STUDIES ON VEGETATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIES DIVERSITY OF SATHAN GALLY, DISTRICT MANSEHRA KHALID RASHEED KHAN DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY HAZARA UNIVERSITY MANSEHRA 2017 HAZARA UNIVERSITY MANSEHRA Department of Botany STUDIES ON VEGETATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIES DIVERSITY OF SATHAN GALLY, DISTRICT MANSEHRA By KHALID RASHEED KHAN This research study has been conducted and reported as partial fulfilment of requirements of Ph.D. degree in Botany awarded by Hazara University Mansehra, Pakistan The Monday 31, July 2017 STUDIES ON VEGETATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIES DIVERSITY OF SATHAN GALLY, DISTRICT MANSEHRA SUBMITTED BY KHALID RASHEED KHAN Ph.D. Scholar RESEARCH SUPERVISOR DR. ZAFAR IQBAL Assistant Professor Department of Botany Hazara University, Mansehra CO-SUPERVISOR DR. JAN ALAM Assistant Professor Department of Botany Hazara University, Mansehra DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY HAZARA UNIVERSITY MANSEHRA 2017 i In the Name of ALLAH the Most Gracious and the Most Compassionate ii DEDICATION To my Parents, wife, my children, whose support has given me the strength, determination to accomplish my Ph.D. Dissertation iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. Title LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF PLATES x i v ACKNOWLADGEMENTS xv ABSTRACT xvii Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Study Area 1 1.1.1 Guzara Forest 1 1.1.1.1 Climate 2 1.1.1.2 Geology and Soil 2 1.1.1.3 Agricultural Customs 2 1.1.2 Reserved Forest 6 1.1.2.1 Climate 6 1.1.2.2 Geology and Soil 7 1.1.2.3 Agricultural Customs 7 1.2 Biodiversity 9 1.3 Phytosociology 10 1.3.1 Biological Spectrum 10 1.3.2 Species Diversity 11 1.3.3 Maturity Index 11 1.4 Ethnobotany 11 1.5 Palatability 12 Chapter 2 - REVIEW OF LITERATURE 15 2.1 Plant Biodiversity 15 iv 2.2 Biological Spectrum 20 2.3 Phytosociology 21 2.4 Ethnobotanical Profile 25 2.5 Degree of Palatability 27 Chapter 3 - MATERIALS AND METHODS 30 3.1 General Survey 30 3.2 Floristic Composition 30 3.3 Phenology 31 3.4 Biological Characteristics 37 3.4.1 Life form 37 3.4.1.1 Phanerophytes 37 3.4.1.2 Chamaephytes 37 3.4.1.3 Hemicryptophytes 37 3.4.1.4 Geophytes 37 3.4.1.5 Therophytes 38 3.4.2 Leaf Spectra 38 3.5 Phytosociology 39 3.5.1 Sampling Method 39 39 3.5.1.1 Size and Number of Quadrats 39 3.5.1.2 Distribution of Quadrats 40 3.5.1.3 Density 40 3.5.1.4 Relative Density 40 3.5.1.5 Frequency 40 3.5.1.6 Relative Frequency 41 3.5.1.7 Canopy Cover 42 3.5.1.8 Relative Canopy Cover v 3.5.1.9 Importance Value Index 42 3.6 Multivariate Analysis 42 3.6.1 Classification 42 3.6.2 Ordination 42 3.7 Index of Diversity 43 3.8 Species Richness 43 3.9 Maturity Index 44 3.10 Climatic Variables 44 3.11 Edaphology 44 3.11.1 Soil Texture 44 3.11.2 Soil pH 44 3.11.3 Organic Matter 44 3.11.4 Potassium and Phosphorus 45 3.11.6 Electrical Conductivity 45 3.12 Ethnobotanical Profile 45 3.13 Degree of Palatability 45 3.13.1 Differential Palatability 45 3.13.2 Palatability by Parts used by Animals 46 3.13.3 Palatability by Animal Preferences 46 3.13.4 Palatability by Freshness / Dryness of Forage 46 Chapter 4 - RESULTS 47 4.1 Floristic Composition 47 47 4.1.1 Phenology 4.1.2 Biological Spectrum 52 52 4.1.2.1 Life Form 52 4.1.2.2 Leaf Size Spectra vi 4.2 Multivariate Analyses of Ecological Data of Sathan Gally 64 4.2.1 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 64 64 4.2.1.1 Pteris-Urtica-Pinus Community 66 4.2.1.2 Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community 66 4.2.1.3 Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus Community 66 4.2.1.4 Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community 67 4.2.1.5 Pinus-Abies-Viburnum Community 67 4.2.1.6 Themeda-Indigofera-Ailanthus Community 74 4.2.2 Ordination of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 74 4.2.2.1 DCA Ordination 75 4.2.2.2 CCA Ordination 4.3 Comparison Between Floristic Diversity Reserved and Guzara 81 Forests 4.3.1 Reserved Forest 81 4.3.1.1 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Reserved 90 Forest 4.3.1.1.1 Pinus-Pteris-Sarcococca Community 91 4.3.1.1.2 Cedrus-Fragaria-Pteris Community 91 4.3.1.1.3 Pinus-Cedrus-Viburnum Community 92 4.3.1.1.4 Pinus-Digitaria-Sarcococca Community 92 4.4.1.2 DCA Ordination of Reserved Forest 97 4.4.1.3 CCA Ordination of Reserved Forest 98 4.3.2 Species Diversity and its Components 101 4.3.2.1 Species Diversity 101 4.3.2.2 Species Maturity 101 