Department of Botany Hazara University Mansehra 2017

STUDIES ON VEGETATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIES DIVERSITY OF SATHAN GALLY, DISTRICT MANSEHRA

KHALID RASHEED KHAN

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY HAZARA UNIVERSITY MANSEHRA 2017

HAZARA UNIVERSITY MANSEHRA

Department of Botany

STUDIES ON VEGETATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIES DIVERSITY OF SATHAN GALLY, DISTRICT MANSEHRA

KHALID RASHEED KHAN

This research study has been conducted and reported as partial fulfilment of requirements of Ph.D. degree in Botany awarded by Hazara University Mansehra, Pakistan

The Monday 31, July 2017

STUDIES ON VEGETATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIES DIVERSITY OF SATHAN GALLY, DISTRICT MANSEHRA

SUBMITTED BY KHALID RASHEED KHAN Ph.D. Scholar

RESEARCH SUPERVISOR DR. ZAFAR IQBAL Assistant Professor Department of Botany Hazara University, Mansehra

CO-SUPERVISOR DR. JAN ALAM Assistant Professor Department of Botany Hazara University, Mansehra

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY HAZARA UNIVERSITY MANSEHRA 2017

In the Name of ALLAH the Most Gracious and the Most Compassionate

DEDICATION

To my Parents, wife, my children, whose support has given me the strength, determination to accomplish my Ph.D.

Dissertation

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No. Title LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF PLATES x i v ACKNOWLADGEMENTS xv ABSTRACT xvii Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Study Area 1 1.1.1 Guzara Forest 1 1.1.1.1 Climate 2 1.1.1.2 Geology and Soil 2 1.1.1.3 Agricultural Customs 2 1.1.2 Reserved Forest 6 1.1.2.1 Climate 6 1.1.2.2 Geology and Soil 7 1.1.2.3 Agricultural Customs 7 1.2 Biodiversity 9 1.3 Phytosociology 10 1.3.1 Biological Spectrum 10 1.3.2 Species Diversity 11 1.3.3 Maturity Index 11 1.4 Ethnobotany 11 1.5 Palatability 12

Chapter 2 - REVIEW OF LITERATURE 15

2.1 Plant Biodiversity 15

2.2 Biological Spectrum 20 2.3 Phytosociology 21 2.4 Ethnobotanical Profile 25 2.5 Degree of Palatability 27 Chapter 3 - MATERIALS AND METHODS 30

3.1 General Survey 30 3.2 Floristic Composition 30 3.3 Phenology 31

3.4 Biological Characteristics 37 3.4.1 Life form 37 3.4.1.1 Phanerophytes 37 3.4.1.2 Chamaephytes 37 3.4.1.3 Hemicryptophytes 37 3.4.1.4 Geophytes 37 3.4.1.5 Therophytes 38 3.4.2 Leaf Spectra 38 3.5 Phytosociology 39 3.5.1 Sampling Method 39 3.5.1.1 Size and Number of Quadrats 39 3.5.1.2 Distribution of Quadrats 39 3.5.1.3 Density 40 3.5.1.4 Relative Density 40 3.5.1.5 Frequency 40 3.5.1.6 Relative Frequency 40 3.5.1.7 Canopy Cover 41 3.5.1.8 Relative Canopy Cover 42

3.5.1.9 Importance Value Index 42 3.6 Multivariate Analysis 42 3.6.1 Classification 42 3.6.2 Ordination 42 3.7 Index of Diversity 43 3.8 Species Richness 43 3.9 Maturity Index 44 3.10 Climatic Variables 44 3.11 Edaphology 44 3.11.1 Soil Texture 44 3.11.2 Soil pH 44 3.11.3 Organic Matter 44 3.11.4 Potassium and Phosphorus 45 3.11.6 Electrical Conductivity 45 3.12 Ethnobotanical Profile 45 3.13 Degree of Palatability 45 3.13.1 Differential Palatability 45 3.13.2 Palatability by Parts used by Animals 46 3.13.3 Palatability by Animal Preferences 46 3.13.4 Palatability by Freshness / Dryness of Forage 46

Chapter 4 - RESULTS 47

4.1 Floristic Composition 47 4.1.1 Phenology 47 4.1.2 Biological Spectrum 52 4.1.2.1 Life Form 52 4.1.2.2 Leaf Size Spectra 52

4.2 Multivariate Analyses of Ecological Data of Sathan Gally 64 4.2.1 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 64 4.2.1.1 Pteris-Urtica-Pinus Community 64 4.2.1.2 Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community 66 4.2.1.3 Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus Community 66 4.2.1.4 Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community 66

4.2.1.5 Pinus-Abies-Viburnum Community 67

4.2.1.6 Themeda-Indigofera-Ailanthus Community 67 4.2.2 Ordination of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 74 4.2.2.1 DCA Ordination 74 4.2.2.2 CCA Ordination 75 4.3 Comparison Between Floristic Diversity Reserved and Guzara 81 Forests 4.3.1 Reserved Forest 81 4.3.1.1 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Reserved 90 Forest 4.3.1.1.1 Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca Community 91 4.3.1.1.2 Cedrus-Fragaria-Pteris Community 91 4.3.1.1.3 Pinus-Cedrus-Viburnum Community 92 4.3.1.1.4 Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community 92 4.4.1.2 DCA Ordination of Reserved Forest 97 4.4.1.3 CCA Ordination of Reserved Forest 98 4.3.2 Species Diversity and its Components 101 4.3.2.1 Species Diversity 101 4.3.2.2 Species Maturity 101 4.3.3.3 Species Richness 102 4.3.3 Floristic Diversity of Guzara Forest 102

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4.3.3.1 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Guzara Forest 110

4.3.3.1.1 Pinus- Sarcococca-Pteris Community 111 4.3.3.1.2 Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community 111 4.3.3.1.3 Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda Community 112 4.3.3.2 DCA Ordination of Guzara Forest 116 4.3.3.3 CCA Ordination of Guzara Forest 118 4.3.4 Species Diversity and its Components 120 4.3.4.1 Species Diversity 120 4.3.4.2 Species Maturity 120 4.3.4.3 Species Richness 120 4.5 Ethnobotanical Profile 121 4.5.1 Medicinal Plant 122 4.5.2 Fodder Species 122 4.5.3 Fuel Wood Species 122 4.5.4 Timber Wood Species 122 4.5.5 Vegetable Species 123 4.5.6 Plants used as Veterinary Medicines 123 4.5.7 Fruit Yielding Plants 123 4.5.8 Plants used for Fencing 123 4.5.9 Species used for Making Agricultural Appliances 123 4.6 Palatability of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 135 4.6.1 Palatability of Different Plant Parts 135 4.6.2 Plant Condition Preferred by Animals 136 4.6.3 Animal Preference for Plant 136 Chapter 5 - DISCUSSION 149

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CONCLUSION 168 RECOMMENDATIONS 169 REFERENCES 171 APENDIX I. Questionnaire of Ethnobotany and Palatability 197 APENDIX II. Total IVI Values of Plant Species of Sathan Gally 198

LIST OF TABLES Table No. Title Page No. Table 3.1 Environmental Data of Study Sites of Sathan Gally 32 Table 3.2 Physico-Chemical Data of the Study Sites of Sathan Gally 34 Table 3.3 Braun Blanquet Covers Classes Modified by Daubenmire. 41 Table 4.1 Representative Families of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 49 Table 4.2 Phenology, Life Form and Leaf Spectra of Different Plant Species 54 Recorded From Sathan Gally Table 4.3 Number of Plant Species and IVI Contribution of Life Form Classes 79 of Different Plant Communities of Sathan Gally Table 4.4 Number of Plant Species and IVI Contribution of Leaf Size Spectra 80 Classes of Various Plant Communities of Sathan Gally Table 4.5 Floristic Diversity of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally 82 Table 4.6 Different Plant Species of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally 87 Table 4.7 List of Plant Diversity Recorded From Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally 104 Table 4.8 Different Plant Species Recorded From Guzara Forest 108 Table 4.9 Ethnobotanical Classification of Plant Species of Sathan Gally, 124 District Mansehra Table 4.10 Palatability Matrix of Different Palatability Parameters of 137 Vegetation of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No. Page No. Fig. 1.1 Map of Hilkot Forest Range 3 Fig. 1.2 Map of the Study Area 4 Fig. 1.3 A View of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra 5 Fig. 1.4 Study Area Received Heavy Snowfall in The Month of January 2016 5 Fig. 1.5 Study Area Showing Deforestation 8 Fig. 1.6 Study Field is Under Pressure of Over Grazing 8 Fig. 3.1 Map of the Study Sites Stands Selected for Study in Reserved and 36 Guzara Forests Fig. 3.2 Researcher While Documenting the Data in Sathan Gally 36 Fig. 3.3 Leaf Size Classes 39 Fig. 4.1 Graphical Representation of Dominant Families of Study Area 48 Fig. 4.2 Graphical Representation of Different Groups of Tracheophytes of 48 Sathan Gally Fig. 4.3 Graphical Representation of Life Form Classes of Sathan Gally 52 Fig. 4.4 Graphical Representation of Leaf Spectrum Classes of Sathan Gally 53 Fig. 4.5 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 65 Fig. 4.6 Life Form Classes of Pteris-Urtica-Pinus Community of Sathan Gally 68 Fig. 4.7 Leaf Size Spectra of Pteris-Urtica-Pinus Community of Sathan Gally 69 Fig. 4.8 Life Form Classes of Pinus–Digitaria–Sarcococca Community of Sathan 69 Gally Fig. 4.9 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus–Digitaria-Sarcococca Community of Area 70 Studied Fig. 4.10 Life Form Classes of Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus Community of Sathan 70 Gally Fig. 4.11 Leaf Size Spectra of Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus Community of Sathan 71 Gally Fig. 4.12 Life Form Classes of Pinus–Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Sathan 71 Gally Fig. 4.13 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Sathan 72 Gally Fig. 4.14 Life Form Classes of Pinus–Abies-Viburnum Community of Sathan 72 Gally Fig. 4.15 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus–Abies-Viburnum Community of Sathan Gally 73 Fig. 4.16 Life Form Classes of Themeda–Indigofera-Ailanthus Community of 73 Sathan Gally

Fig. 4.17 Leaf Size Spectra of Themeda–Indigofera-Ailanthus Community of 74 Sathan Gally Fig. 4.18 DCA Ordination of Plant Species of Sathan Gally 76 Fig. 4.19 DCA Ordination of Stands of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 76 Fig. 4.20 CCA Ordination of Plant Species of Sathan Gally 78 Fig. 4.21 CCA of Stands of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 78 Fig. 4.22 Classification of Leading Families of Plant Species of Reserved Forest 81 of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.23 Graphical Representation of Plant Species Habit Wise of Reserved 82 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.24 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Reserved Forest of Sathan 90 Gally Fig. 4.25 Life Form Classes of Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca Community of Reserved 93 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.26 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca Community of Reserved 94 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.27 Life Form Classes of Cedrus–Fragaria–Pteris Community of Reserved 94 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.28 Leaf Size Spectra of Cedrus-Fragaria-Pteris Community of Reserved 95 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.29 Life Form Classes of Pinus-Cedrus-Viburnum Community of Reserved 95 Forest Fig. 4.30 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Cedrus-Viburnum Community of Reserved 96 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.31 Life Form Classes of Pinus–Digitaria-Sarcococca Community of 96 Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.32 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus–Digitaria–Sarcococca Community of Reserved 97 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.33 DCA Ordination of Plant Species of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally 99 Fig. 4.34 DCA Ordination of Stands of Vegetation of Reserved Forest of Sathan 99 Gally Fig. 4.35 CCA Ordination of Plant Species of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally 100 Fig. 4.36 CCA Ordination of Stands of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally 100 Fig. 4.37 Graphical Representation of Different Components of Plant Species 102 Diversity of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.38 Graphical Representation of Leading Families of Guzara Forest of 103 Sathan Gally Fig. 4.39 Habit Wise Classification Plant Species of Guzara Forest of Sathan 103 Gally Fig. 4.40 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Guzara Forest of Sathan 110 Gally

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Fig. 4.41 Life Form Classes of Pinus-Sarcococca-Pteris Community of Guzara 113 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.42 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Sarcococca-Pteris Community of Guzara 113 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.43 Life Form Classes of Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Guzara 114 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.44 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Guzara 114 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.45 Life Form Classes of Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda Community of 115 Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.46 Leaf Size Spectra of Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda Community of Guzara 115 Forest of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.47 DCA Ordination of Plant Species of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally 117 Fig. 4.48 DCA Ordination of Stands of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally 117 Fig. 4.49 CCA Ordination of Plant Species of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally 119 Fig. 4.50 CCA Ordination of Stands of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally 119 Fig. 4.51 Graphical Representation of Different Components of Plant Species 121 Diversity of Vegetation of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.52 Graphical Representation of Ethnobotanical Classification of Plant 135 Resources of Sathan Gally Fig. 4.53 Degree of Palatability of Plant Species of Sathan Gally 147 Fig. 4.54 Palatability of Different Plant Species Showing Plant Parts Preferred by 147 Grazers Fig. 4.55 Palatability of Different Plant Species Showing Condition Preferred by 148 Grazing Animals Fig. 4.56 Graphical Representation of Palatability by Grazing Animals 148

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LIST OF PLATES Plate No. Page No. Plate No. 1 192

Plate No. 2 193

Plate No. 3 194

Plate No. 4 195

Plate No. 5 196

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praise to Allah, the most Merciful Almighty. Foremost, I am highly indebted to my supervisor Dr. Zafar Iqbal, Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm during my Ph.D. research. I am also greatful to my co-supervisor, Dr. Jan Alam for his kind assistance. I would like to express my appreciation to Prof. Dr. Manzoor Hussain, Chairman Department of Botany, Dr. Ghulam Mujtaba Shah, Associate Professor, Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra for their kind support and providing facilities during drying, processing and mounting the plant specimens. I will not forget a handy assistance of Abdul Wajid, who was with me in the tough and lofty study area during field visits.

I extend my gratitude to my teacher Dr. Abbas Shah, Chairman of Botany Department and my dearest friend Muhammad Farooq, Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, Government Post Graduate College, Mansehra, who motivated me throughout my Ph.D. studies. I offer cordial and profound thanks to my friends Dr. Abdul Majid, Lecturer, Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra for his support during my research.

Sincere thanks to all my friends Dr. Azhar Hussain Shah, Dr. Azhar Mehmood, Dr. Muhammad Azhar Khan, Dr. Sardar Azhar, Dr. Muhammad Fiaz, Dr. Niaz Ali who contributed a lot in preparation of this piece of research work. I am much obliged to Professor Saeed Ul Haq, Professor Wajid Shah, Professor Abdul Majid, Professor Dr. Ghulam Mustafa, Professor Riaz Hussain, Professor Muhammad Yousaf, of GPGC, Mansehra for their kind motivation and moral support for completion of my Ph. D thesis. I am thankful to my elder brother Humayun Rasheed Khan for proof reading of my dissertation.

I am highly indebted to local inhabitants of area who facilitated me during this journey of exploration and Forest Department, KPK for providing necessary documents. I am much grateful to my students Mustajab Ahmad, Feroz khan, Waleed Anjum, Junaid Nazir, Danish Ali, Ashfaq Hussain and particularly Azhar shah kazmi who helped me a lot during my research work. Their efforts are highly acknowledged. At last but not the least, speial thanks to my parents for their prayers and encouragement. I am grateful to my beloved children, Jahangir Khan, Aiman Khan and Mahrosh Khan for their patience and obedience, who suffered a lot during the research work.

KHALID RASHEED KHAN

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ABSTRACT

This study was designed for the first phytosociological exploration of the floristic exploration of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra, Pakistan. The study area, part of the Western Himalayas, shows rich floristic diversity. In this investigation, an effort was made to document the phyto diversity and vegetation structure of the area by using quadrat method and standard phytosociological tools. A sum of 35 sampling sites were selected randomly for vegetation analysis and 20 quadrats were laid down for herbs, 10 for shrubs and 5 for trees at each sampling site. The study area was visited frequently during flowering seasons of 2013 and 2014. Plant species were collected from a range of localities, identified, preserved and deposited in the Herbarium of Hazara University, Mansehra. The current investigation was conducted to explore the floristic diversity and vegetation structure in context of environmental gradients of investigated area. A total of 170 plants species, belonging to 154 genera of 73 families were recorded in 35 stands. Angiosperms were represented by 92.85%, Gymnosperms by 2.97% and Pteridophytes by 2.16% species. The leading family was Asteraceae represented by 20 species, followed by Rosaceae by 14 species, Poaceae by 12 species, Lamiaceae by 10, Polygonaceae by 5, Primulaceae by 4 species and Caryophyllaceae and Moraceae by an equal sharing of three species each. TWINSPAN multivariate classification and ordination method by CANOCO software which is being used in most of the phytosociological surveys across the world, was applied. TWINSPAN identified six plant communities viz., Pteris-Urtica-Pinus, Pinus-Digitaria- Sarcococca, Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus, Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera, Pinus-Abies- Viburnum and Themeda-Indigofera-Ailanthus. The phytosociological attributes like density, frequency, cover, importance values index, leaf size spectra, life form, index of diversity, species richness and species maturity were recorded. Microphyll contributing 40.47% species were leading leaf spectra class followed

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by Mesophyll containing 26.78% species, Nanophyll by 24.4% species, Macrophyll and Leptophyll 4.14% species by each. Therophytes were found as leading life form class of the area contributing 30.35% species, followed by Hemicryptophytes 20.23%, Megaphanerophytes 16.66%, Geophytes and Nanophanerophytes by 12.5%, and Chamaephytes by 7.14% species. The Reserved forest showed rich floristic diversity as compared to Guzara forest. In the current study a total of 127 plants species consisting of 59 common and 68 different were found in 13 stands of reserved forest. Angiosperms were represented by 118 (92.91%), plant species Pteridophytes 5(3.93%) species and Gymnosperms 4 (3.14%) species were recorded in Reserved forest. Only single species of climber was documented. The dominant family was Asteraceae (13 species, 10.7%) followed by Labiateae (10 species, 7.75%), Poaceae and Rosaceae (8 species, 6.2%) each, Polygonaceae and Pteridaceae by (5 species, 3.87%) each. Four different plant communities were recognized by TWINSPAN in Reserved forest. A total of 103 plant species of 55 families including 61 common in both forest types and 42 species different to Reserved Forest. These plant species were documented from 22 sampling stands. Angiosperms by (92.3%) plant species Gymnosperms (2.88%) and Pteridophytes (4.8%) were recorded. The dominant family was Poaceae by 11 plant species followed by Asteraceae and Rosaceae each represented by 10 species and Pteridaceae by five plant species. Three plant communities were recognized in Guzara forest by TWINSPAN. The study revealed that the indigenous peoples of the area exploited 86 (51.19%) species as traditional medicinal plants, 136 (80.95%) species for fodder, 48 (28.57%) for fuel wood, 28 (16.66%) for timber woods, 07 (4.16%) for wild vegetable and 02 (1.19%) for ethno-veterinary therapies. Similarly, 17 (10.11%) species for wild edible fruits, 2 (1.19%) species for making agricultural tools, 1 (0.59%) species for fencing field borders. It was observed that the local inhabitants used plant resources for single and multiple purposes. Palatable

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flora was also documented and it showed that 79.16% of the total recorded flora were grazed by goat, cow, sheep and buffalo in the study area while 20.83% flora was found non-palatable. This study will assist ecologists, botanists, taxonomist, conservationists and policy makers to manage the current status of plants. The present investigation will also serve as baseline for future researches on the Himalaya Regions.

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Study Area Sathan Gally lies in District Mansehra, situated from 34º-14´ to 35º-11´ North latitude and 72º-49´ to 74º-08´ East longitude. Administratively, this District has three tehsils; Mansehra, Oghi, and Balakot. Mansehra makes its boundary on the North to Kohistan and Battagram Districts, on the East surrounding by Muzaffarabad District of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, on the South to Abbottabad and Haripur Districts and on the West to Shangla and Buner Districts (Fiaz, 2012). The study area includes Guzara (unprotected) and Reserved (protected) forests and falls in Himalaya moist temperate forests types (Champion et al., 1965).

1.1.1 Guzara Forest These forests are under the administrative control of Forest Department, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. As per planned procedure, the Guzara forests are exploited. The Deputy Commissioner of the district led a committee with representatives of the Forest Department and inhabitants of the area for all the important matters of the forest. Most of the offenses in these forests are dealt with under the Hazara Forest Act 1937 (WWF–P, 2004). This forest is situated between 34º-34´ to 34º-42´ North latitude and 73º-07´ to 72º-12´ East longitude, spreading over Hilkot Range of Siran Forest Division.

The tract is surrounded on North by mountains of Hillan, on East by Bhaleja ridge and forests of Upper Siran Range, on its South by Hilkot Village Chattar Plain whereas on West the forest is bounded by mountains ranges of Battagram. The tract is mountainous and the elevation varies from 900 to 2400m above from sea level (Saddozai, 1996).

1.1.1.1 Climate The climatic data of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra is not existing in Pakistan Meteorological Department, Islamabad, as per their reply vide letter No:Agr- 2(1) III/2014/800 Dated: 08/12/2014. The author used weather station (Kestrel 4000 Weather Tracker) to record climatic data during the visits to study area. The area receives maximum 300mm rainfall in July and 270mm in August. The extreme temperature of the area was recorded 30°C and 28°C in the months of June and July, respectively. The least temperature i.e. 8C0 and 9C0 was recorded in the month of January and February, respectively. Snowfall often occurs in this forest particularly near its upper elevational limits during months of December to February. This heavy snowfall causes physical damage of vegetation. In May and June, the temperature is high as compared to rest of the months (Khan et al., 2016).

1.1.1.2 Geology and Soil The rocks of Guzara forest are gneissose, schists, granitoid gneisses, mica schist and shales. Gneiss and gneissose schist occupy greater part of the area, yield loose sandy soil formed by their disintegration and are generally shallow. Soils possess higher moisture retaining capacity under the vegetation cover and are acidic in nature (Saddozai, 1996).

1.1.1.3 Agricultural Customs Terraces on hills slopes of Guzara forest constructed for cropping are not effective and durable. The soil from such slopes washed away within two to three years after construction and barren bed rocks have been left behind. Most of the soil is rain fed and therefore, produces a single crop, mainly of maize. The local inhabitants depend upon the forest for timber, firewood, grazing and grass cutting for their livestock’s (Saddozai, 1996).

Fig. 1.1: Map of Hilkot Forest Range.

Fig. 1.2: Map of the Stusy Area

Fig. 1.3: A view of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra.

Fig. 1.4: Study Area Received Heavy Snowfall in The Month of Jannuary, 2016.

1.1.2 Reserved Forest Reserved forests are those forests in which any anthropological disruption is forbidden unless allowed by the government. All income from sale of reserved forest goes to the government funds and the KP Forest Department is accountable for the conservation and control of these forests. These forests are currently managed according to selection system of forestry and there are definite areas within protected forests that are subject to specific rights offered to native society. The right holders are the people who influenced by the reservation of these forests or those who had no personal forest. These privileges and rights are applicable to use of way, opportunity to use water, chance of grazing, collection of fodder, timber and fuelwood. Nowadays, owing to the increase in population and proliferation in demand, people are unlawfully exploiting the resources of these woodlands and some portions of the national park. Individuals often misuse the privileges given to them and thus cause severe losses on the forest via illegitimate logging, grazing and fodder gathering. Penalties for all offences have administered according to the Pakistan Forest Act 1927 (WWF–P, 2004).

Reserved forest is located between 34º-23´ and 34º-34´ North latitude and 72º- 54´ and 73º-21´East longitude. The area is surrounded on East by Kunhar stream, on the North by the timberlands of Upper Siran pasture and amalgamated tribal zones Nilishang and Hillan, on the West by the non- amalgamated regions of the Hasan Zai Akazai communities and on the South by the areas of Shergarh and Pakhli Plain. The band is hilly and the elevation ranges from 1000 to 2400 m (Ahmad, 1990).

1.1.2.1 Climate Climate of Reserved forest varies from place to place depending upon altitude. Generally, the summer is moderate while the winter is intensively cold. Snow

falls along with rainfall during December, January and February particularly at higher elevations. May and June are the hottest months of the year. The annual rainfall ranges 914 to 1270mm, two third of the rainfall is received in summer and one third in winter. Humidity is lowest in the month of June and highest in months of July and August. The temperature of the area increases gradually from June to July. Temperature drops slightly with the first rainfall and then remains more or less constant till early September. The average maximum temperature of 36°C has been recorded in the month of June. December is the coldest month with average lowest temperature 5.4°C was recorded (Khan et al., 2016).

1.1.2.2 Geology and Soil These are igneous rocks and are exposed at a number of places in the valley and consist of granite of three types; no foliated, foliated and tourmaline bearing. Most of the soil has developed in residuum to coarse, gritty, loosely cemented sand and silt with pebble and gravel bands are found. The soil surface has mummified and is dark colored. The amount of organic matter and thickness of the surface soil are generally greater on cooler and wetter aspects (Ahmad, 1990).

1.1.2.3 Agricultural Customs As agriculture, land is scarce and the locals thus try to bring every available land under cultivation. Terraces on hills slopes are constructed for cropping but they are not effective and long lasting. The soil from such slopes is washed away within a span of two to three years and barren bed rocks left behind. Most of the land is rain fed and therefore produces maize as a single crop, once in a year. The local inhabitants of the area fulfill their needs for construction, fuel wood and fodder from this forest (Ahmad, 1990).

Fig. 1.5: Study Area Showing Deforestation.

Fig. 1.6: Study Field is Under Pressure of over Grazing.

1.2 Biodiversity Plants being the important part of biodiversity rendering important services such as food, firewood, cover, medicines , protection to other organisms, stoppage of flood, landslides, soil degradation, wind erosion, siltation of water reservoir, global warming and raising of the sea level. In developing countries most of the individuals depend on natural medicines, which are mostly obtained from plants. It is assessed that 80% of the world’s population are dependent on traditional medicines (Akerele 1993).

Biodiversity is the diversity of life on globe consisting of differences at all stages of organic organization from DNA to individual species to ecosystems. Due to the devastation of habitats, plant biodiversity is declining because species become extinct. Environments rich in biodiversity are more resilient and can withstand in drought, disease and other stresses. Biodiversity differs greatly across the world as well as within areas. The tropical areas are rich in biodiversity in relation to polar areas. Ecological variables such as temperature, rainfall, elevation, and edaphic affect biodiversity (Haq et al., 2015).

