LRN: 99D2621

Project Number: WTM-HT25 - 4 I

Thoreau and Agriculture

An Interactive Qualifying Project Report:

submitted to the Faculty

of the

WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor of Science

by

Christopher M. Lawson Date: May 6, 1999 Approved:

Professor Wesley Mott, Major Advisor Abstract

Thoreau's writings while at Walden are reflective of his farming experience. The objective of this IQP is to engage in research regarding the agricultural techniques utilized by Henry David Thoreau during his two-year stay at Walden Pond, examining "The Role of Agriculture in Nineteenth-Century American Literature. This was done through a combination of field and archival research, and showed how Thoreau's farming acumen affected the rhetorical design of his writing. Acknowledgements

There are many people to thank for their help towards the completion of this IQP. Most notably were Helen Bowdoin, Leslie Wilson, Professor Wesley Mott, Professor Kent Ljungquist, The Thoreau Society, The American Antiquarian Society, Dr. Wayne Rasmussen, and God. All contributed significant aid to the writers endeavors. 1

Table of Contents

Introduction 2 Background 4 Literature Review 9 Methodology 18 Methods of Soil Analysis at Concord 25 Thoreau and his Beans: A Philosophy 31 Selected Bibliography 34 Appendix A: The Thoreau Institute 36 Appendix B: Letters of Introduction 39 Appendix C: Characteristics of Different Soil Types 41 Appendix D: Soil Graph 43 Appendix E: Massachusetts' Soils 45 Appendix F: Soil Testing 46 Appendix G: Sustainable Agriculture and Suitability 48 Appendix H: Soil Analysis Data 52 2

Introduction

Agriculture has altered the course of civilization in a manner that is unparalleled.

More than any other human accomplishment, it has been the foundation from which societies have arisen. It has brought about specialization of labor, which in turn has allowed technology and science to develop. The accrual of agricultural knowledge has improved the standard of living of countless individuals; indeed, without food, no intellectual or technical endeavor of any depth could have possibly arisen. Frequently, this premise is conveniently overlooked. One intellectual who embraced this cradle of humankind, in its most vital form, was Henry David Thoreau.

Thoreau was a major proponent of the Transcendentalist movement that advocated a return to the simpler, natural way of life. The account of his famous two year at Walden Pond, living a life of subsistence, growing his own food, returning to primordial crux of human invention, made famous his philosophy of austere living. The experience was made popular through Walden, a lengthy essay drawn from his journals, which were in part, a reflection of his experience. The depiction of farming as a means of attaining self-knowledge is recurrently connoted within the exposition. Farming provided

Thoreau with the chance to contemplate life, the essence of a natural world that he so adored; society became the kinship between him and his farm.

Thoreau was not an entirely able farmer; rather, he was an observer of natural processes. His farming scholarship was gained ad hoc, the result of experience. Many of his farming methods were not modern, but were based upon his interpretation and ideology regarding the nature of agriculture. Similarly, Thoreau's writings while at

Walden are reflective of his farming experience. 3

The objective of this IQP is to engage in research regarding the agricultural techniques utilized by Henry David Thoreau during his two year stay at Walden Pond, examining "The Role of Agriculture in Nineteenth-Century American Literature." This will be accomplished through a variety of ways, with the aim of gaining insight into his works. Numerous interviews were arranged with leading Thoreauvian scholars living in

Concord. Many on-site examinations, including both soil and landscape analysis, were conducted in the hope of understanding the reality of farming in the early 1800's. Much of the information was obtained through archival research, which contributed substantial data as to how agricultural discourse and Thoreau's acumen affected the rhetorical design of his writing. 4

Background

Agriculture, more than any other human endeavor, has altered the course of civilization; it is a common basis from which societies have arisen. It brought about specialization of labor, which in turn allowed technology and science to be pursued.

Indeed, agriculture is the very foundation of technology; without a substantial supply of food, no intellectual or technical endeavor of any depth can possibly arise. All too often, this simple premise is conveniently forgotten. One intellectual who embraced this cradle of humankind was Henry David Thoreau.

Thoreau was a major proponent of the Transcendentalist movement who advocated the return to a simpler, natural way of life. During his famous two year stay at

Walden Pond he lived a life of subsistence, growing his own food, returning to the primordial crux of human invention. His account of the experience was made popular through Walden, a lengthy essay drawn from his journals, which were in part, a reflection of his experience. The image of farming as a means of attaining self-knowledge is repeatedly alluded to within the text. Farming afforded Thoreau the opportunity to ponder life, the essence of a natural world that he so cherished; society became the relationship between nature, him, and his crops.

Concord, where Thoreau resided for most of his life, was a farming community.

Furthermore, most Concordian farmers were subsistence farmers, who grew only enough to support their families, and trade the scarce remainder for the goods they needed to survive. This usually proved a difficult ordeal, since the native soil was not fertile, and massive fertilization had to take place. Many who grew up in Concord, including

Thoreau, learned to appreciate the precarious nature of life's struggles. 5

Thoreau's time in Concord was marked by the Agricultural Revolution, which changed the way farming was undertaken. The construction of the Concord-Boston railroad during the early 1840's opened new markets to farmers, and signaled the shift from subsistence to commercial agriculture "After its completion, more Concordian farmers who had been relying on self subsistence and local trade began using the Boston

Market and shipping a greater variety of products" (Rasmussen 7). This change horrified

Thoreau, as well as many other local farmers. To a great degree this attitude was reflected in his writing; societal problems often affected the workings of Thoreau's expositions.

While at Harvard, Thoreau was a serious student of the traditional classics. Works such as Ovid, Virgil, Cicero, and Plutarch, which inherently include many volumes that deal extensively with classical agriculture, were among those he studied. Certainly, he found appeal in the philosophical manner that these agricultural works were constructed, as opposed to the contemporary works available to him. Examination of his farming techniques is likewise indicative of the techniques found in these works.

In staying at Walden, Thoreau learned to "suck the marrow of life." In order to do this he had to concentrate on the necessities of living, which he defined as Shelter,

Clothing, Fuel, and Food. His belief was that by living simply he could concentrate on more important endeavors. To further this end he built his own house, made his own clothing, collected fuel on his own, and grew his food. His survival became dependent upon his farming sagacity. Unfortunately, Thoreau's farming astuteness was earned through experiencing many setbacks and failures. In this regard, Thoreau learned a special respect for agricultural endeavors. Farming was more than simply a philosophy 6 to him; it became a reality that he faced every day. After all, hunger tends to make one appreciate sources of sustenance.

Thoreau's initial farming endeavors met with limited success. He encountered great difficulty when he first attempted to prepare his field for cultivation.

I planted about two acres and a half of upland; and as it was only about fifteen years since the land was cleared, and I myself had got out two or three cords of stumps, I did not give it any manure; but in the course of the summer it appeared by the arrowheads which I turned up in hoeing, that an extinct nation had anciently dwelt here and planted corn and beans ere white men came to clear the land, and so, to some extent, had exhausted the soil for this very crop (Walden, The Norton Anthology of American Literature, 1800).

His first harvest, though by no means a complete failure, did not yield a substantial crop.

This was further hampered by his unpreparedness for the severity of his first winter while at Walden. Subsequently, his antiquated farming techniques were just not as effective as contemporary methods. This, in addition to his awkwardly reclusive nature, resulted in ridicule from many of his farmer neighbors. Throughout the remainder of his life,

Thoreau regarded many Concordian farmers with an air of antagonism.

In time, Thoreau did manage to successfully till his field. The planting of his bean field marked a transition in his farming career.

Meanwhile my beans, the length of whose rows, added together, was seven miles already planted, were impatient to be hoed, for the earliest had grown considerably before the latest were in the ground; indeed they were not easily to be put off. What was the meaning of this so steady and self-respecting, this small Herculean labor, I knew not. I came to love my rows, my beans, though so many more than I wanted. They attached me to the earth, and so I got strength like Antaeus. But why should I raise them? Only Heaven knows. This was my curious labor all summer- to make this portion of the earth's surface, which had yielded only cinquefoil, blackberries, johnswort, and the like, before, sweet wild fruits and pleasant flowers, produce instead this pulse. What shall I learn of beans or beans of me? I cherish them, I hoe them, early and late I have an eye to them; and this is my day's work. It is a fine broad leaf to look on. My auxiliaries are the dews and rains which water this 7

dry soil, and what fertility is in the soil itself, which for the most part is lean and effete. My enemies are worms, cool days, and most of all woodchucks. The last have nibbled for me a quarter of an acre clean. But what right had I to oust johnswort and the rest, and break up their ancient herb garden? Soon, however, the remaining beans will be too tough for them, and go forward to meet new foes (Walden, The Norton Anthology of American Literature, 1803).

