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Home , Radioactive waste

Radioactive management

Collecting, sorting, treating, conditioning, storing and disposing safely radioactive waste.

Thematic series Radioactive waste is generated not only by the industry, but also by hospitals, universities and non-nuclear industries. All the regulations applying to waste in general also apply to radioactive waste. However, radioactive waste emits , which makes it a particular hazard for human health and the environment.

It must therefore be managed with special care, from production to final disposal. Finding suitable waste disposal solutions is a major challenge for all stakeholders, industry, regulatory authorities, public authorities, local communities and the population.

Fuel assembly. Radioactive and disposal

1 n Radioactive waste p. 2

n Definitions and classification

n Management solutions

2 n Management of long-lived waste _ p. 10

n Partitioning and transmutation

n Storage

n Deep geological disposal

3 n Deep geological disposal

around the world _ p. 15

4 n Deep geological disposal

in France _ p. 20

n Scientific and technical challenges for IRSN

n A specific scientific approach

n Significant results

n An informed choice Radioactive waste

Radioactive waste is the term used to describe radioactive subs- tances for which no further use is planned or considered.

A radioactive substance is The radioactive properties of one that contains naturally this waste are: occurring or man-made radio- n the type of , the radioactive level contained and the radiation or concentration of which emitted (alpha, beta, gamma), calls for the activity (number of atomic control. nuclei which spontaneously According to the French disintegrate per unit time - Environmental Code (Art. expressed in ); L 542.1-1), final radioactive n the radioactive half-life (the waste means radioactive waste time it takes for a radioactive for which no further treatment sample to loose half of its is possible under existing tech- activity). nical and economic conditions. Treatment particularly entails extracting any part of the waste that can be recycled or redu- cing any or hazar- dous substances it contains. The radionuclides contained in radioactive waste may be man- made, such as -137, or found in nature, such as -226.

Containers for vitrified waste (left) and compacted waste (right).

2 Most radioactive waste comes non-nuclear industries and from the nuclear industry. The defence-related activities. remainder comes from the use of radioactive elements in hos- pitals, universities, and some

Definitions and classification Radioactive waste is classified and high-level waste. Radioactive according to its activity level waste is said to be “short- and the radioactive half-life of lived” if it merely only contains the radionuclides it contains. radionuclides with a half-life of The activity level determines less than 31 . the degree of protection to be It is said to be “long-lived “if it provided. Waste is therefore contains a significant quantity divided into categories, namely of radionuclides with a half-life very low-, low-, intermediate- of over 31 years.

Radionuclide Half-life

Cobalt-60 5.2 years

Tritium 12.2 years

Strontium-90 28.1 years

Caesium-137 30 years

Americium-241 432 years

Radium-226 1,600 years

Carbon-14 5,730 years

Plutonium-239 24,110 years

Neptunium-237 2,140,000 years

Iodine-129 15,700,000 years

Uranium-238 4,470,000,000 years

3 Waste categories are as follows: part consists either of waste contaminated by radium n very short-lived waste (known as radium-bearing (VSLW) much of which comes waste), resulting mainly from from medical applications naturally radioactive raw of radioactivity (diagnoses materials used in industry, the and therapy), containing retrieval of radium-bearing radioactive elements with a objects and the cleanup of half-life of less than 100 days; polluted sites, or graphite n very low-level waste (VLLW) waste, which comes from the which comes from the of old French industry, in particular from gas-cooled reactors (GCRs); facility decommissioning n intermediate-level long- operations. It consists of lived waste (ILW-LL) most of very slightly contaminated which is the result of spent dismantled equipment parts fuel reprocessing (spent fuel and rubble; claddings, reprocessing sludge, n low- and intermediate-level etc.) and nuclear facility short-lived waste (LILW-SL) maintenance work; which mainly comes from the n high-level and long-lived nuclear industry, as well as a waste (HLW-LL) consisting of few research laboratories; products resulting from spent n low-level long-lived waste fuel reprocessing that cannot (LLW-LL) which for the major be recycled.

Decommissioning operations (VLLW). Graphite sleeve.

