under-developed Areas"* In stitu t du Transport Aeriea* Paris* February* 1962* p. 5. Mercier* "Seme Reflections en Transport in Africa"* Institut du Transport Aerien* Paris* May* I960* p. 5. 30 ridge or river bed. And in considering distance* the slrplmne* by fly­ ing the straight line* is also a saver of time.

Besponse to Meed Where there is an urgency in transporting goods* the airplane can respond quickly. Budlawntery landing strips can be quickly developed with reflneasnte to air landing facilities being developed later. Late developments in aircraft types* especially those with m ilitary applicat­ ion* require continually less in the %cay of extensive landing fields and further developawnts allow aircraft to carry inereasing^ larger a tonnages. The airplane is also a small unit and can be utilised in the required numbers. This is also true of tracks and trains* but the infrastructure must first be constructed prior to their operation in a given situation.

Progressive Besponee ..... If a railroad ie built to a remote area* its use must be extensive inorder to justify the expense of installation. The airplane* on the other hand* can be used with the frequency required to perform the necessary service. More or lose flights can be made without the scqiens- ive infrastructure. The rangée and adaptability of the airplane also allow its use in other areas for other purposes. If the particular developawnt project does not turn out to be an economic success* then the airplanes may be used elseidiere rather than leave a road or railway that cannot be moved to another locatiw . 31 i n . ADYANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AIR TRANSPORTATION

'Accessibility' is pert and parcel of men's material progress.^ All previous smthods of transportation have known barriers* either land or water* and have had to take longer routes to reach the point of destination. The airplane has allowed man to move across these barriers and has given accessibility to areas that were fomerly difficult to reach. "Carrying matter from one point to another is man's fundamental activity" is a remaA made by A. Huxley. Man has continually searched for new things to carry and new ways to carry them. The airplane is the latest and fastest of the swans at man's disposal to transport goods. The airplane ie iaqportant in solving the problem of location. Location is important in three factors of économies ae listed below.^ 1. The unequal distribution of resources. 2. The unequal distribution of popnlatima. 3 . The unequal development o f knowledge among men o f how to utilize material resources. Aircraft* then* is the latest in man's developeent of transportation systems as a means toward equation of the three economic factors mentioned above. All systems of transportation have advantages and disadvantagss inherent within their capaM litiee. Discussed below w ill be those that pertain to the airplaoe as a maans of commercial transportatioa.

iRenmsth R. Sealy* Tto Geocaphr o£ Ai£ Transport (London: Hutchinson University library* 1957)* p. W. 2lbid.. p. 21. 32 Ebqphasls wLU be given to application in West African aviation.

Advantage# o f A ir TrmmmYiartatiam All eye teas of transportation have advantages and disadvantages inherent within their capabilitiee. Discussed below w ill be those that pertain to tbs airplane ae a means of ooenwrcial transportation, mphasis w ill be given to application of these factors to West African a v ia tio n .

Speed. The airplane has the ovendielming advantage of speed over long distancée* especially since the advent of the jet aircraft. An exemple of what the airplane means to Africa can be found in thie illvw tration. The air distance from Kano to Lagos in Nigeria ie 514 miles and flying time in a Douglas DC-3 is just over four hours. By train however* the distance increases to 7 0 5 miles and the time for the journey juqps to about 44 hours. So the airiGans savee the traveler almost two days time* or about 40 hoursThis time and distance saving also can amount to a financial savings when considering the value of the time of the persra traveling plus the cost of meals enroute via ra il. Internal flin ts in Nigeria cost one shilling per mile (14#).^

Less . No roadbsds 9 t graded highways are required for the airplane. Aircraft currently in use in local service in West

^Interview with Capt. L. V. Messenger* Flight Operations Officer* of Nigerian Airways in Lagos* Nigeria* July 9* 1963* by the author. ^Interview with Mr. Kummr* General Manager of Nigerian Airways in Lagos* Nigeria* on July 9* 1963* by the author. 33 Africa arc ragged and able to lend on minimal airfields* Moat of the airfields in commercial use have iiqproved runways constructed with concrete or macadam* but the author landed on grace stripe on several occasions. The cost of building a first class airport is hifb, but its cost does not compare with the cost of a railroad tiiron^ the rain f o r e e t.

Bconomar. Even though the introduction of more than one class of air fares is not yet wide-spread in Africa* there are some looations idiere this practice is in use. The economy of the airline over other modes of traxwportation may be largely in the time and its value to the person doing the traveling. The author noted many African buslmeesmsn utilising the airplane as a method of saving time enroute to business appointments in other cities. Furtoer economy is achieved in compli­ mentary in-flight meals and the lesser degree of tipping required for servicee. Airways strongly advertises that its internal flin ts cost only six pence per mile (7*).^

Safety. Although the fear of the airplane craeh still enters into the mind of the potential traveler* the safety record of most of the world's airlines results in the airplane'e being about twelve times as safe as travel by auto. The alridans* however* has not yet achieved the safety record of ships or trains. Ghana Airways and NLgsrian Airways in West Africa have never had am accident during any of their

^Interview with Mr. P. X. Enmim* Beeervaticm Salee Officer* Ghana Airways in Accra* Ghana* on July 5* 1963* by the author. 34 fligitm . Improved nmvig&tiomal aid# and landing faeilitios w ill continu# to inprovo the aafoty records of airlines. A positive example of the safety of the airplane ie shown by the fact that a traveler can purchase $150*000 worth of flight insurance* valid for a year* for $5.00. There are 19 weather forcasting radio stations in the area of interest.^ The International Civil Aviation Organisaticm (ICAO) also supervises and furnishes search and rescue services* cosmmnications and air traffic services.

Imcrmamim* D so en d a b ilitv . Where th e a irp la n e was fo z n s rly s u b je c t to the whims of nature* i t has become increasingly more dependable to keeping to the flight schedules. Improved weather prediction and coanmnication techniques* coupled with the continued Improvwuent in the quality and ruggsdnees of aircraft* have made late arrivals and depart­ ures and canceled flig its items that are muCh less frequent. Aircraft better suited for flying conditions in Africa are continually under development and the Vickere Viecount and the Fckfcer F-27 Friendship have proved to be hig&ly succeseful in increaeing flight dependability.

Ccmfort. One has only to experience the bouncing of a lorry* auto or bus on sosmi of the poor roads of Wbst Africa to know that the air­ craft gives a great increase in passenger coaifort. While the modern • . ' railroad in many countries is considered to be more ccs&fortable than

De Mairisaticn Aeiienne. Heaicn Afrlcus-Ocean Indien (Montréal: Orgsnisatim de L'Aviation Civile Imternaticnair^Dccument 7474/4* irXai 1962)* pg. 4-2^3 to 4^2-8. 35 the airplane* this doss not hold true in tost Africa dus to rough road­ beds* slow speeds and often antiquated passenger squlpuent.

Freouenmr of Service. Althoogi the road and railroad can carry acre paesengere and freight* the airlines have been increasing the amounts of service to other cities both within and without national boundaries. In Ghana* for example* there is

Heats V ariability. While the railroad and toe automobile are bound to a road or track system* the airplame can fly to any airport and

of Coamerce and Induetry (Accra: Ministry of Trade. 1 9 6 0 ) * - p ------^"Ghana Airways Time Table"* Ghana Airways limited* Supplemental Issue* Accra* July 1* 1963. 36 ■uoh greater route flexibility is achieved. Thie route variability also offers the poeeibility of less changing modes of transportation as the plane* under certain circumstances can be iwited directly from one city to another.

Disadvantaess of Ij^ Transportation As the technology of aviation improves* many of the disadvantages listed below w ill be overcome or reduced* but some of them w ill probably always be present with commercial aviation.

Lead Carrvina Capacity. The airplane w ill probably never be able to carzy heavy tonmagee or large numbers of passengers. The Douglas DC-3 was designed to carry 21 passengers* but has been modified to carry 28 for local service in West Africa. Even the and the Foldcer Aiendehip* with increased capacity* can carry only 59 and 48 passengers respectively. Largs four-engine jet aircraft carry in excess of 170 passengers* but have no economical usage for short range operations or local usage. Currently the large jet is economical only on long range international flights in West Africa.

Cost of Equipment and Fares. Airplanes are not purchased cheaply. The modern or Douglas four engine jets cost between $7,500*000 and $8*000*000 each and th is costly equipment must have high usage and load factors to turn a profit. Even the smaller Fokker F-27 Friendship

^William Cheeme* The Observer's World .^ c ra ft Directory (London: Frederick Warns and Co.* Ltd.* 19ol)* pp. 260 & 270. 37 has a high price tag of about $1*000*000 for the aircraft and its epare parts Thie h i^ cost of initial inveetment plus the cost of operating and maintaining the equipment has resulted in air fares being consider­ ably higher than other modes of transportation. Again turning to Qiana for an example* the trip from Accra to Kumaei can be made for five shillings (70$) by lorry (tommy wagon) and one pound ($2.80) by station wagon. The same service cost three pounds ($8.40) by Ghana Airways DC-3. A flight of the same distance by Nigerian Airways would cost six pounds ($16.80) due to a different rate structure.

Weather. H i^ temgperatures and excessive humidity coupled with strcmg winds mmke flying difficult at many tlmms in West Africa. The introduction of improved weather forcasting procedures and radar on most ccmmmreial aircraft have somewhat minimised the problem of weather* bat climatic conditions w ill always present problems to flying in West Africa. Before a recent fli# t from Jos to Lagos in Nigeria* humidity* altitude and high temperatures caused the pilot of a Nigerian Airways flight to have to weigh every passenghr and piece of baggage to insure that the plane could safely take off. In fact* about one/fourth of the passengers had to be le ft behind due to the climatic conditions lim iting the lifting capacity of the airplane.^

^ t h H. Preece* Assistant to the Vice President* Pan Americam Wbrld Airways. Conversation with the author in Washington* D. C. daring Septeabsr* 1963. %tobert Reece* Pan American World Airways* Lagos Agent. Conference with the author in Lagos* Nigeria on July 8* 1963. 38 Safety. While the aircraft hae yet to achieve the safety record of railroads and ships* the airplane is twelve times safer than traveling in a private autcsK>bile« A irlines continue to improve their safety records* but when an airliner crashes* the fatalities usually include everyone in the airplane and strong publicity results. As mentioned earlier, Ghana Airways and Nigerian Airways have perfect safety records and this has improved their image with the traveling public. Continued improvement in safety features and records plus public relations with the potential customer assist in overccedng this disadvantage.