Though some of this is attributable to his persistent agricultural experimentation, most is due to increased study of contemporary farming journals. There is evidence in his journals that he read the New England Farmer, a contemporary Concordian farmer's periodical that was published weekly. It also possible, that he even submitted essays and compositions to this publication.

Thoreau also established amicable relations with certain farmers in Concord during the period when he lived at Walden. One such individual was William Hosmer, whom Thoreau regarded with great admiration. Aside from his patron, Ralph Waldo

Emerson, who was often gone on lecture tours, Hosmer was, according to Thoreau, his only source of intelligent conversation. Thoreau would spend countless hours conversing with Hosmer on a variety of topics. There is evidence in Thoreau's journals that Hosmer educated Thoreau in pursuit of modern farming. In this respect, Thoreau was indebted to

Hosmer, and he acted in accordingly obliged in their dealings. However, Thoreau did not always behave this way with most local farmers.

It is ironic that Thoreau, at times, viewed farmers in Concord with a degree of animosity. Certainly, he expresses feelings of superiority in his dealings with them. For instance, he compares the exploits of a local farmer insufficient to those of a student from

Harvard, and visa versa. 8

The farmer can work alone in the field or the woods all day, hoeing or chopping, and not feel lonesome, because he is employed, but when he comes home at night he cannot sit down in a room alone, at the mercy of his thoughts, but must be where he can "see the folks," and recreate, and as he thinks remenerate to himself for his day's solitude; and hence he wonders how the student can sit alone in the house all night and most of the day without ennui and "the blues;" but he does not realize that the student, though in the house, is still at work in his field, and chopping in his woods, as the farmer in his, an in turn seeks the same recreation and society that the latter does, though it may be a more condensed form of it (Walden, Norton Anthology of American Literature, 1874).

Thoreau was not, by any substantive means, a skilled farmer; rather, he was more an observer of natural processes. His knowledge of farming came ad hoc, the result of experience, while at Walden. Many of the farming techniques that he incorporated were not modem, but were performed according to his interpretation of the nature of agriculture; he wrote in similar fashion. This invokes a worthy question: To what degree was Thoreau's rhetorical design of Walden affected by his agricultural acumen?

The fashioning of writer's work depends upon the gestalt of that author's individual perceptions and opinions. It goes without saying that Thoreau's experiences— providing for himself—farming—are indicative of his writing style. One must bear in mind the time—the way of life—the ordeals that Thoreau encountered on a continued basis. Farming had a substantial impact on his life and his writing. 9

Literature Review

This evolution of agriculture is indicative of the often mutable, and ultimately bipartisan attitudes prevalent in America between advocates of industrialization and agrarianism. The principal objectives of agriculture, dating back to antiquity, are to grow enough food to provide for family units and indeed civilization, such that divisions in labor are instituted, and society benefits.

Agriculture or at least the possibility of securing agricultural products is the basis for success of any civilized people. It furnishes the sustenance of life on which all other operations depend. A large population may be sustained by agriculture alone, that is, the people may be fed and clothed. By engaging in manufacturing, a still larger number of people may be supported and a higher standard of living may be maintained. Farmers more than any other class may be said to be creators of new wealth. Other so-called producers only utilize natural resources which have been stored up by beneficial providence. All deposits of minerals or the products of a forest may be destroyed, but the agriculturist, if he takes the proper care of his farm, may go on producing crops indefinitely. In growing a crop of corn, wheat or cotton, in reforesting a cut-over tract, or in raising flocks of live stock he has produced something of value to society which did not exist before (Carrier 12).

Throughout most of antiquity this stratified distinction in labor was readily apparent since the production of capital goods was limited to the dearth artisan classes; thus, scarce production, and excessive opportunity costs, limited the standard of living of farmers. In the 1800's this restraint on farmers was changing; the Industrial Revolution was at hand.

The Industrial Revolution irrevocably altered the course of humanity. In mechanizing agriculture the production frontier of farmers was greatly expanded, allowing fewer farmers to produce greater returns with relatively less work. Although this enabled many farmers to engage in other pursuits, some saw the onset of Hamiltonean industrialization as the ruination of the traditional Jeffersonian (agrarian) way of life. One such individual was one of America's most prolific literary figures, Henry David 1 0

Thoreau. Walden, his defining work, provides pertinent information, in the visage of his

Jeffersonian biased opinion, regarding the changes that took place in American farming during the Industrial Revolution.

Though Thoreau could not be considered a farmer; the necessity, both cultural and intellectual, implored him to consider tilling the land. He attempted numerous times to procure a farm, with little success. When he finally managed to obtain a plot of farmland, or as much as the land Emerson loaned him may be considered so, he found the entire farming experience overrated. This may be attributed to the fact that Thoreau's entrance into farming was marked by the advent of professional farming in the United

States. Indeed, Thoreau was an unbiased observer, caught between the conflicting doctrines of agrarianism (Jeffersonian economics) and industrialism (Hamiltonian economics). Still, farming intrigued Thoreau on an intellectual level, having a substantial effect on his writing, despite the dichotomous animosity that he felt towards farming and his farmer neighbors.

Concord Was changing during Thoreau's time. It was no longer a small village that consisted of subsistence farmers. The Industrial Revolution was having a substantial impact, one that was irrevocably altering the ways of life for Concordian farmers. The construction of the Concord-Boston railroad and the reciprocal upsurge in local farming is a specific example, "It immediately became a key influence in Concordian agriculture and made Concord a 'Milk man' for Boston" (Rasmussen 7). The onset of the this revolution irreparably altering Concord since, "After its completion, more Concordian farmers who had been relying upon self subsistence and local trade began using the

Boston Market and shipping a greater variety of products" (Rasmussen 7). Thoreau, 11 simply could not adjust to this change, as he defined the pursuit of industrialization as diverting humanity's attention away from the pursuit of the common good (Gross 10). He was not motivated by financial gain, but by the self-ascribed quest for simplicity, and he felt overwhelmed with the prospect of having to face this new direction that farming in

Concord was taking.

Thoreau's attitude was somewhat ambivalent towards farms and farming, as was his attitude with technology. He recognized the need for food and approved of those farmers who redeemed bog land and who produced enough for themselves and the local market. In his journal for 1850 he wrote that he had read: "of the number of acres of bog that some farmer has redeemed and the number of rods of stone wall that he has built, and the number of tons of hay he now cuts, or of bushels of corn or potatoes he raises there, and I feel as if I had got my foot down on to the solid and sunny earth, the basis of all philosophy, and poetry, and religion even" (Rasmussen 11). However, Thoreau discounts the rise in the standard of living amongst local farmers, claiming that it

"divided men from their own creations and imposed a strict tyrannical view on things."

Ironically, the rise in the standard of living in Concord brought by the mechanization of agriculture enabled individuals to pursue scholarship and intellectual exploration (Richardson 291). In terms of leisure and freedom, the Industrial Revolution allowed the pursuit of intellectual development to be sustained (Gross 10). Thoreau's arguments in regard to the humanistic benefits of the continuation non-modernized agriculture are not based on solid economic grounds. Indeed, he incorporates many intriguing observations in his discourse of information, but fails to support his suppositions, making many of his arguments favoring a return to the Jeffersonian state, 12 irrelevant; "Thoreau did not systematically consider the relations between Concord economy and Society" (Gross 9).

Thoreau was deeply influenced by his studies in classical literature, most notably the Iliad, but also Virgil's Georgics, the Odes of Horace, and Plutarch's Morals. In the antiquated way of life, the simplistic integration of man and nature, he believed that humanity could transcend its origins. It is not that Thoreau was unaware of modern natural science; in fact, he was well versed with the work of many prominent natural philosophers of his time, including Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology.