4 Solid waste in cemented drums before Embedding in cement. being embedded in cement.

Management solutions Radioactive waste is extremely Treatment and conditioning: varied in terms of physical and different types of waste under- chemical form, radioactivity and go different types of treatment the half-life of the radioactive (, , mel- elements it contains, as well as ting, compacting, cementation, volume. In France, a specific pro- , etc.). It is then sea- cess is adopted for each category led in a container. The result is a of waste, including a series of radioactive waste package. operations such as sorting, treat- ment, conditioning, storage and Storage and disposal: storage disposal. facilities are designed to accom- modate waste packages for a Sorting: this consists in separa- limited period of time. Disposal is ting waste according to its dif- the final stage of the waste mana- ferent properties, in particular the half-lives of the radionuclides it gement process and implies that contains. It also involves separa- the packages have reached their ting waste that can be compac- final destination or, at least, that ted, incinerated or melted down there is no intention of retrie- to reduce the volume. ving them. That means, of course,

5 VLLW comprises rubble, metal and piping, primarily from decommissioned nuclear facilities.

that the steps taken must protect was closed in 1994, having people and the environment both reached its design capacity of in the short and very long term. 527,000 m3, and the CSA disposal facility (Aube), opened in 1992 Very short-lived waste (VSLW), and operated by Andra since. the radioactivity level of which disappears almost entirely in a Low-level long-lived waste few weeks to a few hundred days, (LLW-LL) is stored by the is stored long enough to decay organisations that generated before disposal, in particular via it pending a disposal solution. hospital waste systems. Intermediate-level long-lived Very low-level waste waste (ILW-LL, also called (VLLW) is sent to a disposal “B” waste) is compacted or facility in Morvilliers (Aube) cemented to make packages operated by Andra, the French that are stored where the waste National Radioactive Waste was generated. Management Agency. Once all nuclear power plants have been High-level and long-lived decommissioned, this waste waste (HLW-LL, also called “C” should represent an estimated waste) is vitrified. This involves volume of one to two million m3. incorporating highly radioactive waste in molten . Low- and intermediate-level short-lived waste (LILW-SL, also The waste, which is in a liquid called LLW-ILW or “A” waste) is form, is mixed with molten glass incinerated, melted, embedded and poured into stainless or compacted. Most of it is containers, then hermetically cemented in metal or sealed by a welded lid. Once containers. It is disposed of at the glass has cooled down, two surface facilities: the CSM the radioactivity is trapped disposal facility (Manche), which inside the matrix.These waste

6 (Marcoule, Gard) or present (La Hague, Manche) production sites. mill are also considered as waste. Areva is responsible for the tailings, which are disposed of on twenty or so sites. They represent about 52 million of material. All uranium VLLW comprises rubble, scrap metal and mines in France are now closed. piping, primarily from decommissioned nuclear facilities. Spent fuel, which contains uranium and and is stored in spent fuel pools at Areva’s La Hague plant, is not packages are currently stored by considered as waste as the the organisations that generated French Government implements the waste (CEA, Areva, their past a policy.

Metal Concrete Vitrified Compacted drum drum waste container waste container

Different types of waste package.

7 Management solutions developed as part of the PNGMDR* for various waste categories

Half-life Very short-lived Short-lived Long-lived (less than 100 days) (less than 31 years) (more than 31 years)

Very low-level Dedicated surface disposal waste Recycling solutions (activity < 100 Bq/g) Dedicated Low-level waste subsurface disposal Surface disposal (under consideration) Managed (CSA disposal Intermediate- by radioactive facility - Aube) level waste decay

Solutions under consideration under Article 3 of the Programme Act of 28 June 2006 High-level waste on the sustainable management of radioactive materials and waste

* French national radioactive materials and waste management programme.

8 Every three years, Andra, the French National Radioactive Waste Management Agency, prepares and publishes an inventory of radioactive materials and waste in France

Waste Forecasts for Forecasts for (Equivalent conditioned m3) existing at the the end of the end of end of 2010 2020 2030

HLW 2,700 4,000 5,300

ILW-LL 40,000 45,000 49,000

LLW-LL 87,000 89,000 133,000

LILW-SL 830,000 1,000,000 1,200,000

VLLW 360,000 762,000 1,300,000 Management solution 3,600 to be defined approx. approx. approx. Total 1,320,000 1,900,000 2,700,000 Volumes at the end of 2010 and forecasts for the end of 2020 and 2030 for each radioac- tive waste category (National Inventory 2012 - source Andra).

At Andra’s CSA disposal facility (Aube), waste packages are placed in concrete cells or “disposal structures”. When they are full, the cells are covered with a concrete slab and polyurethane membrane.

