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From Cyber-Utopia to Cyber-War. Advocacy Coalitions and the Normative Change in Cyberspace

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From Cyber-Utopia to Cyber-War. Advocacy Coalitions and the Normative Change in Cyberspace From Cyber-Utopia to Cyber-War. Normative Change in Cyberspace. Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades doctor philosophiae (Dr. phil.) vorgelegt dem Rat der Fakultät für Sozial- und Verhaltenswissenschaften der Friedrich- Schiller-Universität Jena von Matthias Schulze (M.A.) geboren am 28.03.1986 in Weimar 15.03.2017 1 Gutachter 1. Prof. Dr. Rafael Biermann (Friedrich-Schiller Universität Jena) 2. Dr. Myriam Dunn Cavelty (ETH Zürich) 3. Prof. Dr. Georg Ruhrmann (Friedrich-Schiller Universität Jena) Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 08.08.2017 2 Copyright © 2018 by Matthias Schulze. Some Rights reserved. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042, USA. 3 Table of Contents Table of Contents 4 Acknowledgement 7 Abstract 10 List of Abbreviations 11 List of Tables and Graphics 13 1. Introduction 15 1.1 Puzzle & Research Question 18 1.2 Literature Review 22 1.3 Contributions of the Study 27 1.4 Case Selection: The United States 30 1.5 Structure and Logic of the Argument 32 2. Explaining Normative Change 38 2.1 Norms and Theories of Normative Change 39 2.1.1 Norm Diffusion and Norm Entrepreneurs 41 2.1.2 Critique of Deontological Norms 42 2.1.3 Critique of Diffusion Models 44 2.2 Paradigms and Norm-Change 47 2.2.1 Discursive Struggles between Paradigms 53 2.2.2 Framing 59 2.2.3 Degrees of Change 63 2.2.4 Explaining Change 67 2.2.5 Norm Regression and Dark Norms 71 2.2.6 Summary of the Theoretical Mechanism 73 2.3 Technological and Normative Change 81 2.3.1 Theorizing Technology: Traditional Approaches 81 2.3.2 Defining Technology 84 2.3.3 The Politics of Technology Debate 86 2.3.4 The Social Construction of Technology and its Critique 89 2.3.5 Phase Model of Technological Diffusion 95 2.3.5.1 Emergence/Construction 97 2.3.5.2 Stabilization 99 2.3.5.3 Diffusion to the Mainstream 100 2.3.6 Combining the Frameworks 102 2.3.7 Digital Technology: Software and Code 108 2.3.8 Summary 113 3. Methodology & Research Design 116 4. Case Study 125 4.1 Engineering the Internet 126 4.1.1 Background: Cybernetics 128 4.1.2 The Social Construction of the ARPA-Network (1966-1972) 130 4.1.2.1 Ideas 133 4.1.2.2 Norms Shaping the Construction of ARPANET 137 4.1.2.3 Artifact: The Network Control Program 139 4.1.2.4 Co-shaping the Meaning of Networks 142 4.1.3 Constructing the Internet (1972-1991) 147 4.1.3.1 Artifact: Internet Protocols and Norms 149 4.1.3.2 The Diffusion and Dominance of the Internet 154 4.1.3.3 The Internet Backbone 157 4.1.4 Artifact: The World Wide Web (1989-present) 160 4.1.5 Development Blind Spots 165 4 Table of Contents 4.1.6 Summary 167 4.2 The Evolution of Cyber-Utopianism 173 4.2.1 Background: Hacker-ethic and Technical Optimism (1960s) 175 4.2.2 Ideas: Stewart Brand and the Counter-culture (1960-1970) 179 4.2.3 Artifact: Democratizing Technology (1970-1980) 184 4.2.4 Artifact: The WELL and the Social Construction of Cyberspace (1980-1990) 187 4.2.5 Framing Cyberspace as the Electronic Frontier (1990s) 192 4.2.6 The Californian Ideology (1995-2001) 195 4.2.7 Junctures: Dot-com Bubble (2000-2001) 201 4.2.8 Norms and Key Ideas of Cyber-Utopianism 203 4.2.9 Critical Analysis & Blind Spots of Cyber-Utopianism 211 4.2.10 Summary 215 4.3 Cyber-Utopian Liberalism and the Politics of Cyberspace (1990-2000) 223 4.3.1 Background: The Governance of Information Technologies (1970-1990) 224 4.3.2 Politics: Bill Clinton and Albert Gore as Internet Advocates (1992-2000) 226 4.3.3 Ideas: Cyber-Utopia on the Information Superhighway (1993) 228 4.3.3.1 The Hands-off Norm & the American Internet Governance Model 234 4.3.3.2 Global Framing of the Internet 237 4.3.4 Artifacts: Privatizing Control over the Internet 242 4.3.5 Junctures: Policy Attempts to Control the Internet (1993-1996) 244 4.3.5.1 Policy: The Clipper Chip (1993) 244 4.3.5.2 Policy: Wiretapping the Internet with CALEA (1994) 250 4.3.5.3 Policy: Internet Censorship with the Communications Decency Act (1996) 254 4.3.6 Critical Analysis and Paradigm Blind Spots 257 4.3.7 Summary 259 4.4 Information Warfare and the Origin of Cyber-Realism 265 4.4.1 Background: Growing Awareness of Computer Insecurity (1967 - 2011) 267 4.4.2 Ideas: Formation of the Information War Doctrine (1976-2000) 273 4.4.2.1 Optimistic Cyber-Realism: Revolution in Military Affairs (1992-2000) 276 4.4.2.2 Problem Definitions