Lyell's landmark study was the first work of contemporary hard science Thoreau left evidence of reading, and its importance was not only for uniformitarian geology but also for the biological sciences, establishing with what appeared to be incontrovertible proof the great age of the earth—an age to be measured at least in millions rather than the biblical thousands of years—and thus preparing the way for the idea of the gradual change of species through evolution. Whether or not Thoreau sensed the significance of Lyell's conclusions at this time, he began tentatively with this work to lay a foundation for himself in contemporary natural science (Sattelmeyer 29).

In essence, any philosophy or scientific premise that adhered to the notion of naturalism was adopted. Of course, the focus of those philosophies, according to Thoreau, must be directed towards improving one's relationship with nature. This mandates that all farming must be subsistence farming, subsequently excluding industrialized agriculture.

Thoreau was more a naturalist than a farmer (Rasmussen 11). His farming techniques may be considered a metaphor, paramount to his strongly held believe that in simplicity the moments of insight offered by strenuous and demanding work as evidenced in the pursuit of subsistence farming, self-truth the underlying principle of greater consciousness is revealed. By any objective measurements, Thoreau was pre- disposed towards the expository reflections of a farmer, rather than the actual role itself. 13

In fact, Thoreau believed himself an unsuccessful farmer, "I could tell a pitiful story reflecting myself...with a sufficient list of failures, and flow as humbly in the very gutters" (Anderson 17). He tends to disregard many of the worthwhile agricultural developments of his time, relegating Ephraim Bull's development of the Concord Grape as merely an abstraction. At times, Thoreau's view of farming tends to wander off into various tangents of the obscure, even the antagonistic. Yet, there is still a sense of the sublime in his methods of farming.

As I drew a still fresher soil about the rows with my hoe, I disturbed the ashes of unchronicled nations who in primeval years lived under the heavens, and their small implements of war and hunting were brought to the light of this modern day (Walden, Norton Anthology of American Literature 1800).

While there is a difference between Thoreau as the naturalist and farmer, agriculture was an influence on his philosophy as discerned in his writings.

Thoreau acknowledges that the success of Colonial Massachusetts was owed to continued improvements in agriculture. The great impetus to New England colonization came in 1630 with the arrival of John Winthrop and a large number of immigrants prepared to take advantage of the natural opportunities for raising livestock around

Massachusetts Bay (Carrier 143). Even into the middle of the nineteenth century the raising of livestock was the principal enterprise of Massachusetts since, without fertilizer, most of the soil was not rich enough to allow farming. This mandated that extensive technological and scientific measures be taken to make the soil arable and more productive; the Industrial Revolution accomplished this feat (Gross 11). It would seem that disparity exists between Thoreau's philosophy and doctrine. 14

It is ironic that Thoreau was afforded an education by an extension of the very movement he adamantly opposed. His father's pencil factory remained Thoreau's only means of financial support for many years. It was this factory this cog of the Industrial

Revolution that enabled Thoreau to attend Harvard. Throughout his pursuit of intellectual freedom he often resorted to periodically working at this factory to acquire funds, so that he might continue his scholastic endeavors. Although he resented the

Industrial Revolution and all it embodied, he was not shy about reaping the benefits

(Richardson 230).

Contrary to popular opinion, there is evidence, from his journals, that Thoreau submitted material to The New England Farmer, a very engaging composition, which covered many topics of agriculture in nineteenth-century New England. Once piece found in the Farmer is a particularly intriguing article, entitled "Book Knowledge of Farmers," contributed anonymously in the spring of 1850. While current dogma maintains that

Thoreau neither read nor contributed compositions to the periodicals of his time, with the exception of The Dial and The Aesthetic Papers, the manner in which this article is written, as well as excerpts from his journal, depict a possible correlation between his work and the article. It is entirely possible that he did indeed write and contribute "Book

Knowledge of Farmers" to the New England Farmer, anonymously.

This work is similar to a Thoreauvian dialectic, as is easily shown by examination of the passage.

With a man of any reflection and honest care for progress in all the arts and employments of useful industry, there are few things more trying to his patience than to hear men, sometimes even gentlemen, who have some pretensions to education, and who therefore ought to know better, denouncing book knowledge, as affording any guide in practical husbandry. Now, to all such, and especially, to practical men who succeed well in their 15

business, and who have always something useful to impart, as the result of their own personal experience, does it not suffice to say, "I am obliged to you for what you have told me; your integrity assures me that it is true, and your success convinces me that yours is the right rotation, and yours the proper process, since I see that while you gather heavy crops, your land is steadily improving; but now, my friend, let me ask you one question further. What you have imparted is calculated to benefit me personally, and unless communicated again by me to others, with me its benefits will rest. Now, suppose, instead of the slow and unsocial process of waiting to be interrogated, and making it known, to one by one, as accident may provide opportunities, you allow me to have recourse to the magical power of types, which will spread the knowledge of your profitable experience, gained by much thought and labor, far and wide throughout the land, that thousands may enjoy the advantages which otherwise I only shall reap from your kind and useful communication. Will not that be more beneficial to society, and is it not a benevolent and Christian Duty not to hide our lights under a bushel? Doubtless such a man, if not a misanthropic churl or fool, would say, Yes. Yet the moment, by means of types, such knowledge is committed to paper, it becomes (by fools only derided) book knowledge.—Plough, Loom, and Anvil. (New England Farmer, May 1850, 8).

This discourse begins with a commentary that sarcastically denounces farmers, as well as others, who stigmatize book knowledge. Compare this with an excerpt taken from

Walden, or Life in the Woods.

The best books are not read even by those who are called good readers. What does our Concord culture amount to? There is in this town, with a very few exceptions, no taste for the best or for very good books even in English literature, whose words all can read and spell. Even the college-bred and so called liberally educated men here and elsewhere have really little or no acquaintance with the English classics; and as for the recorded wisdom of mankind, the ancient classics and Bibles, which are accessible to all who will know of them, there are the feeblest efforts any where made to become acquainted with them. I know a woodchopper, of middle age, who takes a French paper, not for news as he says, for he is above that, but to "keep himself in practice," he being a Canadian by birth; and when I ask him what he considers the best thing he can do in this world, he says, beside this, to keep up and add to his English. this is about as much as the college bred generally do or aspire to do, and they take an English paper for the purpose. One who has just come from reading perhaps one of the best English books will find how many with whom he can converse about it? Or suppose he comes from reading a Greek or Latin classic in the original, whose praises are familiar even to the so called illiterate; he will find nobody at all to speak to, but must keep silence about it. Indeed, there is hardly the professor in our colleges, who, if he has mastered the difficulties of the language, has 16

proportionally mastered the difficulties of the wit and poetry of a Greek poet, and has any sympathy to impart to the alert and heroic reader; and as for the sacred Scriptures, or Bibles of mankind, who in this town can tell me even their titles? Most men do not know that any nation but the Hebrews have had a scripture. A man, any man, will go considerably out of his way to pick up a silver dollar; but here are golden words, which the wisest men of antiquity have uttered, and whose worth the wise of ever succeeding age have assured us of;—and yet we learn to read only as far as Easy Reading, the primers and class-books, books, and when we leave school, the "Little Reading," and story books, which are for boys and beginners; and our reading, our conversation and thinking, are all on a very low level, worthy only of pygmies and manikins (Walden, Norton Anthology of American Literature 1774).

This passage similarly chides those who would simply relegate "book knowledge" as a useless pursuit. Both samples are intended to address farmers, though the Walden excerpt specifically addresses Concordian farmers, whereas the New England Farmer article does not. It is logical to assume that the author, Thoreau, would not mention Concord, as a means of securing the anonymity of his contribution.

These articles are both derived from thorough observations of the socioeconomic and cultural climates of the time, in this case the middle of nineteenth-century New

England. As such, many detailed observations are used to support the validness of the author's thesis. Both make ethical justifications of "what is just and noble for society", and are explicated by use of religious undertones; "the ancient classics and bibles" are drawn from the Walden excerpt, and "a Christian Duty", from the New England Farmer.

In terms of syntax, conjecture begins with an appositive statement of experience, which is later subordinated by subjective clauses, usually in the form of participial phrases that perpetuate the assertions of the author. Thus, both arguments are entirely rhetorical.