9 Management of long-lived waste

Three areas of research were securing of radioactive waste selected by the Act of 30 are implemented. December 1991 on the mana- The Act institutes a “National gement of high-level and Plan for the Management long-lived radioactive waste: of Radioactive Materials and partitioning-transmutation Waste” (PNGMDR) and sets (area 1), deep geological dispo- deadlines for the main mana- sal (area 2), conditioning and gement milestones. A national long-term storage (area 3). Areas 1 and 3 are led by the committee is responsible for CEA and area 2 by Andra. Based making an annual assessment of on the results of this research, progress in research and design a new Act was issued in 2006 work on radioactive material outlining the steps to be taken and waste management, consi- in waste management. dering the guidelines set out in the above plan. Decree 2008- The new Programme Act 357 sets out the provisions rela- 2006-739 on the sustainable tive to this plan. management of radioactive materials and waste was passed The plan must in particular aim on 28 June 2006. It stipulates at that the following guidelines that: are complied with:

n radioactive materials and n reduction of the quantity and waste of whatever nature, toxicity of radioactive waste is resulting in particular from sought in particular by treating the operation or dismantling spent fuels and by treating and of installations using radioac- conditioning radioactive waste; tive sources or materials, are n radioactive materials awaiting managed sustainably with due treatment and ultimate regard for the protection of radioactive waste awaiting personal health, safety, and disposal are stored in specially the environment; laid out installations. After n to avert or limit the burden storage, ultimate radioactive that will be borne by future waste, which cannot for nuclear generations, research is safety or radiation protection undertaken and the neces- reasons be disposed of at the sary means for the definitive surface or at a low depth, are

10 disposed of in deep geological level and intermediate-level formations. long-lived waste to be carried out in the three complementary The Act of 2006 provides for areas set out below. research and design work on high-

Partitioning and transmutation Principle certain partitioned long-lived elements (), its appli- The purpose of partitioning and cation is certainly very diffi- transmutation is to reduce the cult, if not impossible, to other quantities of long-lived radioac- tive elements in final waste by elements such as long-lived separating them using chemi- fission products that are more cal processes, then transmuting mobile in disposal situations them under flux, i.e. since they may be soluble and transforming them into short- liable to move with groundwa- lived elements. ter. Consequently, partitioning- transmutation alone does not The state of research seem to be an alternative to Research has confirmed that the geological disposal. objective of partitioning-trans- Under the provisions of the 2006 mutation is highly ambitious. Act, research into the partitio- Partitioning is a complex exten- ning and transmutation of long- sion of reprocessing that can lived radioactive elements will only be considered for cer- be continued. tain types of long-lived waste. Studies and research in this area Transmutation presumes the will be carried out alongside development of new facilities work focusing on new-genera- (reactors, dedicated particle tion nuclear reactors (see Article accelerators) and can only be 5 of Programme Act 2005-781 achieved through sustainable of 13 July 2005 defining energy programmes spanning a hun- policy guidelines) and accele- dred years or so. rator-driven reactors used for Moreover, although transmu- waste transmutation. The objec- tation is capable of destroying tive defined in the Act is to pro-

11 vide an assessment of the indus- transmutation and start up a trial prospects of separation and prototype facility by late 2020.

Aerial view of the Bure laboratory (Meuse/Haute Marne).

12 Storage Principle simplicity and meet the safety and radiation protection requi- Storage consists in placing rements generally imposed on radioactive waste temporarily nuclear facilities. Storage is, by in a specially designed surface definition, a temporary solution, or near-surface facility pen- and the integrity of packages ding its retrieval for treatment must be monitored to allow or removal to dedicated waste simple and safe retrieval. management centres. Storage particularly concerns waste The 2006 Act requires the rele- awaiting treatment or dispo- vant studies and research to sal. Industrial storage facilities be completed by 2015 in order already exist on nuclear sites. to build new storage facilities or modify existing facilities to Storage safety meet the requirements (capa- Storage facilities must be desig- city, lifetime, etc.) set out in the ned to combine robustness and PNGMDR.

Vitrified waste storage View from above the shafts (Marcoule).