RaottiraMant for laggng F acilities. The airplane cannot perform a ccseesrcial operation toere there are no landing fields. Fortunately for Meat Aftiea* World Whr II saw the Allied Forces construct a large number of air fields in that area. Many of these are not capable of handling commercial airplanes and have fallen into states of disrepair. Okas of the feature items in smny Meet African Nation's budgets is the improve­ ment and extension of air fields so that services can be provided mom c i t i e s . %e cosing of the jet has also changed landing field requirements. Runways of great strength and in excess of 1C*000 feet in length are required to handle safely the large jets. In his first speech to the new Togo Fsrliment after the 1963 m ilitary coup. President QurnitsWy urged the improvement of the airport at Lcmm so the modern aircraft could land.^

Ipailv Graphic. Accra* Ghana* June 8* 1963* p. 5< 39 Comfort. There a re many tr a v e le r s who p r e f e r sh ip s o r t r a i n s f o r oostTort over the airplane. Many airlines crowd as many seats as possible into the plane to carry more passengers thereby sacrificing much passenger com fort. Newer a i r c r a f t however* o f f e r more com fort through pressurisation* better seating arrangements and air conditioning than do toe older models. One has only to sit Inside the cabin of an old DC-3 in the hot African sun to know that airplanes can be extremely uncomfortable •

Reliability. As yet, the steamship and the train have proved to be more reliable carriers than the airplane. However* technical improve­ ments continue to improve the airplane and th is disadvantage is perhaps turning in favor of the airplane over other modes of transportation. AH added together* it appears that the advantages overccms most of the disadvantages idwn considering aviatitm in Meet AfVica. This author found the oamwrcial airline to be gaining in stature in Meet Africa in comparison with other modes of transportation and while the airplane w ill never replace toe train* ship or auto* it complements and caqüetes the transportation system necessary for a nation to achieve any msaeure of greatness. Speed, economy of time* dependability and frequency of service certainly overcome cost, weather and other disadvantages for travel in tost Africa.

IT . MULTIPLE FACTOR APPROACH TO NEST AFRICAN AVIATIdl

Nhile th e qr>bem o f th e m u ltip le f a c to r a n a ly s is i s p re s e n t throughout this thesis* the author w ill give special osgAssis to the 40 varlofos factors in this section as they pertain to ccesmrcial aviation in Meet Africa*

Pharsioaraphic The area selected by the author is extremely large, covering mors than 1,302,820 square miles and incorporating twelve Meat African nations. The physical geograidiy is varied from low, coastal idains to rolling h ills and mountains in excess of 6,000 feet to the high savannah cm the southern fringes of the Sahara. Vegetatima is just as varied, ranging from the dense rain foreet to sparse grasslands, while moisture through rainfall varies from annual excesses of more than 200 inches to areas with less than five inches per year. Only in temperature can there be said to be any general geographic condition that has any degree of sim ilarity throug$iout Meet Africa and there is a noticeable temper­ ature variation moving from the coastal areas to the higilands and the fringes of the Sahara. Basically, transportation has been hindered by the factors mention­ ed above* Bail and road transportation is extremely lim ited a ll througi Meet Africa and to ile there has always been movement of the people, thie movement has been hampered by the geographic or physiographic factors. The coming of the airplane hae allowed a greater freedom of movement as the airplane allows people to juqp over physiographic barriers that formerly restricted movement. The airplame, in spanning these barriers, has also sped up the flow of cultures, ideas and social changes in Meet A fric a . Where the interm ittent rivers and streams were impediment to 41 transportation» the airplane knows no set or dry season. Where it took days to cross the mountains of Sierra Leone» Liberia» Guinea and Uie Ivory Coast» i t now tsjces only a few hours to fly over these obstacles to movement. Where the heavy rains along the Gulf of Guinea slowed transportation and movement to a standstill during the wet seasons» the airplane s till flies and lands on concrete runways. And there the lack of water made railroads impractical on the fringes of the Sahara and the camel the only effective beast of burden» the airplane once again crosses the waterless wastes with ease. >

Technological As yet» there are no airplanes smnufactured in West Africa and there have been no technological developments created in West Africa. But the technical sk ills required to fly an airplane and to manage am airline have had effect on Africa and the African. The modem comsmr^ cial airliner is a ccmplex instrument and a high degree of skill and training are required for the safe operation of an airplane. As of aid 1963» there are no trained African jet oosseercial pilots flying schedul­ ed routes in West Africa» but several airlines do have African's train­ ing to operate je ts. Captains Same and Agyare of Ghana Airways are qualified to fly four engine propellor aircraft and w ill prdbably be seleoted to receive je t instruction when Ghana Airways receives its first pure-jet aircraft in the snmer of 1964.^ Captain Fsliz Aboe was

^Chana Airwave Mews. Accra» Ghana» June» 1963» p. 2. 42 scheduled to become the First Captain of Air Afrique during July» 1963.^ In addition to traixiing received from airlines run by the former colonial powers» Africans have received technical training in airline operations in the United States» the » Italy» Switserland and India# AAricanisation of the, local airlines of West Africa has been a slow process due primarily to the h i^ sk ill and experience levels required to operate and naintaj.n aircraft. The process is increasing in speed and temqio a ll the time and in the not-too-distant future» the expatriate eeqilhyed by a West African airline w ill be another page in the history book. In 1 9 6 3 f li^ t and operations staffs are multi-national with Nigerian Airways perhaps providing the classic exaaqple with pilots from India» Poland» Iceland» th e U nited Kingdom» Denmark» N etherlands and N ig e ria .^ Technological advancements in ccssomicaticns » weather forcasting» and iaqprovsd aircraft are a ll having their effects on aviation in West Africa. As a result of technical progress» aviation w ill play an increasingly large part in the development of West Africa,

Ecgmgm^ A new lesson to the leaders of the nations of West Africa has been

^Interview with M. Mercier» General Manager of Air Afrique at Abidjan» Ivozy Coast by the author on June 6» 1963* ^Interview with Captain L. V. Messenger» Fligÿit Operations Officer of Nigerian Airways at Lagos» Nigeria by the author on July 9» 1963* 43 the eoonoeiee of operating a ccmeerolal airline. The establisfament of an airline has been a political and nationalistic goal in Guinea» Mali» Ghana and Nigeria» but the econcsdc factors have strained the budgets in order to keep the airlines of the nations mentioned above in the sky. In The P^g^wig^ Statement for 1962-63. Ghana had 1?»978»425 Ghana Pounds ($50»339»590) in cosmitments arising out of loans and siqqpliers credit in various types of aircraft utilised ^ Ghana Airways.^ The government further had to provide for 337,290 Ghana Founds ($1»304»412) to cover the deficit on Ghana Airways operations for the year 1960-61.^ Nor is Ghana alone in having financial problesis with airline operation. During the firs t quarter of 1962» Nigerian Airways operated at a loss of 165,000 Nigerian Pounds ($462»000).^ During early 1963 Nigerian Airways purchased five Fddcer F-27 Friendships at a cost of $5,500,000.^ From an econoadc viewpoint» Air Afrique» a m ultinational airline formed by eleven former French colonies» seems to be on a more sound financial footing. 66^ of the stock is owned by the eleven participat­ ing states idiile Air FTance and UAT own the remaining 34JK. This sharing of costs» profits and losses appears a mors realim tlc approach to operating an without a nation incurring tiie hugs expenses

^The Financial Statement. 1962-63» (Accra» Ghana: The Ministxy of Finance simd''Tzmdeî"Oo{ooer»^962) » Table IX.

4wNews From Nigeria"» Information Division» The Fbderal Ministry of Information» Lagos» Nigeria» February 23» 1963» p. 11. 4 4 required in the eetabliffaaent of an airline. (For a detailed diaeuseion of Air Afzlqpie» eee Chapter V.). Coqpetition for the airline paaeenger is extreme in Meet A frica, n ia preaeure has placed a strain on the finances of a ll the airlines operating in West Africa. Ghana Airways and Nigerian Airways operate flin ts between Lagos and Accra daily on almost the same schedules» in direct competition with each other resulting with both fligd&ts operating at less than K# of capacity. Seme of the major cities in West Africa are also served by too many carriers with Abidjan being served by eifdit airlines» Accra by 18 airlines and Lagos by 14 airline#.

P o li t i c a l Che of the most interesting aspects of ccemmrcial aviation in West Africa has been the poliUcal or nationalistic attitudes of certain leaders in the establishment of airlines as a status symbol. On the day of independence» certainly one eaqaects to see a new flag» the issuance of postage staeq>s» a new national anthem and thm the establishm ent of diplomatic missions in the major capitals of the world. But one would hardly eoqmct the establishment of a natim ^ airline to carry the importance and priority that it does. Dr. Kwame Nkmmah» » and^ne of the more oat-spoken leaders in West Africa» had th is to sa y :^ In connection with the founding of Ghana Airways» i t was maintained that there were enough international airlines to serve

^Nwmme Mkrumah» Africa Ifcmt Unite (London: Heinemanm Educational Books» Ltd.» 1963)» pTSI. 45 our needs» and that the foimation of a new one was unnecessary m ultiplication idiich would only serve to satisify our national pride# Even if this were true» idiieh it is not» it was an argument that did not appeal to us# Naturally» it increases our self- confidence to Observe our own people helping to control the intricate nOchanisaa involved in the functioning of our own airways services» and we certainly experience a glow of pride in seeing our flag flying on planes and ships traveling to other countries# This is one of the most conservative statements made concerning the establishment and operation of Ghana Airways# With independence» Ghana br

4#est A frica. (Weekly News Magasine)» London» May 18» 1957» p* 456* ^"Ohama Today"» Ghana M inistry of Information» Accra» Ghana» Vdnms 4» Number 20» November 23» I960» p# 4* 46 to play its part in fostering African Unity by means of air eosmnnioat- ions* Economic union prior to political union is the best means of African Unity and a Pan African Union of Airlines is a stem for founds atiOB."^ This statement, by Chief 0. I. Dafe, Chairman of Nigerian Airways» show political goals» but more econoedo sense. A meeting proposed by Chief Dafe to consider airline merger is scheduled to be held in Lagos in January» 1964* In Guinea the national airline» Air Guinee» has been a cold war football. The airline was first established with Soviet assistance» l a t e r ru n h j Alaskan Airlines» then run again by the Bloc nations and is now in a high state of flux. When the author flew with Air Guinee in April of 1963» the plane was Russian» the pilots Russian and the cabin crew was trained by Pen American.^ Politics is more multinational in former French West Africa as eleven nations participate in Air Afrique» an airline described in detail in Chapter V. Further indication of political or natimaal feelings can be seen in "Uii goals of some of the AAdcan airlines to fly not only to Europe» but also to tiie United States. In discussion with African airline executives this past Spring in Africa» a ll were hesitant and did not desire to talk about flin ts to the United States except in rather

^"Msws Aroa Nigeria"» February 16» 1963. ^Christian Science Monitor. Reuters» October 16» 1963* ^Observation by the author on a flig h t by Air Guinee from Dakar» Senegal to Conakry» Gulnea» on A pril 2» 1963* 47 guarded terme. Nigerian Airways officials were the least interested in flying to New York» but a reversal of opinion took place in November» 1963 with the annowoeememt th at Ran American World Airways and Nigerian Airways reached a provisional agreement for direct flights between the United States and Nigeria. The agreement» however» is subject to appro- val by the two governments.* With the acquisition of long range jet aircraft» more African airlines w ill be wanting to show the flag with flin ts to the United States and oUier parts of the world. The cosqpetition for business in airlines is extreme in Africa» and while as yet there may not be sufficient trade and passengers to warrant expanded services to Europe and the United States» the politieans are aware of the future and there may be more international flig rts to and from West Africa and other parts of the world.