A crucial similarity between the Walden excerpt and the anonymous New

England Farmer article is that they are both concluded with jibes directed at the farming audience. Similarly, both reflect the suggestive animosity that Thoreau felt towards his 17 farming constituents. The date of authorship of the New England Farmer article coincides within the time period when Thoreau began editing his Walden Journal. It is entirely possible that he contributed this article as means of finding a vehicle to express his ideals. This is further validated by fact that he and Simon Brown, editor of the New

England Farmer, were acquaintances, and there is evidence that they were also business associates (Rasmussen Interview). It would seem that this correlation further illustrates

Thoreau's desire to disseminate his dogmatic, yet often conflicting views.

Thoreau was a man of contradictions, but through these contradictions came his strength, his desire to grow. His times abounded with change—not all changes being commensurable new ideas that were often at odds. It would be unfair to simply state that Thoreau was incorrect; after all, industrial farming has in the present day created a dilemma more trying than humanity has yet encountered. It is easy to judge Thoreau's agricultural beliefs and methods in hindsight. Thoreau did not have the benefit of computers, advanced soil analysis, satellite overlays, or the luxury of history. He was simply a man who wished test his ideas of a free simple life on a farm, then translate his findings into written form for all to enjoy. 18

Methodology

This section will illustrate in detail the manner in which the aims and objectives of this IQP were obtained

Objectives

The Objectives of this IQP are two-fold: research regarding the agricultural techniques utilized by Henry David Thoreau during his two year stay at Walden Pond, and the establishment of an educational model that examines "The Role of Agriculture in

Nineteenth Century American Literature." This will be accomplished in four different ways. Many interviews are planned with leading Thoreauvian scholars living in Concord.

A number of on-site examinations will allow soil and landscape analysis, which will provide some clue as to the reality of farming in the early 1800's. Archival research will provide important documentation as to how the science of agriculture and Thoreau's acumen, or lack, thereof, affected the rhetorical design of his writing.

Interviews

Several interviews were undertaken during the initial stages of this IQP. The interviewees were chosen because of their expertise in their respective fields. Since each individual has different insights on agriculture in Concord, as it relates to Thoreau's work, it is useful to approach each interview differently. The point therein is that analysis of the gestalt is more important than any one interview taken on its own merit.

Furthermore, once all the initial interviews were conducted, follow-up studies were performed to evaluate the validity and usefulness of the original responses. The process of weighing interviews against each other proved useful to the completion of this IQP. 19

Most interviews were completed by early October, while the others were finished before the end of October. These meetings have proved useful in establishing baseline

information regarding to the direction this project took, and in establishing contact with

other individuals and institutions to aid in the employment of such knowledge.

Additionally, these interviews led to the discovery of an enormous quantity of writings,

which provided the background research needed to begin the project.

The first interview that was conducted was with Helen Bowdoin, who serves as

the Education Program Director for the Thoreau Institute. This exchange was essential

since this project's intention is to aid the Thoreau Institute in its educational mission.

Hence, the aims of the Institute and the IQP must be in accordance. In this vein, Ms.

Bowdoin assisted in defining the project's goals in terms of the educational component.

Additionally, her extensive knowledge of Thoreauvian resources has proved invaluable in

assembling supplemental information. She has likewise served as an intermediary

through which numerous contacts in the Concord area were reached.

Dr. Wayne Rasmussen has over fifty years of experience in the United States

Department of Agriculture. He has also written the definitive work relating to the history

of agriculture in the United States. His knowledge is simply unparalleled, and provided

notable insight in to how Thoreau's writing was influenced by his agricultural pursuits. In

fact, Dr. Rasmussen delivered an oration entitled, "Thoreau and Agriculture" in which

the major premise addresses the mode that farming took in affecting Thoreau's writings.

This interview is strategic to the culmination of this project.

Leslie Wilson is the Curator of Special Collections at the Concord Free Public

Library in Concord, Massachusetts. She has vast knowledge of the library's historical 20 archives, especially treatises on agriculture practices of the nineteenth century. Many publications, including the New England Farmer (please refer to Literature Review), were inspected as a result of her helpful guidance. Additionally, she suggested other possible institutions where suitable research might be performed. As an interviewee, she was most contributive in aiding in the exploration of the nuances of this IQP. She is also quite adept at pointing out possible pitfalls that the project may encounter, such as relying only on archival documents and excluding field work. This correspondingly assisted the commencement of this project.

An examination of the work of Dr. Brian Donahue, of Brandeis University, proved advantageous in augmenting the data procured from Dr. Rasmussen's interview.

Dr. Donahue is a leader in the field of agricultural science as it pertains to American history, and has engaged in thorough investigations of the history of Concordian agriculture. He has performed twenty-five years of investigation into Concord's farming history, and has published various papers on the topic. His work provided an excellent apparatus to compare Dr. Rasmussen's suppositions. Unfortunately, it was not possible to gain access to Dr. Donahue's field notes. These notes contain detailed results of soil samples, mineral analyses, water table studies, and other various information..

Site Examinations

The examination of farmland around Concord furnished an engaging hands-on experience as a way of delving into the realities of farming. In doing this, the researcher was fortunate enough to experience the assays that Thoreau encountered while planting and harvesting his crops. Though the techniques used were not be the same as those 21 utilized by Thoreau, the premise remained unchanged; hard work is a necessity of farming. In doing this, the researcher can more readily understand and communicate the innate association between Thoreau and agriculture.

Baker Farm is a location that Thoreau frequented; any project dealing with he and agriculture would be incomplete without examining this site. Taking soil analyses from this site yielded understanding as to the farming situation that he encountered. Though this information is not irrefutable, it at least provides a means of comparison against the historical investigations of farming in this area. Furthermore, researching the contour of the landscape proved insightful, using Walden as a guide, concerning how he prepared the land for planting. This information is viable since the land itself is protected by law from alteration, and has not changed considerably since the time of Thoreau's residence.

Archival Research

The American Antiquarian Society has many works that address the objectives of this project. The immense quantity of Thoreauvian primary and secondary sources is tremendous, and all hold pertinent information. Investigation of these archives took considerable time. Indeed, the investigation of these materials was completed by the beginning of January. Furthermore, the number of Concordian periodicals that have pertinent information toward the topic is considerable. The American Antiquarian

Society was one of two primary locations where the bulk of the research is performed.

The Concord Free Public Library is an institution where considerable research is conducted. The archival records of this organization, as they relate to the history of agriculture in Concord, are exhaustive. They maintain the entire collection of the New 22

England Farmer, weekly version. Additionally, they boast hundreds of antiquated agricultural papers, antique farming commentaries, and numerous expositions on

Thoreau. Many scholars have likewise contributed works to bolster the library's holdings.

The Free Concord Library is an excellent organization, with a wealth of useful information to offer.

Old Sturbridge Village Library possess special collections detailing the history, particularly the nineteenth century, of Massachusetts. This library holds a collection that merits special appeal, the complete collection of Thoreau's Journals, Princeton edition.

Examination of these works in their entirety aided in comprehension concerning his authentic feelings regarding agriculture.

Harvard University's Putnam Library retains a vast information base entailing the educational trends of Harvard, the institution Thoreau attended, in relation to the development of its academic programs. It is interesting to compare the curriculum that

Thoreau took, and juxtapose it to his post-Harvard exploits. Accordingly, Putnam Library might also have records apropos Thoreau's academic tendencies while he was in attendance. This will render exceptional understanding behind the development of

Thoreau's writings and his attitude towards farming.

Operations Analysis' and Course Implementation

The design of an academic course, or an educational module that will lead to the development of a course, possibly in the "Living Museums Program" is the desired end regarding the research unearthed in this project. The purpose of this endeavor is to aid both WPI and the Thoreau Institute in their educational missions. Investigating the 23 connections between Thoreau's writings and agriculture is paramount to surveying the coherence between technology, individuality, and society. The extent of the course is likewise determined by the findings and data gathered during the pursuit of this project.

Thus, the outgrowth of such a course from this IQP is a logical extension, and is concurrent with the scholastic enterprises of these organizations, both of which quest the dissemination of knowledge. However, the operational dynamics of each organization warrant investigation before any program can be instituted.

WPI has several institutional dynamics, most notably an extensive curriculum review, which deserve exploration. The academic needs of the university merit special attention, and must be ascertained. This is accomplishable through a detailed investigation, i.e. cost-benefit analysis, of the academic necessities of WPI. The cost-- benefit analysis will involve a wide population survey of students to measure the desire on behalf of their behalf to take the course. Unfortunately this was not able to be undertaken in the time allotted, but would provide a worthwhile IQP opportunity for other interested students.