13 Deep geological disposal Principle The geological disposal concepts studied are based on a multiple- This involves placing waste barrier principle to prevent water packages in underground struc- from coming into contact with the tures dug in an impermeable waste and limit any subsequent geological medium with favou- dispersal of radioactive rable properties in terms of its substances. The barriers geological stability, hydro- include the waste packages, geology, and the “engineered barrier”, which response to mechanical and is the manufactured material thermal stress. that may be placed between the waste package and the The selected medium must bedrock, and the geological avoid areas of outstanding barrier, which is the bedrock interest in terms of exploitable itself. The geological medium underground resources and the accommodating the disposal structures must be located at facility serves in particular least 200 m below the ground to confine the radioactive surface to avoid the effects of substances released as time erosion and human intrusion. goes by, minimise the migration The 2006 Act defines disposal rate and procure retention in in deep geological formations the areas through which the as a sustainable management substances are transported to solution while establishing the benefit from . principle of reversibility. The The Programme Act of 2006 minimum period for which the stipulates that the licence reversibility of disposal must be application to build a disposal guaranteed as a precautionary facility of this type must be measure will be defined by law. examined by 2015. Subject to This period cannot be less than this licence, the facility will be a hundred years. commissioned by 2025.

14 Deep geological disposal around the world

Most countries now consider Countries with a large number of deep geological disposal as nuclear power plants are among the standard solution for final the most active participants management of high-level in this area. They include the and intermediate-level long- , Canada, , lived waste. The topic is the China, Korea and, in Europe, subject of regular international Germany, Sweden, , the discussions. United Kingdom, Belgium and Switzerland. These discussions are aimed at highlighting common technical The strategies adopted and the principles, sharing experience progress in programmes with a and pooling research resources. view to commissioning a deep In particular, they are part of geological waste disposal faci- the work initiated by the OECD/ lity vary from one country to NEA*, the IAEA** and the another. European Commission***.

notes * In particular within the Radioactive Waste Management Committee (RWMC) or the Integration Group for the Safety Case of Radioactive Waste Repositories (IGSC). ** In particular through the publications of the Waste Safety Standards Committee (WASSC). *** In particular through the Research and Development Framework Programme in the nuclear field (EURATOM FP).

15 Vitrified waste storage View of the lower part of the shafts (La Hague).

The research and studies in research programmes in Belgium progress mainly focus on three (Boom clay) and Switzerland types of geological formation: (Opaline clay). In Germany, the focus is on salt formations. n ; Some countries – in particular n sedimentary formations and, more especially, clay beds; the United States, Germany and Finland – have designed or n salt. used underground installations Programmes in Sweden and for radioactive waste disposal. Finland focus on disposal in gra- In the United States: since 1999, nite bedrock. Granite is also stu- defence-related waste has been died in Korea, Japan, Switzerland disposed of at the WIPP (Waste and China. Isolation Pilot Plant) where it is Clay formations have long been placed in facilities dug in a salt at the centre of major studies and formation.

16 In Germany: an old salt mine waste – both long- and short- in Morsleben in former East lived (LILW-SL). There are several Germany was used for the disposal strategies for managing short- of radioactive waste until 1998. lived waste (disposal in geological Another site, Konrad, has been formations for some and surface licensed to host a geological disposal for the rest), but they waste disposal facility. All German are motivated not by safety radioactive waste that does not considerations but by political release should be disposed decisions (generally depending on of here. The site was once an iron the economic and social context). mine in a sedimentary formation. All the countries concerned have agreed on the best practices to Until 1978, some low- and be implemented regarding the intermediate-level radioactive safety of waste disposal facilities, waste was disposed of at an and to that end have approved the experimental centre built in a international standards published former mine in a salt dome in on this topic by the IAEA. Asse in . Since the end of the 1980s, however, water A deep geological disposal facility infiltration had been observed has yet to be commissioned in this dome and the German for high-level and long-lived authorities ultimately decided to radioactive waste. However, retrieve the waste and restore the projects in some countries are at mine. an advanced stage and, in some cases, the licence application In Finland: two facilities have procedure is under way. been dug in granite formations at a depth of 70 to 100 m for In the United States: a licence the disposal of waste from the application to construct and Olkiluoto and Loviisa nuclear operate a waste repository on power plants. Located near the the Yucca Mountain site was sub- mitted in 2008. The formation two NPPs, the disposal facilities concerned consists of volcanic have been in operation since 1992 tuff formed 11 to 14 million and 1997 respectively. years ago. Exploratory studies Other countries such as Korea, are conducted on the site from Canada and Hungary also plan to an underground facility excava- use underground installations for ted in 1993 to demonstrate the their low- and intermediate-level feasibility of a disposal facility.