Over exploitation of biodiversity leads to extinction of many species from the earth (Grove, 1995). Vegetational structure is an expression of physical appearance, plant diversity, biological and biotic pressures. Thus, there is an urgent and intense requirement to compile a comprehensive plant list from taxonomic, ecological, and wild life point to launch baseline information. Biodiversity is the direct assessment of the effect of anthropological and grazing disturbances on the forest ecosystem (Stirling and Wilsey, 2001; Schuster and Diekmann, 2005).

1.3 Phytosociology The Swiss environmentalist J. B. Blanquet (1884-1980) in Europe began phytosociology. A variety of schools of thoughts emerged in the start of the 20th century, out of which two gained immense fame, namely the Zurich- Montpellier and the Uppsala schools. Braun-Blanquet one of the advocates of first school, in 1915 defined the plant community is the assemblage of plant speceies in a particular area havimg some dominant specesie on the basis of which plant community is named (Podani, 2006).

Monitoring of vegetation is an easy way for understanding the climatic conditions of an area (Niemi and Mc Donald, 2004). Phytosociological data can be used to describe plant species abundance and vegetation structure. Phytosociology is very useful in different research areas such as in conservation of plants, soil science, landscape ecology and limnology to define the habitat and provide an idea to scientists about the predictable floristic diversity (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974).

1.3.1 Biological spectrum

Biological spectrum is extensively used in exploring vegetation (Raunkiaer, 1934). The life form is a indicator of existing environmental conditions and the adaptation of plants to these conditions (Shimwell, 1971). Leaf size spectra tells us about the physiological processes in the individual plants of plant community (Oosting, 1956). The initiation of flowers is related to temperature, rainfall and length of day.

1.3.2 Species Diversity The composition of species, rarity and commonness in a community can be determined by calculating diversity indices. These indices depict how many species are present in an area. Number of species and evenness directly related to the value of a diversity index. Species richness is also affected by rainfall, soil, steepness of slope, aspect, altitude, latitude and longitude (Marqueus et al., 2004).

1.3.3 Maturity Index Maturity index indicates the ongoing climax trend as well as successional variations in a particular plant association under the influence of ecological conditions. The plant communities that show greater maturity index values are closer to the climax stage. By calculating the values of maturity index, we can find out the best appropriate and favorable altitudinal zones for the plants (Rodolfo and Pichi-Sermolli, 1948).

1.4 Ethnobotany Plants are essential to almost all living organisms on the earth, providing shelter and food. Plants are the basic component of biological food web, producing oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide that causes global warming. A number of significant environmental services are done by plants such as recycling nutrients, protecting soil, and assisting to control rainfall through the transpiration (Cotton, 1996). Ethnobotany deals with the relationships between persons and plants (Harshberger, 1895). The goal of Ethnobotanists is to document, describe and elucidate complex interactions between cultures and plants (Acharyya et al., 2009). Quantitative ethnobotany is a new emerging field was introduced by Phillips and her colleagues (1994) by quantifying the importance of forest products to people and comparing their subsistence and

commercial values. Ethnobotanical studies illustrating that how local inhabitants of the area use different plant species for treating various types of ailments. (Ford, 1994).

1.4 Palatability Palatability is a property of plant that refers to which plants and plant parts are grazed or browsed by animal (Heath et al., 1985). Preference indicates choice of a plant species by the grazers as fodder. Animal aspects such as varied inclination for fodder species, age, reproductive stage, well-being and appetite of animal and plant factors comprising seasonal obtainability, degree of maturity, vegetative growth level, flowering and fruiting, morphological and chemical nature, relative richness of related species availability to plants/locations and weather influence palatability (Hussain and Durrani, 2009).

This study was designed keeping in view the utmost significance of the study area in context of its floral diversity and location. Plant resources of the area were unexplored phytosociologically as well as ethnobotanically. The study area being located in western Himalayas harboring rich floristic diversity. Himalayas are worldwide important biodiversity hotspots and there is rapid loss in plant diversity and changing pattern of vegetation owing to various living and non living factors (Sharma et al., 2009). The area under investigation has rich plant lore. There is an indispensable link between plants and people. Inhabitants largely depend upon local medicinal plants for curing their different ailments. Due to westernization and modernization there is danger of erosion of local wisdom therefore there is dire need to document the local perception of using plants. In the current investigation, an effort was made to explore and analyze correlation of various characteristics of vegetation with ecological variables by using the multivariate analysis technique.

Our study based on the following research questions.

Question No. 1: Is the study area phytosociologically unexplored and showing rich floral diversity?

Question No. 2: Will modern phytosociological tools help to depict the vegetation structure?

Question No. 3: Is anthropogenic influences the main cause of declining floristic diversity?

Question No. 4: Is comparison between protected and unprotects forest show the intensity of anthropogenic pressure?

Question No. 5: Is the vegetation of the study area provide many ecosystem services?

OBJECTIVES

1. To document the floristic composition of the study area.

2. To develop the classification of different plant communities.

3. To correlate the distribution of plant species with environmental variables.

4. To compare the vegetation structure of Reserved forest and Guzara forest of study area.

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Plant Biodiversity Pakistan harboured rich plant diversity due to it’s an important geographical position. The three great mountains Karakoram, Hindukash and Himalaya are the important reservoirs of biological diversity. Pakistan has five highest mountains out of the 14 in the sphere (Ali and Qaiser, 1995-2016).

Devi and Yadava (2006) recorded 123 species of 48 families from tropical semi evergreen forest of Manipur, northeast India. The Poaceae (19 spp.) was most diverse family followed by Fabaceae (13 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (07 spp.) and Acanthaceae (06 spp.). Ssegawa and Nkuutu (2006) reported 179 species belonging to 70 families and 146 genera from Lake Victotia Central Uganda. Rubiaceae was the dominant family with fourteen species followed by Euphorbiaceae (13 spp.), Apocynaceae (10 spp.) and Moraceae (09 spp.). The remaining 35 families were represented by one species each. Species diversity was higher in trees (72 spp.) followed by herbs (58 spp.), lianas (39 spp.) and shrubs (10 spp.). Bocuk et al. (2009) reported the occurrence of 589 plant species of 314 genera of 67 families under natural and anthropogenic effects in Phrygia Region (Central Anatolia, Turkey). The Asteraceae was the main family with 72 species.

Al-Yemeni Al-Yemeni and Sher (2010) explored 189 species belonging to 74 families including 65 dicots, 04 monocots form Asir Mountain of the Kingdom Saudi Arabia. The Asteraceae (19 spp.) was most diverse family followed by Lamiaceae (13 spp.), Poaceae (11 spp.). Papilionaceae (10 spp.), Rosaceae (09 spp.), Ranunculaceae (07 spp.) and Apiaceae (03 spp.). While gymnosperms, and pteridophytes were represented each by one family. Singh (2011)

documented 329 vascular plant species including 5 Pteridophytes and 324 species of Angiosperms in the main campus of Banaras Hindu University, India. The Asteraceae, Poaceae and Leguminosae were the dominant families. Foroughbakhch et al. (2013) recorded 160 taxa of 46 families from shrub land in northeastern Mexico. The Poaceae was main family followed by Asteraceae, Cactaceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Acanthaceae.

Sharma et al. (2014) documented 320 plant species belonging to 199 genera and 75 families from Sangla Valley, Northwest Himalaya. The Angiosperms, (68 families, 190 genera, and 302 species) were dominant followed by gymnosperms represented by 4 families, 7 genera, and 13 species and pteridophytes by 4 families, 3 genera, and 5 species. They were distributed in different life forms, that is, trees (29 spp.), shrubs (43 spp.), and herbs. The Asteraceae (49 spp.) was leading family followed by Rosaceae (21 spp.), Apiaceae (20 spp.) and Ranunculaceae (18 spp.). Among genera, Artemisia and Polygonum (7 spp.), Saussurea (6 spp.), Berberis and Thalictrum (5 spp.) and Geranium, Juniperus, Nepeta, Potentilla, Poa, Rosa and Salix (4 spp. each) were dominant genera.

Ismail and Elawad (2015) documented 48 plant species of 42 genera representing 19 families from the Rashad and Alabassia Localities, South Kordofan State, Sudan. The Poaceae (13 species) was the most diverse family followed by Leguminosae (6 spp.), Malvaceae (4 spp.), Convolvulaceae and Euphorbiaceae (3 spp. each), Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae and Cyperaceae (2 species each), while only one species was recorded of other 9 families.

Françoso et al. (2016) documented 907 species of tree of 76 families from South America central savanna. The Fabaceae with (144 spp.), was dominant family in relations to species number followed by Myrtaceae (84 spp.), Melastomataceae (46 spp.), Lauracea (39 spp.) and Rubiaceae (37 spp.).

Ball et al. (2016) carried out investigation on floristic composition and richness of urban domestic gardens in three urban socioeconomic stratifications in the city Heredia, Costa Rica. The number of plant species recorded were 618, corresponding to 102 families (19% exotic). Regarding geographical origin, 4 % were exotic and 6% native. The most leading families were Orchidaceae (93 spp.) and Araceae (39 spp.).

El-Amier (2016) recorded 119 species, belonging to 97 genera and 28 families from desert of Egypt. The dominant families were Asteraceae followed by Poaceae and Fabaceae with 24, 18 and 11 species, respectively, Brassicaceae and Chenopodiaceae (eight species each), and Caryophyllaceae (7 species). Seta et al. (2017) documented 190 species of 154 genera belonging to 73 families from Biteyu forest in the Gurage mountain chain Ethiopia. The Asteraceae (22 genera, 29 species, 15.26%) was dominant family followed by Lamiaceae (11 genera, 14 species, 7.37%) and Rubiaceae (7 genera, 8 species, 4.21%). Twenty species were found to be endemic taxa to the Flora Area. The Afromontane forests of Ethiopia are under a serious degradation threat due to anthropogenic pressure.

Campo et al. (2017) reported 811 species of 410 genera and 97 families from Espinhaco Septentrional, Bahia, Brazil. The Fabaceae (146 spp.) was most diverse family followed by Asteraceae (95 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (51 spp.), Myrtaceae and Rubiaceae (43 spp. each). Zorzanelli et al. (2017) reported 590 species distributed in 327 genera and 112 families from Brazilian hotspot. The Orchidaceae (61 spp.) was most diverse family with the highest species richness

followed by Melastomataceae (40), Asteraceae (37), Rubiaceae (29) and Polypodiaceae and Solanaceae (24). They reported 11 new records of species for Espirito Santo, three new species for science and 54 endangered species,

Qureshi and Bhatti (2011) explored 93 plant species constituting 30 families of Pai Forest, Nawab Shah, Sindh, Pakistan. The dominant family of the area was Poaceae with 14 species. Musharaf and Hussain (2013) documented 161 plant species comprising of 136 genera and 57 families from Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, Pakistan. Poaceae with 17 species was the main family, followed by Asteraceae having 13 species.

Hussain et al. (2015) conducted study on floristic diversity on Mastuj Valley, District Chitral, Hindukush Range, Pakistan. They documented 571 species of 334 genera belonging to 82 families. Asteraceae (91 Spp.), Poaceae (58 Spp.), Papilionaceae (38 Spp.), Lamiaceae and Rosaceae (each with 26 Spp.), Polygonaceae (25 spp.), Caryophyllaceae (23 spp.), Apiaceae (21 Spp.), Boraginaceae and Brassicaceae (20 Spp., each with) were the leading families. There were 45, 32, 19, 18 and 16 genera respectively in Asteraceae, Poaceae, Brassicaceae, Apiaceae and Papilionaceae.

Mehmood et al. (2015) reported 331 vascular plant species of 246 genera and 101 families from adjacent area (Tor Ghar). Among 331 plant species, 313 were Angiosperms, 6 species of Gymnosperms and 12 species of Pteridophytes. Farooq et al. (2017) recorded 246 species belonging to 85 families from the Upper Tanawal, District Mansehra. The Asteraceae was the most leading family with 23 plant species, followed by Rosaceae (15 species), Lamiaceae (12 species), Poaceae (11 species), Fabaceae (10 species), Brassicaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae and Polygonaceae with 7 species each, Leguminosae with 6 species. However, remaining 75 families had less than 6 species each.

2.2 Biological Spectrum Mood (2008) reported that Therophytes (33%) were dominant in the vegetation of Birjand (Iran) followed by Hemicryptophytes (27%), Chamaephytes (20%), Phanerophytes (11.45%) and Cryptophytes (5.7%). Al-Yemeni and Sher (2010) reported that Therophytes (36.5%) were dominant followed by Hemicryptophytes (15%), Geophytes (12.5%) Chamaephytes 6.5%, Mesophanerophytes 3%, Megaphanerophytes 2%, Nanophanerophytes 13% and Climbers 1.5% form vegetation of the Asir Mountain of SW Saudi Arabia. Microphyll (41.5%) were dominant leaf size spectra class followed by Nanophyll (24%), Leptophyll (13.5%), Mesophyll (12%), Macrophyll (3%) and Megaphyll (1%).

Sharma et al. (2014) found that Therophytes (27.03%) and Macrophanerophytes (25.68%) were the leading class of life form followed by Nanophanerophytes (14.41%), Chamaephytes (13.51%) and Hemicryptophytes (11.26%) from Lamberi Forest Range, Rajouri, J&K, India. Messias et al. (2011) recorded life form spectra of quartzite and itabirite rocky out crop sites in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Among 263 plant species, Phanerophytes (51.3%) were dominant followed by Hemicryptophytes (33.5%), Chamaephytes (8.8%), Cryptophytes (3.4%) and Therophytes 8 (3%).

Nazir and Malik (2006) investigated that Nanophanerophytes were the main class of life form followed by Therophytes, Hemicryptophytes, Megaphanerophytes and Geophytes in the flora of Sarsawa Hills District Kotli. Sher and Khan (2007) conducted study on the biological spectrum of the vegetation of Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, in which, Therophytes (86 spp.,) and Nanophanerophytes (41 spp.,) were reported as the leading life form. Microphyll (54.70%) were dominant leaf spectra of plants followed by

Mesophyll (19.28%). Khan et al. (2011) described that Therophytes were the leading life form class followed by Megaphanerophytes, Nanophanerophytes, Chamaephytes, Hemicryptophytes and Geophytes from the coal mine area of Darra Adam Khel, Khyber Pakhtun Khawa, Pakistan. Microphyll was dominated leaf spectra followed by Mesophyll, Leptophyll, Nanophyll and Megaphyll.

Haq et al. (2015) documented Nanophanerophytes (36 species) and Mesophyll (63 species) were leading class of biological spectrum from subtropical forests of Nandiar Khuwar Catchment areas of District Battagram, Pakistan. Khan et al. (2018) reported that Hemicryptophytes (31.74%) were dominant followed by Megaphanerophytes (20.24%), Therophytes (19.44%) and Nanophanerophytes (17.86) from Thandiani Forests, District Abbottabad, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Microphyll (34.92%) was dominant class of Leaf spectra of the area followed by Leptophyll (29.36%) and Nanophyll (23.80%).

2.3 Phytosociology The introduction of Software packages such as TWINSPAN, DECORANA (Hill, 1979, Hill and Gauch Jr., 1980), CANOCO (Ter Braak, 1989; Ter Braak and Smilauer, 2002) and PC-ORD (McCune, 1986; McCune and Mefford, 1999; Grandin, 2006), is very handy regarding vegetation analysis which assist ecologist to understand and interpret ecological data in a more precise way(Gilliam and Elizabeth, 2003).

These packages are used for vegetation classification and ordination. In classification plants species are arranged themselves on the basis of impotance values for establishment of plant communities.

In ordination plant species array themselves on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities. The species which are similar they reside closer to on another

due to similarities in their habitat in low dimensional space whereas the species which are different from one another they are apart from each other due to different requirement in respect to their habitats. (Gauch, 2010). Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) are the most widely used classification and ordination techniques to determine plant communities, their ecological gradients, indicator species and the significance of the relationships between vegetation and environmental data (Hill and Gauch Jr., 1980; Dufrêne and Legendre, 1997).

Bekele (1994) reported eight plant communities by using TWINSPAN from humid Afromontane forest on the Central Plateau of Ethiopia. Those plant associations were Arundinaria alpina community, Ilex mitis-Rapanea simensis community, Syzygium guineense-Psychotria orophila community, Olea hochstetteri- Olinia aequipetala community, Croton macrostachyus-Ficus community, Olea welwitschii-Carissa edulis community, Syzygium guineense-Vepris dainelli community and Erica arborea community.

Hussain et al. (2008) reported eight plant communities by using TWINSPAN from Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Rad et al. (2009) documented four plant associations including Querco-Carpinetum betulii, Carpineto-Fagetum Oriental, Rusco-Fagetum Oriental and Fagetum Oriental from the deciduous forests of Iran by using TWINSPAN. Peer et al. (2007) applied TWINSPAN and recognized 11plant communities in Hindu Kush Mountains. Yalcin et al. (2004) conducted a study on the interactions between plant associations and soil properties in a swamp forest from the Northern part of Turkey. Statistically significant correlations were found between the edaphic variables and three diverse plant associations (Carpino orientalis-Pterocaryetum fraxinifoliae, Acero campestris-Alnetum glutinosae). Kenar (2017) documented two-plant association by using cluster analysis from the southeast part of Central Anatolia of Turkey.

Those plant communities were Asphodelino damascenae-Quercetum pubescentisy and Ziziphoro clinopodioidis-Festucetum valesiacae.

Malik and Malik (2004) reported seven plant communities Adiantum-Ulea, Acacia modesta, Dodonaea-Acacia, Pinus-Themeda, Imperata-Pinus and Pinus- Carissa from Kotli hills. Ali et al. (2004) reported twenty-four plant communities from Pir Chinasi hills, District Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Moinuddin et al. (2006) carried out survey on vegetation structure in various zones of Himalayan Forests of Pakistan and documented 24 different plant communities.

Nafeesa et al. (2007) studied the climatic, edaphic and biotic variables in relation to vegetation structure of Pir Chinasi Hills of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Thirteen plant communities with 77 species were documented. It was found that physico-chemical properties of soil played an important role in developing plant communities. Jasem et al. (2008) conducted phytosociological study on urban areas of Karachi and recorded plant communities, which were different with low species diversity and less than 50% community maturity index values. The soil was of sandy loam, loamy sand, loamy silt, sandy, silty and alkaline in nature. Extension of the roads, construction of flyover, and cutting of the natural vegetation were threats to vegetation loss of the region.

Khan (2009) studied the vegetation of catchment areas of upper Siran valley District Mansehra and reported eleven plant communities. The vegetation was of sub-tropical to moist temperate type. Anthropogenic activities were the main threats to existing vegetation. Abbas et al. (2009) analyzed the vegetation and reported eight plants communities from Grey Goral in Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Farooq et al. (2010) documented 5 plant communities like Pinus-Abies- Sophora, Pinus-Abies, Abies-Cedrus, Abies-Pinus and Pinus-Abies from push ziarat

area in the South Waziristan. The communities showed the characters of dry temperate forest.

Khan et al. (2012) investigated nineteen plant communities from district Chitral, Hindukush range of Pakistan. Those plant association were Cedrus deodara community, Juniperus excelsa community, Quercus baloot community, Cedrus- Pinus gerardiana community, Cedrus-Pinus wallichiana community, Cedrus-Abies pindrow community, Cedrus-Picea smithiana community, Pinus wallichiana-Abies community, Pinus gerardiana-Quercus community, Juniperus excelsa-Betula community, Juniperus communis-Nepeta community, Micromeria brevifolia- Astragalus community, Tamarix appylla-Cynodon community, Artemisia brevifolia- Echinops community, Artemisia brevifolia-Artemisia santolinifolia community, Artemisia brevifolia-Artemisia maritima community, Rumex hastatus-Ranunculus community, Arenaria griffithii-Potentilla arnavatensis community and Chrysopogon echinulatus-Nepeta discolor community.

Shah and Rozina (2013) conducted a Phytosociological exploration on vegetation graveyard of Dheri Baba Hill Gohati and Peer Taab. In which, twelve plant communities were recognized. Soil was slightly alkaline and sandy in texture. Organic matter content was high in the soil of Peer Tab graveyard. Rahman et al. (2015) conducted phytosociological survey on the Peochar Valley of the Hindu Kush Mountains. They reported four plant communities viz. Pinus–Sarcococca–Dryopteris community, Picea–Parrotiopsis–Fragaria community, Abies–Viburnum–Carex community and Indigofera–Plectranthus– Viola community by applying cluster analysis technique. Haq et al. (2015) reported six plant communities by applying TWINSPAN classification from subtropical forests of Nandiar Khuwar catchment district Battagram.

Hussain et al. (2008) investigated plant species composition and community structure of 23 forest stands in Kumaon Himalaya ranging in elevations of 1500- 3000 m. They described 19 forest communities and 17 understory communities. The alignment of tree species on DCA axis 1 exhibited effect of elevational gradient. Maximum tree species diversity and richness were documented for Daphiadhura location where as the Vinaiyak location showed highest shrub diversity. Pinus wallichiana, Betula utilis, Tsuga demosa were found to be rare tree species.

2.4 Ethno Botanical Profile Long and Li (2004) documented the folklore of 66 medicinal plant species traditionally collected and used by the people, Yunnan Province, China. They documented novel ethnobotanical uses of 27 plants first time in the literature. The ethnobotanical practices had deep roots in the community. Locals, especially elders, were observed having very firm belief over the herbal recipes. The authors reported that younger generations were showing least interest in gaining that precious asset from their elders. An immediate baseline survey and documentation of the indigenous folklore recommended.

Rethy et al. (2010) recorded 88 plant species of 47 families, 24 species were utilized as vegetable, 18 species were used as drug and 13 species were used as edible natural products. Castro et al. (2011) reported traditional uses of medicinal uses of 87 plant species, belonging to 42 families from the flora of Brazil. The Asteraceae was leading familiy followed by Lamiaceae and Rutaceae. The most common modes of preparation were tea (65.49%), juice (1.76%), syrup (15.54%), maceration (5.55%) and baths (4.44%). Amiri et al. (2012) recorded 52 therapeutic plants of 48 genera and 26 families from North East Iran. The Lamiaceae with nine spp., followed by Asteraceae (8 spp.), Apiaceae (4 spp.) and Leguminosae (3 spp.) were the major families which

contributed in therapeutic uses. These plant species can be used for curing different ailments such as anthelmintic, stomach related issues, jaundice, respiratory illnesses, and urinary sicknesses.

Hamayun et al. (2005) conducted study on ethnobotanical profile of Utror and Gabral Valleys, Swat, Pakistan. They found that the local residents of the valley utilized 181 plant species for more than 42 domestic uses. The majority of the plants are utilized for various uses. A few plants are used as an extra source of income by selling them in the local markets. Jan et al. (2010) recorded traditional therapeutic uses of 26 weeds species of 16 families of Dir Kohistan. The investigation uncovered that the region is rich in indigenous information related to weeds but still there is substantial number of underutilized weeds which could not prove valuable still.

Abbasi et al. (2010) documented medicinal uses of 27 plant species, of 23 families for healing of wounds by the tribal peoples of Northern Himalayan Range, district Abbottabad. They recommended that the wound healing property of local plants can be used by pharmaceutical industry for screening new chemical compounds. Shinwari (2010) inquired the status of therapeutic plants exploration in Pakistan. A large portion of the general population in Pakistan depend on medicinal plants for curement of their minor, even in some cases major illnesses. Hazrat et al. (2010) reported 50 therapeutic plants, of 32 families of Usherai Valley. Ullah et al. (2010) documented the therapeutic uses of 34 medicinal plant species of 25 families utilized in Darra Adam Khel. These therapeutic plants are used for the treatment of cough, stomach problem, diabetes, headache, toothache, jaundice, and skin ailments.

Khan et al. (2011c) documented the traditional uses of 33 therapeutic halophytes of 18 families of Noshpho Salt Mine District Karak, KP Pakistan. These

medicinal plants are used to treat different types of illnesses such as cough, stomach problem, headache, diabetes, toothache, jaundice, and skin. Sher et al. (2011) reported 216 ethno botanically significant plant species from Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Out of which, 138 were medicinal species, 72 multi-uses species, 66 fodder and forage species, 51 fuel wood species, 36 vegetable and pot-herb species, fruit yielding and roofing 25 species each, 21 timber species, 19 ornamental species, 15 poisonous plants, 14 fencing and hedges plants, 12 agricultural tools making species, 9 honey bee species and one species used to repel evils. Mahmood et al. (2012) enlisted ethnobotanical uses of 35 plant species of 30 families from Dudial region, region Mirpur, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan.

Ahmad et al. (2014) reported 50 plant species of 48 genera belonging to 35 families from Chail valley. Herbs (58%) were dominant followed by shrubs (28%), trees (12%) and climbers (2%). The most commonly used parts were leaves (33%), roots (17%), fruits (14%), whole plant (12%), rhizomes (9%), stems (6%), barks (5%) and seeds (4%). Decoction was the most common method use in herbal recipes.The urinary disorders, dysentery, digestive disorders, asthma, jaundice and diarrhea wee the most common treated illnesses in the area.

2.4 Degree of Palatability Smit et al. (2006) investigated that unpalatable plants could increase tree regeneration in forest under grazing strength. Seedling existence was high near ungrazed plants. These outcomes have significant management implications for the endangered and vanishing forest in Western Europe. Transplanting tree seedlings close to ungrazed plants could be an substitute reforestation method in intensively grazed pastures. Campanella and Bisigato (2010) recorded

reduced plant cover, variations in floristic composition and less availability of nutrients in soil owing to grazing.

Kochare et al. (2018) reported 145 palatable plant species, from which, 48 (33.1%) were trees, 27 (18.6%) were shrubs and the remaining 70 (48.3%) were herbs from Southern Ethiopia. Of the 145 recorded species, 82 (56.6%) were highly palatable, 25 (17.2%) were mostly palatable, 24 (16.6%) were less palatable, and 14 (9.6) were rarely palatable. Goats preferred the most plants (139 species, 95.8%), cattle (121 species, 83.4%), sheep (106 species, 73.1%) and donkeys (67 species, 46.2%). Goats preferred herbs (66 species, 47.5%), trees (46 species, 33.1%) and shrubs (27 species, 19.4%). Goat favored herbs (67 species, 54.0%), trees (34 species, 28.1%) and shrubs (20 species, 16.5%). Sheep preferred herbs (64 species, 60.4%), trees (24 species, 22.6%) and shrubs (18 species, 17.0%). The donkeys also preferred herbs (59 species, 88.0%), trees (4 species, 6.0%) and shrubs (4 species, 6.0%). Most of the animals preferred the leaf part of plants (78 species, 53.8%), shoots/whole parts (53 species, 36.5%), fruits and/or flowers (53 species, 36.5%), twigs (41 species, 28.3%) and roots (6 species, 4.1%).