The examination of the needs of the Thoreau institute, in regards to course implementation, is currently underway. Helen Bowdoin (please refer to Methodology,

Interviews) has aided in providing a wealth of information concerning the operations of the Thoreau Institute (please refer to Appendix A). She has requested that the findings of this research be consolidated into a booklet, to be distributed by the Institute.

Additionally, she desires that the course to be presented in seminar format, to better meet the needs of the Institute. 24

Constraints

This IQP is constrained by two dimensions: a time constraint and a financial limitation. The project had to be completed within four academic terms. This presents a special dilemma, due to the large quantity of research that had to be undertaken. The second consideration, though not pressing, is still considerable. Despite potential reimbursement from WPI, several options of research were not available due to monetary constraints. Such options include computer enhanced detailed bio-chemical soil and vegetation analyses, topographical overlay studies, and experimental evaluation of the academic course. These limitations can only be overcome by the procurement of additional funds, which were not attained. 25

Methods of Soil Analysis at Concord

To better understand Thoreau's plight as a farmer, one must understand the

resources that were at his disposal. The most important asset farmers can have at their

disposal is fertile soil. Thus, it is advantageous to investigate soil fertility at Walden

Pond. Unfortunately, soil analyses of the time were incomplete and prone to error, thus

only present examinations may be considered. Although it has been over one hundred

years since Thoreau farmed, it is surmisable that soil fertility in Concord would not have

considerably altered.

A soil study is best undertaken by excavating soil in order to expose the different

soil layers. A cross section of soil, referred to as a soil profile, should then be taken. Next

the soil horizon, the representative layers in a profile, should be studied. The soil horizon

is determined by distinguishing where the soil has variations in color and appearance.

The composition of soil is generally designated by three principal layers: top soil, subsoil

and parent material (Table from U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Classification

Criteria).

Dark (dark grey, brown Moderately dark (brown to light (pale brown, Condition to black) yellow brown) yellow) Organic Medium Low matter Erosion factor Medium High Aeration Medium Low Available High Medium Low nitrogen Low Fertility High Medium 26

Subsurface soil color Condition Water-logged soils, poor aeration Dull grey (if in low rainfall soils 0-20 in.) well drained soils Yellow, red-brown, black (if in forest soils) mottled grey (if in humid soils) somewhat poorly drained soils

As the charts illustrate, the mere appearance of soil can indicate if soil is particularly

fertile, but there are also many other factors to take into account as well. At mere

appearance soil in Concord appears to be medium in almost all respects, although some

samples (primarily from the developed areas of Concord) appeared relatively unfertile.

Soil Structure informs one as to how the soil affects the movement of water, air

and root penetration into the soil. The geometric shapes, bearing the constituent particles,

of the soil are indicative of the manner in which it is put together. In determining the

structure of each major layer, one must shift through a soil sample from each layer, and

match its characteristics with the defining structure (Table from U.S. Department of

Agriculture).

WATER PENETRATION DRAINAGE TYPE Columns Good good Blocky Good moderate Granular Good best Best Moderate Plate-like Moderate moderate 27

Watersheds are indicative of the exchange of energy within the soil system. Indeed, everything in a watershed is interrelated to the greater plant-soil system. The amount of water slowed and consigned by the soil and supporting vegetation is a principle element in the entire system. Compacted soils do not actively permit a great deal of water penetration. Thus the water is not absorbed and instead the water drains away, increasing erosion, and strips away vegetation and soils that might otherwise increased hydration.

Non-compacted soil absorbs and retains water and inhibits plant growth, allowing the free exchange of chemical and physical energy in a plant-soil system. Plants protect soil from water and wind erosion, and help the soil store water. Soil samples taken from

Walden and Baker Faim appeared to be well drained. However, this may also be indicative of the year's unusually high rainfall.

The rate of water filtration is also indicative of the condition of the soil, and its capacity to support plant growth. The amount if moisture found in soil varies greatly with the type of soil, climate and the amount of humus in that soil. The types of organisms which can survive in an area are largely determined by the amount of water available to them, since this water acts as a means of nutrient transport and is necessary for cell survival. This in turn directly affects the agricultural sustainability of the soil.

The organic content of soil greatly influences the plant, animal and microorganism populations in that soil. Decomposing organic material provides many necessary nutrients to soil inhabitants. Without fresh additions of organic matter from time to time, the soil becomes deficient in some nutrients and soil populations decrease.

The amount of organic material can be determined by ignition. Organic material is made of carbon compounds, which when heated to high temperatures are converted to carbon 28 dioxide and water. In the ignition process, a dry solid sample is heated to a high temperature. The organic matter in the soil is given off as gases, and thus the remainder of a sample is used as a means of comparison. The soil samples indicated a modicum amount of organic content. This would seem to indicate that soils around Concord require chemical fertilization in order to be most productive.

The pH content of a soil is also important in determining it's agricultural and plant bearing capacity. Most plants do well in soil with a pH of 6.5, slightly acid.

However, rhododendron, camellias, azaleas, blueberries, ferns, spruce, pines, firs, and red cedar prefer soil with a pH of 4.0 to 5.0. Pines, firs, holly, daphne, spruce oak, birch, willow, rhododendron, alder, and red cedar grow well in soil with a 5.0 to 6.0 pH. Soils with a pH of 6.0 to 7.0 will grow maple, mountain ash, pansy, asters, peaches, carrots, lettuce, pines, firs, alder, and red cedar. Beech, mock orange, asparagus and sagebrush tolerate soils with a pH 7.0 to 8.0. Above 8.5 the soil is too alkaline for most plants and soil with a pH less than 3.5 is too acid. Each soil layer may also have a different pH. Soil pH can likewise be altered, making the soil less acidic and more alkaline, by adding lime or hydrates to the soil. The soil sample taken measured slightly below neutral at an average of 6.111, with a standard deviation of 0.036226, around Walden and 6.335, with a standard deviation of 0.071774, at Baker Farm. It is assumed that because of the low level of soil degradation in Concord, this analysis is historically relevant.

Soil temperature gives information about organic matter in the soil, drainage, biotic activity, and fertility. Soil temperature determines the rate of plant growth, and whether a plant will even survive. This quantity is somewhat difficult to measure since; temperature will change in each soil layer (Table from U.S. Department of Agriculture). 29

Conditions during growing season Soil Temperature Less than 40 F no growth, bacteria and fungi are not very active 40 F to 65 F some growth 65 F to 70 F fastest growth 70 F to 85 F some growth no growth above 85 F

Considering that the soil is frozen most of the year it is surmisable that crop yield would be limited in Thoreau's time as well as the present.

The texture of soil, the type of material that makes up a soil, affects the movement of water and air through soil and root penetration into the soil; the looseness and workability of the soil. Each soil layer could contain soils of different texture. Sandy soil is generally gritty and loose, and has a very limited degree of particle hydration cohesiveness. Loam soil is smooth, slick, partially gritty and sticky. It is a combination of sand and clay particles. Clay soil is smooth, sticky and somewhat plastic feeling, and likewise has a high degree of particle hydration cohesiveness. Sandy soil absorbs more than two inches of water per hour. It is very porous, with large spaces between soil particles. Little water is retained and the sandy soil dries out quickly. Loam soil absorbs from .25 inches to 2 inches per hour. The soil is loose and porous and holds water quite well. Clay soil absorbs less than .25 inches of water per hour. Clay soil is dense with few air spaces between particles and holds water so tightly that little water is available for plants. The soil around Concord is slightly sandy to loamy thus making somewhat difficult to farm unless modern agricultural methods are incorporated. 30

While Concordian soil is by no means barren, it is certainly not as fertile as other soils. Thoreau faced a challenge when he decided to live at Walden and plant his crops.

This analysis is corroborated by the fact that Thoreau's initial farming venture met with limited success. It was only when he dedicated more of his time to agriculture, consequently using methods that were more modern, that his field yielded crops. Indeed, the soil forced Thoreau to reevaluate his perspective regarding modern agriculture. Yet, in this challenge, he was able to "suck the marrow out of life." 31

Thoreau and his Beans: A Philosophy

Farming is not merely an occupation; it is a way of life. Adhering to the ancient

Buddhist proverb "first bitterness then sweetness," Henry David Thoreau understood that his quest for enlightenment could not be achieved simply through theoretical investigation. In attempting to understand the world around him Thoreau became the world by exploring the miracle of life and death; devoting himself to tilling his small plot of land Thoreau was able to transcend his inner self Despite any scientific arguments that might be made regarding his farming acumen—or the scrutiny of historical analysis—the gift of time—it would be impossible for any scholar to measure the level of personal growth he achieved while at Walden.