S o c ia l As yet» the social implications of the airlines in West Africa is not extensive. The cost of flying has kept the great majority from fly­ ing am it does in other parts of 'Uw world. But the airplane and the airline are changing the social picture to a small extent. The author met mmmrous businessmen» both European and African» that have found the airliner the most effective way to travel in Africa. Amy day of the week» at any major airport in Africa» one can see many people» from a ll walks of life» watehing the arrival and departure of the large» intercontinental aircraft*

^The Evsninm Star. Associated Press» November 4» 1963. UB The use of the airplmm# for charter purposes is also growing and has an effect on social mobility# Religicus groups have taken charter flights to and business groups and athletic teams have found the airplame an excellent way to travel, WLtbout the airplane» the various meetings of groups a t Addis Ababa» Monrovia» Accra and Brasaaville would s till be possible» but more difficult to arrange. During the 10th Anniversary of the Ghana Commercial Bank in June» 1963» bankers from a ll over Africa and the world were able to attend the meetings with less transportation difficulty throng the use of the airplane. Students are also having some of their early contacts with other ways of life through travels to educational institutions in other parts of the world aboard a i r l i n e r s . The airlines have not greatly changed the social pattern in Africa as yet, but they are the winds that bear the seeds of change both to and from Africa as students» eduoatoxv» politieans» businessmen» preachers and others a ll find the airline to be the best carrier to travel to distant points in a hurxy.

Démographie Because of its lim ited carrying capacity» the airline has had a smaller role in demographic movements in Africa than any other means of transportation. When fam ilies move from place to place» it is usually ' a short distance move and the airplane is either net available» too egqaensAvs or not suited for the purposes of movement. Migratory labor continues to move from place to j^ce» depending on the seasons and harveet times» but again» the workers participating in these moves are 49 not able to afford the cost of flying and continu# to nors by the more traditional ways* It is doubtful that airidanss and airlines will have much effect on the demographic aspects o f African life *

Ideological The African has readily adapted himself to flying and the author observed no fears» either ideological or otherwise» during 31 flin ts on thirteen different airlines in 1963* In fact» the airplane has greatly facilitated the movements of religicus groups to places of worship* Air Afrique» Ghana Airways and Nigerian Airways have a ll profited from charter flights to Mecca and Air Afrique has done particularly well fay providing this service. During April» 1963» Air Afrique provided 11 je t services to Jiddah for Moslem groups. A total of more than 2»000 passengers were carried during this period.^ Pilgrims from Senegal» Ivory Coast» » Upper Volta and Niger have been served by the a ir­ lines» greatly reducing the length of time awajr from home for the Moslems. Flights go to Jiddah and the pilgrims complete the journey to Mecca on foot. and Air Quimee have also had charter f lin ts to Mecca. The flight from Abidjan to Jiddah is i41»500 CFA (about $566.00) 2 for a round trip. Moslsm families have pooled their resources to send a meWaer of the family on the air charter flin ts to Mecca. One

^Interview with M. Mercier» General Manager of Air Afrique at Abidjan» Ivory Coast on June 6» 1963 by the author. ^"Au jour Is jour"» Abidjan Matin. Abidjan» Ivozy Coast» Fisbruary 7 , 1963. 50 particular fli# it from Abidjan carried 167 pilgrima in a for the largest single flight to Mecca Iqr Air Afrique. Althott^ not yet ueed to any extent by other religious groups» the airplane hae been a boon to the Moslem for the journey to Mecca and w ill continue to play an increasingly large part in the pilgrimsgcc to Mecca. The airline has also been a carrier in transporting political and philosophical ideology from nation to nation and continent to continent. Politieans» independence leaders» personnel and mission­ aries are examples of people who spread Ideology with the airplane serving as the physical means of transportation. While it is impossible to measure the effect of the airplane in this circumstance» it is highly probable that many of the petitioners might not have been able to make the long journey to tiie United Nations without the airline. CHAPTER IV

THE NATIONAL AIRLINES OF WEST AFRICA

This chapter w ill dieeuee the ziatlona of West Africa and their national airline#. Consideration will be given to history» current operations and expansion plans ^ere such information is available. During the author's recent trip to Africa» many of the nations included in this study were visited and information was gathered directly from the airline of the nation wherever possible. Senegal» Guinea» Sierra Leone» lib e ria » Ivory Coast» Ghana and Nigeria were th e n atio n s in which pxlmary research was conducted idiile secondary m aterial was gathered for the ottier nations; Togo» Dahomey» Niger» Upper Volta and Mali. The organisation of this chapter will be based on the geographical location of the natiow. In that Senegal is normallyjWw first stop on a journey to Meet Africa» the autiior has chosen to begin with that nation. From Senegal» natione w ill be cwsidered ae they are located al

1. THE REPUBLIC OF SENEGAL

Senegal» which became independent on August 20» I960» i s one o f the nations that does not have a national airline. This is interesting because Toff» the airport at Dakar» is the largest and was one of the first airports established in West AfriLca. Perhaps the answer to lAy there is no airline in Senegal is the fact that IS airlines serve to connect Dakar with other parts of the world. In 1959 Soudan (Senegal) and Mali agreed to a federation to be called the . In June of I960 the Mali Federal Assembly moved to establish a national airline to serve the Federation under the name of Air Mali. Soudan remained in the Mali Federation until August 20» I960» a t which time the Federation was broken up and th e name o f . Senegal was adopted. This severed links of a ll types of transportation between Senegal and Mali and the airline established as Air Mali remain­ ed as the national airline for Mali. In 1961 Senegal signed the Treaty of Taounde» which established Air Afrique» a multi-national airline to serve the eleven signatory natiou in Africa. The Treaty of Taounde provides that each nation may establish airlines» as required» to provide internal services. Senegal has not taken the option for an internal airline and relies on Air Afrique to provide air service to St. Louis» the only other city in Senegal served by a scheduled airline. There is alse an airport at Ziguinehor» but it is not serviced on a regular basis. It is poss^le 53 to charter snail aircraft at Dakar to fly to other locations in Senegal. The Federal Govemnent is developing roads and railroads» but there appears to be no major interest to develop a national airline in Senegal. As mentioned earlier» Dakar is served by 18 airlines. These air­ lines result in more than 150 arrivals and departures in Dakar each week» making Dakar the busiest airport in West Africa in terms of commercial flights.^ A good portion of the air traffic is the result of e i^ t airlines using Dakar as a refueling baee for arrivals and depart­ ures o f f l i n t s serving South America and Europe by means o f the South Atlantic Ocean.

I I . THE REPUBLIC OF GUINEA

With the rejection of continued membership in the French ConsBunity» Guinea became an independent republic on October 2» 1958. As a result of a complete loss of services from France» including air services» Guinea turned to the Soviet Bloc for assistance in creating a national airline. Air Guinee was founded in October» I960» with Russian and Czechoslovakian a ssista n c e . E arly in 1961» Air Guinee» with Czech and Russian pilots» was providing internal services that were formerly flown

iRobert W. Parrish (pub.)» O fficial Airline Guide. World Wide Edition (Chicago: A Rueben H. Donnelley Publication» Tolunm 20» Number 1» October» 1963). Note: All information concerning the number of airlines serving a country» number of weekly flin ts» etc.» has been extracted by the author from this document for all nations listed in this chapter. Within this chapter» no further reference to this publication will be made. 54 by UAT. Equipment used included two Xlyuahin-lÔ'e and three Avia-14'e. The large four engine llyuehln-lS'e proved to be of little value and were not ueed to any great extent ae they were too large to land at any airport in Guinea other than at Conakry. The Soviet Union alec extended ilbm runway and improved airport facilities at Conakry. In May of 1962 the runway was of sufficient length to safely handle the Ilyushin-ld. During the Cuban Crisis in the Fall of 1962» the Soviet Union asked for permission to use the airport at Conakry as a refueling point for Soviet fligjits from the USSR to Cuba» but Sekou Toure did not allow Russian planes to land in Guinea.^ Late in 1962» Alaska Airlines began private negotiations with the Guinea Government for the operation of Air Guinee. These negotiations were conducted without the knowledge and approval of the United States. In February» 1963» a contract was signed between Alaska Airlines and Guinea to provide for the operation of Air Guinee by the American eoapany. The first of two DC-4 aircraft provided by Alaska Airlines arrived in Conakry in April.^ Financing for the qperation was difficult as no private financing could be found. U. S. Aid assumed the financial responsibility in May by purchasing $700»000 worth of Quniean notes.^ U. S. Aid also provided a fire truck for the Cwakry airport in July.

^"Guinea» Vacinated Against Cnmamnism»* Time. November 9» 1962. ^Charles Bartlett» "Guinea Learns About »" The WashimgUm 3tar.April 30» 1963. 3SoiAand Evans and Robert Novak» "Inside Report: Fiasco in Quimsa»" The Mashinsten Post. September 27» 1963. 55

4 /Æ e u t NE E

SENEGAL

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INTERNAL ROUTES /^Lisurs >*éV? »«£«■ 56 Alaska Alrlinss had problsms from ths beginning and in aid-Maji a DC-4 damaged a nose-sheel putting Guinea without air service until the second DC-4 arrived. The Alaskan operation resumed on an irregular b asis shoriay th e re a fte r and continued u n til the end of August idien the Guinea Government grounded Alaskan operations for safety reasons. This resulted in the Russians and CsechosloveldLans again assuming the f l i ^ t operations of Air Guinee with Ilyushin and Avia aiircraft. At this time, Alaska Airlines and Guinea are trying to resolve the contract between the two parties for the air service. In late July, 1963, Baa American World Airways began weekly service to Conakry with a flif^t beginning in New Toric and tendnatiag in Liberia. Ban American has also conducted a survey in the airline needs of Guinea, but no action has bsen taken by the Guinea Governssnt en the su m q r. Including Air Quince, the nation is served by nine airlines offer­ ing international connections. There are 37 international flin ts per week and Air Guinee provides flights to nine airports internally. (See map tw o.) The Cold War i s being fought in an u n o ffic ia l manner in Guinea and the operation of Air Guinee may be the big prise. It is difficult to te ll who w ill be the winner but Sekou Toure may have had enough trouble with Soviet-style aid to swing a bit more to the West. In the meantime, Guinea has a commercial fleet of more than 19 airiGanes, considered by some observers to be in excess of their meed. 57 I I I . SIERRA LBCNE