Hussain and Durrani (2009) documented 129 grazed species containing 50.4% highly palatable, 4.65% less palatable and 3.87% rarely palatable species in Harboi rangeland Kalat, Pakistan. Out of which, 99 species (63%) shoots/whole plants were used, in 30 species (19%) leaves were consumed while in 29 species (18%) flowers were used. Goats browsed on 104 and sheep consumed 98 species. Badshah and Hussain (2011) conducted survey on the herdsmen and farmers preference of local fodder species in semi-arid region of District Tank. A total of 38 various local fodder species were used by farmers in the region. Acacia nilotica, Zizyphus mauritiana and Convolvulus arvensis were the most preferred species. Khan and Hussain (2012) recorded a total of 161 plant species from Tehsil Takht-e- Nasrati, District Karak, KP, Pakistan. Out of them,

(18.01%) species were non-palatable, (19.88%) species were highly palatable, (26.71%) species were mostly palatable, (21.12%) species were less palatable and (14.29%) species were rarely palatable. The usually animals preferred (62.88%) plant species in a fresh form, (0.76%) species in dry form and (36.4%) species in both forms. The goat preferred the most plant (33.52% species), cow (17.33% species) and sheep (14.5% species).

Chapter 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 General Survey The whole study area was divided into 35 sampling sites based on physical appearance of vegetation by visiting the investigated area. Frequent visits and surveys were conducted during flowering and fruiting seasons of plants for 2 consecutive years; 2013 and 2014 to collect the flora of the study area.

3.2 Floristic Composition Different plant species were collected during the flowering seasons, properly tagged and given voucher number along field notes.All the collected plant species were pressed in field presser on spot and allied information related to their locality, scientific/ local names, habit, habitat and family was recorded. The plant species were pressed in old newspapers for about 24 to 48 hours. Newspapers were changed regularly for 10 to 15 days until specimen are properly dried. The dry specimens were poisoned using solution by dissolving mercuric chloride 2g, copper sulphate 10g, phenol crystal 10g, in one-liter alcohol and mounted on standard herbarium sheets (11.5”× 17.5”). The plant species were identified with the help of the Flora of Pakistan (Nasir and Ali, 1970-1989; Ali, S. I. and M. Qaiser, 1995-2016, Ali, S. I. and Y. J. Nasir, 1990-1993) and available literatures.

A complete floristic list was compiled along with their respective families. Phenological behavior, temperature, air moisture, slope angle and life form were recorded on the spot. The voucher specimens deposited in the Herbarium Hazara University (HUP), Mansehra.

3.3 Phenology Phenological observation for two consecutive years 2013 and 2014 were recorded throughout the year by visiting the study area. The flowering of the plant species was recorded each month.

Table 3.1. Environmental data of the study sites of Sathan Gally.

Slope Angle Stands Altitude(m) Latitude(N) Longitude(E) Aspect Temperature(°C) (Degree)

S1 2100 34.362 73.122 W 60 20 S2 1900 34.364 73.113 N 50 21 S3 2050 34.363 73.118 N 55 29 S4 2150 34.362 73.118 N 40 30 S5 2280 34.361 73.117 S 65 22 S6 2100 34.365 73.119 N 55 22 S7 1950 34.364 73.117 N 60 24 S8 1980 34.364 73.117 N 40 24 S9 1890 34.364 73.111 E 70 27 S10 2070 34.364 73.114 E 60 25 S11 2225 34.361 73.117 S 50 21 S12 2200 34.356 73.124 S 65 20 S13 2300 34.361 73.117 S 50 22 S14 1675 34.601 73.172 NE 70 21 S15 1828 34.610 73.195 S 65 22 S16 1890 34.607 73.198 S 40 25 S17 1920 34.608 73.197 SW 75 24 S18 1860 34.608 73.198 NE 70 24 S19 1890 34.607 73.198 E 71 21

S20 2194 34.623 73.202 NE 40 25 S21 2255 34.625 73.205 NW 45 24 S22 2286 34.625 73.198 S 45 26 S23 2255 34.625 73.197 SW 30 27 S24 2286 34.625 73.196 SE 70 30 S25 2133 34.622 73.202 NE 70 21 S26 2165 34.622 73.202 N 60 23 S27 2195 34.621 73.202 E 35 25 S28 1920 34.610 73.201 S 65 28 S29 1980 34.609 73.200 SE 60 30 S30 2042 34.608 73.201 N 80 29 S31 1980 34.600 73.202 N 60 31 S32 2225 34.675 73.186 SW 70 18 S33 2377 34.655 73.184 W 80 15 S34 2286 34.655 73.198 NE 65 18 S35 1950 34.666 73.205 W 45 19

Table 3.2: Physico-chemical Data of the Study Sites of Sathan Gally.

Electrical Organic Matter Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Stands Altitude(m) pH Conductivity Texture Class (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (ds/m) Stand of Reserved (protected) Forest S1 2100 6.1 0.01 1.3 0.03 6 135 Loam S2 1900 6.4 0.01 1.5 0.021 4 120 Sandy loam S3 2050 5.9 0.02 1.6 0.042 5 125 Sandy loam S4 2150 6.2 0.05 1.38 0.036 8 105 Loam S5 2280 6.4 0.04 1.42 0.035 7 110 Loam S6 2100 6.0 0.03 0.85 0.04 8 130 Loam S7 1950 6.4 1.1 0.44 0.057 4.1 122 Sandy clay loam S8 1980 6.3 1.2 0.64 0.052 5.1 124 Sandy clay loam S9 1890 6.2 2.1 0.29 0.041 7.9 132 Sandy clay loam S10 2070 6.8 2.4 0.43 0.034 4.1 135 Sandy clay loam S11 2225 7.2 1.4 0.68 0.052 3.2 125 Loamy sand S12 2200 6 0.03 1.3 1.25 6 125 Loam S13 2300 6.1 0.3 1.5 0.78 7 120 Loamy sand Stand of Guzara (unprotected) Forest S14 1828 6 0.5 1 0.6 6 110 Silty loam S15 1890 7.1 2.6 0.69 0.033 4.5 128 Silty loam S16 1920 6.9 2.1 0.7 0.054 3 112 Silty loam S17 1860 6.3 1.8 0.7 0.028 4.1 126 Silty loam

S18 1890 5.8 1.1 0.68 0.035 3.2 127 Silty loam S19 2194 5.4 1.4 0.65 0.061 4.5 125 Silty loam

S20 2255 5.6 1.1 0.68 0.058 3.0 110 Sandy loam

S21 2286 6.1 2.4 0.65 0.061 4.3 118 Sandy loam S22 2255 6.4 1.9 0.64 0.068 4.2 119 Sandy loam S23 2286 7.3 1.1 0.67 0.061 5.3 110 Sandy clay loam S24 2133 7.2 1.5 0.68 0.021 5 119 Sandy clay loam S25 2165 6.5 1.3 0.75 0.029 5.4 126 Sandy clay loam S26 2195 6.1 1.5 0.71 0.044 4.9 122 Sandy clay loam S27 1920 5.6 2.1 0.67 0.041 5.1 120 Loam S28 1980 5.8 1.2 0.68 0.033 4.8 101 Silty loam S29 2042 6.9 1.9 0.6 0.028 5.3 101 Silty loam S30 1980 6.4 2.1 0.55 0.037 6 111 Sandy loam S31 2225 5.8 2.4 0.56 0.044 4.8 114 Sandy loam S32 2377 5.7 1.1 0.59 0.049 5.4 88 Sandy loam S33 2286 6.4 2.4 0.6 0.055 5.3 137 Sandy loam S34 1950 5.1 2 0.6 0.018 5.5 131 Sandy clay loam S35 2100 5.3 1.1 0.54 0.026 5.2 129 Sandy clay loam

Fig. 3.1: Map of the study sites with stands selected for study in Reserved and Guzara forests.

Fig. 3.2: Resercher while documenting the data in Sathan Gally.

3.4 Biological Characteristics 3.4.1 Life Form The plants were arranged into following life form classes after Runkiaer (1934) and Hussain (1989).

3.4.1.1 Phanerophytes Those plant species having Perennating buds coming out at least 25cm above from soil surface are included in Phanerophytes. They were further sub- divided in to following sub-classes based on Perennating bud. i. Megaphanerophytes are plants over 30m tall. ii. Mesophanerophytes are plants between 8-30m tall. iii. Microphanerophytes are plants and shrubs between 2-8m tall. Iv. Nanophanerophytes are shrubs between 25cm-2m tall.

3.4.1.2 Chamaephytes In this class, Perennating buds or shoots that lie on the surface of ground up to 25cm. Mostly herbaceous flora are prsent in this category.

3.4.1.3 Hemicryptophytes The Perennating buds are lying on surface of the ground where soil and leaves protect them. The perennial buds lie at ground level and dying back at the onset of unfavorable conditions. Stolon may or may not be present.

3.4.1.4 Geophytes

The perennating buds lie below the ground level or submerged in water.

3.4.1.5 Therophytes All annual plant species that complete their life cycle from seed to seed during favorable season of the year. Their life span can from few weeks to one season.

3.4.2 Leaf Spectra According to Oosting (1956) knowledge of leaf size may assist in comprehending the physiological process of plants and classifying plant community. Leaf size aspect was determined by classifying the leaves into the following classes as described by Raunkiaer (1934). i. Leptophyll (L): The leaf size is 25 sq. mm ii. Nanophyll (N): The leaf size is 225sq. mm iii. Mesophyll (Mi): The leaf size is 2025 sq. mm iv. Mesophyll (Me): The leaf size is 18225 sq. mm v. Megaphyll (Ma): The leaf size is 164025 sq. mm

Fig.3.3: Leaf size classes.

1. Less than A = Leptophyll (L) 2. Between A and B = Nanophyll (N) 3. Between B and C = Microphyll (Mi) 4. Between C and 2 time D = Mesophyll (Me) 5. Between 2 time D and 8 time = Macrophyll (Ma)

The size of the diagram as bounded by the black line

3.5 Phytosociology 3.5.1 Sampling Method The vegetation of the investigated area was analysed by using quadrat method which is most common quantitative sampling method. The vegetation was sampled in three layers i.e. trees, shrubs and herbs. Plants having height of ≥ 5 m consisderd as trees, shrubs (height 1 to 5 m) and herbs (less than 1 m in height). The cover of the trees (at breast height) and shrubs was measured by using diameter tape and cover values for herbs were noted visually according to a regulated Braun–Blanquet scale later on modified by Daubenmire (Table 3.3) (Braun-Blanquet et al., 1932, Daubenmire, 1968). Different phytosociological attributes were calculated by using phytosociological formulae (McIntosh, 1978).

3.5.1.1 Size and Number of Quadrats The size of quadrat was 10 × 2 m2 for trees 5× 2 m2 for shrubs and 1× 1m2 for herbs (Malik, 1986). The number of quadrats for trees, shrubs and herbs were 5, 10 and 20 respectively.

3.5.1.2 Distribution of Quadrats Systematic quadrats that give better results were used. For a better understanding of vegetation structure and variation in floristic diversity, both altitude and aspect were kept in mind during sampling. The following phytosociological attributes were measured from each stand.

3.5.1.3 Density Density was recorded after Malik and Hussain (1987) by following formula.

Density = Total no of individuals of a species Total no of quadrats

3.5.1.4 Relative Density Density was recorded after Malik and Hussain (1987) by following formula.

Relative Density = Density of a species × 100 Density of all species

3.5.1.5 Frequency Density was recorded after Brower and Zar (1977) by following formula.

Frequency = No of occurrence of a species in one quadrat × 100 Total no of quadrats

3.5.1.6 Relative Frequency It was determined from the percentage proportion of the total frequency of all species (Brower and Zar, 1977).

Relative frequency = Frequency value of one species × 100 Total frequency of all species 3.5.1.7 Canopy Cover The canopy coverage of tree was calculated by using the formula Oosting (1956).

Circumference =  D

C D   D2 Area  4

C C2 A  C    12.56 C 2 A  12.56 C2 C.C = ______12.56 × Total number of quadrats × size of quadrat

Trees with less than 1.5m were considered as shrub. Coverage of shrubs and herbs was calculated after coverage classes of Daubenmire (1959).

Table 3.3 Braun Blanquet Covers Classes Modified by Daubenmire.

Coverage Range Coverage (cm) Mid Points of Classes Coverage Classes

1 Covering 0 to 5 of the ground 2.5 2 Covering 5 to 25 of the ground 15.0 3 Covering 25 to 50 of the ground 37.5 4 Covering 50 to 75 of the ground 62.5 5 Covering 75 to 95 of the ground 85.0 6 Covering 95 to 100 of the ground 97.5

Canopy cover = Total canopy cover of a species Number of quadrat × quadrat size

3.5.1.8 Relative Canopy Cover The relative cover was calculated by uing the following formula (Brower and Zar, 1977).

Relative Canopy Cover = Canopy cover of a species × 100 Total canopy cover of all species

3.5.1.9 Importance Value Index The importance value index was calculated by using following formula. IVI = Relative density + Relative frequency + Relative canopy cover 3

3.6 Multivariate Analysis The quantitative data of phytosociological attributes were analyzed by Multivariate Analysis CANOCO version 5 and PC-ORD version 6.25 (Ter Braak and Barendregt, 1986), using classification and ordination techniques.

3.6.1 Classification To categorize species and samples cluster analysis TWINSPAN (Hill, 1979) was used. The numbers of Sample are arranged at the top of table, the names of species be arranged along left side of table. The zeros and ones pattern on the right and bottom sides explain the dendrogram of the classifications of species and samples. The abundance classes defined by pseudo species cut levels lies in the interior of table.

3.6.2 Ordination For multivariate ordination analysis, ordination is the arrangement of data along axes based on their similarities. The main purpose of ordination is to attain an effective data reduction, articulating many-dimensional relationships in a lesser number of dimensions. This measures to extracting the strongest correlation structure in the data. The correlation structure is used to positions data in the ordination space. Plant species or samples wich lie close in the ordination space are generally more similar than objects wich are located far in the ordination space. DCA ordinates species and samples instantaneously. The DCA analysis was used to find out the relationship among vegetation types. CCA (Canonical correspondence analysis; Ter Braak, 1986, 1994) was used to

investigate the correlation of environmental variables with distribution of plant species and samples.

3.7 Index of Diversity The index of diversity was calculated after Simpson (1949) method. ∑ n (n1) / N (N• 1) Where n = Total number of individuals of a species N = Total number of all species

3.7 Species Richness The species richnes was calculatd by using thre following formula Menhinick index

D= S/√N

Where D = Species richness. S = Total number of species in a community. N=Total number of individuals of a community.

3.9 Maturity Index Maturity index was calculated by using te following formula Pichi-Sermolli’s (1948).

Degree of maturity= Frequency values of all species in a quadrat Total number of species in a quadrat 3.10 Climatic Variables Clinometer was used to record the steepness of slope and aspect whereas altitude, latitude and longitude were taken with the help of GPS (Global Positioning System). The environmental data such as temperature, humidity

and barometric pressure was measured by weather station (Kestrel 4000 weather tracker).

3.11 Edaphology Soil samples of 400g were collected from each stand up to depth of 15 and 30 cm randomly, next to make composite sample, stored in a polythene bag and labeled. These soil samples were analyzed for the following physical and chemical characteristics at Agriculture Research Station Baffa, Mansehra.

3.11.1 Soil Texture Soil texture was determined by hydrometric method. The texture class was obtained with the help of textural triangle (Ghani and Amir, 2003).

3.11.2 Soil pH The pH meter was used to measure the pH of each soil sample (Khan et al., 2010).

3.11.3 Organic Matter The Walkley and Black’s titration method was used to measure the organic matter concentration of each soil sample (Fonge et al., 2011).

3.11.4 Potassium and Phosphorus Atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used to determine the concentration of potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) in each sample (Fonge et al., 2011).

3.11.6 Electrical Conductivity The electrical conductivity of each sample was determined by Electrical Conductivity Meter (Khan et al., 2010).

3.12 Ethnobotanical Profile Semi-structured questionnaire method was used to gather ethnobotanical information from each site (Appendix 1). Information about the local uses of the plants such as medicinal, timber, fodder and fuel wood etc. were got through

random sampling by interviewing 300 individuals including nomads, local inhabitants from different age group and gender. Separate questionnaire was completed from plant harvester, retailers, seniors, plant merchants and local therapists (Hakims). The data were gathered and analyzed by using MS Excel, 2013.

3.13 Degree of Palatability 3.13.1 Differential Palatability Palatability of plants was observed by direct observation in the field and further added with information collected from local peoples and nomads by using questionnaires (Appendix II). The plants were categorized into following palatability classes.

1. Non - palatable: Those plants, which were not eaten by animals. 2. Palatable: These plant which were eaten partially or wholly by grazing animals. They were further divided based on fondness of animals, parts grazed, freshness and dryness of plants. The following plant palatable categorisies were used to recoed the data. i. Highly palatable: The highly preferred plant species by grazing animals over other plant. ii. Medium palatable: The reasonably preferred plant species by livestock’s. iii. Less palatable: The less preferred plant species by animals. iv. Rarely palatable: The plant species, which are used in rare condition by grazing animals.

3.13.2 Palatability by Parts Used by Animals The palatable plants were categorized based on parts utilized by the grazing animals in the following classes:

i. Whole Plant ii. Leaves and twigs iii. Flowers and fruits

3.13.3 Palatability by Animal Preferences The grazing animals vary in their choice of selection of diet in the same area. In the current study the classification of the plants species was done on the basis of preference by grazing animals; goats, sheep and cow.

3.13.4 Palatability by Freshness / Dryness of Forage Plant species were categorized based on fresh or dry form or both.

Chapter 4 RESULTS

4.1 Floristic Composition The current study was conducted to explore the floristic diversity and phytosociology of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra, KP, Pakistan. A total of 170 plant species belonging to 154 genera of 73 families were recorded in 35 stands. The Asteraceae was the leading family represented by 20 species, followed by Rosaceae by 14 species, Poaceae by 12 species, Labiateae by 10, Polygonaceae by 5, Primulaceae by 4 species and Caryophyllaceae and Moraceae by 3 species each (Fig. 4.1). Angiosperms were represented by 158 species (92.85%), 5 species of gymnosperms (2.97%) and pteridophytes represented by 7 (2.16%) plant species (Fig. 4.2).

4.2 Phenology In Sathan Gally two main flowering seasons were recorded one from April to June and second from September to November. The maximum plant species flowering is April-June (77.53%) and (15.74%) Sep-Nov. The study area is covered with snow in the month of December, January and February due to which minimum flowering and fruiting stages were recorded. The blooming of flowers starts first in lower elevations and open slopes while late at higher altitudes and shady places. The flowering and fruiting of various plant species also depend on temperature, sunlight, precipitation, moisture of soil and air humidity. The details of phenology, life form and leaf spectra of various plant species of Sathan Gally are presented in Table (4.2).

Moraceae 1.76

Caryophyllaceae 1.76

Primulaceae 2.35 Percentage Polygonaceae 2.94

Poaceae 7.05 Families Lamiaceae 7.64

Rosaceae 8.23

Asteraceae 12.35

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Fig. 4.1: Graphical Representation of Dominant Families of the Study Area.

5, 3% 7, 4%

Angiosperms Gymnosperms 158, 93.02% pteridophytes

Fig. 4.2: Graphical Representation of Different Groups of Tracheophytes of Sathan Gally.

Table 4.1: Representative Families of Vegetation of Sathan Gally.

S. No. Family No. of species 1 Acanthaceae 1 2 Pteridaceae 2 3 Apiaceae 2 4 Araceae 2 5 Araliaceae 1 6 Asparagaceae 1 7 Araceae 1 8 Asteraceae 21 9 Balsaminaceae 1 10 Berberidaceae 1 11 Betulaceae 1 12 Boraginaceae 1 13 Brassicacae 1 14 Plantaginaceae 1 15 Buxaceae 1 16 Leguminosae 1 17 Cannabinaceae 1 18 Adoxaceae 2 19 Caryophyllaceae 3 20 Amaranthaceae 2 21 Colchicacea 1 22 Convolvulaceae 1 23 Cucurbitaceae 1 24 Cyperaceae 1 25 Ebenaceae 1 26 Ericaceae 2

27 Euphorbiaceae 1 28 Leguminosae 1 29 Fagaceae 2 30 Fumariaceae 1 31 Gentianaceae 2 32 Geraniaceae 2 33 Hypericaceae 1 34 Hamamelidaceae 1 35 Sapindaceae 1 36 Juglandaceae 1 37 Lamiaceae 13 38 Lythraceae 1 39 Malvaceae 2 40 Meliaceae 1 41 Moraceae 3 42 Primulaceae 1 43 Oleaceae 1 44 Onagraceae 1 45 Oxalidaceae 1 46 Paeoniaceae 1 47 Hydrangeaceae 1 48 Pinaceae 4 49 Plantaginaceae 2 50 Platanaceae 1 51 Poaceae 12 52 Podophyllaceae 1 53 Polygonaceae 5 54 Primulaceae 4 55 Pteridaceae 5

56 Ranunculaceae 4 57 Rhamnaceae 2 58 Rosaceae 14 59 Rubiaceae 1 60 Rutaceae 1 61 Salicacae 1 62 Sapindaceae 1 63 Saxifragaceae 1 64 Plantaginaceae 2 65 Simaroubaceae 1 66 Solanaceae 2 67 Taxaceae 1 68 Thymelaeaceae 1 69 Cannabaceae 2 70 Araceae 2 71 Adoxaceae 1 72 Violaceae 1 73 Vitaceae 1

4.1.2 Biological Spectrum 4.1.2.1 Life Form A sum of 170 plant species classified into different life form classes. The Therophytes were dominant life form of the vegetation of study area, contributing (30.35%) plant species, followed by Hemicryptophytes with (20.23%), Megaphanerophytes (16.66%), Geophytes and Nanophanerophytes by (12.5%) each, Chamaephytes by (7.14%) and (0.59 %) species by Leptophyll (Fig.4.3).

4.1.2.2 Leaf Size Spectra Microphyll (40.47%) were the leading leaf size spectra followed by Mesophyll containing (26.78%) plant species, Nanophyll by (24.4%) species, and (4.14%) species each by Macrophyll and Leptophyll species (Fig. 4.4).

7.140.59 TH 12.5 30.35 H MP GE 12.5 NP CH

16.66 20.23 L

Fig. 4.3: Graphical Representation of Life Form Classes of Sathan Gally.

Mp = Megaphanerophytes Np = Nanophanerophytes H = Hemicryptophytes Th = Therophytes Ch = Chamaephytes Ge = Geophytes L = Lianas

4.14 4.14

41 24.4 Mi Me 26.78 Na L Ma

Fig. 4.4: Graphical Representation of Leaf Spectra Classes of Sathan Gally.

Key:

L = Leptophyll Me = Mesophyll

Ma = Megaphyll

Mi = Microphyll

N = Nanophyll

Table 4.2: Phenology, Life Form and Leaf Size Spectra of Different Plant Species Recorded from Sathan Gally.