The point as to whether Thoreau was a skilled or knowledgeable farmer is irrelevant; certainly his agricultural proficiency is not the meat of his thoughts. Rather, farming was a vehicle that he utilized to achieve enlightenment. Indeed, the vehicle itself is ultimately irrelevant in light of the process of transformation that Thoreau underwent.

Analysis is only capable of rendering empirical evidence in terms of mechanisms of change; reason is limited. Only through appreciation of Thoreau's philosophy might one come to understand his motivation and philosophy.

In growing beans Thoreau became not only the creator, but also the created. The arduous physical labor allowed for extensive introspection. In soil—the green leaves— the nurturous environment around him he plucked revelation, as one would harvest a crop. By rooting out weeds, he refined and polished his demeanor; cleansing his personal 32 nature so that it might grow as his crops would grow. Thoreau came to embody all that was noble in the natural setting in which he occupied.

One cannot appreciate a film simply by seeing a single scene, just as one cannot typify Thoreau through studying one moment in his life. Thoreau was interested in human development, and believed that an individual is to be judged by his principles, of these,it must be noted, indeed emphasized, that one's commitment to selflessness is paramount. He believed that each human being has a gift to share, apropos a predilection that urges all to become part of a larger community. When individuals do not give of this gift, they defy the greater part of their existence.

Thoreau defied the teaching that the world is a closed economic system--that only a certain number may be fed--or clothed--or housed--or educated. Indeed his experience at Walden would maintain that it is rubbish, the jibes of the self-absorbed economists-- soothsayers of the absurd. He disdained the fact that human beings fight amongst one another over these limited resources. Thoreau knew that the best of humanity--our true nature--has eluded us.

The courage to create is greater and more difficult than the capricious acts of destruction. Thoreau used this premise to battle the belief that in order for one group to survive, another must perish. The truth has been sorely missed. Cooperation is the key; the fight to overturn our instincts--the method. Thoreau would have that the mind and soul are collectively stronger than the body--thinking sin without acting upon it is to find redemption--to fight sin. In growing his crops Thoreau learned to view others through new eyes--eyes of compassion. 33

The Walden experience was Thoreau's attempt, or at least a modicum trial, to account or describe the journey that he made in life. He admitted fully of ignorance and avowed no special vision. But he did have an illumination, or some manner of divine insight— the inklings of a special inspiration. Thoreau committed himself to a journey, not of the farm, nor of the mind, as most everyone would expect; his journey was of the spirit. 34

Selected Bibliography

Anderson, Quentin. The Imperial Self: An Essay in American Literary Identity and Culture. New York, NY: Knopf Publishers, 1971.

Bowdoin, Helen. Personal Interview. 12 Sep. 1998

Carrier, Lyman. Beginnings of Agriculture in America. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1923.

Gross, Robert. "Culture and Cultivation: Agriculture and Society in Thoreau's Concord." Journal of American History vol 62, June 1982.

Gross, Robert. "The Most Estimable Place in all the World: A Debate on Progress in Nineteenth-Century Concord." Studies in the American Renaissance. edited by Joel Myerson. Boston, MA: Twayne Publishers, 1978.

Hansen, Olaf. Aesthetic Individualism and Practical Intellect : American Allegory in Emerson, Thoreau, Adams, and James. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.

Harding, Walter Roy. The Days of Henry Thoreau : A Biography. Princeton. NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.

Kulikoff, Allan. The Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism. Charlottesville, VA : University Press of Virginia, 1992.

Lebeaux, Richard. Young Man Thoreau. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977.

The New England Farmer. Concord, MA: Concord Farmers Association, 1850.

Rasmussen, Wayne. Personal Interview. 10 Oct. 1998

Rasmussen, Wayne. "Thoreau and Agriculture." delivered at the Thoreau Institute. June 1998.

Richardson, Robert. Henry David Thoreau: A Life of the Mind. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1986.

Rossiter, Margaret W. The Emergence of Agricultural Science : Justus Liebig and the Americans, 1840-1880. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975.

Sattelmeyer, Robert. Thoreau's Reading: A Study in Intellectual History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988. 35

Taylor, Bob Pepperman. Our Limits Transgressed: Environmental Political Thought in America. Lawrence, KA: University Press of Kansas, 1992.

Thoreau, Henry David. "Walden, or Life in the Woods." Ed. Nina Baym. New York: Norton & Company, 1994. 1719-1888.

United States Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Statistics. A Dictionary of Farming. 4th ed. Washington: GPO, 1977.

Walls, Laura Dassow. Seeing New Worlds: Henry David Thoreau and Nineteenth- Century Natural Science. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995.

Wilson, Leslie. Personal Interview. 12 Sep. 1998 36

Appendix A: The Thoreau Institute

The Thoreau Institute, located in Walden Woods, a half mile from Walden Pond, in Lincoln, Massachusetts, is an organization that conducts research and promotes educational awareness regarding the exploits of Henry David Thoreau. Thoreau's extraordinary works have enthralled generations of readers, and greatly influenced contemporary environmental and social movements, who hold his writings and philosophies regarding nature, as sacred. The Thoreau Institute attempts to further the study of Thoreau through its extensive collections, state of the art media center, and innovative educational programs, thus providing opportunities for the continued examination of his legacy. The Institute itself was the result of a meritorious collaboration between the Walden Woods Project, its progenitor, the Isis Fund, and the

Thoreau Society. It was formally established in 1995 with a distinguished Challenge

Grant in the amount of $575,000 from the National Endowment for the Humanities. The

Thoreau Institute has since become the leading center in the world dedicated towards the study of Henry David Thoreau, and his impact on humanity.

The Walden Woods Project administers the Thoreau Institute's facilities, programs, and staff. Additionally, the Walden Woods Project is responsible for fund raising to provide for operating expenses and endowment. The Thoreau Society, co- partner in the creation of the Institute, furnishes erudition and edification. The Society boasts a vast collection, leased to the Walden Woods Project, that is held in the Institute's archives. These works, as well as many others, are in turn made available by the Walden

Woods Project. The synthesis of these two notable organizations is "a model for efficient, goal-oriented, and flexible management of a non-profit institution." 37

The Thoreau Institute houses the collections of Raymond Adams, Roland

Robbins, and Walter Harding; three former scholars and presidents of the Thoreau

Society, whose aggregate athenaeums are regarded as the world's most comprehensive store of Thoreauvian research. They include manuscripts, volumes from Thoreau's own library, correspondence between Thoreau and various individuals, documentation and pictures of the excavation of Thoreau's house (as well as extensive field notes), and other items of preeminent research. Additionally, the Thoreau Institute maintains the Thoreau

Archives, a state of the art research library, and its collection of rare books and manuscripts. The Thoreau Institute plans to continue the collection of all materials related to Thoreau, insuring that his monumental works and contributions will be enjoyed by scores of future generations.

Over a period of the past year, the Thoreau Institute has brought into existence many educational programs to aid in educating the public about Thoreau and his times.

Such programs include an interdisciplinary two-week seminar, "Thoreau's World and

Ours", for high school teachers, a workshop for middle school teachers, student internships, a community lecture series, and a undergraduate study program entitled;

"Selborne New England" which is a semester long residential program. Programs under development Other programs that will be instituted in the near future include a curriculum directed at helping urban youth, and an agenda to educate the over half a million people who visit Walden Pond each year. Furthermore, the Institute is committed to extending its educational programs globally via the Internet. The Institute offers extensive computing and communications resources that will allow people from around the world to engage in discourse with one another, and explore the life and writings of 38

Thoreau from their homes, offices, or educational institutions. The Institute is taking extraordinary measures to provide teachers with resources to further the study of Thoreau within the classroom. The study of Thoreau challenges and encourages students to examine the pursuit of community in relation to the natural world around them, and to define their future roles as citizens, builders, scholars, and leaders of tomorrow.