S ierra Leone m a the la s t nation to become independent in West Africa, achieving that statue on April 27, 1961. Freetown was a major military base for the Allies during Wbrld War II and three airports were constructed in the Freetown area. The airport at Long!, across the bsj from Freetown, is the best of the three and is used for international operations. — In colonial chys, air service in Sierra Leone was provided by WAAC. As the British colonies became independent, WAAC decreased its operat­ ions and ceased to operate with ths establishment of Ghana Airways and Nigerian Airways. In April, 1961, the Sierra Le«ms Government signed a contract with British United Airways which resulted in the fonsati

^cmms Skinner (pub.), 1962 West African Directory London: Thcmms Skimmer and Ccegpany, L td ., 19o2, pp. A20-it?l. 50

Ste^RA Leone AtR VJA YS

So

/A/reRA/AL ROUTES

F u g h Ts p e r YveeK 59 I mil*# from th# airport to Freotoim* From a tim# factor^ thia ia tha longaat airport-to-oity trip in Waat Africa* Tha Gorarmmant of Siarra Laena ia currantly improvimg tha airport at Long! with new tarminal and paaaangar facilitiaa. la^rovamanta ara alao baing made on tha runway# and approachaa* Siarra Laona Airway# has only on# international f li^ t, that baing tha waakly flight in pool with BUA* Internai eervicas include 16 fliggkta par weak to Bo, Daru, Kaneaa and Tangana* (Sea map thraa for intam al aarrLcea in Siarra Laona.) Internal flirta depart from Haatinga Airport neatled among tha hiU a near Freetown. Siarra Leone ia aerved by nine airline# including Sianra Lama Airway# and haa 23 international fligd»ta each weak* There appear# to be no e f f o r t on the p art o f th e S ia rra Leone Government to aaqmnd it# praaent aarvice*

IV. THE REPUBLIC OF LIBERIA

Liberia, the oldeat independent nation in Meat Africa, became a Republic on Auguat 26, 1ÔA7* L ib erian National A irlin aa, one o f tha oldaat African airlinaa in Africa, began it# oparationa in-1953* The airline ia owned by tha Idbarian Govemmant and ia operated by the Peat O ffice Dapartawnt* Tha a ir lin e i a curren tly managed by an Aamrican

^Obaarvatima by tha author la Freetown on April 4-5, 1963* 60

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[fr. SIERRA LEONE

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AAAP V INTERNAL, ROUTES /pc/fwrj v^aeK 61 staff Th# alrlia# opsratss two DC-3 aircraft and sorvos six air fields in liberia. (Ses map four.) Service is coastal as thsro are no large towns or airports in the interior of Liberia. The interior naj be reached tagr charter f li^ t. Pan American World Airways was the first international carrier to nse Eobertsfleld^ the major airport in Liberia. Pan American made its first flight te Liberia on February 7, 1942, as part of the equipment- shuttling operation conducted during World War II. Currently eleven airlines operate 33 international flights psr week from Bobertsfield. Located about 50 miles inland from Monrovia, Bobertsfield was built by the United States during World War II. As an example of how close Africa is to the United States by air, in 1958# prior to the usage of jet aircraft for long range flights, it took more than 27 hours to fly from New York to Monrovia. Now with the jets, flying tiam is less than half the time required by propeller aircraft. Liberian National Airlines has shown no plans for sjqpansicn, but - there has been talk of replacing the DC-3's with newer, larger DC-4 air­ craft. It is interesting to note that the President and the General Manager ofihe airline both double as pilots. The airline operates six round-trip fUgjhts per week.

8. Department of Ccmamrce, Werld Survey of Civil Aviation. Africa. Tolnmo H (Washington* U. S. Gevemnent K lnting Cfflco, I960), pp. 23-25. 62 V. THE REPUBLIC OF IVQBX COAST

The iTOzy Coast, which became Independent on August 7# I960, was served by UAT for its internal services until April, 1962. Ob this date, France and the Ivory Coast implemented am agreement that had been signed a year earlier founding Air Ivorie. Felix Houphouet-BoigDy, the President of the Ivory Coast, has been a leader in pushing for econoaic ties by African states and hae helped in the creation and ezqpansion of Air Afrique. With this ia mind, be has purposely kept Air Ivorie operating as a small airline and there are no eoqpansion i^Lans being considered. Air Ivorie cu rren tly serves eigght cities within the Ivory Coast and uses two Heron four-ongLne aircraft. In 1963, there was one African pilot and one African Hostess with the airline and all the other employees were French. Air Ivorie does a moderate amount of business, but there has been a problem in educating the people of the Ivory Coast in the advantages of flight. Most of the custcamrs aim European, but the percentage of Africans flying the internal routes has been increasing.^ Details of the internal service are shown on map fiv e . Abidjan is tiie home office for Air Afrique and w ill be increasing in importance as an air center as Air Afrique continues to grow. An eig^t-story office building is nearing completion for Air Afriqjue in Abidjan at this tine. Air Afriqpe, a multi-national airline, is treated

^Conversation with a U. S. Goverment Official in Abidjan on June 4 , 1963. 63 /Air Iv/oRi r

MALI UPPeR VOLTA

ÛALOA

GHANA

LIBERIA

ATLAAJTI C OCeAA/ TABOU

INTgRNAL r o u t e s -&2±- AusMn ^rm u ^ m < 64 in detail in Chapter V. Abidjan is serred by nine airlines and hae 25 international fligÿ&te per seek. Pan Aneriean Wbrld Airways, which does not serve the Ivory Coaet, recently opened a new hotel in Abidjan and w ill probably provide service to that city in the not too distant future. Five of the nine airlines serving the Ivory Coast are French in origin. This is an example of the F^nch colonial policy of allowing only French airlines to operate in French areas in Africa. This is gradually being changed with independence, but the French carriers s till hold the majority of the business in these areas. The Ivory Coast Gsvemwnt has served as the principal negotiating agent for Air Afrique in obtaining landing ri^ ts with other nations. The Ivory Coast has signed more than ten agreements since the founding o f A ir A frique. Houphouet**Boigny' s government even guaranteed the loan to Air Afrique for the recent purchase of two DC-6 Jets for Air Afrique.

V I. THE REPUBLIC OF GHANA

Ghana was the f i r s t of the newly independent nations in West Africa to receive its independence, Harch 6, 1957, being the date. Dr. immediately began to talk of the formation of a national airline as one of the symbols of independence. In fact, Ghana regards the possession of an airline as indispensable to independence as the issue of its own currsni^.^

IWest Africa. July 21, 1956, p. 596. 65 Ghana Airways was formed on July 4, 1956, in association with BQAC. BQAC owned 40 percent of the stock and the Govemaent of Ghana held the remainder. Capital to establish the airline was 400,000 Pounds Sterling. During the first year of operation, the airline lost 190,110 Pounds using Herons and DC-3's on the internal routes and leasing a Boeing Strato-cruiser on the Acora-London fli^ ts .^ The policy of serving all of Africa was begun shwtly after Uie airline was established and f li^ t agreements were quickly signed with the naticms of Meet A frica as they became independent. New équipement was rapidly added with the addition of Viscounts, Britannias and Ilyushin-lS's. And with the increase in the amount of aircraft, the deficit became larger and larger# Krobo Ednssi, Minister of Transport said, "Even thougji the ro u tes and serv ices operated may no t now prove V* econoedc, I am sure they will reap a harvest in k in d # "2 ^ late 1961 Ghana Airways had a stable of twenty airplanes, a fast growth from the four owned in 1956. One of the major financial problems was the acquisition of eig^t Russian Ilyushin-18 turbo-inrop airplanes. These planes cost mors than 115,000,000 and placed an unusual financial burden on the young airline. After several years of negotiating with ths Soviet linicn, four of ths Ilyushins were returned on August 24, 1963, as surplus to the needs of

^West A frica. Novemher 7, 1959, p . 950. ^Ghana Today. Volume 5« Number 3 , March 29, 1961, p . 20. 66 Ghana A im ajs*^ Ghana and BQAC ta n d n a te d th a lr agraanant In Navambar, 1962* Ghana purohaaad tha BOAC atook at tha naxkat valna. Oparating on it# own, tha alrlina eantixmad tha policy of "bringing indopandant African stata# tag#th#r and thus projactlng tha African Porsaoality*"^ Vbila tha intam al routa# and tha Lwdwa-Accra flight# war# profitable, tha long- ranga routa# to various part# of tha continant oontlnuad to losa nonay. Ghana bagan to spread it# training to nation# other than tha Unitad Kingdom and in tha suaaer of 1962 had 75 parsonnal in various typa# of training in tha Soviet Union.^ In 1963, training agreement# with the Italian airline, , ware reached for tha training of jet pilots*^ Tha airline also plan# to enter tha jet age a# three Vickers VC-10*# ware ordered for delivery in aid-1964 at a cost of more than 120,000,000* Ghana  lnm js ha# pushed for tha Africanisation of the airline* In January, 1963, there ware six Ghanaian# trained and flying a# pilots. During tha author's visit to Ghana, several flight# were sad# with ccsgileta Ghanaian craws providing «ccallent service* Management personnel are also being trained to take over tha top-level positions and several Ghanaians are performing in responsible positions with a high degree of affactivanass*

Past. August 25, 19&3# %wasi Anaah, High Ccnmissioaar to tha Unitad Kingdcm, Today. Volume 5# Momibar 21, December 6 , 1961, p* 6* 3Chana Today. Volume 6, Hvmbor 12, August 15, 1962, p* 6. ^*Qhanaian Timas. June 24, 1963* 67 One of the major problems for Ghana Airwiagrs has been the operation of political or prestige routes. These are operated as an expression of the sfdrit of African Unity and w ill probably never be sound in an economic sense. The best examples of these routes are the bi-weekly services to , Morocco and Aden. Qy negotiating air agreements with many countries, Ghana is now served by an excessive number of airlines. Thirteen airlines now provide 52 in tern atio n al flig h ts per week to Accra and many of the routes are duplicated, affecting the number of passengers carried by all a i r li n e s . On numerous occasions the author watched flig h ts term inating at the Accra Airport with only six or seven passengers dismounting from

a 1 5 0-passenger jet owned by an European airline. In that a sixty percent load factor is rougjhly the break-even point, there are many sad management personnel when the passenger lis ts are added up. On the internal routes (See map six) Ghana Airways has had a better than 77 percent load factor with flin ts to Takoradi, and Tamale. These routes, even with their h i^ level of occupancy, do not make a profit due to the low cost of tickets for internal travel. The rate per mile was just increased from 5& pence to 6 pence (7f) ihereas Nigerian Airways earns one shilling per mile for its internal flints.^ The air­ line currently operates 31 weekly round-trip services within Ghana. These services are now operated with 28 passenger DG-3's, but when

iMinutes of the 12th Sales Conference, Ghana Airways, May 31, 1963, p . 2.