S. Life Leaf No. Botanical Name Family Habit Flowering Form Spectra 1 Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle Pinaceae Tree Apr-May MP Na 2 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Araceae Herb Jun-Sept GE Me 3 Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae Herb Jul-Sept H Mi 4 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Pteridaceae Herb Sept-Dec GE Mi 5 Adiantum caudatum L. Pteridaceae Herb May-Jul GE Ma 6 Aegopodium burttii Nasir Apiaceae Herb Jul-Sept TH Mi 7 Aesculus indica (Comb.) Hook Sapindaceae Tree May-Jul MP Ma 8 Agrostis stolonifera L. Poaceae Herb July-Aug H Na 9 Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. Lamiaceae Herb Mar-Jun TH Me 10 Ajuga parviflora Benth. Lamiaceae Herb Apr-Jun TH N 11 Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle Simaroubaceae Tree Mar-Jun MP Mi 12 Alnus nitida (Spach.) Endl. Betulaceae Tree Aug-Oct MP Me 13 Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae Herb Apr-Jun TH Na 14 Leptopus cordifolius Decne. Euphorbiaceae Shrub Apr-Jul NP Mi 15 Androsace rotundifolia Hardw. Primulaceae Herb May-Jul TH Mi

16 Anaphalis busua DC. Asteraceae Herb Jul–Sept TH Na 17 Apluda sp. Poaceae Herb Jul- Oct H Mi 18 Aquilegia pubiflora Wall.ex Royle Ranunculaceae Herb May-Aug TH Me 19 Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott Araceae Herb Jun-Sept GE Me 20 Arisaema utile Hook.fex. Schott. Araceae Herb May-Jul TH Mi 21 Aristida sp. Poaceae Herb Jul- Oct H Mi 22 Artemisia absinthium L. Asteraceae Herb Jun- Sept H Me 23 Arum sp. Araceae Herb Jun-Aug GE MI 24 Asparagus filicinus Bunch -Ham.ex D.Don Asparagaceae Herb May-June GE Mi 25 Aster himalaicus C.B.Clarke Asteraceae Herb Aug-Oct TH Mi 26 Bauhinia variegata L. Leguminosae Tree Mar-Apr MP Me 27 Berberis lycium Royle Berberidaceae Shrub Mar- Jun NP Na 28 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Saxifragaceae Herb Apr-Jun GE Me Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) Ronse 29 Decr. Polygonaceae Herb June–Aug H Me 30 Bromus japonicus Thunb. Poaceae Herb May–June H L 31 Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf Poaceae Herb Jul- Oct H Na 32 Buddleja crispa Benth. Plantaginaceae Shrub Mar-May NP Mi 33 Bupleurum lanceolatum Wall. ex DC. Apiaceae Herb June–Aug H Me 34 Calamintha umbrosa (M.B) Bth. ex DC. Labiateae Herb Apr-Jun H Mi

35 Calendula arvensis M. Bieb. Asteraceae Herb Apr–Jun TH Mi Caltha palustris var. alba (Cambess.) 36 Hook.f. & Thomson Ranunculaceae Herb Apr- Jul H Me 37 Cannabis sativa L. Cannabinaceae Herb Apr–Jul TH Mi

38 Capsella bursa- pistoris (L) Medik Brassicaeae Herb Jun–Jul TH L 39 Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don Pinaceae Tree Sept-Oct MP Na 40 Celtis australis L. Cannabaceae Tree Apr-Jun MP Mi 41 Chenopdium ambrosiodes L. Amaranthaceae Herb Mar–May TH L 42 Chenopodium album L. Amaranthaceae Herb Mar-May Th Na 43 Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae Herb Apr–June H Mi

44 Clinopodium vulgare L. Lamiaceae Herb May–Aug H Mi 45 Colchicum luteum Baker Colchicacea Herb Feb-Mar GE Mi

46 Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae Herb Apr–jun TH Mi 47 Erigeron canadensis L. Asteraceae Herb Jul–Aug TH Na 48 Cotoneaster sp. Rosaceae Shrub Apr–May NP Na 49 Crotolaria sp. Leguminosae Herb Jun–Aug H Mi 50 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Herb Feb- Mar H Na 51 Cyperus sp. Cyperaceae Herb May–Jul CH Mi 52 Daphne papyracea Wall. ex Steud. Thymelaeaceae Shrub Apr–Jun NP Na 53 Desmodium elegans DC. Papilionaceae Shrub Jun–Aug NP Me

54 Deutzia staminea R.Br. ex Wall. Hydrangeaceae Shrub Apr–Jun NP Mi 55 Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees Acanthaceae Herb Apr-Jun TH Mi 56 Digitaria nodosa Parl. Poaceae Herb May-Aug H Na 57 Diospyros lotus L. Ebenaceae Tree Aug–Sept MP Me 58 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Sapindaceae Shrub Aug–Feb NP Na 59 Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. Pteridaceae Herb Jul- Aug GE Me 60 Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Rosaceae Herb Apr-May CH Me 61 Elymus sp. Poaceae Herb Jun-Aug H Na Erigeron multiradiatus (Lindl. ex DC.) 62 Benth. & Hook.f. Asteraceae Herb Apr–July TH Mi 63 Fagopyrum sp. Polygonaceae Herb June–Aug TH MI 64 Ficus carica Forsk. Moraceae Tree Jun- Sept MP Me Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex Hook.f.) 65 Lacaita Rosaceae Herb Apr–Jul TH Mi 66 Fumaria indica (Husskn.) H.N Fumaraceae Herb Apr–Jun TH Na 67 Gallium aparine L. Rubiaceae Herb Jul–Sept TH Na 68 Gentiana pedicellata (D.Don) Wall. Gentianaceae Herb May-Aug TH Na 69 Geranium rotundifolium L. Geraniaceae Herb May–Sept GE Me 70 Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet Geraniaceae Herb May- Sept TH Na 71 Hedera nepalensis K. Koch Araliaceae Herb Aug–Oct L Me

Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex 72 Roem. & Schult. Poaceae Herb Aug- Oct H Mi Hypericum perforatum (L.) P.Beauv. ex 73 Roem. & Schult. Hypericaceae Herb May–Aug TH Na 74 Impatiens bicolor Royle Balsaminaceae Herb Jun- Sept TH Me 75 Indigofera heterantha Brandis Leguminosae Herb May–Jul NP Me 76 Imprita cylindrica (L.) .P.Beaiev. Poaceae Herb May–Aug H L 77 Inula coppa L. Asteraceae Herb May–Aug H Mi 78 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd Lamiaceae Shrub Mar–Apr NP Mi 79 Jasminum humile L. Oleaceae Shrub Apr–Jun NP Mi 80 Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae Tree Feb–Apr Mp Me

81 Lactuca serriola L. Asteraceae Herb Apr–Jun H Mi 82 Lamium album L. Lamiaceae Herb Apr–Aug TH Mi

83 Lamium amplexicaule L. Lamiaceae Herb Mar–May TH Mi 84 Leontopodium brachyactis Gand. Asteraceae Herb Jul- Sept CH Na 85 Leonurus cardiaca L. Lamiaceae Herb Jun–Jul H Mi 86 Lonicera sp. Adoxaceae Shrub Mar–Jun NP Me 87 Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae Herb Apr- Jun TH Mi

88 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Malvaceae Herb Apr–Jun CH MI 89 Medicago polymorpha L. Papilionaceae Herb Apr–Jun TH Na

90 Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Tree Mar–Jun MP Me Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) 91 Benth. Lamiaceae Herb Mar–Jun TH Le 92 Morus alba L. Moraceae Tree Mar–May MP Me 93 Morus nigra L. Moraceae Tree Mar–May MP Me 94 Myosotis arvensis (L.) Hill Boraginaceae Herb May–Oct H Na 95 Myrsine africana L. Primulaceae Shrub Mar–Apr NP Na 96 Nepeta cataria L. Lamiaceae Herb June–Sept CH Mi 97 Oenothera rosea L.Hér. ex Aiton Onagraceae Herb Apr-Jul TH Na 98 Onychium japonicum (Kunze). Wall Pteridaceae Herb Jun–Aug GE Na 99 Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae Herb Jun–Sept TH Na 100 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae Herb Mar–Jun TH Na 101 Paeonia emodi Royle Paeoniaceae Herb Apr–Jun GE Ma Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) 102 Rehder Hamamelidaceae Shrub Aug–Jun NP Me Around the 103 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae Herb year H Mi 104 Phlomis rotata Royle ex Benth. Lamiaceae Herb Jun–Aug GE Mi 105 Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Pinaceae Tree Apr–May MP Na 106 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Ericaceae Tree Mar–May MP Me

107 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinaceae Tree Apr–May MP Na 108 Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks. Pinaceae Tree May–Jul MP Na 109 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae Herb Apr–Aug TH Mi 110 Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae Herb Mar-Aug TH Mi 111 Platanus orientalis L. Platanaceae Tree May- Jun MP Ma 112 Poa sp. Poaceae Herb Jul–Sept H Na 113 Podophyllum emodi Wall. ex Royle Podophyllaceae Herb Apr–Jun GE Me 114 Populus alba L. Salicacae Tree Apr-Jun MP Me 115 Potentilla nepalensis Hook. Rosaceae Herb Jul–Aug H Me

116 Potentilla spp. Rosaceae Herb Jun–Aug H Me 117 Primula denticulata Sm. Primulaceae Herb May- Jul H Me 118 Prunella vulgaris L. Rosaceae Herb May–Aug Ch Mi

119 Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. Asparagaceae Herb Apr-Jun GE Mi Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. 120 (Royle) Steudel Rosaceae Tree Jun-Aug MP Me 121 Pteridium sp. Pteridaceae Herb Sept-Dec GE Me 122 Pteris cretica L. Pteridaceae Herb Sept-Dec GE Mi 123 Pteris vittata L. Pteridaceae Herb Jun–Aug GE Mi 124 Pulicaria crispa Sch.Bip. Asteraceae Herb Nov–Mar H L 125 Pyrus pashia Ham.ex D. Don Rosaceae Tree Feb-Mar MP Me

126 Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A.Camus Fagaceae Tree Apr–May MP Mi 127 Quercus incana Bartram Fagaceae Tree Apr– May MP Me 128 Ranunculus hirtellus Royle Ranunculaceae Herb May–Aug TH Mi 129 Ranunculus muricatus L. Ranunculaceae Herb Mar–Apr TH Mi 130 Rhamnus virgata Roxb. Rhamnaceae Tree Apr– Jul MP Mi 131 Rhododendron arboreum Smith Ericaceae Tree Mar–May MP Me 132 Rosa moschata Herrm. Rosaceae Shrub Apr–Jun NP Me 133 Rubus fructicosus Hook.f. Rosaceae Shrub Apr Jun NP Me 134 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae Herb Jun–Sept H Me 135 Rumex dentatus L. Polygonaceae Herb May–Aug H Me 136 Rumex hastatus D. Don Polygonaceae Herb Jul-Sept H Mi 137 Salvia mukerjeei Bennet & Raizada Lamiaceae Herb Apr–Jun CH Mi 138 Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. Buxaceae Shrub May- Sept NP Mi Sauromatum venosum (Dryand. ex Aiton) 139 Kunth Araceae Herb May-Aug CH Ma 140 Scutellaria chamaedrifolia Hedge Lamiaceae Herb May–Jul CH Na 141 Silene conidea L. Caryophyllaceae Herb Mar-Apr TH Na 142 Skimmia laureola D.C. Rutaceae Shrub Apr–May NP Mi 143 Senicio sp. Asteraceae Herb July–Sept TH Mi 144 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanaceae Herb Apr–May CH Mi

145 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi Cucurbitaceae Herb Jul–Sept GE Mi 146 Solidago virgaurea L. Asteraceae Herb May–Jul H Na 147 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Asteraceae Herb Apr–Jul TH Me 148 Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder Rosaceae Shrub June–Aug NP Me 149 Spiraea vaccinifolia D. Don. Rosaceae Shrub Mar- Jul NP Mi 150 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae Herb Mar-Apr TH Na Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) B.L. 151 Burtt. Gentianaceae Herb Jun–Aug H Mi 152 Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund Asteraceae Herb Mar-Apr TH Me 153 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Taxaceae Tree Mar–May MP Na 154 Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.) DC. Poaceae Herb Aug– Oct H N 155 Trifolium repens L. Leguminosae Herb Apr–Jul H Na 156 Tussilago farfara L. Asteraceae Herb Aug–Oct TH Ma Ulmus villosa Brandis ex Gamble Brandis 157 ex Gamble Cannabaceae Tree Apr–Jun MP Mi 158 Urtica dioica L. Araceae Herb May–Jul TH Mi 159 Vaccaria sp. Caryophyllaceae Herb Apr–May H Mi 160 Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Adoxaceae Herb May– Jul GE Me 161 Verbascum thapsus L. Plantaginaceae Herb May–Sept H Me 162 Veronica persica Poir. Plantaginaceae Herb Jun-Aug TH Mi

163 Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. Adoxaceae Shrub Jun–Nov Np Me 164 Viola canescens Wall. Violaceae Herb July- Sept TH Mi 165 Viola odorata L. Violaceae Herb May–July TH Mi 166 Vitis jacquemontii R. Parker Vitaceae Climber May–Aug NP Mi 167 Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don Adoxaceae Shrub Mar–May NP Mi 168 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Lythraceae Herb Sept–Dec NP Ma 169 Primula denticulata Sm. Primulaceae Herb Apr–Jun H Mi 170 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Rhamnaceae Shrub Apr–Jul NP Mi

Key: Megaphanerophytes (MP), Nanophanerophytes (NP), Hemicryptophytes (H), Therophytes (TH),

Chamaephytes (CH), Geophytes (G), Liana (L)

4.4 Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data of Vegetation of Sathan Gally The ecological data of 35 stands of study area were used for multivariate analysis. TWINSPAN was used for the classification of species and samples at the same time. The Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) technique was used to evaluate similarities/differences between the species and samples. A Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) is a technique used to determine and analyses the correlation between species and environment variables.

4.4.1 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Sathan Gally The data obtained from 35 stands were analyzed by TWINSPAN classification. A sum of six plant associations were investigated by using 170 plant species viz., Pteris-Urtica-Pinus community (PUP), Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca community (PDS), Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus community (DPC), Pinus-Cedrus- Indigofera community (PCI), Pinus-Abies-Viburnum community (PAV), Themeda- Indigofera-Ailanthus community (TIA) (Fig.4.5).

4.4.1.1 Pteris-Urtica-Pinus Community (PUP) This community was recorded in stand 5 and 19 at an altitude range of 1890 to 2225m. These stands were located at Northern and Southern aspects. The coordinates range was 34.361 to 34.607 N and 73.117 to 73.198 E with 65-700 slope of steepness. A sum of 23 species in this community were documented. This association was dominated by Pteris vatata with 23.14 IVI. Urtica dioica and Pinus wallichiana were co-dominant with 13.29 and 9.4 importance value index respectively. Among biological spectrum, Therophytes were dominant by contributing six plant species (28.6%) followed by Hemicryptophytes, Chamaephytes, Geophytes and Nanophanerophytes (4 spp.) 17.39% each (Fig. 4.6). Leaf size spectra was dominant by Microphyll with 47.82% followed by Nanophyll (34. 78%) and Mesophytes (13.04%) (Fig: 4.7).

Fig. 4.5: TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Sathan Gally.

4.4.1.2 Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community (PDS) At an elevation of 2225m in stand 11, Pinus wallichiana-Digitaria nodosa- Sarcococca pruniformis community was recorded. The co-ordinates for this community were 34.361 N and 73.117 E. The steepness of slope was 500 at South

aspect. Pinus wallichiana was dominant with IVI 44.96. Digitaria nodosa and Sarcococca pruniformis were co-dominant with IVI 10 and 6 respectively. Megaphanerophytes and Nanophanerophytes dominated biological spectrum by (5 spp.) 21.74% plant species each (Fig. 4.8). Leaf size spectra was leading by Mesophyll with 43.72% followed by Nanophyll (34.78%) and Microphyll (17.39%) (Fig. 4.9).

4.4.1.3 Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus Community (DPC) Dryopteris stewartti-Cedrus deodara-Pinus wallichiana community was harbored at an elevational range of 1890-2280 m in stands 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,10,12,13,16,17,18,21 and 24. The co-ordinates range was 34.361 to 34.366 N and 73.118 to 73.205 E. The steepness of slope ranges from 40-700 on N, E S, SW NE and NW aspects. A sum of 94 plant species were recorded in this community. The dominant plant species of this community was Dryopteris stewartii having 100.33 IVI. Pinus wallichiana and Cedrus deodara were co-dominants with IVI 31.4 and 33.68 respectively. Therophytes were dominant by contributing (26 spp.) 27.65% followed by Geophytes (19 spp.) 20.21% and Hemicryptophytes (18 spp.) 19.14% (Fig.4.10). Leaf spectra was dominated by Mesophyll (38.29%) followed by Mesophyll and Nanophyll (25.53%) species each (Fig. 4.11).

4.4.1.4 Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community (PCI) At an altitudinal range of 1890-2300 m Pinus wallichiana-Cedrus deodara-Indigofera hetrantha community was recognized in stands 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31. The co-ordinates range was E 34.366 to 34.366. The aspects for this community were N, E, S, SW, and SE with 30 to 700 steepness of slope. A total of 59 plant species were recorded in this community, among which, Pinus wallichiana having maximum IVI values 121.4 was dominant plant species, Cedrus deodara (IVI= 96.45) and Indigofera hetrantha with (IVI=95) were co- dominant plant species. Therophytes and Nanophanerophytes were leading life

form class by equal sharing of 12 species (20.68%) to the total plant species of this community (Fig.4.12). Mesophyll were dominant contributing (34.48%) species followed by Mesophyll (29.31%) and Nanophyll (24.13%) plant species (Fig. 4.13).

4.4.1.5 Pinus-Abies-Viburnum Community (PAV) Pinus-Abies-Viburnum plant community was recorded in stands 32, 33 and 34 at an elevation of 2377-2286 m. The co-ordinates range was 34.555 to 34.675 N and 73.185 to73.190 E. The steepness of slope angle was 60-700 at W, SW and SE aspects. A sum of 28 plant species were documented in this community among which, Pinus wallichiana with high 90.25 IVI was dominant plant species while Abies pindrow with 72.81 IVI and Viburnum grandifolia with 14 IVI were co- dominant.

Therophytes and Nanophanerophytes were leading life form of this community by equal sharing of 5 (19.3%) plant species to the total and followed by Mesophytes (7 spp.) 26. 92% (Fig.4.14). Leaf size spectra was dominated by Nanophyll (36.61%) followed by Microphyll (30.76%), Mesophyll (26.92 %) and (3.84%) each by Leptophyll and Macrophyll (Fig. 4.15).

4.4.1.6 Themeda-Indigofera-Ailanthus Community (TIA) Themeda anathera-indigofera hetrantha-Ailanthus altissima community was investigated at an altitude range of 1828-1980m in stands 14, 15 and 35. The coordinates range was 34.366 to 34.610 N and 73.172 to 73.205 E with W, NE and S aspects having 60-700 steepness of slope angle. Themeda was dominant species having maximum (17) IVI followed by Indigofera hetrantha with 11.5 (IVI) and Ailanthus altissima with 7.78 (IVI) were co-dominant species. A sum of 58 plant species were recorded, Megaphanerophytes were dominant life form class of this community with addition of 17 (29.31%) plant species followed by

Therophytes 14 (24.13%) species and Hemicryptophytes 12 (18.96%) species (Fig. 4.16). Among leaf size spectra Mesophyll were leading class by contributing (34.48%) followed by Microphyll (29.31%) and Nanophyll (24.13%) species (Fig. 4.17).

30 26

20 17 17 17 17

Percentage 4.34 5

0 Th H Ch Ge NP Mp Life Form Classes

Fig. 4.6: Life Form Classes of Pteris-Urtica-Pinus Community of Sathan Gally.

47.82 50 45 40 34.78 35 30 25 20 13.04 15

Percentage 10 4.34 5 0 Mi Na Me Ma

Leaf Size Spectra Classes

Fig. 4.7: Leaf Size Spectra of Pteris-Urtica-Pinus Community of Sathan Gally.

25 21.73 21.73

20 17.4 17.4 17.4

5 Perntage 5

0 Mp Np Ge H Th Ch

Life form classes

Fig. 4.8: Life Form Classes of Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community of Sathan Gally.

44 45 40 35 35 30 25 17.39 20 15 percentage 10 4.34 5 0 Mi Na Me L

Leaf size spectra

Fig. 4.9: Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community of Area Studied.

27.65 30

25 20.21 19.14 20 13.82 15 10 7.44

10 Percentage 2.12 5

0 Th Ge H Np Mp Ch L

Life Form Classes

Fig. 4.10: Life Form Classes of Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus Community of Sathan Gally.

38.29 40 35 30 25.53 25.53 25 20

15 Percentage 10 6.38 4.25 5 0 Mi Me Na L Ma Leaf size spectra

Fig. 4.11: Leaf Size Spectra of Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus Community of Sathan Gally.

25 20.68 20.68 20 18.96 15.51 13.79 15

8.62

10 Percentage 5

0 Np Th Mp H Ge Ch

Life form classes

Fig. 4.12: Life Form Classes of Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Sathan Gally.

34.48 35 29.31 30 24.13 25

Percentage 10 6.89 5.17 5

0 Me Mi Na Ma L

Leaf size spectra .

Fig. 4.13: Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Sathan Gally.

25 23.07

19.23 19.23 20 15.38 15 11.53 11.53

10 Percentage

0 Ge Np Th H Ch Mp

Life form classes

Fig. 4.14: Life Form Classes of Pinus-Abies-Viburnum Community of Sathan Gally.

34.61 35 30.76 30 26.92

15 Percentage

10 3.84 3.84 5

0 Na Mi Me L Ma

Leaf size spectra

Fig. 4.15: Leaf size spectra of Pinus-Abies-Viburnum Community of Sathan Gally.

29.31 30 24.13 25 18.96 20 13.79

15 Percentage 10 6.89 5.17 5

0 Mp Th H Np Ch Ge

life form classes

Fig. 4.16: Life Form Clases of Themeda-Indigofera-Ailanthus Community of Sathan Gally.

34.48 35 29.31 30 24.13 25

15 8.62 Percentage 10 3.44 5

0 Me Mi Na L Ma

Leaf Size Spectra

Fig. 4.17: Leaf Size Spectra of Themeda-Indigofera-Ailanthus Community of Sathan Gally.

4.2.2 Ordination of Vegetation of Sathan Gally The vegetation data of investigating area were further analyzed for Ordination. Ordination is the arranging of species and sample along axes according to their similarities and dissimilarities. The samples having common species clustered together while samples grouped apart having different species. The species, which are close to one another show similarities while species apart depicting that plant species are dissimilar in ordination space. In the current study, two main ordination techniques were used including Detrended Correspondence (DCA) Analysis and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). The IVI values of 35 stands were used for classification and ordination.

4.2.2.1 DCA Ordination The response data was compositional having gradient length of 3.8 SD units long. In DCA ordination, the maximum gradient length (3.75) was recorded for axis 1 with Eigenvalue 0.57. The gradient length for axis 2 was 2.36 with Eigenvalue 0.27. The gradient length for axis 3 was 2.33 having Eigenvalue 0.19.

Total variance in the species data were 4.80, supplementary variables account for 37.1%. The dominant of gradient length on axis 1 showed that maximum of the species have similarities on one angle. The occurrence values of the species were 699 while all Eigen values were also 4.8.

DCA clustered different species based on their similarities in habitat. Impatiens bicolor, Asparagus filicinus, Daphne papyracea, Oxalis corniculata, Runuculus muricatus and Viburnum grandiflorum having positive co-relation with each other and axis I and II and were clustered at near average position. Artemisia absentium, Alnus nitida, Platanus orientalis, Themeda anathera grouped away from average point. Ciliata vulgare and Aster sp., both were negatively correlated with axis 1 and II. Rumax dentatus and Rumax histatus were positively correlated with axis 1 and negatively with axis II (Fig. 4.18).

Stands 14, 15 and 35 were habitat specific have similar species composition. The number of species in these stands were 43, 33 and 28, respectively. The maximum number of plant species contributed by stand 14 were 43. These stands lie close on axis I. The DCA ordination showed that the community Pinus-Digiteria-Sarcococca is more diverse from community Themeda-Indigofera- Ailanthus in term of habitat and species composition. The community Pteris- Urtica-Pinus is also different from rest of all communities. The remaining communities are almost similar in species composition (Fig. 4.19).

4.2.2.2 CCA Ordination The constrained CCA ordination showed that the maximum Eigenvalue was 1 for axis I (0.48) followed by axis II (0.27) and for axis III (0.24) and IV (0.22). The percentage variance explained for axis I, II and III were 10.16%, 15.98% and 21.01%, respectively. The total variance was 4.80, explanatory variables account for 51.1%, while adjusted explained variation were 12.4%.

Fig. 4.18: DCA Ordination of Plant Species of Sathan Gally.

S32

2.5 S33 S34 S25 S13 S22 S30 S20 S23 S31 S29 S26 S35 S28 S12 S21 S27 S14 S24 S6 S11 S2 S7 S3 S18 S9 S4 S10 S1 S15 S16 S17 S8 S19 S5

0.0 0 4

Fig. 4.19: DCA Ordination of Stands of Vegetation of Sathan Gally.

This result showed the strong association of species and habitat types with environmental variables. The CCA ordination showed species composition and species diversity vary with altitude. Some species show positive correlation with altitude while other show negative correlation with most of the species in term of species richness. The population of Sorbaria tomentosa, Pteris sp., and Abies pindrow increase with the increase of elevation while the population of Acacia modesta, Melia azedarach and Morus alba decreases with decline in elevation. The soil pH affects the species composition and is negatively correlated with axis I and II. Taxus wallichiana and Ajuga parviflora species were sensitive at soil pH. The species sensitive to wind pressure, air moisture were Solanum surrattense, Silene conidea, and Calamintha umbrosa. Viburnum cotonifolia and Adiantum caudatum were positively correlated with altitude, slope angle, phosphorus and longitudes. Swertia ciliata, Stellaria media and Malva neglecta, were positive correlated with nitrogen (Fig.4.20). The environmental variables of latitude, aspect, potassium and longitude were positive correlated with each other and negatively correlated with pH. The CCA ordination of stands showed that maximum of the stands were positively correlated with altitude, soil textural classes, temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, air moisture and organic matter and few stands showed different behavior with other environmental variables (Fig. 4.21). The results of Canonical Correspondence Analysis ordination indicated that species were sensitive with environmental variables. The maximum vector strength was recorded for altitude, soil pH and air moisture. The intermediate vector strength was recorded for potassium, wind pressure, nitrogen and latitude. The less strength of vector was recorded for temperature, soil texture classes, phosphorus, aspect and longitude. The minimum strength of vector was recorded for electrical conductivity and organic matter.

Fig. 4.20: CCA Ordination of Plant Species of Sathan Gally.

Fig. 4.21: CCA Ordination of Stands of Vegetation of Sathan Gally.

Table 4.3: Number of Plant Species and IVI Contribution of Life Form Classes of Different Plant Communities of Sathan Gally.

Name of communities Phanerophytes Chamaephytes Hemicryptophytes Geophytes Therophytes

No IVI (T) No IVI (T) No IVI (T) No IVI (T) No IVI (T)

Pteris-Utioca-Pinus community (DUP) 5 18.56 4 14.07 4 10.45 4 32.47 6 36.92

Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca community (PDS) 10 70.56 1 4.34 4 19.46 4 12.59 4 8.34

Dryopteris-Pinus-Cedrus community (DPC) 22 1253.12 7 64.97 18 192.66 19 281.2 26 302.03

Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera community (PCI) 23 642.26 5 18.09 9 136.28 8 131.6 12 16.17

Pinus-Abies-Viburnum community (PAV) 8 211.96 3 8.35 4 25.39 6 16.09 5 15.36

Themeda-Cynodon-Ailanthus community (ORA) 25 84.98 4 11.42 11 47.86 3 9.61 14 70.24

Key: No = Number IVI (T) = Importance Value Index (Total)

Table 4.4: Number of Plant Species and IVI Contribution of Leaf Size Spectra Classes of Various Plant Communities of Sathan Gally.

Name of Plant Communities Macrophyll Mesophyll Microphyll Nanophyll Leptophyll

No IVI (T) No IVI (T) No IVI (T) No IVI (T) No IVI (T)

Pteris-Utioca-Pinus community (DUP) 1 3.14 3 7.46 11 35.92 8 25.76 0 0

Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococa community (PDS) 0 0 4 14.76 10 77.51 8 66.85 1 1

Dryopteris-Pinus-Cedrus community (DPC) 4 17.09 24 270.72 36 794.32 24 754.7 6 85.25

Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera community (PCI) 4 9.57 20 228.59 17 489.62 14 470.2 3 412.56

Pinus-Abies-Viburnum community (PAV) 1 2.3 7 14.74 8 43.75 9 216.4 1 2.35

Oenothera-Rosea-Ailanthus community (ORA) 2 4.65 20 70.72 17 60.64 14 65.33 5 10.64

4.3 Comparison between Floristic Diversity of Reserved and Guzara Forests

4.3.1 Reserved Forest A total of 127 plants species including 59 common and 68 different were found in 13 stands of Reserved forest (Table 4.5 and 4.6). The different species were only confined with this forest whereas common plant species were distributed in both forests. The dominant family was Asteraceae (13 species, 10.7%) followed by Labiateae (10 species, 7.75%), Poaceae and Rosaceae (8 species, 6.2%) each, Polygonaceae and Pteridaceae by (5 species, 3.87%) each (Fig.4.22). Angiosperms were represented by 118 (92.91%) plant species, Pteridophytes 5(3.93%) species and Gymnosperms 4 (3.14%) species were recorded in reserved forest. Only single species of climber was recorded. The number of herbs, shrubs and trees species documented were 73.64%, 13.17% and 10.07% respectively (Fig 4.23).