The purpose of the Thoreau Institute is to "honor Henry David Thoreau, to stimulate interest in and foster education about his life, forks, and philosophy, and to coordinate research about his life and writings." The Thoreau Society has enabled the conveyance of knowledge about Thoreau through collecting books, the publishing of articles in two different Society periodicals, manuscripts, and artifacts. However, it is only through the continued support of individuals that this worthy institution will have the means to continue its noble work.

A principal purpose of this IQP is to aid the Thoreau Institute in its educational goals. Investigating the correlation between Thoreau' s writings and agriculture is paramount to surveying the coherence between technology, individuality, and society.

The extent of such a program of study is likewise determined by the findings and data gathered during the pursuit of this project. Thus, this objectives of this IQP are concurrent with the scholastic enterprise of the Thoreau Institute, both quest the dissemination of

Thoreauvian knowledge.

Note: All items in quotations come directly from the Thoreau Institute's letter of mission statement. 39

Appendix B: Letters of Introduction

Christopher M. Lawson Worcester Polytechnic Institute 100 Institute Road Box 3105 Worcester, Massachusetts 01609 (508) 831-6768

Dr. Wayne Rasmussen 100 Keyes Road Apt. 324 Concord, Massachusetts 01742

Dear Sir:

My name is Christopher Michael Lawson and I am a student at Worcester Polytechnic Institute. I recently met with Ms. Helen Bowdoin, of the Thoreau Institute, who informed me of your expertise in matters of agricultural history. Recently I had the pleasure of reading a transcript of a speech you recently gave entitled "Thoreau and Agriculture".

I am currently undertaking a project that attempts to evaluate the role that farming had on Thoreau's life and writings. I would very much like to set a meeting with you to talk about the history of Concordian agriculture. I believe that I would learn a great deal from such an encounter.

I myself come from North Carolinian farm stock, and I would look forward to a chance to speak with you. I understand that your time is precious, and I am completely willing to meet at your convenience.

I appreciate your time and I look forward to receiving your reply.

Respectably,

Christopher M. Lawson 40

Christopher M. Lawson Worcester Polytechnic Institute 100 Institute Road Box 3105 Worcester, Massachusetts 01609 (508) 831-6768

Mr. Stephen Verrill 415 Wheeler Road Concord, Massachusetts 01742

Dear Sir:

My name is Christopher Michael Lawson and I am a student at Worcester Polytechnic Institute. I recently met with Ms. Helen Bowdoin, of the Thoreau Institute, who informed me of your expertise in matters of agricultural history.

I am currently undertaking a project that attempts to evaluate the role that farming had on Thoreau's life and writings. I would very much like to set a meeting with you to talk about the history of Concordian agriculture. I believe that I would learn a great deal from such an encounter.

I myself come from North Carolinian farm stock, and I would look forward to a chance to speak with you. I understand that your time is precious, especially during harvest, and I am completely willing to meet at your convenience.

I appreciate your time and I look forward to receiving your reply.

Respectably,

Christopher M. Lawson 41

Appendix C: Characteristics of Different Soil Types

Soil types can be essentially divided into four separate categories. This appendix summarizes the different varieties. This information was taken from Fred Moore's website at http://homepages.which.net/—fred.moor/soil/formed/f0106.htm.

Sand, Loamy sand, Sandy loam

These are well drained and aerated and workable for most of the year. They are light to handle and quick to warm up in spring. Unless they have a very high organic matter content they are prone to drying out too quickly, and additional watering will be needed. This extra watering will also help to wash out the plant foods and lime from the soil, so they are likely to be acid (except for some coastal soils). They are often referred to as hungry soils and need lots of extra feeding. With careful management however, they can be amongst the most productive soil types. Medium loam, sandy clay loam, silt loam are the average soil types. They achieve a good balance between the ability to be very productive with a minimum of attention. The medium loam group is probably the best in this respect.

Clay, Sandy clay, Clay loam, Silty clay loam, Silty clay, Silt

Although these soils are difficult to work and manage, they usually have good supplies of plant foods and lime. The main drawbacks are the high water holding capacity

(which means they are late to get going in spring) and the effort required to work them.

You will need to catch just the right weather conditions to avoid hard wok and damage to 42 the soil structure. The use of heavy machinery (and especially rotavators) should be avoided at all costs, particularly when the soil is wet.

Peat moss or Fen Soils

Provided they are not too acid and have effective sub drainage, these are probably the best natural soils available. They are rich in plant foods, are easily workable and early. It is possible to convert your existing soil into peat type soil by adding large amounts of organic matter. Some of the keenest exhibition growers do just this. It can be time consuming and costly at first, but once you get there life becomes much easier. You must avoid making your soil too acid though, and careful choice of organic matter is needed.

Chalk soils and Limestone Soils

These are the soils that contain a high proportion of chalk or lime. So much in fact, that it overrides their normal particle size classification. They are often very shallow soils, and severely limit the types of plants that can be grown successfully in them. If you have a soil of this type and are not happy with the range of plants it will allow you to grow, probably the best thing you can do is move to a new area and check the soil out first. If you cant move, the most sensible course of action is to limit yourself to the plants that will grow in chalky soils. Trying to change the soil is usually an uphill struggle and quite expensive. 43

Appendix D: Soil Graph

The diagram triangularly shaped depiction, taken from Fred Moore's website at http://homepages.which.net/—fred.moor/soil/formed/fD106.htm, shows a three sided grid with each side representing the content of a particular particle on a scale from 0% to

100%. The bottom line is the sand content, starting at 0% at the bottom right hand corner, and rising to 100% in the bottom left hand corner.

100 10 90

80 20

70 Clay percent 60 percent CLAY SILT 50 Silty clay 40 Clay loam Silty 30 clay loam 70

20 Medium 80 loam Silty loam sand Sandy 90 10 Loamy loam Silt 0 100 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

. . percent SAND

Moving clockwise around the triangle, the line from the bottom left corner to the top point of the triangle is the clay content, starting at 0% in the bottom left corner and 44 rising to 100% at the top. Continuing clockwise, silt starts at 0% at the top of the triangle and increases to 100% at the bottom right hand corner. By following the percentage lines for sand silt and clay to wherever they meet inside the triangle one can determine which category a particular soil sample falls into. To locate an exact point on the grid one should first calculate the percentage of sand, silt and clay in the total sample without including the organic matter in the total. Then take the percentage of sand as the starting point and, using the bottom of the triangle grid to find the corresponding percentage, begin to draw a line upwards and to the left (parallel with the right hand side of the triangle) at the exact percentage. Next take the percentage of clay and, using the left hand slope of the triangle grid find your percentage point. Starting at that point, draw a line horizontally across (parallel with the bottom of the triangle) toward the right slope of the triangle. It will cross the sand line at some point. The final confirmation that one has performed the method correctly is that the percentage of silt, located by the same process on the right hand slope of the triangle and following a line drawn downwards toward the

bottom left will cross in the same point as the other two. The intersection of these three

lines will fall within one of the colored areas on the grid, and this the soil type. Obviously

if it is in the middle of the colored area it will be absolutely typical of that classification,

but if it is near to the edge of two areas, then it will behave with a mix of the

characteristics of both soil types. 45

Appendix E: Massachusetts' Soils

Massachusetts soils vary widely in color and in character. Broadly speaking, the uplands contain an abundance of mineral matter, while more or less organic matter is present in the lowlands. The western region is hilly and is separated by the Connecticut

River Valley from a central upland plateau region, which slopes to the Atlantic coast.

Except on Cape Cod where there are long stretches of sandy, treeless flats, almost all of the land was originally covered with dense forests. Even after the forests were cleared or thinned, however, the soil did not yield readily to cultivation by the early farmers, and

their skill and patience were taxed heavily before it became productive. The most arable

soil is found in the broad Connecticut Valley in the west-central part of Massachusetts.

Rich alluvial deposits are found in the fertile river valleys. On the whole, Massachusetts

soils yield profitably when production is carried on under modern procedures. Even the

sandy soils on Cape Cod have been made extremely fruitful when farmed by skillful

agriculturists.

*This information was taken from

hap ://www.magnet.state .ma.us/sec/cis/cismaf/mfl c.htm 46

Appendix F: Soil Testing

Reproduced from: Recommended Soil Testing Procedures for the Northeastern United

States. 2nd Edition. Northeastern Regional Publication No. 493 J. Introduction by

Thomas Sims and Ann Wolf

Introduction

Soil testing programs in the northeastern United States have provided a valuable service to the region for many years. Analytical methods have been developed that can rapidly assess the ability of soils to supply adequate plant nutrients for a wide variety of agronomic and horticultural crops. Economically and environmentally efficient fertilizer recommendations based on these tests are an integral part of soil testing and, as with the analytical methods, are constantly reviewed and refined through research conducted by

Agricultural Experiment Stations in the Northeast.