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lA/rr/eA/AL R o u -re s 2 z i - in.tG .t4rt «*#4 y trm trK 69 runway «xtenalma ara olat«d in Kuaaai^ 50-60 paaaangar Tlacounta may b# uaad fo r acma of tha flig h ts* Tha Ghanaiana hava baeoaa a i r - eansoioua and tha author noted atand"by liata af paaaangara on aavaral flight» in Chana* Imtamatiomally* Ghana Airwaya oparataa in 2k eountriaa which is an axtanalra network for a young airline* way of contrast, Nigerian Airways operates in 16 nations* Ghana Airwaya is living vp to the aim of tha govamsant of spreading its wings to cover tha continent* Victor Akakpo, Managing Director of tha airline, had this to say recently: Ghana Airways has a v ital role to play in our march towards African Unity# % is is by connecting as many Independent African States as poasibla* In all our operatimaa, our principal objectives are to project the African Personality and proawte African Unity and Solidarity*^ I t is evident that President Nkrumah has bean using Ghana Airways as one of the major instruments in implementing hie poli^ towards a united Africa and with the acquisition of jets in 1964, it is en^jrely possible that one of his next goals will be flin ts , not only to more nations in Africa and Europe, but also to the United States*

V I I . THE REPUBLIC OF TOGO

Togo, the smallest republic in West Africa, gained its independence A pril 27, I960* Togo i s a lso one o f th e fiv e nations in th is study which does not have a national airline or any scheduled internal air service* %e Government does have several planes and "hitch-hiking" is

^■Ghana Airwave News. A p ril and August, 1963* 70 the only way to travel about Togo by air# Lome, the capitol of Togo, ie the moat difficult capitol te reach in Meet Africa* FUfjite arrive and depart only four daye a week and two airlines provide only seven flights per week* This has been distressing to President Gcmiteky and he had this to say in his in itial speech to Parliament:^ It was a painful suinrise that international air companies were not patronising Togo's international airport* This is because we have no a ir agreements w ith o th e rs. We plan to b u ild a modem international airport at Low and to sign air agreements with sceee of the meiÿxboring African states and international coeipanies for the improvement of a ir servieee between Togo and other s ta te s . True to his word, Nigerian Airways became the secw d c a rr ie r to serve Togo beginning service during the sumeeer of 1963* Both Air Afrique and Nigerian Airways personnel have sp^dcen with the Togolese about joining one of the companies* Chief I* 0* Dafe, Chairman of the Board of Nigerian Airways, has been particularly active in pushing for the formation of a major company for those nations not in Air Afrique* Togo has no announced plane fo r a n atio n al a ir lin e and w ill probably jo in either Air Afrique or Nigerian Airways to receive better service*

V III. THE HEFUBLIC OF DAHCMET

Bahoeey, another of the smaller West African states, is better served by air than its neiÿibor, Togo* Dahomey was a sigoatory to the Treaty of Xaouade and receives good service from Air Afrique* Air transportation ie available seven days a week and Dahomey is served by

iDaily (Accra, Ghana) Graphic. June 6, 1963* 71 two airUirao with 13 weekly flights. There ie no national air service althoo^ the French Air Force flies four aircraft for the Dahomey Government. Theee planes are need primarily for government business, but will take passengers if seats are vacant. There are rudimentary airfields at Fhrakou, Abcmey, Kandi and Natitingoa. The major airport ie located 25 miles from Cotonou. President Maga recently negotiated with Nigeria for service by Nigerian Airways and Dahomey now has two f lin ts per week connecting Cotonou with lagos and Dakar Dahomey, iriiich became independent on August 1, I960, has no plans to establish a national airline.

IX. THE REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA

Nigeria, the nation with the largest population in West Africa, became independent on October 1, I960. Kano, in Northern Nigeria, has been as iiqwrtant to British aviaticai as Dakar has been to the French. First commercial flin ts began in 1936 and Kaho continues to be an isqportant stop for long range flights to the southern portion of the continent as eight international airlines still provide service to and from Kano. Nigerian Airways was formed on October 1, 1956, from the Meet African Airways Corporation (NAAC) with the Nigerians holding 51 percent

^Interview by the author with the Hemerable Leslie Harriman, Acting High Cemmissiemer to Ghana representing N igeria. Interview in Acbra, Ghiuaa, on July 5, 1963. 72 of the stock and th# ronaindor bolag hold by BOAC and the Eldsr-D#np#tor Shipping lin o s N igerian Airweys operated in te rn a l services and flew to London on a pool arrangement wLth BOAC# In April, 1961, the Government of Nigeria purchased the outstanding stock and the coe^pary became a completely national airline. The removal of BOAC from stodc ownership has not affected the leasing by Nigérian Airways of Britannia aircraft for the Lagos-London flin ts . Currently BOAC operates six round-trip f lin ts to Lmdon and Nigerian Airways operates five# While a measure of prestige is at stake with the operation of Nigerian Airways, i t is not of the magnitude of Ghana Airways. In January, 1963, Chief I. 0. Dafe, Chairman of the Board, eaid:^ Nigeria wants to build an independent airline idiich w ill cospete favorably with the other airlines of the world. Although the air­ line is being operated to some extent fw national prestige reasons, i t must be idaced on a sound financial basis quickly. In an effort to modernise, Nigerian Airways placed five Fekfcer F-27 Friendships in service in early 1963. Faster than the older DCr3*s, the F-27's have a seating capacity of 44 idillst the DC-3 could carry only 26 passengers. Strong publicity has been used in Nigeria to encourage the c itis e n s to u t i l i s e the a irlin e on long journeys. Usage has been good in the Eastern and Western Regions, but the Northern Begion has lagged behind in increasing air travel. Chief Oafs encouraged the Sardauna of Sokoto to fly personally and to encourage the patronage of

^Federal Nimeria. Volume 1, Number 9» October, 1956. %ews From Nimeria. Number's 3 and 6, January, 1963. 73 th# airline by th# people of the north.^ In the atttdy of the airline# of West Africa, Nigeria is the only nation where tribalism has a part in the ocaeerolal operation. Chief Dafe, from the Baetem Begion (Ibo), eiz Westerners (Tomba) and three Northerners (Hauea) were hired.^ Press and public reaction has been strong to this alleged favoritism and has given the young airline severe problems in public relations. The payment of "Dash" continues to be a 3 successful means to obtain employment with Nigerian Airways. Politioal and social ties s till remain important in Nigerian Airways. Nigerian Airways ie also a etu4y in neutralism and nen-aligneent as the management ie now seconded from Air In d ia, p ilo ts are being tra in e d hy BOAC and Swissair is training food service personnel.^ The 24 pilots co-pilots represent seven different nations with 15 of these personnel being Arom India.^ Currently there are two Nigerians trained as pilots and five as co-pilots (second officers). Nigeria hopes to be cospletely Africanised within ten years so that the entire operation will then be In the hands of Nigerians. At this time, the General Manager ie an Indian and the F li^ t Operaticms Officer Is from the .

^Mews From Nimeria. Number 11/63» February 6, 1963. ^Lamos (lB.geria) Dailar Eanrese. June IS, 1963. ^Official of a major European airline. ^Bobert Beeee, Pan American World Airways, Lagos, July S, 1963. ^Interview by the author with Capt. L. 7. Messenger of Nigerian Airways in Imges on July 9» 1963. 74 Migaria is iatarested In expanding air sarvicaa to tha other portions of the continent through the creation of a Pan African Air Union of the Independent etatee. The goal appears to be an English- speaking version of Air Afrique. Chief Dafe has this to eay on the su b ject:^ Nigerian Airwmys, as an agent of the Federal Government of Nigeria has detenaised to pley its part in fostering African Unity by means o f a ir cesmnnicatiome. Economic union prior to p o litic a l union is the best means of AArican Unity and a Pan African Union of Airlines is a step for a solid foundation. This subject has appeared in the press many times in 1963 and an effort w ill be made in early 1964 to bring many of the natioM together.

Chief Dafe, who recently returned from a v isit to XHm United S ta te s, met w ith Pan American World Airways and the U. S. Department of State to talk over the possibility of Nigerian Airways flight* to the 2 United States. In that Nigerian Airways does not own any long range aircraft, i t appears that a pool arrangement smy be worked oat between Pan American, which currently serves Lagos, and Nigerian Airways. Nigerian Airways provides 46 internal flights each week to eleven different cities for the best internal air net in West Africa. Kano and Lagee are also served by 16 international airlines with acre than 100 flights arriving and departing each week. Whilst Nigeria receives excessive cenmereial air coverage at the present tine, the near future w ill probably warrant the large maber of services in Nigeria each meek.

^ews Ptem Nlseria. Number 14/63» February 16, 1963, ^Christian Science Meniter. October 16, 1963. 75

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X. THE REPUBLIC OF THE NICER

Niger, idiieh i s the second la rg e st nation in Meat A frica, became an independent nation on October 3» I960* There is an internal airline called Air Niger, but it does not provide scheduled service. The line is used the government for official purposes, but passengers are occasionally taken if there is space on the plans* The French Air Force operates the air service*^ As a signatory to the Treaty of Yaounde, Niger benefits from good service by Air Afrique* Niamey, Agades, Maradi, Tahoua and Zinder a l l receive weekly service* See map eif^t for the internal services provided by Air Afrique* In addition te the flights by Air Afrique, Niamey Is served by three other international airlines* There are a total of 16 flights per week arriv in g and departing from the capitol* Even though there is a limited service by Air Niger, there is no indication that the government plans to expand the service into a true

^Interview by the author with a U* S* Govenmwnt Official* 77

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Showr ABovr 7Ô national airlim *^ The air eervice* limited a# it ie, ie an important factor in controlling the country as the area is almost devoid of any system of transport as there are no railroads and only a few roads in Niger, The only road of any consequence is routed along the southern border from Niamey to N'Qui@mi. Most of the population of the country ie along the southern border, away from the Sahara in the norto,

XI. THE REPUBLIC OF THE UPPER VOLTA

There ie no national airline in the Upper Volta and Air Afrique provides only one f l i ^ t per week between and Bobo Dioulaseo for the only internal service in tise country. Upper Volta is difficult to reach by air and there are just twelve flig):te per week. These flil^te are provided by five different international airlines. In fact, i t is ijqiossible to fly either to or from Ouagadougou on Tuesday as there arc no flifghts scheduled. The government owns an Aero Commander that was a g ift from Robert Kennedy to the President of the Upper Volta, but the plane is not used due to a lack of spare parts and technical manuals. All four states in the Council of the Entente were given an Aero Commander, but they have received very little usage. Maintenance is ispossibls v a these air­ planes as European tools are based on the metric qrstem and will not fit the parts of the Aero Comaander. Mans are underway to obtain necessary

Conversation by the author with a U. S. Qovemmsnt Official. 79 1 tools, asnusls and spars, parts so thseo plasss may bo usod« Tho Upper Volta is commsotod to tho ocean by a ndlroad from Abidjan and most of the movomsst of goods and people is by the railroad. Thors aro 30 air fiolds in Upper Volta, but only tho airports at Bobo Dioolasso and Ouagadougou can bo usod in bad weather and only the a i r ­ p o rt a t Ouagadougou handles je ts . Upper Volta received its Indepondenco on August 5, I960.