3.87 3.87 Asteraceae 6.2 10.7 Labiatae Poaceae 6.2 7.75 Rosaceae Polygonaceae Pteridaceae

Fig. 4.22: Classification of Leading Families of Plant Species of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

94 100 90 80 70 60 50

40 Number 30 17 15 20 10 1 0 Herb shrub Tree Climber

Habit

Fig. 4.23: Graphical Representation of Plant Species Habit Wise of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

Table 4.5: Floristic Diversity of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally. S. No. Botanical Name Family Habit

1 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Araceae Herb

2 Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle Pinaceae Tree

3 Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae Herb

4 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Pteridaceae Herb

5 Adiantum caudatum L. Pteridaceae Herb 6 Aegopodium burttii Nasir Apiaceae Herb 7 Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook Sapindaceae Tree

8 Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. Lamiaceae Herb 9 Ajuga parviflora Benth. Lamiaceae Herb

10 Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae Herb

11 Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham.) DC. Asteraceae Herb

12 Leptopus cordifolius Decne. Müll.Arg. Phyllanthaceae Shrub 13 Androsace rotundifolia Hardw. Primulaceae Herb 14 Apluda sp. Poaceae Herb 15 Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Royle Ranunculaceae Herb 16 Arisaema utile Hook. f. ex. Schott Araceae Herb 17 Aristida sp. Poaceae Herb 18 Arum sp. Araceae Herb 19 Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Asparagaceae Herb 20 Aster himalaicus C.B. Clarke Asteraceae Herb

21 Berberis lycium Royle Berberidaceae Shrub

22 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Saxifragaceae Herb 23 Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) Ronse Decr. Polygonaceae Herb 24 Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf. Poaceae Herb 25 Buddleja crispa Benth. Plantaginaceae Shrub 26 Bupleurum lanceolatum Wall. ex DC. Apiaceae Herb 27 Clinopodium umbrosum (M.Bieb.) Kuntze Lamiaceae Herb Caltha palustris var. alba (Cambess.) Hook.f. & Ranunculaceae Herb 28 Thomson 29 Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don Pinaceae Tree 30 Celtis australis L. Cannabaceae Tree 31 Clinopodium vulgare L. Lamiaceae Herb 32 Erigeron canadensis L. Asteraceae Herb

33 Crotalaria sp. Leguminosae Herb

34 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Herb 35 Cyperus sp. Cyperaceae Herb 36 Daphne papyracea Wall. ex G. Don Thymelaeaceae Shrub

37 Desmodium elegans DC. Leguminosae Shrub 38 Deutzia staminea R.Br. ex Wall. Hydrangeaceae Shrub 39 Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees Acanthaceae Herb

40 Digitaria nodosa Parl. Poaceae Herb 41 Diospyros lotus L. Ebenaceae Tree 42 Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. Pteridaceae Herb 43 Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Rosaceae Herb 44 Elymus sp. Poaceae Herb Erigeron multiradiatus (Lindl. ex DC.) Benth. & 45 Hook.f. Asteraceae Herb 46 Fagopyrum sp. Polygonaceae Herb 47 Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex Hook.f.) Lacaita Rosaceae Herb 48 Gentiana pedicellata (D.Don) Wall. Gentianaceae Herb 49 Geranium rotundifolium L. Geraniaceae Herb 50 Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet Geraniaceae Herb 51 Hedera nepalensis K. Koch Araliaceae Herb Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Poaceae Herb 52 Schult. 53 Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae Herb 54 Impatiens bicolor Royle Balsaminaceae Herb 55 Indigofera heterantha Brandis Leguminosae Herb 56 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd Lamiaceae Shrub 57 Jasminum humile L. Oleaceae Shrub 58 Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae Tree 59 Lactuca sp. Asteraceae Herb 60 Lamium album L. Lamiaceae Herb 61 Lamium amplexicaule L. Lamiaceae Herb 62 Leontopodium brachyactis Gand. Asteraceae Herb 63 Leonurus cardiaca L. Lamiaceae Herb 64 Lonicera sp. Adoxaceae Shrub 65 Myosotis arvensis (L.) Hill Boraginaceae Herb 66 Nepeta cataria L. Lamiaceae Herb

67 Oenothera rosea L.Hér. ex Aiton Onagraceae Herb 68 Onychium japonicum (Thunb.) Kunze Pteridaceae Herb 69 Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae Herb 70 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae Herb 71 Paeonia emodi Royle Paeoniaceae Herb 72 Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder Hamamelidaceae Shrub 73 Phlomoides rotata (Benth. ex Hook.f.) Mathiesen Lamiaceae Herb 74 Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Pinaceae Tree 75 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Ericaceae Tree 76 Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks. Pinaceae Tree 77 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae Herb 78 Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae Herb 79 Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) T.S.Ying Podophyllaceae Herb 80 Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. Asparagaceae Herb 81 Potentilla nepalensis Hook. Rosaceae Herb 82 Potentilla sp. Rosaceae Herb 83 Primula denticulata Sm. Primulaceae Herb 84 Prunella vulgaris L. Rosaceae Herb 85 Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. Rosaceae Tree 86 Pteridium sp. Pteridaceae Herb 87 Pteris sp. Pteridaceae Herb 88 Pteris vittata L. Pteridaceae Herb 89 Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A.Camus Fagaceae Tree 90 Ranunculus hirtellus Royle Ranunculaceae Herb 91 Ranunculus muricatus L. Ranunculaceae Herb 92 Rhamnus virgata Roxb. Rhamnaceae Tree 93 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Ericaceae Tree 94 Rubus fructicosus Hook. f. Rosaceae Shrub 95 Rumex dentatus L. Polygonaceae Herb

96 Rumex hastatus D. Don. Polygonaceae Shrub 97 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae Herb 98 Salvia mukerjeei Bennet & Raizada Lamiaceae Herb 99 Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. Buxaceae Shrub 100 Sauromatum venosum (Dryand. ex Aiton) Kunth Araceae Herb 101 Scutellaria chamaedrifolia Hedge & A.J.Paton Lamiaceae Herb 102 Senicio sp. Asteraceae Herb 103 Silene conidea L. Caryophyllaceae Herb 104 Skimmia laureola Franch Rutaceae Shrub 105 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanaceae Herb 106 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi Cucurbitaceae Herb 107 Solidago virgaurea L. Asteraceae Herb 108 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Asteraceae Herb 109 Spiraea vaccinifolia D. Don. Rosaceae Shrub 110 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae Herb 111 Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) B. L. Burtt. Gentianaceae Herb 112 Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund Asteraceae Herb 113 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Taxaceae Tree 114 Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.) Hack. Poaceae Herb 115 Trifolium repens L. Leguminosae Herb 116 Tussilago farfara L. Asteraceae Herb Ulmus villosa Brandis ex Gamble Brandis ex

117 Gamble Ulmaceae Tree 118 Urtica dioica L. Araceae Herb 119 Vaccaria sp. Caryophyllaceae Herb 120 Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Adoxaceae Herb 121 Veronica persica Poir. Plantaginaceae Herb 122 Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don Adoxaceae Shrub 123 Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. Adoxaceae Shrub

124 Viola canescens Wall Violaceae Herb 125 Viola odorata L. Violaceae Herb 126 Vitis jacquemontii R. Parker Vitaceae Climber 127 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Lythraceae Herb

Table 4.6: Different Plant Species of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally. S. No. Botanical Name Family Habit 1 Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle Pinaceae Tree 2 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Pteridaceae Herb 3 Aegopodium burttii Nasir Apiaceae Herb 4 Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook Sapindaceae Tree 5 Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. Lamiaceae Herb 6 Ajuga parviflora Benth. Lamiaceae Herb 7 Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae Herb 8 Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Royle Ranunculaceae Herb 9 Arisaema utile Hook. fex. Schott Araceae Herb 10 Aristida sp. Poaceae Herb 11 Arum sp. Araceae Herb 12 Aster himalaicus C.B.Clarke Asteraceae Herb 13 Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf Poaceae Herb 14 Buddleja crispa Benth. Plantaginaceae Shrub

15 Bupleurum lanceolatum Wall.ex DC. Apiaceae Herb 16 Clinopodium umbrosum (M.Bieb.) Kuntze Labiateae Herb 17 Celtis australis L. Cannabaceae Tree 18 Crotolaria sp. Leguminosae Herb 19 Cyperus sp. Cyperaceae Herb 20 Daphne papyracea Wall. ex Steud. Thymelaeaceae Shrub

21 Desmodium elegans DC. Leguminosae Shrub 22 Deutzia staminea R. Br. ex Wall. Hydrangeaceae Shrub

23 Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees Acanthaceae Herb Erigeron multiradiatus (Lindl. ex DC.) Benth. & 24 Hook.f. Asteraceae Herb 25 Fagopyrum sp. Polygonaceae Herb 26 Gentiana pedicellata (D.Don) Wall. Gentianaceae Herb 27 Geranium rotundifolium L. Geraniaceae Herb 28 Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae Herb 29 Jasminum humile L. Oleaceae Shrub 30 Lactuca serriola L. Asteraceae Herb 31 Lamium album L. Lamiaceae Herb 32 Lamium amplexicaule L. Lamiaceae Herb 33 Leontopodium brachyactis Gand. Asteraceae Herb 34 Leonurus cardiaca L. Lamiaceae Herb 35 Lonicera sp. Adoxaceae Shrub 36 Nepeta cataria L. Lamiaceae Herb 37 Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae Herb 38 Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder Hamamelidaceae Shrub Phlomoides rotata (Benth. ex Hook.f.) 39 Mathiesen Lamiaceae Herb 40 Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Pinaceae Tree 41 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Ericaceae Tree

42 Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) T.S.Ying Berberidaceae Herb 43 Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. Asparagaceae Herb 44 Potentilla nepalensis Hook. Rosaceae Herb 45 Primula denticulata Sm. Primulaceae Herb 46 Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. Rosaceae Tree 47 Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A.Camus Fagaceae Tree 48 Rhamnus virgata Roxb. Rhamnaceae Tree 49 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Ericaceae Tree

50 Rumex dentatus L. Polygonaceae Herb 51 Rumex hastatus D. Don Polygonaceae Shrub 52 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae Herb 53 Salvia mukerjeei Bennet & Raizada Lamiaceae Herb 54 Scutellaria chamaedrifolia Hedge & A.J.Paton Lamiaceae Herb 55 Senicio sp. Asteraceae Herb 56 Silene conidea L. Caryophyllaceae Herb 57 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi Cucurbitaceae Herb 58 Solidago virgaurea L. Asteraceae Herb 59 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Asteraceae Herb 60 Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) B.L. Burtt. Gentianaceae Herb 61 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Taxaceae Tree 62 Tussilago farfara L. Asteraceae Herb Ulmus villosa Brandis ex Gamble Brandis ex

63 Gamble Ulmaceae Tree 64 Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Adoxaceae Herb 65 Veronica persica Poir. Plantaginaceae Herb 66 Viola odorata L. Violaceae Herb 67 Vitis jacquemontii R. Parker Vitaceae Climber 68 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Lythraceae Herb

4.3.1.1 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Reserved Forest The data obtained from 11 stands of reserved forest were analyzed through TWINSPAN classification. Four plant communities were obtained on cut level 3 (Fig. 4.24). These communities were Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca community, Cedrus-Fragaria-Pteris community, Pinus-Cedrus-Viburnum community and Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca community.

Fig. 4.24: TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

4.3.1.1.1 Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca Community (PPS) Pinus wallichiana-Pteris vittata-Sarcococca pruniformis community was recorded at an elevation of 1860-2070m in stands 9 and 10. The coordinates range was 34.364 to 34.364 N and 73.191 to 73.194 E with 40-700 steepness of slope on East aspect. The dominant plant species of this community was Pinus wallichiana with 87.88 IVI. Pteris vittata and Sarcococca pruniformis were co-dominants with IVI 13.57 and 5.25 respectively. Therophytes were dominant by contributing 9 species followed by Geophytes and Nanophanerophytes 5 species each (Fig.4.25). Nanophyll (10 spps) were dominant followed by Microphyll with 9 plant species (Fig.4.26). Soil of this community was sandy clay loam with acidic pH, nitrogen 0.41%, potassium 135ppm, phosphorus 7.9% and electrical conductivity 2.4 ds/m. The percentage of organic matter was recorded less in this community.

4.3.1.1.2 Cedrus-Fragaria-Pteris Community (CFP) Cedrus deodara-Fragaria nubicola-Pteris vittata community was recorded at an elevation of 1950 to 2377m in 6 stands; 1, 3, 4, 8, 12 and 13 with 40-650 steepness of Slope at West, North and South aspects. The coordinates range was between 34.361 to 34.366 N and 073.122 to 073.124 E. It was dominated by Cedrus deodora with IVI 166.05. Fragaria nubicola and Pteris vittata were co-dominant with IVI of 46.38 and 29.28 respectively. A sum of 62 plant species in this community were recorded. Among life form Geophytes were dominant by contributing 26.66% plant species followed by Therophytes 23.33% species, Hemicryptophytes 20% species (Fig. 4.27). Leaf spectra was dominant by Microphyll with 38.33% species followed by Mesophyll 28.33% and Nanophyll by 21.66% species (Fig.4.28). Soil of this community was sandy loam with acidic pH, percentage of organic matter was high, and contents of nitrogen, potassium and

phosphorous were between in ranges of 0.03-1.3%, 105-135 ppm and 5-8, respectively. The electrical conductivity was 0.01-1.2 dS/m.

4.3.1.1.3 Pinus-Cedrus-Viburnum Community (PCV) This community was harbored at an altitude of 1860-2100 m at Northern aspect with 50-600 slope of steepness. The coordinates range was 34.364 to 34.365 N and 073.110 to 073.117 E. Pinus wallichiana was dominant with importance value index of 101.74. Cedrus deodara and Viburnum were co-dominant species with IVI of 29 and 14.94, respectively. Fifty-one (51) plant species were recorded in this community, Geophytes was the dominant life form of the vegetation with 26.66% plant species followed by Therophytes and Hemicryptophytes with 23.33% and 20% each (Fig.4.29). Among leaf spectra, Microphyll were dominant by contributing 38.33% species, followed by Mesophyll and Nanophyll with 28.33% and 21.66% species (Fig.4.30). Sandy clay loam and loam soil of this community had acidic pH, less organic matter, potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen were 120-130 ppm, 4-8 and 0.21-0.57%, respectively. The electrical conductivity was 0.01-1.1 dS/m.

4.3.1.1.4 Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community At an elevation of 2225 m in stand 11, Pinus wallichiana-Digitaria nodosa- Sarcococca pruniformis community was recognized. The coordinate’s range of this community was 34.361 N and 73.117 E. This community was recorded at Southern aspect at 500 slope of steepness. A total of 24 plant species were recorded in this community. Pinus wallichiana was dominant with IVI 44.96, Digitaria nodosa and Sarcococca pruniformis were co-dominant with IVI 10 and 6 respectively. Life form was dominated by Megaphanerophytes having 21.73% plant species followed by Hemicryptophytes, Therophytes and Geophytes with 17.39% species each (Fig. 4.31). Leaf size spectra was dominated by Microphyll with 43.47% followed by of Nanophyll and Mesophyll with 34.78 % and 17.39

% species (Fig.4.32). Soil in this community was sandy loam with 7.5 pH, organic matter percentage was low. The contents of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorous were 0.052%, 125% ppm, and 3.2 respectively. The electrical conductivity was 1.4 dS/m.

34.61 35

30 23.07 23.07 25

Percentage 10 7.69 7.69 3.84 5

0 Th Ge Np H Ch Mp

Life form classes

Fig. 4.25: Life Form Classes of Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca Community of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

38.46 40 34.6 35 26.92 30 25 20

15 Percentage 10 5 0 Na Mi Me

Leaf Size spectra

Fig. 4.26: Leaf Size of Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca Community of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

30 26.66 23.33 25 20 20

13.33 15 11.66

10 Percentage 5 5

0 Ge Th H Np Mp Ch

Life form Classes

Fig. 4.27: Life Form Classes of Cedrus-Fragaria-Pteris Community of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

38.33 40 35 28.33 30 25 21.66 20

15 Percentage 6.66 10 5 5 0 Mi Me Na Ma L

Leaf size spectra

Fig. 4.28: Leaf Size Spectra of Cedrus-Fragaria-Pteris Community of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

34.04 35

25 21.27 19.14 20 14.89 15

Percentage 10 4.25 4.25 5 2.12

0 Th Ge H Np Mp Ch l

Life Form Classes

Fig. 4.29: Life Form Classes of Pinus–Cedrus-Viburnum Community of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

45 40.42 40 31.91 35 30 25.53 25 20

15 Percentage 10 2.12 5 0 Me Mi Na Ma Leaf Size spectra

Fig. 4.30: Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Cedrus-Viburnum Community of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

25 21.73 21.73

20 17.39 17.39 17.39

Percentage 4.34 5

0 Mp Np Ge H Th Ch

Life form Classes

Fig. 4.31: Life Form Clsses of Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

43.47 45 40 34.78 35 30 25 17.39 20

15 Percentage 10 4.34 5 0 Mi Na Me L

Leaf Size spectra

Fig. 4.32: Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

4.4.1.2 DCA Ordination of Vegetation of Reserved Forest The constrained DCA ordination of the reserved forest of Sathan Gally indicated that the total variation in the species data was 3.28. The response data was compositional having a gradient length of 3.3 SD unit long. The DCA ordination showed that the maximum gradient length was 3.32 for axis 1 and 2.57 for axis II. The maximum Eigenvalue was 0.49 for axis 1 and 0.34 for axis II. The DCA ordination of the species exhibited that different species clustered in ordination space based on similarities in habitat and species composition. The species clusters including Vaccaria sp, Rhamnus virgata, Ajuga integrifolia, Taxus wallichiana were positively correlated with each other. These species were negatively correlated with Viola odorata, Bupleurum lanceolatum, Ajuga integrifolia, Rumex nepalnsis and Isodon rugosus. The species, which were positively correlated with each other and negatively correlated with the above species were Juglans regia, Pinus roxburghii, Alnus nitida and Viburnum

cotinifolium. The species on the top of ordination space included Rumex dentatus, Clinopodium vulgare, Indigofera hetrentha, Solanum surattense and Sauromatum venosum. The species near average position included Paeonia emodi and Fragaria nubicola. Myrsine africana and Impatiens bicolor were positively correlated with each other (Fig. 4.33).

The DCA ordination of stands also showed that stands of different communities clustered in ordination space almost similarly as indicated by TWINSPAN classification. Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca community showed different behavior and was away from other communities on axis I. This community was also summarized by TWINSPAN classification in division I. The other communities like Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca community was at the top of axis II while remaining Pinus-Cedrus-Viburnum community and Cedrus-Fragaria-Pteris community were in the center (Fig. 4.34).

4.4.1.3 CCA Ordination of Vegetation of Reserved Forest The ordination showed that total variation was 3.28, explanatory variable account for 100% while adjusted explained variation was 0%. The maximum Eigenvalue was 0.49 for axis 1 and 0.40 for axis II. The explained variation for axis I was 14.88 and 27.32 for axis II. The pseudo canonical correlation for all axis was 1 and occurrence value was 274. The permutation test result showed that pseudo F less than 0.1 and P=1. The CCA ordination of species showed that different species were sensitive with various environmental variable and clustered in ordination space at different locations. The species that were sensitive to altitude, air moisture, aspect, wind pressure and potassium were Arisaema flavum, Quercus dilatata, Duchesnea indica, Aegopodium burttii, Taxus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Geranium rotundifolium, Urtica dioica and Sarcococca pruniformis were positively correlated with electrical conductivity. The species that were positively correlated with nitrogen, longitude, latitude and organic

Cln sp Rum den Deu sta Ind het Sol sur Sar ven Pro vul Col leu Rum has Oen ros are utlOre vul ach mil Pte sp Nep sp Uti dio Gal apa and rot Hyp per Ger rot Pte ves Lac sp Ger wal are jaq Cla vul Myo sp Apd ars Bis amp Ber lyc Vac sp Aru spp Ast sp Con can Rha sp Jug reg Vib car Lon sp phl sp Pin rox Pru cor Ptr cra Pin wal aju par cap bur Can sta Uln nit abipin Eiy spp Ber cil Sar sal Pru vulper sp Ptd sp Dig nod Eri spp Tax wal Ced deo Ski lau Imp sp Poe emo Fra nub Vib gra are fla

Dio lotMyr afr Rub spp Ags sto Vio can adi cap OxaCyn car dac Dic bup adicorJas hum Rho arb Loe sp aegspp Qua dil Bup lanVal jatVio odo Ran mur duc ind Ver sppWod Drysp stePot sp aqu pub Dap spp Imp cyl Tra offPol sp aju braSpi vac OnyPla jap lan Asp rac Asc ind Rum nepIso rug

-2 -2 5 Fig. 4.33: DCA Ordination of Plant Species of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

3.0

S9 S10

S4 S8

S11

S13 S3 S6 S1 S2 S12 S7

0.0 0.0 3.5 Fig. 4.34: DCA Ordination of Stands of Vegetation of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

0.8 Can sta Uln nit Vib car Pin rox Jug reg Pru cor

Nitrogen Aspact

Longitud Imp sp Poe emo Latitude Apd ars Val jat Hyp per Vio Drycan ste TextClas are fla OrgnMatr RumOnyIso rug nepjap cap bur Asc ind Tax wal Oxa car Qua dil Cyn dac WindPres Rha sp per sp HydPodPot nepsp Altitude Lon spabipin phl sp DapImp cylspp Ced deo Potassiu Pru vul Vac sp adi cap duc ind aju par Aru spp Sch chaVerWod spp sp aqu pub Dig nod Ber cil Ags sto AirMoitr Eri spp Myr afr Ger rot Eiy spp Vib gra Ski lau Ptr cra Fra nub Pin wal Ger wal Ph SlopAngl Sar sal Myo sp Oen rosBer lyc PtdAst sp Phsphors ach mil Con can Uti dio Pte ves Bis amp ElecCond and rotGal apa

Lac spProRum vul has Epi spp Temperat Ore vul ColNep leu spPte spare utl Sol sur Sar ven

Ind het Deu sta Cln sp Rum den

-0.8 -0.6 1.0 Fig. 4.35: CCA Ordination of Plant Species of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

0.8 22

Nitrogen Aspact Longitud

Latitude OrgnMatr 18TextClas 26 WindPres Altitude Potassiu 26 25 25 AirMoitr 1718 27 Ph SlopAngl 12 Phsphors 18 ElecCond

Temperat 20

-0.8 -0.6 1.0

Fig. 4.36: CCA Ordination of Stands of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

matter were Paeonia emodi, Hypericum perforatum, Viburnum grandiflorum, Juglans regia, Pteris vittata and Geranium wallichinum were positively correlated with phosphorus. The species, which were highly sensitive to temperature, were Solanum surrattense, Sauromatum venosum, Indigofera heterantha and Rumex hestatus (Fig.4.35). The Canonical Correspondence Analysis ordination of environmental variables indicated that the altitude and aspects were negatively correlated with temperature, slope, angle and phosphorus. Similarly, nitrogen, latitude and organic matter were negatively correlated with electrical conductivity and pH.

The maximum strength was recorded for pH, aspect, nitrogen and latitude. The minimum strength was recorded for potassium followed by slope angle and air moisture. The maximum stands of communities were near average position while Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca community was away from average position contributing 25 species, which showed that this community was rich in floristic composition and habitat type from rest of the associations (Fig 4.36).

4. 3.2 Species Diversity and its Components 4.3.2.1 Species Diversity The maximum species diversity was 0.102 of Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca community (PPS). It was followed by Cedrus–Fragaria-Pteris community (CFP) having 0.09 and Pinus–Digitaria–Sarcococca community (PDS) with 0.06 value of species diversity. The minimum species diversity was of Pinus–Cedrus-Viburnum Community (PCV) community with 0.05 values (Fig.4.37).

4.3.2.2 Species Maturity The maximum values (65.74) of species maturity was recorded for Pinus–Cedrus- Viburnum Community (PCV) followed by Cedrus–Fragaria-Pteris community (CFP)

with 56.69 Values. The lowest values of species maturity was of Pinus–Digitaria– Sarcococca community (PDS) with 22.82 (Fig. 4.37).

4.3.3.3 Species Richness The maximum species richness was of Pinus–Digitaria–Sarcococca community (PDS) with 1.87 values. It was followed by Cedrus–Fragaria-Pteris community (CFP) having 1.33. The lowest value of species richness was of Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca community (PPS) with 1.26 values (Fig.4.37).

22.82 Pinus – Digitaria – Sarcococca community (PDS) 1.87 0.06

65.74 Pinus – Cedrus - Viburnum Community (PCV) 1.17 0.055

56.69 Cedrus – Fragaria - Pteris Community (CFP) 1.33 0.099

41.2 Pinus- Pteris- Sarcococca Community (PPS) 1.26 0.102

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Species maturity Species richness Species diversity

Fig. 4.37: Graphical Representation of Different Components of Plant Species Diversity of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally.

4.3.3 Floristic Diversity of Guzara Forest A total of 103 plant species of 55 families including 61 common in both forest types and 42 species different to Guzara Forest (Table. 4.7 and 4.8). These plant species were recorded from 22 sampling stands. Angiosperms by (92.3%) plant species, Gymnosperms (2.88%) and Pteridophytes (4.8%) were recorded. The dominant family was Poaceae by 11 plant species followed by Asteraceae and Rosaceae each represented by 10 species and Pteridaceae by 5 plant species

100

(Fig.4.38). Habit wise 69.23% were herbs, 14.42% shrubs and 16.34% species of tree were recorded (Fig. 4.39).