The Northeast, however, is a diverse region, not only in terms of soils, crops and climatic conditions, but also with regard to the soil testing procedures and recommendations that have evolved since soil testing originated in this area in the early

1900's. Although in many cases this diversity is necessary, given the specific properties of soils in a particular state or nutrient requirements of crops grown only in a certain area, it was recognized in 1987 that greater cooperation between states in the Northeast could enhance the effectiveness of soil testing throughout the region. NEC-67, the Northeast

Coordinating Committee for Soil Testing was formed in response to this and has established the following objectives related to soil testing: to improve fertilizer recommendations based on soil test results and other soil and management factors, to 47 provide a forum for responding to new challenges in soil testing technology and use, to improve the methods and operations of soil testing laboratories in the region, to improve

Extension education efforts in soil testing. In 1991, NEC-67 published the first northeastern regional bulletin on soil testing methods: Recommended Soil Testing

Procedures for the Northeastern United States. This bulletin summarized recommended soil testing methods based on those used by northeastern soil testing laboratories. For most tests, several alternative methods were described. The intent of that bulletin was to make an initial effort to standardize, within reasonable limits, the soil testing techniques used in the Northeast.

The bulletin was distributed widely throughout the Northeast and quickly became an important reference document for many state and private soil testing laboratories. In

1994, a decision was made to update this regional bulletin and to add chapters on quality

assurance, caution exchange capacity, soluble salts, and perhaps most important, the

interpretation philosophies used by northeastern soil testing programs to develop

profitable and environmentally sound nutrient recommendations. Publication of this

revised edition reflects the ongoing commitment of NEC-67 to advance the science and

technology of soil testing and to enhance the role of soil testing programs in all aspects of

land management in the Northeast. 48

Appendix G: Sustainable Agricultural and Suitability

Soil that is to be productive agriculturally must adhere to several criteria. Indeed if a soil is found lacking in any one of these criteria its usefulness to agricultural exploits

is seriously hampered. In order for a soil to be considered favorable, it must have

agreeable physical properties, the presence of chemical elements advantageous to growth,

and a favorable geomorphic and climatic setting.

In terms of physical properties, fertile soil must have a particle size distribution that is porous enough to hold moisture and permeable enough to allow water and air to

infiltrate into and flow through it. A productive soil requires a favorable rooting zone,

meaning that the soil must be deep enough and friable enough for root growth and

penetration.

To be productive, a soil must have a water supply that is sufficient for plant

growth, but not excessive as to waterlog the soil and lead to the absence of free oxygen.

In the absence of human intervention, the surface and subsurface moisture characteristics

of a soil depend on the climatic situation (annual precipitation patterns), geomorphic

situation (slope and drainage characteristics) and the porosity and permeability of the

soil.

The presence of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,

sulfur, calcium, iron and magnesium are all required in a water-soluble form for soils to

support crops. Hydrogen and oxygen are supplied by water and carbon is absorbed by

plants from atmospheric carbon dioxide. In addition to these major essential chemical

nutrients, plants require adequate supplies of boron, chlorine, copper, manganese,

molybdenum and zinc for normal growth (USGS, 1988). 49

A fertile soil must also have the capacity to hold and exchange cations for plant use. This cation exchange capacity is influenced by the quantity and types of clay minerals and the organic material present in the soil.

In addition, a soil suitable for crop production must have a pH ranging from moderately acid to strongly alkaline or fall within a more specific pH range for certain crops. The soil temperature regime, which is mostly influenced by climate, must also be appropriate for seed germination and plant growth. Soil temperatures must exceed 5C for root growth and 24C in many cases for seed germination. Temperatures must also remain at appropriate levels for long enough for the growth of a harvestable crop.

As shown by the success of greenhouses in plant production, it is possible for people to control the availability of all of the essential ingredients of plant production.

Although healthy plants can be grown in completely artificial environments, however, this process is costly and can only occur on a relatively small scale. On a scale that is significant to total US food production only certain factors of soil fertility can be feasibly controlled to maximize soil productivity over time. Climate, for example, is a factor that is beyond our control on a large scale, although soil temperatures can be manipulated to a small extent with plastic covering, and water can be transported from distant sources.

Depending on management practices, agriculture can work either to enhance or degrade soil productivity. Irrigation can transform an infertile soil into a highly productive one, but it may also increase the rate at which soil nutrients are lost through leaching as well as lead to the buildup of salts. Since crops are harvested and removed from the soil on which they grow, the essential nutrients that the plants have absorbed from the soil are taken with them, leaving less for subsequent years. Furthermore, 50 agricultural soils are devoid of vegetation cover for a portion of the year, leading to accelerated erosion, which results in the further loss of nutrients and available water. If the nutrients that are lost from the soil due to agriculture are not replenished, soil fertility will decrease. In shallow soils with restrictive subsurface horizons, erosion also leads to loss of favorable rooting zones. Exposed soil also tends to harden and become less permeable due to rainsplash dispersion. The use of large, heavy equipment in agriculture can lead to severe soil compaction and erosion. Compaction is equivalent to decreased macroporosity of soils resulting in decreased water infiltration and increased runoff.

Tillage of soils is effective in loosening the soil for plant growth, but its effect decreases with time after tilling and can lead to higher susceptibility to compaction as well as the formation of a plowpan. The extent to which we can keep our soils suitable for agriculture depends, therefore, on the extent to which we can prevent agricultural practices from degrading our soils.

Methods for controlling soil degradation are highly varied, and for each problem, a myriad of solutions has been developed. These solutions range from preventative measures such as tillage, which minimizes soil erosion, to treatment of the symptoms of degradation, quick fixes that must occur on a yearly basis, such as the addition of fertilizers to replenish lost nutrients. Some solutions will feasibly maintain soil fertility over an indefinite period of time. These are methods commonly described as "sustainable agriculture." They are highly preventative of soil degradation and tend to employ the use of renewable resources. Sustainable agriculture also tends to be more labor intensive, however, and in some cases calls for the sacrificing of higher crop yields in the present in order to assure higher crop yields in the future. 51

Other methods of controlling soil fertility were developed with the consideration

only of production in the short term or with a poor understanding of negative side effects.

As seen in previous examples, these methods eventually lead to further soil degradation.

Some of these solutions to soil degradation, because of their employment of limited

resources, can only maintain soil fertility as long as resource supplies last.

The ability to control soil fertility ultimately depends on the economic feasibility

of employing different methods. In turn, the feasibility of any method of controlling soil

fertility depends on the cost of employing the method relative to the price of the crop and

relative to the costs of other methods. Unless sustainable agricultural practices make crop

production profitable, they will not occur on a large scale.

52

Appendix H: Soil Analysis Data

Walden Site Loc. Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.2 6.1 6.3 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.3 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.3 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1

53

7 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 8 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 8 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 8 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.1 8 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 8 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 8 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 9 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 9 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 9 6.1 6.3 6.1 6.1 6.1 9 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 9 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 9 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 10 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 10 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 10 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 10 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 10 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 10 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.1 6.2 Mean 6.111 SD 0.036226

Walden PH Values

q Seriesl ElSeries2 q Series3 q S1 Series Series4 Deviation El Series5 Population

54

Baker Farm Site Loc. Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6.3 6.5 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.2 6.4 6.4 6.1 6.2 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.5 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.5 6.3 6.5 6.4 6.5 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.2 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.4 6,4 6.5 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.6 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.5 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.5 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.1 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.5 6.3 6.3 6.5 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.3 55

8 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 8 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 8 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 8 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 8 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 8 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 9 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.3 9 6.2 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.3 9 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 9 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 9 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.3 9 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 10 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.2 10 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.4 10 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.3 10 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.5 10 6.3 6.1 6.4 6.3 6.4 10 6.4 6.3 6.5 6.2 6.2 Mean 6.33533 SD 0.071774 3

Baker Farm PH

6.6, 6.4 E:ISeries1 PH 6.2 Series2 6 0 Series3 5.8 co Series 0Series4 co Si Deviation Series5 Population