X II. THE REPUBLIC OF MALI

The Republic ef Mali, the largest nation in West Africa, became independent. on September 22, I960. Mali was part of the Mali Federation with Senegal, but tho Fédération lasted only 19 months. During th v short-lived Federation, Air Mali was established to serve both Mali and Senegal. On the break-up of tho Federation, the airline remained with M ali. The United Kingdom gave Air Kali three DC-3*s in 1961 and other airplanes were purchased from the Soviet Ihiion. The airline currently uses DC-3's, Ugrushim-14's and Antonev-2's. The maintenance of the Ilyushin's has boon a financial burden, but figures as to the deficit of Air Mali's operation are net available.^ Air Mali dees provide good service to tho nation as twenty cities are covered by the airline. See map nine for tho internal aroutes of Air Kali. Major airports are

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v^TîTSTTrrTjifv" &NDV/N ABOVE 81 located at Bamako^ Mcqptl and Segou and Air Mali operates local eerriceo from these three cities. Big^t international airlines serve Mali with 23 flights per week. " It is interesting to note that Mali is served by both Soviet and Gsechoslovakian airlines and is the only nation in West Africa with air services from two block nations. Air Mali has eight international flights a week and utilises two- engins aircraft on these flin ts. The lack of speed and rangp in the two-engine planes places Air Mali at a disadvantage in cooqpetlng aggainst the larger* faster airplanes used by the other airlines on the same routes. These flights go to Conakry and Accra and are holdovers from the Ghana-Guinsa-Mali Unioa. The other international flight# sre to Monrovia and Abidjan. The last twoj which may be classed as prestige flights* carry very few passengers uad place an economic drain on Air Mali. No information is available as to future plaw for Air Mali.

X III. COLONIAL ABBAS IN WEST AFRICA

There are two colonies in West Africa; * idiich is a British territory* and Portuguese Guinea. Neither colonial area has an airline and are both dependent on other airlines for air sorvicos. Bathurst* Gambia is served by three airlines and has six flights per week. * Portuguese Guinea* i s served by two Portuguese a irlin e s and has four flights per week. It appears doubtful that either colony could support a national airline when they receive their independence. CHAPTER V

AIR AFRIQUE: A MULTI-NATIONAL AIRLINE

Sine* the advent of independence in Meet Afidca* for most ef the former colonial areas* there has been only one airline founded on a multi-national basis and that is Air Afrique* Société Africaine Multinationals. This ie one of the early atteqpts at a form of economic unicm in a joint enterprise by a group of new natimu in Africa. Although Air Afrique does not operate only within the confines of West Africa* but also all over the continent and in Europe* it has been included in this paper as most of the operations are in West Africa and the hoBM office is located in Abidjan* Ivory Coast.

I . THE CONFERENCE AT YAOUNDE

The treaty allowing the establishment of Air Afrique was sigped at Yaounde in The Republic of Cameroun on March 26, 1961* by eleven heads of state or their representatives from the following African nations t Cameroun* * Republic of the Congp» (Brasaaville)* Ivory Coast* Dahomey* * Upper Volta* Senegal* * Nigger and Chad.^ The purpose* as established in the preamble of the treaty* was to provide air service between the member states and other nations as a means of improving transportation and improving intem atim ul relatione

^Treaty % Air Transport In Africa. Yaounde* Cameroun* March 83 by «nabling a ll tha state# to aequiro a better knowledge ef one another. The signatories of this treaty include all the members of the Brassaville Group with the exception of Kalaggasy.^

A^jggd^atiaag^ Structure _ Air Afrique would be organised as a joint stock company with each of the contracting states holding an equal part of the corporation's capital. The authorized capital of the corporation would be 500 million francs C.F.A.* with a total of 50*000 shares of stock valued at 10*000 francs C.F.A. Each member state would hold 3*000 shares of stock and the remaining 17*000 shares would be held by a holding company established in France by Air France and UAT for a period of fifteen years. SODBTRAF (La Société de Développement du Transport Aerien en Afrique) is the name of the holding ccspany formed by Air France and UAT.^ In th e e a rly years* SODBTRAF i s to provide management persmmel* aircraft and maintenance services until qualified Africans can be train­ ed to perform the necessary services and the airline is able to purchase its own aircraft. Air Afrique* as a company* was chartered for an initial period of 99 yearsThe admission of new s ta te s to encompass all of Africa is encouraged and equal shares w ill either be transfered

^Erasmus H. Hasan* Jr.* "African Unification Movements* "Inter- Volume XVI* Nusiber 2* Spring* 1962* p . 403* %omminiq!US* Service Information et Relations Extérieures* FSrls* France* 5 Mars 1963. Treaty Relating To Air Transport In Africa. Articles of Incorp- orationn* Chapter I* Article 4. 84 from member etatee or obtained by increasing the corporation's capital. If a member withdraws from the corporation* its shares are to be boagjit up in equal parts by the other shareholder sWtes.^

Achrinl s tra tio n Of The Corporation Each member holds two seats on the Board of Directors* with a Chairman of the Board to be elected for a term of two years by the membere of the Board. M. Cheikh Fal of Senegal was elected to be the A rst Chairman of the Board. Each country participating in Air Afrique is represented with a regional office in their respective countries. The home or main office is in Abidjan* Ivory Coast* and currently occupies space in buildings of the Ivory Coast govsrmeent. % th in s ix months, the corporation w ill 2 move to its own office building in Abidjan. Several meetings of the Board of Directors have been held including one in the late Spring of

1 9 6 3. This meeting was held to divide "Profits" among the members of the corporation* but no figures on the amount of the profits has as yet been made available.

Tax Holiday For Air Afrique In an to the Treaty of Yaounde* the heads of states exesqitad Air Afrique from any taxes within the countries establishing Air Afrique for the life of the corporation. The Annex ie very specific in spelling

llbid. . Chapter II* Article 8. ■ ^Interview with M. Mercier* General Menager of Air Afrique by the author at Abidjan* Ivory Coast on June 6* 1963. Ô5 out* in thorongja detail* th# oxbroaoly favorable tax position that has been granted Air Afrique. The Annex further encourages all states to haxaonise their laws governing aircraft* various types of air equipsmnt* and oUier procedures effecting aviation.^ It appears that the founding father's of Air Afrique were very thorou^ in establishing the airline* setting up the most favorable circunstwees possible for the corporation to becoBM a successful operation.

II. THE HISTOHT OF AIR AFRIQUE

On the 26th of June* 1961* during a constitution-general assembly of the participating nations* Air Afrique became a corporation. Shortly thereafter* at Abidjan* the first meeting of the administrative council was held to furUier organise the company. Air Afrique to

^Treaty Relating To Air Transport In Africa. Annex to Treaty Concerning Fiscal Provisions* m r^ 28*%9H. ^"Société Africaine Multinationals de Transport Aerien"* address by Cheikh Fal* President Directeur General of Air Afrique* Abidjan* Cote d'Ivoire* 6 Ju in 1963. ^Anthony Tand^* "Air AArique* Hew U-Natims Airline"* A irlift. Ajnll* 1962* pp. 19-20. 86 servie#, for both nail and passengers, to Europe. %e first inter­ continental f ll^ t took place on October 16, 1961, being routed from Paris to Dakar, Monrovia, Abidjan, Accra, Cotonou, Lagos and Douala.^ Long range f l i n t s were la te r extended to Port G entil in Gabon. 1962 became the year of Uie jet as Air Afrique leased the services of two Boeing-707'B from Air France. Service was inagurated on January 2nd with flights connecting Paris with Dakar, Abidjan, Douala and Brasaaville. Later in 1962, first long range flights began to serve Conakry and Ouagadougou. Air Afrique also began negotiations to purchase two DC-8 Jets to be owned cosqpletely Igr the corporation as a step towards replacing the leased 707's. With the govemsmnt of the Ivory Coast acting as the negotiating instruBwnt for Air Afrique, landing r i^ ts were obtained in Ethiopia, , Israel, Belgium, liberia, Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone. Plans are for more landing rights in other countries in Europe and Africa even though some of the landing rights will not be used soon. In February, 1963, a contract was signed between Air Afrique, as representing the Ivory Coast, and the Doughs Aircraft Corporation for the purchase of two DC-8 jets. The $14,000,000 was leaned by the Ejqwrt-Iaport Bank of Washington with the Ivory Coast assuming the financial respcmsibility for the aircraft. The first jet was to be delivered in October, 1963, and the second jet is to be delivered in January, 1964. Priimuy usage ef the new jets will be to provide better

^"Conference sur Air Afrique", H. Cheikh Fal, Address to the Board of Directors on May 29, 1962, at Abidjan. 87 service to the member-states, but the eye of the future is on flights to other countries and continents.^ Early in 1963, all eleven states signatory to the Treaty of Yaounde were not only connected to each other, but also had through service to Europe.

In 1 9 6 2, the first full year of operation, the airplanes of Air Afrique flew more than 6,250,000 miles, or almost once around the world every work day. The aircraft also logged more tham 30,000 hours in the air; 267,000 passengers and 15,000 tons of mail and freight were carried during this period. These statistics ranked Air Afrique third among the airlines operating with Afidca as home base.^ Even with strong assist­ ance in building trade from Air France, UAT and TAI, this represents a strong start for a young corporation. During its first full year. Air Afrique also became a strong factor in the transportation of people of the Islamic faith to Mecca; 1,719 pilgrims were carried to Jiddah on numerous charter flight#* The pilgrims are transported to Mecca one month and are picked up for a return f li^ t about a month later. Pilgrimage flights are scheduled so that the airplanes do not fly esq>ty on the return trip, but instead bring back a group that left a month e a r l ie r .