12 10.57 9.61 9.61 10

6 4.8

Percentage 4

0 Poaceae Asteraceae Rosaceae Pteridaceae Families

Fig. 4.38: Graphical Representation of Leading Families of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

15 Herb shrub

72 Tree

Fig.4.39: Habit-Wise Classification of Plant Species of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

101

Table 4.7: List of Plant Diversity Recorded From Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally. S. No. Botanical Name Family Habit 1 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Araceae Herb 2 Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae Herb 3 Adiantum caudatum L. Pteridaceae Herb 4 Agrostis stolonifera L. Poaceae Herb 5 Alianthus althesema (Mill.) Swingle Simaroubaceae Tree 6 Alnus nitida (Spach.) Endl. Betulaceae Tree 7 Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham.) DC. Asteraceae Herb 8 Leptopus cordifolius Decne. Euphorbiaceae Shrub 9 Androsace rotundifolia Hardw. Primulaceae Herb 10 Apluda sp. Poaceae Herb 11 Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott Araceae Herb 12 Artemisia absinthium L. Asteraceae Herb

13 Asparagus filicinus Bunch -Ham.ex.D.Don Asparagaceae Herb 14 Bauhinia variegata L. Leguminosae Tree 15 Berberis lycium Royle Berberidaceae Shrub 16 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Saxifragaceae Herb 17 Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) Ronse Polygonaceae Herb Decr. 18 Bromus japonicus Thunb. Poaceae Herb 19 Calendula arvensis M.Bieb. Asteraceae Herb 20 Caltha palustris var. alba (Cambess.) Ranunculaceae Herb Hook.f. & Thomson 21 Cannabis sativa L. Cannabinaceae Herb 22 Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don Pinaceae Tree 23 Chenopodium ambrosiodes L. Amaranthaceae Herb 24 Chenopodium album L. Amaranthaceae Herb 25 Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae Herb

102

26 Clinopodium vulgare L. Lamiaceae Herb 27 Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae Herb 28 Erigeron canadensis L. Asteraceae Herb 29 Cotoneaster sp. Rosaceae Shrub 30 Cynodon dactylon (L.)Pers. Poaceae Herb 31 Digitaria nodosa Parl. Poaceae Herb 32 Diospyros lotus L. Ebenaceae Tree 33 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Sapindaceae Shrub 34 Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. Pteridaceae Herb 35 Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Rosaceae Herb 36 Elymus sp. Poaceae Herb 37 Ficus carica Forsk. Moraceae Tree 38 Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex Hook.f.) Rosaceae Herb Lacaita 39 Fumaria indica (Husskn.) H.N Fumaraceae Herb 40 Gallium aparine L. Rubiaceae Herb 41 Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet Geraniaceae Herb 42 Hedera nepalensis K.Koch Araliaceae Herb 43 Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Poaceae Herb Roem. & Schult. 44 Impatiens bicolor Royle Balsaminaceae Herb 45 Imprita cylindrica (L.) .P.Beaiev. Poaceae Herb 46 Indigofera heterantha Brandis Leguminosae Herb 47 Inula coppa L. Asteraceae Herb 48 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd Lamiaceae Shrub 49 Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae Tree 50 Leontopodium brachyactis Gand. Asteraceae Herb 51 Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae Herb

103

52 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Malvaceae Herb Garcke 53 Medicago polymorpha L. Papilionaceae Herb 54 Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Tree 55 Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex Lamiaceae Herb D.Don) Benth. 56 Morus alba L. Moraceae Tree 57 Morus nigra L. Moraceae Tree 58 Myosotis arvensis (L.) Hill Boraginaceae Herb 59 Myrsine africana L. Primulaceae Shrub 60 Oenothera rosea L’Hér. ex Aiton Onagraceae Herb 61 Onychium japonicum (Thunb.) Kunze Pteridaceae Herb 62 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae Herb 63 Paeonia emodi Royle Paeoniaceae Herb 64 Parthenium hysteroforus L. Asteraceae Herb 65 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinaceae Tree 66 Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks. Pinaceae Tree 67 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae Herb 68 Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae Herb 69 Platanus orientalis L. Platanaceae Tree 70 Poa sp. Poaceae Herb 71 Populus alba L. Salicacae Tree 72 Potentilla sp. Rosaceae Herb 73 Primula denticulata Sm. Primulaceae Herb 74 Prunella vulgaris L. Rosaceae Herb 75 Pteridium sp. Pteridaceae Herb 76 Pteris cretica L. Pteridaceae Herb 77 Pteris vittata L. Pteridaceae Herb 78 Pulicaria crispa Sch.Bip Asteraceae Herb

104

79 Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Rosaceae Tree 80 Quercus incana Bartram Fagaceae Tree 81 Ranunculus hirtellus Royle Ranunculaceae Herb 82 Ranunculus muricatus L. Ranunculaceae Herb 83 Robinia pseudocacia L. Leguminosae Tree 84 Rosa moschata Herrm. Rosaceae Shrub 85 Rubus fructicosus Hook.f. Rosaceae Shrub 86 Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. Buxaceae Shrub

87 Sauromatum venosum (Dry ex Aiton) Araceae Herb Kunth 88 Skimmia laureola Franch Rutaceae Shrub 89 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanaceae Herb 90 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Asteraceae Herb 91 Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder Rosaceae Shrub 92 Spiraea vaccinifolia D. Don. Rosaceae Shrub 93 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae Herb 94 Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund Asteraceae Herb 95 Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.) Hack. Poaceae Herb 96 Trifolium repens L. Leguminosae Herb 97 Urtica dioica L. Araceae Herb 98 Vaccaria sp. Caryophyllaceae Herb 99 Verbascum thapsus L. Plantaginaceae Herb 100 Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don Adoxaceae Shrub 101 Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. Adoxaceae Shrub Kuchh 102 Viola canescens Wall Violaceae Herb 103 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Rhamnaceae Shrub

105

Table 4.8: Different Plant Species Recorded from Guzara Forest. S.No Botanical Name Family Habit 1 Agrostis stolonifera L. Poaceae Herb 2 Alianthus althesema (Mill.) Swingle Simaroubaceae Tree 3 Alnus nitida (Spach.) Endl. Betulaceae Tree 4 Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott Araceae Herb 5 Artemisia absinthium L. Asteraceae Herb 6 Bauhinia variegata L. Leguminosae Tree 7 Bromus japonicus Thunb. Poaceae Herb 8 Calandula arvensis L. Asteraceae Herb 9 Cannabis sativa L. Cannabinaceae Herb 10 Chenopdium ambrosiodes L. Amaranthaceae Herb 11 Chenopodium album L. Amaranthaceae Herb 12 Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae Herb 13 Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae Herb 14 Cotoneaster sp. Rosaceae Shrub 15 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Sapindaceae Shrub 16 Ficus carica Forsk. Moraceae Tree 17 Fumaria indica (Husskn.) H.N Fumaraceae Herb 18 Gallium aparine L. Rubiaceae Herb 19 Imprita cylindrica (L.) .P.Beaiev. Poaceae Herb 20 Inula coppa L. Asteraceae Herb 21 Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae Herb 22 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Malvaceae Herb 23 Medicago polymorpha L. Papilionaceae Herb 24 Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Tree 25 Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex Lamiaceae Herb D.Don) Benth. 26 Morus alba L. Moraceae Tree

106

27 Morus nigra L. Moraceae Tree 28 Myrsine africana L. Primulaceae Shrub 29 Parthenium hysteroforous L. Asteraceae Herb 30 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinaceae Tree 31 Platanus orientalis L. Platanaceae Tree 32 Poa sp. Poaceae Herb 33 Populus alba L. Salicacae Tree 34 Pulicaria crispa Sch.Bip. Asteraceae Herb 35 Pyrus pashia Ham. ex D. Don Rosaceae Tree 36 Quercus incana Bartram Fagaceae Tree 37 Robinia pseudocacia L. Leguminosae Tree 38 Rosa moschata Herrm. Rosaceae Shrub 39 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Asteraceae Herb 40 Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder Rosaceae Shrub

41 Verbascum thapsus L. Scrophulariaceae Herb 42 Ziziphus jujube Mill. Rhamnaceae Shrub

107

4.3.3.1 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Guzara Forest The data of 103 plant species of 22 stands were analyzed by using TWINSPAN classification (Fig. 4.40). Three plant communities were recognized viz Pinus- Sarcococca-Pteris community (PSP), Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera community (PCI) and Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda community (ACT).

Fig. 4.40: TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

108

4.3.3.1.1 Pinus-Sarcococca-Pteris Community (PSP) Pinus wallichiana-Sarcococca pruniformis-Pteris vittata community was harboured at an elevational range of 1800-1920m in stands 9, 16, 17, 18 and 19. The coordinates range was 34.607 to 34.608 N and 073.197 to 73.198 E. The steepness of slope was 40-750 on South and East aspects. A total of 28 plant species were recorded in this community. The dominant plant species was Pinus wallichiana with IVI 134.42. Sarcococca pruniformis and Pteris vittata were co-dominant with IVI 54.57 and 14.16, respectively. Therophytes were dominant by contributing 32.25% species followed by Geophytes and Hemicryptophytes (19.35%) species by each (Fig. 4.41). Leaf spectra was dominated by Microphyll (34.48%) followed by Nanophyll (32.25%) and Mesophyll (22.58%) species (Fig. 4.42). The values of species diversity, species richness and species maturity were 0.106, 52.72, and 115.65, respectively.

Soil of this community was silty loam with high acidic pH, nitrogen 0.028 - 0.061%, potassium 112-127ppm, phosphorus 3-4.5% and electrical conductivity 1.1 - 2.1 dS/m. The percentage of organic matter was high in this community.

4.3.3.1.2 Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community (PCI) This community was recorded at an elevation of 1900-2070m with coordinate’s range of 34.608 to 34.675 N and 73.1841 to 073.202 E. This community was recorded in stands 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, and 34 from East, South and West aspects with 30-70o slope of steepness. A total of 76 plant species were documented in this community. Pinus wallichiana was dominant with IVI 218.19, Cedrus deodara and Indigofera heterantha were co-dominant species with IVI of 140.25 and 106.24, respectively. Therophytes were dominant life form of the vegetation with contribution of 22.36% plant species, followed by Geophytes with addition of 21.05% species to the total and Nanophanerophytes by 18.42% plant species (Fig. 4.43).

109

Among leaf spectra, Mesophyll were dominant by contributing 32.89% species and Microphyll by 31.57 species (Fig. 4.44). The values of species diversity, species richness and species maturity were 0.066, 1.30 and 115.65 respectively.

Sandy clay loam and loam soil of this community had high acidic pH, less organic matter, potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen were in range of 88-131 ppm, 3-6 and 0.018 - 0.68%, respectively. The electrical conductivity was 1.1-2.4 dS/m.

4.3.3.1.3 Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda Community (ACT) Ailanthus altisema-Cynodon dactylon-Themeda anathera community was recorded at an elevation of 1828-1950m in stands 14, 15, and 35. The coordinates range was 34.601 to 34.66 6 N and 073.172 to 073.205 E. The steepness of slope was 45-70o on South and West aspects. A sum of 58 plant species were recorded in this community. The dominant plant of this community was Ailanthus altissima with IVI 134.42. Cynodon dactylon and Themeda anathera were co-dominant with IVI 15.57 and 11.06, respectively.

Megaphanerophytes were dominant by contributing 29.31% plant species, followed by Therophytes by 24.13%, Hemicryptophytes 18.96% and Nanophanerophytes 13.79% (Fig. 4.45). Leaf size spectra was dominated by Mesophyll 34.48% plant species followed by Microphyll 29.31%, Nanophyll 24.13% and Leptophyll 8.62% (Fig. 4.46).

The values of species diversity, species richness and species maturity were 0.086, 2.45 and 46.29, respectively. Soil of this community was silty loam and sandy clay loam with high acidic pH, nitrogen 0.033-0.6%, potassium 110- 128ppm, phosphorus 4.5-6ppm and electrical conductivity 0.5-2.6 dS/m. Organic matter was high in this community.

110

35 32.25

25 19.35 19.35 20 16.12 15

Percentage 10 6.45 3.22 5 3.22

0 Th Ge H Ch Np Mp Na

Life Form Classes

Fig. 4.41: Life Form Classes of Pinus-Sarcococca-Pteris Community of Guzara Forest, Sathan Gally.

34.48 35 32.25

25 22.58

Percentage 10 6.45 3.22 5

0 Mi Na Me L Ma

Leaf Spectra

Fig. 4.42: Leaf Spectra of Pinus-Sarcococca-Pteris Community of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

111

25 22.36 21.05 18.42 20 17.1 14.47 15

Percentage 5.26 5 1.31

0 Th Ge Np H Mp Ch L

Life form Classes

Fig. 4.43: Life Form Classes of Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

32.89 35 31.57

30 22.36 25

10 6.57 6.57 Percentage

0 Me Mi Na Ma L

Leaf Spactra Classes

Fig. 4.44: Leaf Spectra Classes of Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

112

29.31 30 24.13 25 18.96 20 13.79 15

10 Percentage 6.89 5.17 5

0 Mp Th H Np Ch Ge

Life Form Classes

Fig. 4.45: Life Form Classes of Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda Community of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

34.48 35 29.31 30 24.13 25

15 8.62 Percentage 10 3.44 5

0 Me Mi Na L Ma

Leaf Spetra Classes

Fig. 4.46: Leaf Specra Classes of Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda Community of Guzara forest of Sathan Gally.

113

4.3.3.2 DCA Ordination of Guzara Forest In unimodal DCA ordination the response, data were compositional with 2.5 SD unit large gradient length. The total variation in the species data was 2.88. The maximum Eigenvalue for axis I was 0.50 and 0.24 for axis II. The maximum gradient length was 2.49 contributed by axis I and gradient length of axis II was 2.00. The explained variation for axis I and II were 17.59 and 26.27, respectively. The Detrended Correspondence Analysis of species revealed that various specie clustered in ordination space on both positive and negative sides from average position. The species that were positively correlated with each other and with axis I were Pteridium sp., Oxalis corniculata, Viburnum grandiflorum and Pteris cratica. These species were negatively correlated with axis II. The species, that were positively correlated with axis I and II were clustered at the top of ordination space included Abies pindrow, Duchesnea indica, Paeonia emodi, Sorbaria tomentosa, Viburnum cotonifolium, Fragaria nubicola and Rosa moschata (Fig. 4.47). The species that were positive correlated with axis II and negatively correlated with axis I were Populus alba, Dryopteris stewartii, Artemisia absinthium, Dodonaea viscosa, Melia azedarach, Morus alba, Morus nigra, Prunella vulgaris and Diospyros lotus. The species that were negatively correlated with both axis I and II were Rumex hastatus, Cichorum intybus and Rumex dentatus, while Clinopodium vulgare lie near average position. The DCA ordination of stands also showed that the stands of different communities lie close to each in ordination space as sorted out by TWINSPAN classification. Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera community (PCI) and Pinus-Sarcococca-Pteris community (PSP) lie near to axis I while Ailanthus- Cynodon-Themeda community (ACT) was at the top of the ordination space. Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda community (ACT) was different in species composition and habitat type from Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera community (PCI) and Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda community (ACT) (Fig.4.48).

114

abipin duc ind Vib car Poe emo Pte sp Tom sp Ros mos Fra nub adicor Vio can Pop alb Pot sp Pal maj ach mil Ber lyc Tra offadi cap Ced deo Rum nepSor tom Ags sto Dry ste Ind het Jug reg Ber cil are fla Pla lan Hyd nep Con can are jaq Pyr pat Iso Anarug sp Dig nod Rub spp Eiy spp Art abs SpiFic vaccri Ran mur Bis amp ThePruSalPeralnPla bukden ana hisnitori Rub psu Ded ves Cyn dac Pin wal SteEluMan med ind spZiz jujDio lot Ony jap alaaltPro vul Imp cyl Mor alb Can sta Mel aza aca mod che amr OenUlnTus ros vilsp Sil vis Apd ars

Ptd sp Oxa car Che alb Pul sp Gal apa Sol sur Vib gra Rum has Cic int Ger wal Sar sal Bro sp Ptr cra Rum den Fum ind Sar ven Uti dio Imp sp Pte ves cap bur Cli vul Son asp Pru vul per sp and rot Asp fil Myo sp

-3 -1 4

Fig. 4.47: DCA Ordination of Plant Species of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

S33

2.0

S34 S32

S31 S20 S25 S29

S22 S21 S30 S24 S23 S26 S35 S27 S14 S28

S15

S18

S16 S17

S19

0.0 0.0 2.5

Fig. 4.48: DCA ordination of stands of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

115

4.3.3.3 CCA Ordination of Guzara Forest The outcome of CCA ordination showed that the total variation was 2.88, explanatory variable accounts for 76.2 % while the adjusted explained variations was 16.5%. This means that the species behave differently with environmental variables. Some variables have great effect on species distribution as compared to other environmental factors. The Eigenvalue for axis I was 0.48 and 0.28 for axis II. The psedocanonical correlation for axis I and II was 0.98 and 0.94, respectively. This means that the species were in linear combination with environmental variables. The permutation test result showed that pseudo F=1.3 for all axis, while the P =0.074. The F value is less significant while the p value is more significant. Among environmental factors, the high strength was recorded for elevation, followed by nitrogen, wind pressure, electrical conductivity and phosphorus. The least strength was recorded for steepness of slope.

The species which were positively correlated with each other and environmental variables like wind pressure, nitrogen and organic matter were Isodon rugosus, Pyrus pashia, Platanus orientalis, Dodonaea viscosa, Stellaria media, Malva neglecta, Diospyrous lotus, Swertia ciliata, Desmodium elegans and Ficus carica. The species, which were positively correlated with altitude, aspects, texture and latitude, were Agrostis stolonifera, Abies Pindrow, Viburnum cotinifolium, Achellia mellefolium and Pteris sp. The species, which were positively correlated with potassium and moisture, were Cichorum intuybus, Melia azadarach, Impations sp, and Hedra nepalensis. Some of the species like Calamentha umbrosa, Quercus dilatata and Oenothera rosea were at the top of ordination space and were most sensitive with environmental variables on axis I as compared to other species while a single species Indigofera differs and lie closer to average position (Fig. 4.49).

116

1.0 Cla umb Uln Viovil odoTus sp Sol sp Sil vis Qua dil Oen ros

Bro sp

Hyd nep Spi vac Cli vul per sp ElecCond Inu sp Ana sp Imp sp Vio can Cic int cap bur Mel aza Ph Asp filPul spAirMoitr Sar sp Potassiu che amr Son asp and rot Pro vul Can sta Sar ven Sol sur aca mod Longitud Rub psu Sar sal Dry ste Mor alb Temperat Oxa car Rum has Rub spp Ziz juj OrgnMatr Gal apa SlopAngl Rum den adi cap Ind het RumPin wal nep Che alb Iso rug Ony jap Pyr pat WindPres Aspact Ced deo Pla ori Ded ves Ste med Pot sp Cyn dac Art abs ach mil Mal neg Ber lyc Cot spp aln PruTheSalnitPol buk denanasp Ags sto Jug reg NitrogenElu ind Vib car Fic cri Swe cil Dio lot abipin Bau varRha rug Per his Des sp Man sp Men pip Pte sp Pop alb alaalt TextClas Latitude Altitude Phsphors

-0.6 -0.8 1.0

Fig. 4.49: CCA Ordination of Plant Species of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

1.0 35

ElecCond

Ph AirMoitr Potassiu 23 23 Longitud 22 16 Temperat 14 OrgnMatr 17 SlopAngl 20 19 1315 1915 30 WindPres Aspact 16 24 14 20 Nitrogen 21 16 19 45 TextClas Latitude Altitude Phsphors

-0.6 -0.8 1.0

Fig. 4.50: CCA Ordination of Stands of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

117

The CCA ordination of stands showed that maximum of the stands lie on the negative side of the both axis, axis I and II from average position. The stands were strongly positively correlated with axis I and slightly negatively correlated with axis II. One stand that contributed 35 species was strongly correlated with axis II as well as with axis I and lie at the top of ordination space. This indicated that the species of this stand were more diverse as compared to rest of stands (Fig. 4.50).

4.3.4 Species Diversity and its Components 4.3.4.1 Species Diversity The maximum value of species diversity was (0.106) of Pinus-Sarcococca-Pteris community (PSP)) community. It was followed by Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera community (PCI) having 0.085 value of species diversity. The minimum species diversity was of Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera community (PCI) community with 0.066 values (Fig.4.51).

4.3.4.2 Species Maturity The maximum value (115.65) of species maturity was recorded for Pinus- Cedrus-Indigofera community (PCI) followed by Pinus-Sarcococca-Pteris community (PSP) with 57 Values. The least value of species maturity was of Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda community (ACT) with 46.29 (Fig. 4.51).

4.3.4.3 Species Richness The maximum species richness was of Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda community (ACT) with 2.45 values. It was followed by Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera community (PCI) having 1.30. The least value of species richness was of Pinus-Sarcococca- Pteris community (PSP) with 1.22 (Fig. 4.51).

118

46.29 Species maturity 115.65 52.72

2.45 Species richness 1.3 1.22

0.085 Species diversity 0.066 0.106

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Alianthus-Cynodon-Themeda Community (ACT) Pinus- Cedrus- Indigofera Community (PCI) Pinus-Sarcococca-Pteris Community (PSP)

Fig. 4.51: Graphical Representation of Different Components of Plant Species Diversity of Vegetation of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally.

4.9 Ethnobotanical Profile The result revealed that the local peoples of the area used 86 (51.19%) species as traditional medicinal plants, 136 (80.95%) fodder species, 48 (28.57%) fuel species, 28 (16.66%) timber woods, 07 (4.16%) vegetable species and 02 (1.19%) veterinary species. The fruit plants were 17 (10.11%) species, 2 (1.19%) species were used for making agricultural tools and 1 (0.59%) species was used for fencing field borders. The Asteraceae and Poaceae were the most economical important families in the area (Table 4.9). It was observed that the local inhabitants used different plant species for simple or multiple purposes. Various type of diseases such as toothache, backache, headache, body pain, rheumatism, indigestion, wound healing and stomach pain were treated by utilizing the medicinal plant of the area.

119

4.5.1 Medicinal Plants For curing a variety of diseases, the local peoples of the area partially depend on the medicinal plants. The most important species were Arisaema jacquemontii, Achillea millefolium, Adiantum caudatum, Andrachne cordifolia, Berberis lycium, Paeonia emodi, Plantago lanceolata, Valeriana jatamansi, Chenopodium album, Convolvulus arvensis, Plantago ovata and Rumex dentatus. The locals of the study area used the plants to treat various illness like respiratory, digestive, anthelmintic, jaundice, urinary problems, skin diseases and diabetes (Fig. 4.52).

4.5.2 Fodder Species A sum of 114 (70.81%) plant species used as fodder by the grazing animals including goat, sheep, cow and buffalo (Fig. 4.52). The main fodder species included Convolvulus arvensis, Cynodon dactylon, Melia azedarach, Morus alba, Morus nigra, Berberis lycium and all type of grasses.

4.5.3 Fuel Wood Species The result revealed that the inhabitants of the investigated area used 43 (26.7%) plant species for fuel purposes (Fig. 4.52). The plant species used as fuel wood included Morus alba, Morus nigra, Pinus roxberghii, Pinus wallichiana, Berberis lycium, Cedrus deodara and Abies pindrow.

4.5.4 Timber Wood Species A total of 16 (9.94%) species including, Morus alba, Morus nigra, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana and Abies pindrow were used as a timber wood (Fig. 4.52).

4.5.5 Vegetable Species

120

There were 4.16% plant species used as vegetables by the peoples of the study area (Fig. 4.52). The species were Chenopodium album, Convolvulus arvensis, Lactuca serriola, Bauhinia variegata, Malva neglecta and Primula denticulate. The leaves of the young shoot of Chenopodium album and Convolvulus arvensis were used as a vegetable, commonly called saag and are very tasty. The young leaves of Urtica dioica are also used as a saag.

4.5.6 Plants Used as Veterinary Medicines The local inhabitants of the study area utilized only two plant species for treating various ailments of animals. Most of species such as, Aesculus indica and Cedrus deodara are used for curing stomach problems of livestock (Fig. 4.52).

4.5.7 Fruit Yielding Plants Our results exhibited that the locals of the study area used 17 (10.11%) species as a wild fruit. They include Fragaria nubicola, Morus alba and Morus nigra (Fig. 4.52).

4.5.8 Plants Used for Fencing Inhabitants of the area secure their crop land by fencing the edges by using different plant species. Only single species of Rosa moschata is used for this purpose (Fig. 4.52).

4.5.9 Species Used for Making Agricultural Appliances Different agriculturists’ tools as are made from the wood of Ailanthus althesema. Only 2 (1.19%) plant species were used for making agriculture appliances (Fig. 4.52).