4.3.3.3 Species Richness 102 4.3.3 Floristic Diversity of Guzara Forest 102 vii 4.3.3.1 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Guzara Forest 110 4.3.3.1.1 Pinus- Sarcococca-Pteris Community 111 4.3.3.1.2 Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community 111 4.3.3.1.3 Ailanthus-Cynodon-Themeda Community 112 4.3.3.2 DCA Ordination of Guzara Forest 116 4.3.3.3 CCA Ordination of Guzara Forest 118 4.3.4 Species Diversity and its Components 120 4.3.4.1 Species Diversity 120 4.3.4.2 Species Maturity 120 4.3.4.3 Species Richness 120 4.5 Ethnobotanical Profile 121 4.5.1 Medicinal Plant 122 4.5.2 Fodder Species 122 4.5.3 Fuel Wood Species 122 4.5.4 Timber Wood Species 122 4.5.5 Vegetable Species 123 4.5.6 Plants used as Veterinary Medicines 123 4.5.7 Fruit Yielding Plants 123 4.5.8 Plants used for Fencing 123 4.5.9 Species used for Making Agricultural Appliances 123 4.6 Palatability of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 135 4.6.1 Palatability of Different Plant Parts 135 4.6.2 Plant Condition Preferred by Animals 136 4.6.3 Animal Preference for Plant 136 Chapter 5 - DISCUSSION 149 viii CONCLUSION 168 169 RECOMMENDATIONS 171 REFERENCES 197 APENDIX I. Questionnaire of Ethnobotany and Palatability 198 APENDIX II. Total IVI Values of Plant Species of Sathan Gally ix LIST OF TABLES Table No. Title Page No. Table 3.1 Environmental Data of Study Sites of Sathan Gally 32 Table 3.2 Physico-Chemical Data of the Study Sites of Sathan Gally 34 Table 3.3 Braun Blanquet Covers Classes Modified by Daubenmire. 41 Table 4.1 Representative Families of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 49 Table 4.2 Phenology, Life Form and Leaf Spectra of Different Plant Species 54 Recorded From Sathan Gally Table 4.3 Number of Plant Species and IVI Contribution of Life Form Classes 79 of Different Plant Communities of Sathan Gally Table 4.4 Number of Plant Species and IVI Contribution of Leaf Size Spectra 80 Classes of Various Plant Communities of Sathan Gally Table 4.5 Floristic Diversity of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally 82 Table 4.6 Different Plant Species of Reserved Forest of Sathan Gally 87 Table 4.7 List of Plant Diversity Recorded From Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally 104 Table 4.8 Different Plant Species Recorded From Guzara Forest 108 Table 4.9 Ethnobotanical Classification of Plant Species of Sathan Gally, 124 District Mansehra Table 4.10 Palatability Matrix of Different Palatability Parameters of 137 Vegetation of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra x LIST OF FIGURES Fig. No. Page No. Fig. 1.1 Map of Hilkot Forest Range 3 Fig. 1.2 Map of the Study Area 4 Fig. 1.3 A View of Guzara Forest of Sathan Gally, District Mansehra 5 Fig. 1.4 Study Area Received Heavy Snowfall in The Month of January 2016 5 Fig. 1.5 Study Area Showing Deforestation 8 Fig. 1.6 Study Field is Under Pressure of Over Grazing 8 Fig. 3.1 Map of the Study Sites Stands Selected for Study in Reserved and 36 Guzara Forests Fig. 3.2 Researcher While Documenting the Data in Sathan Gally 36 Fig. 3.3 Leaf Size Classes 39 Fig. 4.1 Graphical Representation of Dominant Families of Study Area 48 Fig. 4.2 Graphical Representation of Different Groups of Tracheophytes of 48 Sathan Gally Fig. 4.3 Graphical Representation of Life Form Classes of Sathan Gally 52 Fig. 4.4 Graphical Representation of Leaf Spectrum Classes of Sathan Gally 53 Fig. 4.5 TWINSPAN Classification of Vegetation of Sathan Gally 65 Fig. 4.6 Life Form Classes of Pteris-Urtica-Pinus Community of Sathan Gally 68 Fig. 4.7 Leaf Size Spectra of Pteris-Urtica-Pinus Community of Sathan Gally 69 Fig. 4.8 Life Form Classes of Pinus–Digitaria–Sarcococca Community of Sathan 69 Gally Fig. 4.9 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus–Digitaria-Sarcococca Community of Area 70 Studied Fig. 4.10 Life Form Classes of Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus Community of Sathan 70 Gally Fig. 4.11 Leaf Size Spectra of Dryopteris-Cedrus-Pinus Community of Sathan 71 Gally Fig. 4.12 Life Form Classes of Pinus–Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Sathan 71 Gally Fig. 4.13 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus-Cedrus-Indigofera Community of Sathan 72 Gally Fig. 4.14 Life Form Classes of Pinus–Abies-Viburnum Community of Sathan 72 Gally Fig. 4.15 Leaf Size Spectra of Pinus–Abies-Viburnum Community of Sathan Gally 73 Fig. 4.16 Life Form Classes of Themeda–Indigofera-Ailanthus Community of 73 Sathan Gally xi Fig.