IPakar-Matin. 12 Décembre 1962. ^"Société Africaine Multinationale de Transport Aerien," op. c it.. pp. 5-6. B e

1 1 1 . CURRENT QPERATICNS

Figure two shows the in te rn a tio n a l and in te rc o n tin e n ta l routes flown by Afrique in early 1963 and figure three shows the local services provided in West Africa. In addition to the two DC-6 jets or^^d for delivery in October of 1963 and January of 1964, Air Afrique ^seussed further esqpansion of its fleet of aircraft with consideration being given to the purchase of two additiw ial DC-6 and two nore DC—4 aircraft. Plans for the acquisition of these planes has not yet been cosgpleted.^ Construction is continuing on the ei^t-story office building in Abidjan and occupancy is expected later in the year. Construction of modem sales agencies in various capitals of the subscribing states is also scheduled for cospletion in 1963. One of the strongest backers of Air Afrique has been President Felix Hoophouet-Boigny, of the Ivory Coast. Always a leader in econoadc ties before political union, he offered Abidjan as the home office for the airline and strongly assisted in the recent contract with Douglas Aircraft for the purchase of the two DC-6 jets. The Republic of the Ivory Coast signed the contract as guaranteeing the loan. Air Afrique has continued to eaq)hasise charter service, increasing the number of f lig h ts to Mecca in 1963, and u tilis in g je ts to provide faster service. More than 2,000 pilgrims were carried during the first four months of 1963, for a considerable increase in pilgrims carried to

^"Air Afrique Infonaations", No. 2, Janvier 1963* p. 4. 89 Mecca over the number carried in 1962. With a larg e Islamic population in the territory of Air Afrique, the transportation of pilgrims should continue to be a very important factor in the utilization of the new jet aircraft.

IV. FUTURE OPERATimS -

On the 5th o f March, 1963', the French M inister of Public Works and Transport announced a policy change in African territories covered by the three major airlines in France. By dividing the continent, the goal cf the plan, to be isqxlemented in Movember, 1963, is to reduce competition aswmg the French airlines and give further assistance to Air Afrique hj increasing their share of the passengers and frei^t to be carried. It is felt that greater efflciency^in the utilization of air­ craft will also be achieved by this plan.^ Air Afrique will continue to develope its services both in Africa and to other continents. Air France w ill fly only to Senegal, in West Africa, and w ill continue service to Madagascar, French Somalia, the Gonsores and Reunion in . UAT and TAI w ill serve Mauritsmia, Mali, Upper Volta, Niger, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Togo and Dahomey in West Africa and Chad, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Cameroun and the Congo () in Central Africa. UAT and TAI will-also serve as the French carriers to Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia and K.geria in West

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Th« French and African gOTenments w ill continue to watch th# doTalopaent of traffic pattama and passenger revenues to insure am equitable distribution of the airline business in AfMca# Eventual goals are to allow each airline about fifty percent of the business in each of the defined areas* Air Afrique actually forced ü » plan as the company was making heavy inroads on the business formerly carried by Air Prance, DAT and TAX* Within the French ejdiere of operations in Africa,

In 1 9 6 1 Air Afrique carried 3$ of the long distance traffic. This Increased to 1$^ in 1962 and was heading towards 35% of the traffic in 1963* Predictions are that the Air Afrique will carry about 50% o f the passengers in 1964. Whereas in colonial times the French controlled which airlines could fly to and from their African territories, the independent states now negotiate air treaties with nations of their own chosing. Air Afriqixe, throu^ Senegal and the Ivory Coast, has negotiated numerous sd.r treaties with other nations, both European and African* This has greatly increased the number of airlines serving former French West Africa and has given the French airlines even more cosqmtition. When the author asked H* Mercier of Air Afrique of their expansion plans, he «qsressed interest in increasing European and African services, but not

^"Bulletin de l'Afrique noire," Paris, No. 273 du 2? Mars 1963, p . 5569* ^"Bulletin de l'Afrique noire," Paris, no. 273 du 27 Mars 1963, p . 5568. 93 in establishing service to the United States at the present tixee* M« Mercier also stated that Fan American World Airways carried only a K5% load factor on its flights to and from Africa and that there was not sufficient business for more than one airline at the present tlms*^ The conservative statement does not agree with M« CheildrTal, the Chairman of the Board, who announced that Air Afrique hopes to negotiate for ri^ ts in New York through the Seneggalese Govemmsnt.^ Fan American World Airways curren tly lands in SenegpûL through^ a b ila te r a l agreement between France and the U nited S tate s signed p rio r to Senegalese independence. To the present. Air Afrique has developed rapidly and is to be classed as one of the leaders in commercial aviation in Africa. The is living up to the standards s e t fo rth in the T reaty of Yaounde and the following statement by M. Cheikh Pal properly states the goals of Air Afrique; "In the African contribution to the constructicm of the s in ^ world of tomorrow, the participation of our ccsqpany represents a sensible exasQÛe of human solidarity and Air Afrique w ill become a witness to Africa throu^out the heavens."^

llnterviev with N. Mercier, General Manager of Air Afrique. ^Dakar-Matln. 12 Oeeesibre 1962. 3"Sooiete Africaine Multinationale de Transport Aerien," og# c it.. p. 7, CHAPTER VI

CŒCLU8I0NS

Air transport has been and can be responsible for fundamental changes in the life and economy of a developing area* While the a ir­ plane is not a panacea to all of the tranepoz^ and economic ills in West

Africa, it can be an important instrument of change. Business life, administration and politics, education, hygiene and cultural change are just a few of the aspects of human life that can be influenced by aviation. Discussed below are some of the areas of human life where the use of air transportation is being utilized in West Africa to alter the pattern of life.

I. ECONCmC CHANGE

Althou^ the airplane is not going to be utilized to carry heavy iron ore to the coast or to a foundry, the airplane, as a transporter of people and low bulk, high value goods can change economic factors in

Africa. The French have pioneered the shipment of meat by air in sub-

Saharan Africa, flying beef from Upper Volta, Niger and Chad to cities on the Gulf of Guinea and to Equatorial Africa. Thus -Uie airplane has given an additional, though lim ited, market to the cattle producers in the north and has jumped over the Tsetse belt to deliver a sanitary product to ^ e market area. This has then extended the consuner market

for the cattlemen of the north and has provided goods to an area where meat was in scarce supply. 95 The exploitation of minérale has been another économie factor that has been improved by the airplane. Prospecting over vast areas has been greatly facilitated by the speed of the airplane, and although mineral prospecting is not complete in Africa, the airplane w ill speed the discovery of mineral areas to a h i^ degree over more conventional land means# By flying in critical supplies and personnel, the airplane can reduce the amount of time required to begin mineral extraction.

Personnel working in remote areas can be rapidly rotated and technicans quickly moved from place to place with a much smaller time loss. Oil eiqploration in the Sahara is an example of the effective use of the airplane to move personnel.

An economic change that will cone to Africa as a result of the airplane w ill be the growth of a tourist industry. In West Africa, very few tourists currently are seen, but continued improvement in hotels, local travel facilities and better publicity will encourage more tourists to corns to West Africa and other parts of the continent. And the airplane is most likely to carry the major portion of these tourists.

This spread of tourism towards tropical and equatorial regions should be a logical sequel to the increased distances covered by European and

American to u rists, irtio at first lim iting thsmmelves within tiieir own frontiers, and then to the Mediterranean countries, are now turning to exotic, tropical lands and far away places. 1,000,000 Americans traveled to Europe during the past summer and by an active program of publicity on the part of the African nations, a portion of these tourists can perhaps be enticed to esqd-ore new worlds in Africa. The 96 possibility of increased tourist business is one of the major reasons for the presence of so many non-African airlines now serving Africa with an eye for future business. Rapid movement of management and technical personnel makes a basic reap p raisal of c e rtain management techniques possible. Economic and technical coosnanication is faster and easier allowing a greater hoaogeniety of management. Business exchanges, which fonserly took weeks and months to acccsqplish can now be ccsqpleted in hours and days. The author met the same businessmen in a number of different nations, rap id ly moving to business ccsnd.taents in various places without the loss of time involved in other transportation media in West Africa.

I I . POLITICAL CHANGE

The effects of air transportation on politics and administration should also be included with those on the economy. The very rapid and simultaneous emancipation of Africa, for exaiq>le, would have been inconceivable without air transport. After independence, leaders of new nations were able to personally ccaaaunicate with each other and exchange ideas. Cmferences of the kind held at Monrovia, Casablanca and Brassaville would have been difficult to hold, requiring long sea and r a i l journeys fo r the leaders and th e ir rep resen tativ es. Whereas i t took the African leaders only a day to reach Addis Ababa in early 1963, such a conference would be possible only with great difficulty without the airplane. In internal affairs, government officials, engineers, doctors and 97 educators a ll have a greater freedom of movement with less Ices of time.

Again, the author observed and talked with local officials whose jobs

were made easier by govemsent and commercial flight. International relations can also be affected by ccemercial aviation as some of the nations, signatory to the Charter of African Unity at Addis Ababa in 1963, have denied o v erflig h t and landing rig^its to . As yet, no European, African or American airlines have directly felt this boycott, but it is a possible weapon for future use against South Africa. Should the nations of West Africa adopt this plan, there w ill be loud international ^percussions as landing rights are handled as treaties between nations and denial of treaty rights could involve adverse world opinion and could break the honor of the bilateral agreements.

III. MEDICAL CHANGE

With the airplane, the outbreak of a disease in a remote comer of a nation, can be brought under control more rapidly. Doctors and medicine can be flown quickly to the stricken area. Aerial sprays can be used to disinfect large areas as the airplane beccnms the wings of mercy. The airplane, through its passengers, cargp* and airframe, can also carry insects. Ghana was the only nation in West Africa where the author noted insecticides used in the airplane for insect control. If drugs or serums are not available, they can be flown on commercial jet flin ts , reaching Africa from Europe or Asmxica in Less than 24 hours. In forms of natural disaster, other than sickness, aircraft can be 98 used to evacuate injured or stranded people. Beergenoy supplies can be flown and dropped or landed in disaster locations with great speed and accuracy. Althou^ not necessarily a function of cosmercial aircraft, these missions can be performed by national airlines should the need a r i s e .

IV. INDIVUKJAL CHANGE

As far as the individual is concerned, air transport pliqrs a lead­ ing part, its influence being more far-reaching than spectacular. The creation of new commercial circuits can help to raise the standard of living and can bring about radical changes in the way of life . Travel­ ing is easier and can become more frequent with both European and

African cultures enjoying greater contact and exchange of ideas.

Africans can pursue their studies further and further afield, helping within a short tins to establish an African elite within each of the new nations. All of these factors contribute to the rapid and profound changes in the conditions of life in those regions which u n til now have been less developed.