121

Table 4.9: Ethnobotanical Classification of Plant Species of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra. S.No Fruit Botanical Name Habit Medicinal Fodder Fuel Timber Vegetable Veterinary Fencing Agriculture yielding

1 Abies pindrow Royle Tree - + + + - - - - -

2 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Herb + ------

3 Achillea millefolium L. Herb + + ------

4 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Herb + + ------

5 Adiantum caudatum L. Herb + + ------

6 Aegopodium burttii Nasir Herb ------

7 Aesculus indica (comb.) Hook. Tree + - + + - + - - -

8 Agrostis stolonifera L. Herb - + ------

9 Ajuga integrifolia Wall.ex Benth Herb + + ------

10 Ajuga parviflora Benth. Herb + + ------Alianthus althesema (Mill.) 11 Swingle Tree - - + - - - - + -

122

12 Alnus nitida (Spach.) Endl. Tree - + + + - - - - -

13 Anagallis arvensis L. Herb - + ------Andrachne cordifolia (Wall.ex 14 Dec) Muell. Shrub + + + ------

15 Androsace rotundifolia Hardw. Herb + + ------

16 Anaphalis busa DC. Herb - + ------

17 Apluda sp. Herb - + ------

18 Aquilegia pubiflora Wall.ex Royle Herb - + ------

19 Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott Herb + ------

20 Arisaema utile Hook. fex.schott Herb + ------

21 Aristida sp. Herb - + ------

22 Arum sp. Herb - + ------23 Asparagus filicinus Bunch - Herb + ------Ham.ex D.Don

24 Aster himalaicus C.B.Clarke Herb ------

25 Artemisia absinthium L. Herb + ------

26 Bauhinia variegata L. Tree - + + - + - - - -

27 Berberis lycium Royle Shrub + + + - - - - - +

28 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Herb + +------

123

Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) 29 Ronse Decr. Herb + + ------

30 Bromus japonicus Thunb. Herb - + ------

31 Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf Herb - + ------

32 Buddleja crispa Benth. Shrub - + + ------Bupleurum lanceolatum Wall. ex 33 DC. Herb - + ------Clinopodium umbrosum (M.Bieb.) 34 Kuntze Herb ------

35 Calendula arvensis M.Bieb. Herb - + ------Caltha palustris var. alba 36 (Cambess.) Hook.f. & Thomson Herb - + ------

37 Cannabis sativa L. Herb + - + ------

38 Capsela bursa pistoris l.Medik Herb + + ------Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) 39 G.Don Tree + + + + - + - - -

40 Celtis australis L. Tree - + + + - - - - -

41 Chenopdium ambrosiodes L Herb ------

42 Chenopodium album L. Herb + ------

43 Cichorium intybus L. Herb + ------

124

44 Clinopodium vulgare L. Herb - + ------

45 Colchicum luteum Baker Herb + ------

46 Convolvulus arvensis L. Herb + + ------

47 Erigeron canadensis L. Herb + + ------

48 Cotoneaster sp. Shrub + + + ------

49 Crotolaria sp. Herb ------

50 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Herb - + ------

51 Cyperus sp. Herb - + ------

52 Daphne papyracea Wall. ex Steud. Shrub + + + ------

53 Desmodium elegans DC. Shrub + + + ------

54 Deutzia staminea R.Br .ex Wall. Shrub + + + ------

55 Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees Herb - + ------

56 Digitaria nodosa Parl. Herb - + ------

57 Diospyros lotus L. Tree - + + + -- - - - +

58 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Shrub + + + ------

59 Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. Herb ------

60 Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Herb + + ------+

61 Elymus sp. Herb - + ------

62 Erigeron multiradiatus Lind. Herb + ------

125

63 Erigeron sp. Herb + + ------

64 Fagopyrum sp. Herb - + ------

65 Ficus carica Forsk. Tree - + + + + - - - + Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex 66 Hook.f.) Lacaita Herb + + ------+

67 Fumaria indica (Husskn.) H.N Herb + + ------

68 Gallium aparine L. Herb - + ------Gentiana pedicellata (D.Don) 69 Wall. Herb + + ------

70 Geranium rotundifolium L. Herb + + ------Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex 71 Sweet Herb + + ------

72 Hedera nepalensis K.Koch Herb + ------Heteropogon contortus (L.) 73 P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. Herb - + ------

74 Hyoscyamus niger L. Herb + + ------

75 Hypericum perforatum L. Herb + + ------

76 Impatiens bicolor Royle Herb + + ------

77 Indigofera heterantha Wall. Herb + + + + - - - - -

126

78 Imprita cylindrica (L.) .P.Beaiev. Herb - + ------

79 Inula coppa L. Herb + + ------Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) 80 Codd Shrub + + ------

81 Jasminum humile L. Shrub - + ------+

82 Juglans regia L. Tree - + + + - - - - +

83 Lactuca sp. Herb + ------

84 Lamium album L. Herb + + ------

85 Lamium amplexicaul L. Herb - + - - + - - - -

86 Leontopodium brachyactis Gand. Herb + + ------

87 Leonurus cardiaca L. Herb + + ------

88 Lonicera sp. Shrub - + - - - - -

89 Malva neglecta Wallr. Herb - + - - + - - - - Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) 90 Garcke Herb - + ------

91 Medicago polymorpha L. Herb - + - - + - - - -

92 Melia azedarach L. Tree + + + + - - - - - Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. 93 ex D.Don) Benth. Herb + + ------

127

94 Morus alba L. Tree + + + + - - - - +

95 Morus nigra L. Tree + + + + - - - - +

96 Myosotis arvensis (L.) Hill Herb + + ------

97 Nepeta cataria L. Herb + + ------

98 Oenothera rosea L’Hér. ex Aiton Herb - + ------Onychium japonicum (Kunze). 99 Wall Herb ------

100 Origanum vulgare L. Herb + + ------

101 Oxalis corniculata L. Herb + + ------

102 Paeonia emodi Royle Herb + ------Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana 103 (Decne.) Rehder Shrub - + + + - - - + -

104 Parthenium histoforous L. Herb ------

105 Phlomis rotata Royle .ex Benth. Herb - + ------

106 Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Tree - + + + - - - - -

107 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Tree + + + + - - - - -

108 Pinus wallichiana A.B.Jacks Tree - + + + - - - - +

109 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Tree + + + + - - - - -

110 Plantago lanceolata L. Herb + + ------

128

111 Plantago major L. Herb + + ------

112 Platanus orientalis L. Tree - + + + - - - - -

113 Poa sp. Herb - + ------Sinopodophyllum hexandrum 114 (Royle) T.S.Ying Herb + + ------

115 Populus alba.L. Tree - + + + - - - - -

116 Potentilla nepalensis Hook. Herb + + ------

117 Potentilla sp. Herb + + ------+

118 Primula denticulata Sm. Herb + + ------

119 Prunella vulgaris L. Herb + + ------

120 Prunus sp. Tree - + + + - - - - +

121 Prunus domestica L. Tree - + + + - - - - + Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) 121 Steud. Tree - + + + - - - - -

122 Pteridium sp. Herb ------

123 Pteris cretica L. Herb ------

124 Pteris vittata L. Herb ------

125 Pulicaria crispa Sch.Bip. Herb - + ------

126 Pyrus pashia Ham.ex D. Don Tree - + + + - - - - +

129

Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A. 127 Camus Tree - + + + - - - - -

128 Quercus incana Bartram Tree + + + + - - - - +

129 Ranunculus hirtellus Royle Herb + + ------

130 Ranunculus muricatus L. Herb + + ------

131 Rhamnus virgata Roxb. Tree - + + + - - - - -

132 Rhododendron arboreum Smith Tree + + + + - - - - -

133 Rosa moschata Herrm. Shrub - + + - - - + - -

134 Rubus fructicosus Hook.f. Shrub + + + ------

135 Rumex dentatus L. Herb

136 Rumex hastatus D. Don. Herb + + - + - - - - - Salvia mukerjeei Bennet & 137 Raizada Herb - + ------

138 Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. Shrub - + + - - - - - + Sauromatum venosum (Dryand. 139 ex Aiton) Kunth Herb + ------Scutellaria chamaedrifolia Hedge 140 & A.J.Paton Herb + + ------

141 silene conidea L. Herb + + ------

130

142 Skimmia laureola D.C. Shrub + + + ------

143 Senicio sp. Herb ------

144 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Herb + ------Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) 145 Gandhi Herb + ------

146 Solidago sp. Herb + + ------

147 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Herb - + ------Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) 148 Rehder Shrub - + ------

149 Spiraea vaccinifolia D. Don. Shrub - + + ------

150 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Herb - + ------Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) 151 B.L. Burtt Herb - + ------Taraxacum campylodes G.E. 152 Haglund Herb - + - - + - - - -

153 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Tree + + + + - - - - - Themeda anathera (Nees ex 154 Steud.) Hack. Herb - + + ------

155 Trifolium repens L. Herb - + ------

156 Tussilago farfara L. Herb + + ------

131

157 Ulmus villosa Brandis ex Gamble Tree - + + + - - - - -

158 Urtica dioica L. Herb + + ------

159 Vaccaria sp. Herb ------

160 Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Herb + + ------

161 Verbascum thapsus L. Herb + + ------

162 Veronica persica Poir. Herb ------Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex 163 DC. Kuchh Shrub + + + - - - - - +

164 Vioa canescens Wall. ex Roxb. Herb + + ------

165 Vitis jacquemontii R. N. Parker Shrub - + + ------

167 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Herb + + + ------

168 Primula denticulata Sm. Herb - + - - + - - - -

169 Myrsine africana L. Shrub + + + ------

170 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Shrub - - - - + + - - -

132

0.59 1.19 1.19 Medicinal 10.11 16.66 4.16 Fodder 51.19 Fuel 28.57 Timber 80.95 Vegetable Veterinary Fencing Agriculture Fruit yielding

Fig. 4.52: Graphical Presentation of Ethnobotanical Classification of Plant Resources of Sathan Gally.

4.6 Palatability of Vegetation of Sathan Gally The result revealed that 133 (79.16%) plant species were used for grazing by four animals’ goat, cow, sheep and buffalo in the study area. Thirty-five (35) species (20.83%) were non-palatable, 21spp. (12.5%) highly palatable, 43 spp. (26.71 %) mostly palatable, 62 spp. (36.90%) less palatable 43 and 07 spp. (4.16%) were rarely palatable (Fig. 4.53).

4.6.1 Palatability of Different Plant Parts The preference of animal varied regarding different parts of plant animal in the study area. Sixty-five (53.71%) plants were used as grazing as a whole, in 50 (41.32%) plant species leaves were grazed, flowers and fruits were utilized 3 (2.47%) each and 3 (2.47%) leaves and twigs were consumed by the animals (Fig. 4.54).

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4.6.2 Plant Condition Preferred by Animals The livestock in the investigated area both fresh as well as in dry conditions prefer plants. Plant species in a fresh form (70.33%) and (29.66%) species in both forms were used as a fodder in study area (Fig. 4.55).

4.6.3 Animal Preference for Plant The palatability of animal preference of cow, goat, sheep and buffalo was observed. The goat preference for plant was 125 spp. (41.25%), cow 51 spp., (16.83%), sheep 76 spp., (25.08%) and buffalo 51spp. 16.83% (Fig.4.56).

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Table 4.10: Palatability Matrix of Different Palatability Parameters of Plant Species of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra.

S. Palatability class Plant parts Plant condition Grazing animals No species Habit NP HP MP LP RP WP L L&T F &F F D F &D Goats sheep cow Buffalo

1 Abies pindrow Royle Tree - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

3 Achillea millefolium L. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + + +

4 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Herb - - + - - - + - - - - + + + + +

5 Adiantum caudatum L. Herb - - + - - - + - - - - + + + + +

6 Aegopodium burttii Nasir Herb + ------

7 Aesculus indica (comb.) Hook. Tree + ------

9 Agrostis stolonifera L. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + + +

10 Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. Herb - - - + - + - - - + - - + - - -

11 Ajuga parviflora Benth. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + + + +

12 Alianthus althesema (Mill.)Swingle Tree + ------

13 Alnus nitida (Spach.) Endl. Tree - - + - - - + - - + - - + - - -

14 Anagallis arvensis L. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + + +

17 Anaphalis busa DC. Herb + ------

15 Leptopus cordifolius Decne. Shrub ------

16 Androsace rotundifolia Hardw. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + + + +

18 Apluda sp. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + + + +

19 Aquilegia pubiflora Wall.ex Royle Herb - - - + - + - - - + - - + + + +

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20 Aralia sp. Shrub + ------

21 Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott Herb - - - + - - - - + + - - + - - -

22 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Herb + ------

23 Arisaema utile Hook. fex. Schott Herb + ------

24 Aristida sp. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + + +

25 Artemisia absinthium L Herb + ------

26 Arum sp. Herb + ------27 Asparagus filicinus Bunch - Herb Ham.ex. D.Don + ------

28 Aster himalaicus C.B.Clarke Herb + ------

29 Bauhinia variegata L. Tree - - + - - - + - - + - - + - - -

30 Berberis lycium Royle Shrub - + - - - - + - - + - - + - - -

31 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + + + + Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) 32 Ronse Decr. Herb - + - - - - + - + - - + + + + +

33 Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf Herb - - - - - + ------

34 Bromus japonicus Thunb. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + + + +

35 Buddleja crispa Benth. Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - - Bupleurum lanceolatum Wall. ex 36 DC. Herb - - + - - + - + - - - - + + + +

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Clinopodium umbrosum 37 (M.Bieb.) Kuntze Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + + +

38 Calendula arvensis M.Bieb. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + - - - Caltha palustris var. alba 39 (Cambess.) Hook.f. & Thomson Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + - - -

40 Cannabis sativa L. Herb + ------

41 Capsela bursa pistoris l.Medik Herb - - - + - + - - - + - - + - - - Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) 42 G.Don Tree - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

43 Celtis australis L. Tree - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

44 Chenopdium ambrosiodes L Herb + ------

45 Chenopodium album L. Herb + ------

46 Cichorium intybus L. Herb + ------

47 Clinopodium vulgare L. Herb - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

48 Colchicum luteum Baker Herb + ------

49 Convolvulus arvensis L. Herb - - - + - + - - - + - - + - - -

50 Erigeron canadensis L. Herb - - + - - - + - - - - + + + + +

51 Cotoneaster sp. Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

52 Crotolaria sp. Herb - - - - + ------

53 Cynodon dactylon (L.)Pers. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + + +

54 Cyperus sp. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + + +

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55 Daphne papyracea Wall. ex G. Don Shrub + ------

56 Desmodium elegans DC. Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

57 Deutzia staminea R.Br. ex Wall. Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

58 Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees Herb ------

59 Digitaria nodosa Parl. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + + + +

60 Diospyros lotus L. Tree - - - - - + ------+ - - -

61 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Shrub - - - + - - + - - + ------

62 Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. Herb + ------

63 Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + + +

64 Elymus sp. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + + +

65 Erigeron multiradiatus Lindl. Herb + ------

66 Erigeron sp. Herb + ------

67 Fagopyrum sp. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + + + +

68 Ficus carica Forsk. Tree - - + - - - + - - + - - + - - - Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex 69 Hook.f.) Lacaita Herb - + - - - - + - - + - - + + + +

70 Fumaria indica (Husskn.) H.N Herb - - - + - + - - - + - - + - - -

71 Gallium aparine L. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + + +

72 Gentiana pedicellata (D.Don) Wall. Herb - - - - - + - - - + - - + - - -

73 Geranium rotundifolium L. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + - - -

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Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex 74 Sweet Herb - - + - - + ------

75 Hedera nepalensis K.Koch Herb + ------Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. 76 ex Roem. & Schult. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + - - - -

77 Hyoscyamus niger L. Herb - - - + - + - - - + - - + + + +

78 Hypericum perforatum L. Herb + ------+ - - -

79 Impatiens bicolor Royle Herb - - - + - - + - - + ------

80 Imprita cylindrica (L.) P.Beaiev. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + - - -

81 Inula coppa L. Herb - - - + - - - - - + - - + + + + Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) 82 Codd Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

83 Jasminum humile L. Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

84 Juglans regia L. Tree - - - + - - - - - + - - + - - -

85 Lactuca serriola L. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + - - -

86 Lamium album L. Herb - - - + - + - - - + - - + + + +

87 Lamium amplexicaul L. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + - - -

88 Leontopodium brachyactis Gand. Herb - - + - - + + - - - - - + + + +

89 Leonurus cardiaca L. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + - - -

90 Lonicera sp. Shrub - - + - - - + - - + - - + - - -

91 Malva neglecta Wallr. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + - - -

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Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) 92 Garcke Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + + +

93 Medicago polymorpha L. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + + +

94 Melia azedarach L. Tree - - + - - - + - - + - - + + + + Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex 95 D.Don) Benth. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + - - -

96 Morus alba L. Tree - - + - - - + - - - - - + - - -

97 Morus nigra L. Tree - - + - - - + - - - - - + + + +

98 Myosotis arvensis (L.) Hill Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + + +

99 Myrsine africana L. Shrub - - + ------+ - - + + - -

100 Nepeta cataria L. Herb - - + ------+ + + +

101 Oenothera rosea L’Hér. ex Aiton Herb - - + ------Onychium japonicum (Thunb.) 102 Kunze Herb + ------

103 Origanum vulgare L. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + - - - -

104 Oxalis corniculata L. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + + +

105 Paeonia emodi Wall ex Hook. f. Herb + ------+ + + + Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana 106 (Decne.) Rehder Shrub - - + - - - + - - + ------

107 Parthenium histoforous L. Herb + ------+ - - -

108 Phlomis rotata Royle ex Benth. Herb - - - + - + + - - + ------

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109 Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Tree - - - + - - + - - - - - + + - -

110 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Tree - - - + ------+ - - -

111 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Tree - - - + - - + - - + ------

112 Pinus wallichiana A.B.Jacks Tree - - - - + ------+ - - -

113 Plantago lanceolata L. Herb - - - - - + ------+ - - -

114 Plantago major L. Herb - - - - - + - - - + ------

115 Platanus orientalis L. Tree - - + - - - + - - - - - + + - -

116 Poa sp. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + - - - -

117 Podophyllum emodi Wall. ex Royle Herb - - + - - - + - - + - - + + + +

118 Populus alba L. Tree - - - - - + ------+ - - -

119 Potentilla nepalensis Hook. Herb + ------+ + - -

120 Potentilla sp. Herb + ------

121 Primula denticulata Sm. Herb - - + - - + - - - + ------

122 Primula sp. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + - -

123 Prunella vulgaris L. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + - -

124 prunus americana L. Tree - - + - - - + - - + - - + + - -

125 Prunus sp. Tree - - + - - - + - - + - - + + - - Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) 126 Steud. Tree - - + - - - + - - + - - + + - -

127 Pteridium sp. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + - - -

128 Pteris sp. Herb + ------+ + + +

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129 Pteris vittata L. Herb + ------

130 Pulicaria crispa Sch.Bip. Herb - - - + - + - - - + ------

131 Pyrus pashia Ham.ex D. Don Tree - - + - - - + - - + - - + + - - Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex 132 A.Camus Tree - - + - - - - + - + - - + + - -

133 Quercus incana Bartram Tree + ------+ - - -

134 Ranunculus hirtellus Royle Herb - - + - - + - - - + ------

135 Ranunculus muricatus L. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + - -

136 Rhamnus virgata Roxb. Tree - - + - - - + - - + - - + + + +

137 Rhododendron arboreum Smith Tree - - - + - - - - + + - - + + - -

138 Rosa moschata Herrm. Shrub - + - - - - + - - + - - + + + +

139 Rubus fructicosus Hook.f. Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + + + +

140 Rumex hastatus D. Don Herb - - - + - - + - - + - - + - - -

141 Salvia mukerjeei Bennet & Raizada Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + + +

142 Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. Shrub - - - - + - - - + + - - + + - - Sauromatum venosum (Dryand. ex 143 Aiton) Kunth Herb + ------+ - - -

144 Scutellaria chamaedrifolia Hedge Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + - - - -

145 Senicio sp. Herb + ------+ + - -

146 silene conidea L. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + + +

147 Skimmia laureola Franch Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + + + +

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148 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Herb + ------

149 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi Herb - - + - - + - - - + ------

150 Solidago virgaurea L. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + - -

151 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Herb - - - + - + - - - + - - + + - -

152 Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + + - -

153 Spiraea vaccinifolia D. Don. Shrub - - + - - - - + - - - - + - - -

154 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + - - - Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) 155 B.L. Burtt. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + + + Taraxacum campylodes 156 G.E.Haglund Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + - -

157 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Tree - - - + - - + - - + - - + + - - Themeda anathera (Nees.ex Steud.) 158 DC. Herb - + - - - + - - - - - + + + - -

159 Trifolium repens L. Herb - - + - - + - - - + - - + + + +

160 Tussilago farfara L. Herb - - - + - + - - - + - - + + + +

161 Ulmus villosa Brandis ex Gamble Tree - - - + - - + - - - - + + + - -

162 Urtica dioica L. Herb + - - - + - + - - + - - + + + +

163 vaccaria sp. Herb + ------+ - - -

164 Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Herb - - + - - - + - - + ------

165 Verbascum thapsus L. Herb - - - + - - + - - + - - + + + +

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166 Veronica persica Poir. Herb - - + - - + - - - - - + + - - - Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex 167 DC. Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + + + +

168 Viola canescens Wall Herb - - - + - + - - - - - + + - - -

169 Vitis jacquemontii R. Parker Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + + + +

170 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Shrub - - - + - - + - - + - - + + - -

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40 36.9 35 30 25.59 25 20.83 20 12.5 15

Percentage 10 4.16 5 0 Most Less Non Highly Rare palatable palatable palatable palatable palatable Degree of Platability

Fig. 4.53: Degree of Palatability of Plant Species of Sathan Gally.

60 53.71

50 41.32

10 2.47 2.47

0 Whole plant Leaves Leaves and Flower and twigs fruits

Fig. 4.54: Palatability of Different Plant Species Showing Plant Parts Preferred by Grazers.

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80 70.33 70

40 29.6 30

10 5 0 Fresh Fresh and Dry Dry

Fig. 4.55: Palatability of Different Plant Species Showing Condition Preferred by Grazing animals.

45 41.25 40 35

30 25.08 25 20 16.83 16.83 15 10 5 0 Goat Sheep Cow Buffalos

Fig. 4.56: Graphical Representation of Palatability by Grazing Animals.

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Chapter 5 DISCUSSION

Plants are the most important gift of God to manhood. Palnts ae very much important for human being and to the environment. They performed a number of ecosystem services such as air, water and fertile soil. Over 0.23 million species of plants have been documented in the sphere (Thorne, 1992). An enormous number of plant species are still to be explored. A lot of research work has been done striving to explore this vast floral diversity (Pitman et al., 1999).

5.1 Floristic Composition Pakistan being the part of western Himalaya harbors rich phyto diversity owing to important geographical location. Himalayas is the most important spot which harbours rich floral diversity due to distinctive climate, a strong degree of seasonality, broader elevation range and rainfall, variations in microclimate, soil factors and topographic features. A total of 175 plant species belonging to 75 families were recorded first time from the investigated area. Besides providing the first ever checklist of vascular plant species of the region. The unique feature of our study is to bridge methodological gaps and use of modern techniques for vegetation classification and ordination to make the study more meaningful and predictable. It conveys enhanced level of understanding of vegetation structure of the study area and will contribute a lot in other studies of the same nature. Diferent authors worked on floristic diversity of unexplored regions previously. For example, Shah and Khan (2006) they reported 80 medicinally important plant species belonging to 49 families from the Siran Valley Mansehra. Khan and Sardar (2008) documented natural flora of Shakargarh District Narowal, Pakistan. It included 83 families, 245 genera and 317 species. Haq et al. (2010) reported 402 plants species of 110 families from

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Nandiar Valley Western Himalaya, Pakistan. Fazal et al. (2010) documented 211 plant species of 170 genera belonging to 66 families from District Haripur. Khan et al. (2013a) reported 101 plants belonging to 52 families from Naran Valley. Mehmood et al. (2015) documented 331 vascular plant species belonging to 246 genera and 101 families from District Torghar. The above mentioned checklists merely provide plants name, habit and habitat but our checklist not only providing basic information of the floral diversity of the region but also displaying comparison of two forest types that is protected and unprotected.

Our results also revealed that the most dominant families of the study area were Asteraceae, Rosaceae and Poaceae. Stewart (1972) documented that these families were dominant in Pakistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Some other studies showed that these families to be the major families in the flora of Pakistan (Ali and Qaisar, 1995 - 2011). Flora of the study area showed close resemblances with the flora of neighboring areas in term of families. The dominant angiospermic families are Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Poaceae, Ranunculaceae and Brassicaceae in the Western Himalayan Region (Rau, 1975). Many other studies have also showed the dominance of Asteraceae and Poaceae as cited in numerous publications.

Fazal et al. (2010) found that Asteraceae was the dominant family followed by Poaceae with 16 species in District Haripur. Brand et al, (2010) reported that the Asteraceae with 126 species and poaceae with 73 species were the leading families from the vegetation of Platberg, eastern Free State, South Africa. Haq et al. (2010) also documented that Asteraceae with 36 species was the leading family from the Nandiar Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. Mehmood et al. (2015) stated that Asteraceae and poaceae were the richest families of District Torgarh, adjacent to our study area. Most of the studies showed that Poaceae as a dominant family but our study documented Asteraceae as a dominant family,

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which is not in close association of other studies due to differences in environmental gradients of the area. The area falls in moist temperate zone having cold and moist conditions that favor the flourishing of family Asteraceae.

It has been observed that floristic diversity is related to elevation, temperature, rain and other local environmental factors of the area, and that with an increase in altitude, aspects, temperature and topography floristic diversity changes. Different authors from other part of the Himalaya reported similar findings. Berg et al. (2000) reported that precipitation and elevation strongly influence the floristic composition among different forests. Adam and Mamat (2005) found that the topographic changes influence forest composition along topographic incline. Mehmood et al. (2015) reported that altitude is the major environmental variable responsible for floristic diversity in District Torgarh, adjesent to our study area.

The current study also showed that the local inhabitants of the study area are illiterate. They do not know about the worth of plant biodiversity. They used the important plants for timber, fuel, fodder, fiber and wood. There is no proper monitoring system of forest department due to wich heavy deforestation can be seen at the higher elevations of the area. The trees of Pinus wallichiana, Quercus incana, Quercus dilatata, Cedrus deodara and Abies pindrow are being destroyed at large scale wich is great threat to plant biodiversity.

Due to far flungness of the study area from city, there is no other source of fuel and local inhabitants depend on these plants for fuel wood. At the higher elevation of the study sites seasonal nomads with enormous number of cattles also stay which results in the overgrazing of natural vegetation.

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It has also been observed that plant biodiversity is going to decline due to anthropogenic influences, grazing and soil erosion in the investigated area. Conservation of floral diversity is necessary for survival and development of the human being. The proper use of biological resources is the most effective conservation method for plant biodiversity. The floral biodiversity can be conserved through the involvement of local inhabitants who are the first line beneficiaries of natural assets.

5.2.1 Biological Spectrum Biological spectrum is the indicator of prevailing environmental condiions. (Mera et al., 1999). The biological spectra of flora in the present study indicated that Therophytes and Hemicryptophytes were leading in the study area. Shimwell (1971) reported that Hemicryptophytes are the dominant life form of temperate zone, The prescence of Therophytes shows desert climate, and Geophytes are the indicator of Mediterranean climate. It confirms that climate of the study area varies from subtropical to moist temperate. The life form obtained in the current study reveals the prevailing environmental conditions. Different workers obtained similar results from different areas.

Khan et al. (2012) reported that Therophytes was leading life form class followed by Phanerophytes, Hemicryptophytes, Chamaephytes and Cryptophytes in the Tehsil Takht-e Nasrati, Pakistan. Badsha et al. (2013) documented Therophytes were the leading followed by Hemicryptophytes, Geophytes, Chamaephytes, Nanophanerophytes and Microphanerophytes from District Tank, Pakistan. Existence of similar biological spectrum in various areas show similar climatic conditions.

El-Amier, (2106) reported that Therophytes were the most dominant life form class followed by Chamaephytes Hemicryptophytes, Geophytes,

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Phanerophytes from desert of Egypt. The dominance of Therophytes in the study area specifies that the study area be under extreme anthropogenic burden

In the recent study, the high percentage of Therophyte is indication that the study area is under heavy anthropogenic pressure.

5.2.2 Leaf Spectra In the assessment of leaf spectrum of study area, Microphyll were the dominant followed by Mesophyll, Nanophyll, Macrophyll and Leptophyll. Dominance of Microphyll reflect the moist conditions of habitat. Similar observation was documented by different authors. Haq et al. (2015) reported Microphyll and Mesophyll as dominant leaf size spectra from Nandiar Khuwar catchment area, District Battagram, adjacent to our investigated area.

Batalha and Martins (2004) documented greater number of Microphyll and Mesophyll flora from Azad Kashmir. They also investigated the positive correlation of leaf size with drought and soil condition. Malik et al. (2007) found Microphyll and Nanophyll as the dominant leaf size from Kotli Azad Kashmir and Waziristan. Sher and Khan (2007) stated great percentage of Leptophyll and Nanophyll from Chagarzai area. This disagreement is mainly owing to variation in altitude and condition of habitat. The situation in our case is generally moist and cold which favors Microphyll flora of an area. Whereas dominance of Leptophyll and Nanophyll supporting xeric type conditions.

5.2 Phytosociology There is no former data of vegetation analysis in the investigated area. We have used modern phytosociological software i. e TWINSPAN to analaye the vegetation. The data from the investigated area showed that plant associations restricted in one region are not existing at the other sites owing to differences in elevation, depth of soil, and other environmental factors. The vegetation of the

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Sathan Gally analyzed by applying TWINSPAN classification and ordination of multivariate analysis technique. The different phytosociological attributes were recorded in the study area. A sum of 35 stands were selected for phytosociological attributes. The IVI values got from these stands were further analyzed for TWINSPAN classification and ordination. Six plant communities were recognized by TWINSPAN classification.

Similar data were recorded by different researchers. Haq et al. (2015) documented six plant communities by using TWINSPAN classification from Nandiar Khuwar catchment, District Battagram, adjacent to our study area. Ahmed and Yasmin (2011) described 2 main communities and 4 sub- communities by using TWINSPAN technique from the vegetation along Hanna Lake, Baluchistan.