of Cyber-Realism 279 4.4.2.3 Core Ideas: Information Weapons & Digital Battlespace 287 4.4.2.4 Analyzing Emerging Norms of Cyber-Realism 291 4.4.3 Setting the Path: The Institutionalization of Cyber-Realism 294 4.4.4 Politics: Turn to Realism - Critical Infrastructure Initiative (1996-1999) 295 4.4.5 Discourse: Y2K and Critical Infrastructure Failure 301 4.4.6 Preliminary Summary 304 4.4.7 The Politicization of Cyber-Realism with the War on Terror (2000 - 2008) 308 4.4.7.1 Ideas: Cyber-Realism and Counter-Terrorism (2001 - 2007) 311 4.4.7.2 Policy: The Patriot Act and Intelligence Reform (2001 - 2004) 316 4.4.7.3 Artifacts: NSA and the Full-take Norm of Internet Control (2001 - ) 322 4.4.7.4 The Fusion of IW, Surveillance and Cyber-war (2003-2008) 332 4.4.8 The Norm of Internet Control 340 4.4.9 Critical Analysis of Cyber-Realism 342 4.4.10 Summary 346 4.5 From Cyber-Utopia to Cyber-War: The Obama Presidency (2008-2013) 353 4.5.1 Background: The Hybrid Presidency 354 4.5.2 Ideas: Cyber-Utopianism under Obama and Clinton 357 4.5.3 Practice: Professionalization of Offensive Cyber-War & Surveillance 363 4.5.4 Discourse: Cyber-Doom and the Hegemony of Cyber-Realism 371 4.5.5 Artifacts: The Snowden Leaks 376 4.5.6 Juncture: The President's Panel on NSA Practices 383 4.5.7 Outcome: The Dominance of Cyber-Realism 389 5 Table of Contents 4.5.8 Critical Analysis 394 4.4.9 Summary 396 5. Conclusion 401 5.1 Theoretical Findings 405 5.2 Methodological Issues and Alternative Explanations 412 5.3 Discussion and Outlook 416 Bibliography 420 Appendix 449 Quantifying the Internet and the Digital Revolution 449 List of Internet Milestones and Security Incidents 454 Polls on the Dominance of Cyber-Realism 458 2016 Presidential Candidates' Opinion on Cyber-Realist Ideas 464 Intelligence Community Directors 466 Corpora 469 Engineering Corpus 470 Cyber-Utopian Corpus 475 Information Superhighway Corpus 480 Cyber-Realism Corpus 485 Obama Corpus 489 Ehrenwörtliche Erklärung 492 6 Acknowledgement The purpose of this acknowledgement is to clarify my subjective position in front of the reader, as criteria for good qualitative research suggest (Creswell, 2012, p. 51). Since this is a qualitative case study, the subjective position of the researcher always is a potential source for bias. Writing this thesis was a tremendous experience. It allowed me, to scientifically engage with the technology and medium I grew up with. I experienced much of the evolution of the World Wide Web with the eyes of a curious teenager. I became a cyber- utopian believing in the grand vision that the Internet could foster global cooperation, exchange of ideas and democratization. Speaking for the first time with a total stranger from the other side of a globe over the Internet was (and is) a powerful experience. Being able to digitally access almost any written book, music or piece of art within a matter of seconds still is remarkable. We seldom acknowledge the fact that for the first time in human history, we can access almost all human knowledge with a mouse click. I strongly believe that the global communication enabled by the Internet allows us to solve global problems like climate change, pollution or economic inequality. Having said that, I am skeptical of any actor who tries to control or manipulate this global conversation, either via censorship, surveillance, digital-disruption (I.e. cyber-war) or any other means. At the same time, this thesis allowed me to confront my early utopian ideas about cyberspace and reflect upon them more deeply. While researching this thesis and struggling with the problems of hacking, terrorism and inter-state espionage, much of my cyber-utopian euphoria declined. National security actors indeed have a point when they warn about the national security implications of the Internet and this work allowed me to better understand their position. I understand why surveillance of Internet data-streams is a political demand and acknowledge, that it might (!) have some positive effects on catching terrorists. Surveillance is neither good nor bad, but it depends on the political governance, as surveillance scholar David Lyon argues. I do believe that the conduct of intelligence agencies is necessary to protect democracy from outside forces, as long as it is transparent, accountable, proportional and under independent evaluation. "Given the history of abuse by governments, it's right to ask questions about surveillance, particularly as technology is reshaping every aspect of our lives" as President Barack Obama once said (Obama, 2014).
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