Despite these advi^tages, air transport and commercial aviation is still limited by operating costs, the availability of airfields and airplanes. %e airplane and Wie airline are one link in the transport­ ation chain that must be forged together. For West Africa, and indeed, a ll of Africa to grow, a transportation system must be developed. The airplane is not the whole answer, but it is one of the parts that idfien a ll are added together equals a sound transportation system, a symtea 99 that ia an absolut* necessity for econosde dsTslopnent and the improve- nent in the standard of living in West Africa*

V. CONCLUSION

Transportation and communication are, physically, the only effect­ ive means of tying a state together — economically, politically, idealistically* The character and ease of transportation and communication are singularly crucial at the time idien a state is in the process of fOnsation for this determines, in no small degree, the areal extent of the p o litic a l doeutin* Planes, more than any other means of tran sp o rtatio n , have had a tendsnsy to unite the world* The expansion of air transport is still in rapid progress; speeds are increasing and the factor of safety is isqaroving* Everything indicates that the long distance transportation in the future will be based on air traffic* The nations of West Africa can all benefit from the progress in technical development that brou^t about the airplane* Commercial av iatio n can be one of the important stones in the foun^tion of a strong nation* "If the twentieth century belongs to tiie tropics and lAe rest of the world really wishes to see the tropics efficiently developed, then transport is basic to that worthy task."^

1R* J* H arrison Church, Modem C olonisation (London; Hutchinson's University library, 1950), p* 100* BIBLKXmPHI

A. BOOKS

Adenoyega, Wale* The Fadaratlon of Nigeria. London: George G. Harrap and Company, Ltd*, 1962, Bennett, Benjamin. Down A frica's Skyways. London: Hutchinson and Co^paiy, Ltd., 1932. Boateng, E. A* A G e o sra i^ of Ghana. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Awes, I960. Carlson, Lucile. Geography and World Politics. Hew York: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1962* Church, R. J. Harrison. Modem Colonisation. London: Hutchinson's University library, 1950. Fitzgerald, Walter. Africa. A Social. Economic and Political Geoyaphy o f i t s Major Regioim. London: Methuen and Company, Ltd*, 1961* Frederick, John H. Coemereial Air Transportation. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1961. Goblet, Y, M. P o litic a l Geography and The World Map. London: George Philip and Son, Ltd., 195®• Green, William. The Observer's tforld Aircraft Directory. London: Fxmderick Warns and Cosqtany, Ltd., 1961. Hailey, Lord. An African Survey. Revised 1956. Oxford: Oxford U niversity Press, 1957* Hance, William A. A frican Econosdc Development. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958. Jenkins, Sir Gilaour. The Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation. London: George A llen and Unwin, L td., 1959* Jones and Daricenwald* p Geography. New York: The MacttLUan Ccaqmny, 1954. Kimble, George H. T. Tropical Africa. Volume I* New York: 20th Century Press, I960. landon, Charles S. Tgyiwaortation. Principles, factices. Problems. New York: WLUiam Sloane A ssociates, In c., 1951* 101 leyson, Captain Burr W, VH-nga Around th# World. Now York: £• P. Dutton and CongMmy, Inc., 1948. Idgfit, Richard U. Focus On Africa. Now York: American Geograjdiieal Society, Special Publication Nusüaer 25, 1944. LoekUn, D. P h illip . Econced.ce of Transportation. Honswood, I llin o is : Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1954.

Nance, Sir H. Osborne. International Air Transport. New York: Oxford University Press, 1944. Nkruaah, Kwsne. A frica Must U nite. London: Heinemann Educational Books, Ltd., 1963. Pedler, F. J . Economie Geography of West A frica. London: Longpmne, Green and Company, 1955.

Roadcap and A ssociates. World Airline Record. 5th Edition. Chicago: Roadcap and A ssociates, 1955. Sachs, Moshe Y. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Nations. Now Yoxk: Harper and Brothers, I960. Skinner, Thosms (ed. ) . West African D irectory. London: Thomas Skinner and Company, L td ., 19&2. Smith, Henry L. Airways Abroad. Madison, Vdsconsin: The University of VSLsconsin P ress, 1950. Stamp, L, Dudley. Africa. A Study in TfaptnaT Develonsent. New York: John Wiley and Sons, In c ., 19oO, Stamp and Gilaour (eds.). Chisholm's Handbook of Cgeseerg^gl Geography. 15th E dition. London: Longmans, Green and Cosgmny, 1956. Steel and Fisher. Geographical Essays on British Tropical Lands. London: George P h ilip and Sons, L td ., 1956. Steinberg, S. H. (ed.). The Yearbook. 99th Edition. New Yortc: St. Martin's Press, 1962. ^ Thompson, V irginia and Adloff, Richard. French West A frica. London: Georgs Allen and Unwin, L td ., 1958. Van Valkenburg and S to ts. o f P o litic a l Geography. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1957# Westmeyer, Russell E. Ecmaog^^ of Transportation. Now Yoxk: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952# 102

B. FUBLICATIŒS OF GOVERNMENTS AND LEARNED SOCIETIES

Coadalqae. "I'ezercie* des droits aeriene français en Afrique", Service Information et Relations Extérieures, Paris, 5 Mars 1963. Foreign Area Studies Division, Special Operations Research Office. Area Handbo^ For Ghana. Washington: The Adjutant General, January, 19o2. Ghana Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Accra City Guide. Accra: The Graphic Press, 1962. Ghana Rarliasmntary Debates. Accra, Ghana: The Government Printing Office, Tuesday, April 2, 1963. Ghana Today. Ministry of Information, Accra, June, 1957-July, 1963. Jodeau, Jacques. "Air Transport's Contribution to All-round Progress in Under-developed Areas," Paris: Institut du Transport Aerien, February, 1962. Mercier, J. "Some Reflections on Transport in Africa." Paris: Institut du Transport Aerien, May, I960. News From Nigeria. Infozvation Division, The Federal Ministry of Information, Lagos, January, 1963-July, 1963. N igeria. 12 Months of Independence. Lagos: Federal M inistry of Information, 195Ï. pp. 41-43. Parliamentary Debates. Federation of Nigeria. Lagos, Nigeria: The Federal Ministzy of Information, December 11, 19o2, p. 10. Plan De Navigation Aerlaime. Region Afrique - Ocean Indien. : Organization de L'Aviation Civile International, Document 7474/4, 1 Mai 1962. Republic of Ghana. Tggnwgw»4 « Survey. 1961. Accra: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1 9 6 2. Republic of Quuia. Ghana. Handbook of Ccmmerce and Industry. Accra: The Government P rin te r, I960. Republic of (&ana. The Financial Statement 1962-63. Accra: The Ministry of Trade and Finance, 1962. The Sierra Leone Quarterly- Trade Statistics. Volume ELI, Number 427, Huly to September, 1962. Freetown: The Government Printer, 1962. - 103 Treaty Eal&ting To Air Transport In Africa. Yaounde, Republic of the Cameroun, March 28, 1961. United Nations. Transport Problems in Relation to Econosdc Development in West A frica. Document Number"52. I I . K. 2 ., E thiopia, A p ril, 1962. U. S. Department o f Ccmmerce. Economic Development in the Republic o f Guinea. 1961. Number 62-62, Part 1. Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961. U. S. Department of Commerce. World Survey of Civil Aviation. Africa. Volume II . Washington: U, S. Government Printing Office, I960. Welcome to Lagos. Lagos, Nigeria: Federal Ministry of Information, undated.

0. PERIODICALS

Air Afrique Infogmatigas. (Monthly magazine published by A ir Afrique at Abidjan}^ Nunbers 1-3, November, 1962-February, 1963. Anonymous. "Air Transport in Africa", Interavia. March, 1962, pp. 338-344. Anonymous. "The British Part in Nigerian Aviation," Air News from BOAC. London: Press Branch, B ritish Overseas Airways Corpor& tiw , London, 1961. Anonymous. "Nigeria's First International Airline," African World. Jeumary, 1959. p. 24. Anonymous. Trade. Industry and Travel in Liberia. London: Consolidated Publications Ccsqmny, Volume 2, Number 2, 1958. Anonymous. "Tropical Air Services in British West Africa," The Crown C olonist. Volume XIX, May, 1949, p. 277. Commerce In Nigeria. January, 1960-July, 1963. Dunn, I. L. "Geography and Air Navigation," Geographical Magazine. Volume XXI, 1949, pp. 61-70. Fal, Ctoikh. "Air Afrique, Société Africaine Multinationale de Transport Aerien," Afrique Magazine. Mars, 1963, pp. 91-94# Federal Nigeria. January, 1958-July, 1963. 104 Ghana Yearbook. 1963. Accra: A Daily Graphic Publication 1963. "Guinea, Vacinated Against Gogmunism", Mme, November 9, 1962. Klcnan, Eraamus H. "African Unification Movement8," International tegygdgati^. Volume XVI, Number 2, Spring, 1962, p. 403. Nathan, Rt Lord. "World Aviation and Geography," Journal of the Geographical Aaaociaticn. Volume XLII, 1957, pp. 1-12. O^um, WLUiam P., "Aviation and International Affaire", Air Affairs. Volume 11, 1949, pp. 523-538. Parrish, Robert W. (pub.). Official Airline Guide. World Wide Edition. Chicago: A Rueben H. Donnelley Publication Volume 20, Number 1, October, 1963. Pearcy and Alexander. "Pattern of Air Service Availability in the Eastern Hemisphere,? Econqsic Geography. Volume 29, 1953. Pearcy, G. Etzel, "The Air Age: Fact or Fancy?", Journal of Geography. Volume XIXI, 1952, pp. 304-312. Thosas, Benjamin E., "Modem Trans-Saharan Routes," Geographical Review. Volume XLII, 1952, pp. 267-282. Vandgdc, Anthony. "Air Afrique, New 11-Nation Airline," A irlift. April, 1962, pp. 19-20. Walker, Sir Hubert. "Some Problems in the Developsmnt of Air Transport in West Africa," Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society. Volume 57, Number 512, August, 1953, p. 479. Walmsley, Leo. "The Recent Trans-African F li^ t and Its Lessons," Geographical Review. Volume 9, 1920, pp. 149-160. West A frica. (Weekly News Magazine), London, January, 1957-July, 1963.

D. NEWSPAPERS

AbidJani-Matin. 22 Novembre 1962. AbidJan-Matin. 7 Février 1963. Anonymous. "Air Afrique: 30.000 Heures De Vol Par An", AbidJan- - Matin. 1 Mars 1963. 105 B artlett, Charlee. "Guinea Leame About Moscow," gw Washington Evening Star. April 30, 1963. ntirt mti^n Science Monitor. October 16, 1963.

Daily Gratrtiic (Ghana), January, 1963-July, 1963. Evans, Rowland and Novak, Robert* "Inside Report: fiasco in Guinea," The Washijtgt

E. MISCELLANEOUS

"Air France, A Shox*t Historical Record", Documentary Note 1, Air France, Public Relations Depaztmsnt, Paris, 1958. "Air France Serving Africa," Air France, Public Relations Department, Paris, I960. "Bulletin de l'Afrique noire". Paris, France, n^ 273 du 27 mars 1963, pp. 5568-5569. Capet, Marcel. "Traite d'£concad.o Tropicale, Les Economies D'A.O.F.," Paris, 1958, p. 103. Fal, Cheikh. "Conference sur Air Afrique par M. Cheikh Fal". Address to the Board of Directors on May 29, 1962. Fal, Cheikh, President Directeur General d'Air Afrique. "Société Afzicaine Multinationale de Transport Aerien". Abidjan, Cote d'Iv(d.re, 6 Juin 1963. Ghana Airways Limited, "Minutes of the 12th Sales Conference". Accra, Msy 31, 1963.