Shah et al. (2014) documented 15 plant communities from Farash hills Katlang, District Mardan. They identified in the study area. Ahmad (2009) documented four plant communities by using TWINSPAN from Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad, Pakistan.

5.2.1 Gradient Analysis via Ordination Techniques

Ordination analyses is used to study species relationship with responsible ecological factors using statistical approaches. These techniques using CANOCO version 4.5 showed that environmental variables, like soil, moisture, temperature, elevation etc., play significant roles in distribution of plant species. Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) was used for ordination analyses. Khan et al., (2012) used modern techniques like CANOCO to calculate the diversity Indices of plant associations and habitat types. Ahmed et al. (2009) analyzed the roadside vegetation of Abbottabad by applying Detrended Correspondence Analysis and Canonical Correspondence Analyses. They

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recognised 5 plant associations along roadsides. Ahmed and Yasmin (2011) analysed the vegetation along Hanna Lake, Baluchistan by using TWINSPAN and DECORANA techniques. They reported 2 main plant associations and 4 sub- associations.

5.2.1.1 Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) The DCA ordination was used to study array of plant species dispersal among the main plant associations with in investigated area. The maximum gradient length (3.75) was recorded for axis 1 with Eigenvalue 0.57 and axis 2 was 2.36 with Eigenvalue 0.27 reflected that plant species are strongly correlated with habitat while the gradient length for axis 3 was 2.33 having Eigenvalue 0.19 showing that there was less correlation.

The ordination of stands showed that most of the stands clustered nearer with one another depicting same type of habitat and some stands grouped apart behaving different type of habitat. Similar investigations was done by various workers. Haq et al. (2015); Khan, (2013); and Mahmood et al. (2015) reported that the distribution of plant species on DCA axis 1 showed that altitude was the main environment variable affecting the distribution of most of the plant species. Some species showed no correlation with other plants, which was indication of specific locality.

5.2.1.2 CCA Canonical Correspondence Analysis CCA ordination is used to find out the correlation between environmental variable and vegetation. Ahmed et al. (2009b), Ali and Malik (2010), Haq et al. (2015) and Mehmood et al. (2015) have also used this CCA analysis to determine the vegetation-environmental relationship. It is therefore important to correlate the vegetation structure of the area with environmental variables for a proper understanding of the of plant species distribution mechanism in an area

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(Eriksson and Bergstrom, 2005). The first two axis explain 45% of total variation so our analysis indicated significant results. The length of arrow shows the magnitude of particular factor’s effect on plant species distribution.

This result showed that there is strong association of species with environmental variables. The CCA ordination showed species composition and species diversity vary with altitude. Some species show positive correlation with elevation while other show negative correlation with most of the species in term of species richness. The soil pH greatly affect the species composition and are negatively correlated with axis I and II.

The elevation played a main role in the clustering together of different plant communities. Themeda-indigofera-Ailanthus, lies at altitude of 1676-1970 m, while the communities Dropteris-Urtica-Pinus, Dropteris-Pinus-Cedrus and Pinus- Cedrus-Indigofera lie at an altitude of 1828-2286 m. The different location of plant communities observed in biplot diagrams is due to differences in altitude and plant species diversity of plant habitats considered significant factor in the formation of plant associations. The results are similar with Malik, (2005); Zahid, (2007); Mehmood et al. (2015) and Haq et al. (2015). They investigated that altitude played important role in establishment of plant associations.

The environmental factors such as latitudes, steepnes of slope, potassium, and longitude are extremely positive correlated with each other and negative correlated with pH. The CCA ordination of stands showed that maximum stands were positively correlated with elevation, soil textural classes, temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, air moisture and organic matter, while few stands showed different behavior with other environmental variables. Various worker recorded similar findings from different areas adjacent to our study area. Mehmood et al. (2015) documented that altitude significantly

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affected the distribution of plant species in District Torgarh. Haq et al. (2015) reported that the distribution of plants is greatly affected by variation in altitude in Nandiar Khuwar catchment, District Battagram. Zhang et al. (2006) also showed that altitude is main factor for distribution of plants. Owing to variation in elevation the temperature declines and humidity increases which favors the plant of higher elevation.

5.5 Floristic Diversity of Reserved and Guzara (unprotected) Forests The number of species was high in reserved forest than Guzara forest. High species diversity clearly indicates that protected forest has intact natural habitat, which favors high species diversity and Guzara forest are under heavy anthropogenic pressure. Result also indicate that dominant family was Asteraceae in case of reserved forest and poaceae in Guzara forest. Its shows that in reserved forest natural conditions favor Asteraceae while the reason of dominance of poaceae family in Guzara forest may be anthropogenic pressure specially over grazing; which is best tolerated by grasses on account of their high regeneration potential. TWINSPAN results showed that number of communities were found to be higher in reserved forest as compared to Guzara forest. This differences is due to rich floristic diversity in reserved forest. The other factor may be the human disturbances which interfere with the process of plant community establishment. The Guzara forest showing highly disturbed habitat, which may be the main cause of scarcity of species diversity. Soil erosion was also frequently observed during field visits, which further reduces the species diversity of the forest. The ordination results indicate that an altitude and temperature are the major controlling factors in distribution of species. Different workers gathered similar results. Shinwari and Khan (2010) conducted similar study on Margalla Hill and reported diverse plant communities in three different sites of same location and rich floristic diversity

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was recorded in reserved forest as compared to unprotected forest. They clearly indicated that species diversity among different forest types is the clear reflection of anthropogenic influences. Rich floral diversity, species richness and maturity were recorded in reserved forest as compared to unprotected forest. The Asteraceae was found to be dominant family in protected forest. Mehmood et al. (2015) and Haq et al. (2015) also reported that an altitude and temperature are the main controlling factors in plant distribution. There is no facility of gas for the local inhabitants of the area therefore, they totally depend on the utilization of these forests for fuel purpose. This is great threat to the floristic biodiversity for both forest. Government should take precautionary measure with the collaboration of forest department to protect these forests.

5.2.3 Phenological Behavior According to Sparks et al. (2000) the timing of phenological stages, such as flowers and leaf formation at the start of rising season are enormously dependent on temperature while Spano et al. (1999) declared that flowering is the most important phenological stages to evaluate the sensitivity of plants to climatic variation. Spring was the main blooming season for different plant species in investigated area whereas poor flowering was observed in summer and autumn. Elevational gradient split these seasons in plain and hilly areas. In plain area, the plant bloomed in spring at the start of March and accomplished at mid of April. In mountainous area, the plant species bloomed at start of April. The plant species start flowering early in the plain area while late in the hilly area. Our results are in accord with Haq (2015), who reported that maximum flowering stages were recorded from April-July.

5.3 Ethno botanical profile The investigated area is remote and Community of the area is poor depend on the use of medicinal plants and prepared crude drugs in form of juice, paste,

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infusion, decoction, water extract and powder pills. Our findings revealed that local peoples used plant species for curing different ailments such as toothache, backache, headache, body pain, abdominal pain, rheumatism, indigestion, wound healer, cough, expectorant and tonic. These plants species as a whole or its parts are used to make remedy for treatment of diseases at home.

As the area is far flung and there is shortage of resources and harshness of climate especially in winter the people of this area frequently exploit different plant speciecs by different activities such as wood cutting, grazing and collection of medicinal plants. Therefore, a number of plant species are under great anthropogenic pressure and probable to become extinct from the area in the near future.

Numeral authors worked on such issues in various areas using different approaches. Durrani et al. (2009) documented 72 multi-purpose species from Chilton National Park. Sher et al. (2011) reported 124 important plant species from Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, and Pakistan. Ullah et al. (2010) reported the traditional information of 34 medicinal plant species from Darra Adam Khel NWFP Pakistan which also supported our finding.

Different authors recorded similar work from different regions. Sher and Hussain (2009) documented 50 recipes of medicinal plants belonging to 30 families of Malam Jaba. Hussain et al. (2005), Hussain et al. (2007), Jan et al. (2010), Sher et al. (2011) and Mahmood et al. (2012) also reported important medicinal plants from various parts of the country. They found 33 plant species belonging to 18 families of medicinal importance. Mood (2008) reported 160 species including 40% medicinal plant from Birjand, located near the Afghanistan border in Eastern Iran,

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5.3.1 Fodder Species Peoples of the area are poor and for away from city therefore they keep pet animals at their homes to fulfill their needs. The many animals including goat, sheep, buffalos, and cow were seen while grazing during visit to study area. Most of the plant species of investigated area are used as a fodder. Different plants are used as fodder species by different grazing animals such as goat, sheep and cattle due to high nutritive values such as Cynodon dactylon, Vicia sativa, Zizyphus maurtiana and Acacia modesta. The result showed that there are (80.95%) plant species used as fodder for grazing animals, which includes goat, sheep and cattle. Ibrar et al. (2007) reported 37 plant species used as forage from Ranyal Hill, District Shangla. Sardar and Khan (2009) also documented many fodder species. Barakatullah et al. (2009) documented 18 fodder or forage species from Charkotli Hills, Batkhela District. Sher et al. (2011) mentioned 66 fodder plant species from Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan.

5.3.2 Fuel wood species Locals use these plants harshly owing to lack of gas facility and some other alternate resources. In winter, temperature is too much low in the area and life activities become restricted to home. The peoples of the area used sorted plant species as fuel because of easy availability and heat value. They preferred to burn those plant species having high heat value, burn for longer time and produce less smoke such as Morus alba, Morus nigra, Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow and Cedrus deodra. Siddique and Ayaz (1997) stated that substandard of living and low revenue forced the people to depend on on old-style uses, it is supported by the current investigation. The result showed that the locals cut and collected 28.57% of the flora for fuel purposes. Sher et al. (2011) reported 51 fuel wood species from Chagharzai

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Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Deka et al. (2007) documented 10 indigenous fuel wood species. Singh and Pandey (2005) mentioned that owing to easily access to plants in Rajistan, India, the local inhabitants consumed more than 60 plant species as wood fuel.

5.3.4 Timber wood species Timber wood species are being used for construction in the study area. Since long time of period wood is used human being for various purposes such as in making furniture, goods for games and for ornamental purposes at home. yet in the study area wood is easily accessible and cheap source of construction. Local peoples of the area exploited 16.66% plant species as a timber wood. Sher et al. (2011) recorded similar findings; they reported 21 timber species from Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan.

5.3.5 Vegetable Species Most of the peoples of the investigated area are poor and have no easy access to market therefore; they prefer to use wild plant species as a vegetable. This is also a tradition of locals that they cultivate vegetables for their use. There are a number of plant species wich are being used as a vegetables for cooking purposes. The leaves and young shoot of wild plants are used as a vegetable included Amaranthus viridis, Chenopodium album and Convolvulus arvensis. These vegetables are known as saag and are very delightful. Hamayun (2005) supported the present findings. Our finding revealed that 4.16% plant species are used as a vegetable. Our results are alike with Sher et al. (2011) they documented 36 vegetable/pot-herb species.

5.3.6 Veterinary Species Peoples of the study area used 1.19% species as a veterinary in different disorders of animals. Tabuti et al. (2003) reported veterinary medicine plants

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from Uganda used for various ailments of cattle. The local inhabitants of the area depend upon their pet animals for their easyness. Our results are in accordance with Lindsey et al. (2006); Bonet and Valles (2007); Yousifzai et al. (2010) and Qureshi et al. (2011), they documented the plant species used in different medicines of cattles. This is the first attempt to clarify and explore the ethno veterinary medicinal plants in the area. The recent study reported the misuse of plant life knowledge resting in the area. There is dire need to conserve the ethnovetnary plant species of the area.

5.3.7 Fruit Yielding Plants Different wild plant species are being used for fruits in the investigated area, since long. In the study area, the local peoples do not know about that how to collect, process and packing of these valuable fruits and there is urgent need to preserve these wild plant species. Result revealed that 10.11% plant species are used as fruits. Our findings are in lined with Ibrar et al. (2007), they documented 18 edible species from Ranyal Hill, Shangla. Sher and Al-Yemni (2011) found 14 wild fruit species from coniferous Forest of Malam Jaba, Swat.

5.3.8 Plants Used for Fencing We observed that field fencing was common near villages to shield their field from shortcut route and grazing. Mostly the plant species having spines and bush like appearance are chosen. This type of fencing materials is economical and present for long times. Our findings are in agreement with Zabihullah et al. (2006), Ibrar et al. (2007), Barakatullah et al. (2009), Durrani et al. (2009), Sher et al. (2011) and Sher and Al-Yemni (2011) who recorded alike use of plants from the other parts of the country.

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5.3.9 Species Used for Making Agricultural Appliances Agriculture is the main practice of the investigated area. The locals use indigenous agricultural tools for cultivation of their farmlands. They use cow and bullocks to plough in their fields. Some of the appliances used in agriculture practices are shovel, rake, harrows, hoe, and trowel are larger equipment such as larger racks and plough that are drawn by animals. Our results are similar with Zabihullah et al. (2006); Ibrar et al. (2007); Durrani et al. (2009); Sher et al. (2011) and Sher and Al Yemni (2011), they documented plant species used in manufacturing agricultural tools from different areas of the country.

5.4 Palatability The investigated area is rich with palatable flora i.e. 80% species of the area are palatable and under heavy pressure of grazing. Rearing of cattles is a common practice in the investigated area. Furthermore, nomads with heard visited area frequently and these cattle browse in the field. Usually herds of goats damage palatable flora enormously. However, due to selective grazing some species like Euphorbia helioscopia, Urtica dioica escape from the competition among the other species and flourish well.

Palatability of trees species especially in seedling and herbaceous stage of Ailanthus altissima and Aesculus indica have been eaten by pet animals especially goats. Among shrubs, two species were noticed that is Viburnum grandiflorum and Sarcococca saligna adversely affected by grazing. However, some species were found in stunted growth due to over grazing. Palatability of plant species may be is one of the cause of declining floristic diversity in the study area.

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5.4.1 Palatability of Different Plant Parts The animal preference is different regarding palatability of different plant parts in the study area. It was observed that 88 (66.67 %) plants were grazed as a completely, in 40 (30.3 %) leaves were grazed, inflorescence and fruits were utilized 2 (1.52 %) each. Hussain and Durrani (2009b) found that 99 species were used as whole, in 30 species leaves and in 29 species, floral parts were used, proper grazing is essential to maintain adequate forage environment. Our results are in line with Hussain and Durrani in this context.

5.4.2 Plant Condition Preferred by Animals The livestock in the investigated area both fresh as well as in dry conditions prefer plants. Overall preferred 70.33% plant species in a fresh form, and 29. 66% species in both fresh and dry forms are used as a fodder in study area. Hussain and Durrani (2009b) reported that seasonal accessibility of fodder species depends on flowering stages and environment. This is alike to our findings that if the climate is appropriate, extra fresh fodder plants will be available to animals. In cold, trees and dried plant species become the merely available fodder to the pet animals. Hussain and Mustafa (1995) recorded that in Nsairabad valley the domestic animals used generally fresh forage species.

5.4.3 Animal Preference for Plant The palatability for animal preference of cow, goat, sheep and buffalo was observed. The goat preference for plant was (125 spp., 41.25%), cow (51 spp., 16.83%), sheep (76 spp., 25.08%) and buffalo (51spp. 16.83). In the present investigation, it was witnessed that in summer the grazing of palatable plant species reached at its peak owing to the inaccessibility of herbs. Mostly some species of Pteridophytes and grasses are grazed because they are easily

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available in summer. Hussain and Durrani (2009b) observed the seasonal accessibility of fodder, palatability and inclinations of goats and sheep different in their botanical composition during the growing season. The grasses are generally preferred by Sheep and shrubs by goat in the study area.

Our results are in agreement with other workers (Farooq, 2003; Melinda et al., 2002; Solomon et al., 2007), they reported similar findings. It was observed during present investigation, that the palatability of plant species varied significantly alround the year at variously elevation by various animals and reached it’s tremendous in summer. The palatability depends on the plant availability.

Our judgment had the same opinion with Hussain and Durrani (2009b) who reported that more species of herbs, shrubs, grasses and tree are consumed by goats than other animals while working on Harboi Range land, Pakistan.

Our findings are alike with these previous statements. Grasses were preferred in spring and trees were favored in winter while in summer animals in the area preferred the herbs and shrubs.

Hussain and Mustafa (1995) and Gyamtosho et al. (1996) studied palatability, non- palatability and animal preference to plant species.

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CONCLUSION

This study was designed keeping in view the utmost significance of the investigated area in context of its plant biodiversity and location. Plant resources of the area were unexplored phytosociologically as well as ethnobotanically.The investigated area being located in western Himalayas harboring rich floristic diversity. Himalayas are worldwide important biodiversity hotspots and there is rapid loss in floristic diversity and changing pattern of vegetation owing to anthropogenic and grazing pressure. A total of 170 plant species were documented from 1250 quadrats in 35 sampling sites. Our results showed that vegetation of the region is representative of moist temperate forest, having high number of tracheophytes plants species. The local inhabitants use plants as medicinal, wild vegetables and timber plants are using most of reported plants. This study also provides first ever phytosociological classification based on TWINSPAIN multivariate classification and ordination method by CANOCO software. Six plant communities were recognized in one vegetation zones i.e. moist temperate comprising of reserved and Guzara forests. Rich floristic diversity was recorded in reserved forest. Outcome of this investigation proved that altitude gradient was an important ecological factor responsible for floristic distribution. Rich floristic diversity was recorded in reserved forest as compared to Guzara forest. It was observed that most of the native peoples of the study area are not aware of loss of the natural flora and its impact on human life. Anthropogenic disturbances are the main causes of loss of plant biodiversity of the area especially endemic plant species.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on investigation of the current study a few recommendations are made which are as follows 1. Enactment and enforcement of proper legislation are indispensable to protect plant bio diversity, which is essential component of nature.

2. There is no facility of natural gas in the study area due to far flung ness therefore locals of the areas depend upon the natural flora of the area regarding fuel purposes. To overcome this, native fast growing species should be grown to fulfill the needs of local inhabitants.

3. There is dire need of reforestation in the investigated area.

4. To monitor and evaluate the status of medicinal plants with the assistance of local communities. As literacy rate is very low in Sathan Gally. Awareness programmers must be initiated to educate the local peoples of the area regarding the importance of plants and collection of medicinal flora of the area.

5. Grazing of livestock in open fields must be constrained by providing them folder village of Sathan Gally.

6. The plant biodiversity and scenic natural beauty poses high aesthetic value can be promoted as an excellent Eco-tourism site.

7. Proper training and transportation facility in far-flung mountains ranges should be provided to Forest field staff for systematized monitoring.

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8. There should be proper rangeland management. The inhabitants rear heavy livestock in the area.

9. Conservatory measures should be taken especially in the Guzara forest where plant resources are under great anthropogenic pressure.

10. This investigation provides a base line study for the ethno botanical resources in future.

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APENDIX-I

QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Name of Informant: ------

2. Age: ------

3. Tribe: ------

4. Education: ------

5. Local Name of the Plant: ------

6. Locality: ------

7. Habitat: Forest/Bush Land/Agriculture Land

8. Flowering Season: ------

9. Palatability: Yes /No

i. Low: Yes /No

ii. Moderate: Yes /No

iii. High: Yes /No

iv. Preference: Fresh /Dry /Both

v. Animal: Cow/Buffalo/Goat/Any other

10. Ethnobotanical Uses: ------

11. Threatening Factor: ------

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APENDIX- II Total IVI Values of Plant Species of Sathan Gally. S.No Botanical Name Total IVI 1 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume 10.326 2 Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle 72.816 3 Achillea millefolium L. 21.313 4 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. 42.516 5 Adiantum caudatum L. 4.62 6 Aegopodium burttii Nasir 0.646 7 Aesculus indica (comb.)Hook 1.97 8 Agrostis stolonifera L. 38.39 9 Ajuga integrifolia Wall.ex Benth 1.636 10 Anagallis arvensis L. 3.5 11 Ajuga parviflora Benth 2.166 12 Alianthus althesema (Mill.) Swingle 17.176 13 Alnus nitida (Spach.) Endl 4.633 14 Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham.) DC. 13.133 15 Andrachne cordifolia (Wall.ex Dec) Muell. 1.5 16 Androsace rotundifolia Hardw. 10 17 Apluda sp. 15.326 18 Aquilegia pubiflora Wall.ex Royle 1.476 19 Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott 12.353 20 Arisaema utile Hook.fex.schott 0.683 21 Aristida sp. 13 22 Artemisia absinthium L. L. 2.406 23 Arum sp. 2.773 24 Asparagus filicinus Bunch -Ham.ex.D.Don 2.7 25 Aster himalaicus C.B.Clarke 3.613 26 Bauhinia variegata L. 0.5

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27 Berberis lycium Royle 62.813 28 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. 13.203 29 Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) Ronse Decr. 28.166 30 Brachiaria ramosa L. 14.56 31 Bromus japonicus Thunb. 8.106 32 Buddleja crispa Benth. 0.50 33 Bupleurum lanceolatum Wall.ex DC. 0.71 34 Calamintha umbrosa (M.B) Bth. exDC. 0.52 35 Calendula arvensis M.Bieb. 6.998 36 Caltha palustris var. alba (Cambess.) Hook.f. & 7.878 Thomson 37 Cannabis sativa L. 6 38 Capsela bursa pistoris l.Medik 4 39 Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don 365.903 40 Celtis australis L. 4 41 Chenopdium ambrosiodes L 2.57 42 Chenopodium album L. 7.276 43 Cichorium intybus L. 2.7 44 Clinopodium vulgare L. 3.923 45 Colchicum luteum Baker 5.94 46 Erigeron canadensis L. 8 47 Cotoneaster sp., 0.93 48 Crotolaria sp. 1.67 59 Cynodon dactylon (L.)Pers. 14 50 Cyperus sp. 15.678 51 Daphne papyracea Wall. ex G. Don 6.903 52 Desmodium elegans D. C. 1.12 53 Deutzia staminea R.Br. ex Wall. 2.593 54 Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees 0.936 55 Digitaria nodosa Parl. 23.333

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56 Diospyros lotus L. 14.04 57 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 2.2 58 Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. 20.33 59 Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke 18.416 60 Elymus sp. 45.36 61 Erigeron multiradiatus (Lindl. ex DC.) Benth. & 1.65 Hook.f. 62 Fagopyrum sp. 2.45 63 Ficus carica Forsk. 3.326 64 Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex Hook.f.) Lacaita 108.13 65 Fumaria indica (Husskn.) H.N 3.25 66 Gallium aparine L. 31.32 67 Gentiana pedicellata (D.Don) Wall. 1.678 68 Geranium rotundifolium L. 7.39 69 Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet 38.335 70 Hedera nepalensis K.Koch 4.13 71 Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & 17.1 Schult. 72 Hypericum perforatum L. 2 73 Impatiens bicolor Royle 8.836 74 Imprita cylindrica (L.) .P.Beaiev. 29.19 75 Indigofera heterantha Brandis 113.336 76 Inula coppa L. 0.83 77 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd 4.536 78 Jasminum humile L. 1.2 79 Juglans regia L. 4.516 80 Lactuca sp. 1.5 81 Lamium album L. 4.566 82 Lamium amplexicaule L. 5.879 83 Leontopodium brachyactis Gand. 1.5

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84 Leonurus cardiaca L. 3 85 Lonicera sp. 4.573 86 Malva neglecta Wallr. 0.7 87 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke 2.409 88 Medicago polymorpha L. 7.89 89 Melia azedarach L. 2 90 Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Benth. 4 91 Morus alba L. 6.946 92 Morus nigra L. 2 93 Myosotis arvensis (L.) Hill 10.233 94 Myrsine africana L. 5 95 Nepeta cataria L. 4.333 96 Oenothera rosea L’Hér. ex Aiton 45.833 97 Onychium japonicum (Kunze). Wall 81.546 98 Origanum vulgare L. 0.65 99 Oxalis corniculata L. 33.163 100 Paeonia emodi Wall ex Hook. f. 3.836 101 Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder 1 102 Parthenium hystoforous L. 3.306 103 Phlomis rotata Royle .ex Benth. 2.236 104 Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. 1.5 105 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude 1 106 Pinus roxburghii Surgent 2 107 Pinus wallichiana A.B.Jacks. 479.796 108 Plantago lanceolata L. 0.756 109 Plantago major L. 12.093 110 Platanus orientalis L. 2.396 111 Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) T.S.Ying 1.6 112 Polygonatum verticillatum 1.953 (L.) All.

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113 Populus alba 12.306 114 Potentilla nepalensis Hook. 72.696 115 Potentilla sp. 5.46 116 Primula denticulata Sm. 6.778 117 Prunella vulgaris L. 8.867 118 Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. T.T. Yu 3.25 119 Pteridium sp. 93.18 120 Pteris sp. 7.32 121 Pteris vittata L. 1726.582 122 Pulicaria crispa Sch.Bip. 3 123 Pyrus pashia Ham.ex D. Don 1.44 124 Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A.Camus 4.39 125 Quercus incana Bartram 1.5 126 Ranunculus hirtellus Royle. 3.456 127 Ranunculus muricatus L. 12.093 128 Rhamnus virgata Roxb. 1.82 129 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. 1.333 130 Rosa moschata Herrm. 1.898 131 Rubus fructicosus Hook.f. 7.983 132 Rumex dentatus L. 11.386 133 Rumex hastatus D. Don. 24.38 134 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 7.67 135 Salvia mukerjeei Bennet & Raizada 5.89 136 Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. 128.086 137 Sauromatum venosum (Dryand. ex Aiton) Kunth 10.62 138 Scutellaria chamaedrifolia Hedge & A.J.Paton 0.226 139 Senicio sp. 5.67 140 Silene conidea L. 1.63 141 Skimmia laureola D.C. 4.923

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142 Solanum surattense Burm. f. 11.13 143 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi 6.6 144 Solidago virgaurea L. 1.76 145 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill 2.1 146 Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder 11.231 147 Spiraea vaccinifolia D. Don. 9.12 148 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. 1.31 149 Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) B.L. Burtt. D. 0.6 Don ex G. Don) B.L. Burtt 150 Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund 4.626 151 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. 1.5 152 Themeda anathera (Nees.ex Steud) DC 11.5 153 Trifolium repens L. 5 154 Tussilago farfara L. 2.266 155 Ulmus villosa Brandis ex Gamble Brandis ex 2.856 Gamble 156 Urtica dioica L. 34.473 157 Vaccaria sp. 2.166 158 Valeriana jatamansi Jones. 5.996 159 Verbascum thapsus L. 0.383 160 Veronica persica Poir. 4.556 161 Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don 19.893 162 Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. 80.333 163 Viola canescens Wall 9.2466 164 Viola odorata L. 2.111 165 Vitis jacquemontii R. Parker 1 166 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz 3.126 167 Ziziphus jujube Mill. 3.264

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