17 Each package has its own bar code specifying its origin and the level and type of radioactivity it contains.

At present, the project has been 2009 as the possible site for a suspended. disposal facility. In Finland: the operator Posiva The licence application to build Oy submitted a licence applica- a waste disposal facility there tion at the end of 2012 to build a was submitted in March 2011, spent fuel disposal facility in the with commissioning expected granite bedrock at the Onkalo between 2020 and 2025. site. The facility should be com- missioned between 2020 and In most other countries, 2025. An underground labora- except for France, programmes tory, which will be part of the concerning the search for a site facility, is under construction to and disposal facility design are characterise the site in greater at a less advanced stage. depth. Several countries have decided In Sweden: investigations were to build underground research started in 2008 on two granite laboratories to move ahead with sites: Östhammar near Forsmark, their geological disposal projects. and Oskarshamn. Östhammar These laboratories generally near Forsmark was chosen in serve two purposes:

18 n improving knowledge and validating relatively gene- ral methods and technology concerning a particular type of rock; n or characterising a specific site to assess the feasibility of a waste disposal facility. Methodological laboratories focusing on the first objective have been built in granite forma- tions in Canada (the Whiteshell Underground Research Laboratory (URL), now being dismantled, Sweden (Äspö labo- ratory), Switzerland (Grimsel laboratory) and, more recent- ly, Korea (Kaeri Underground Research Tunnel - KURT) and Japan (Tono Mizunami URL). Similar facilities have been built in clay formations in Belgium (Mol), Switzerland (Mont-Terri) and Japan (Horonobe URL). The IRSN-run Tournemire experi- mental facility falls within this category. A laboratory has been built in a tuff formation at Yucca Mountain in the USA for site characterisation and qualifica- tion. Another is being built in Finland (Onkalo on Olkiluoto island). Andra’s underground research laboratory in Bure is a research facility of this type.

19 Deep geological disposal in France

The 2006 Act on nuclear waste disposal facility - www.cigeo. management confirmed the com), a facility located between option of reversible disposal in the Meuse and Haute-Marne a deep geological clay formation departments in eastern France. for high-level and long-lived The facility will be located waste. Andra has been entrusted 500 m below the surface in a with building this facility, which clay formation with properties is designed to protect people similar to those being studied and the environment from the at the underground research radiological hazards related laboratory near the town of to this waste for hundreds Bure. It is designed for the of thousands of years. The disposal of high-level waste and project currently being studied intermediate-level long-lived is called Cigeo (geological waste.

View of the Cigeo facility. Scientific and technical challenges for IRSN IRSN must give an informed opi- requirements are met by this large nion, within the legal deadlines underground nuclear facility, which for the various phases of the pro- will be in operation for nearly a ject, on the degree of short- and century. The main long-term safety long-term protection from waste- issue is whether the facility and the related hazards that this method various barriers set up between the of disposal is able to provide. In waste and surface ecosystems will 2005, Andra’s preliminary report be capable of confining the radio- led IRSN to issue an initial favou- nuclides for the long -term. rable opinion on the feasibility of a In particular, this involves stu- disposal facility in the 500 m deep dying and discussing the highly clay formation studied at the Bure complex, long-term changes in laboratory. the system and the uncertainties By 2015, the Institute will have surrounding them - radiolysis, to assess whether the key safety chemical reactions, interactions

20 View of a sealing test implemented at the Tournemire experimental station (Aveyron). between the radioactive mate- for more than a century. In parti- rials disposed of, the components cular, risks relating to fire must be of the packages and the structure carefully analysed in this unique (different types of metal and environment, together with those concrete, etc.), damage caused induced by the simultaneous per- to the argillite by digging, loca- formance of nuclear and conven- lised alterations in the undistur- tional work site activities, as well bed bedrock - which relate to the long-term behaviour of the as waste confinement arrange- structure and its contents. ments. Another major challenge is to Lastly, the radiological impact manage the risks induced by the on human health and the envi- construction and operation of ronment must be assessed both this facility, which will be open in the short and very long term.

A specific scientific approach In order to make a fully inde- in areas where scientific and pendent assessment, IRSN technical uncertainty is large. cannot base its opinion on Andra’s results alone, but must The Institute has chosen to opti- acquire data independently mise its resources by focusing its of the operator, especially research effort on two objectives

21 and setting up partnerships in In addition, IRSN is involved in France (NEEDS with the CNRS) several research projects orga- and abroad: nised by the as part of the research and n acquisition of scientific data development framework pro- from the Tournemire tunnel, gramme (FP). which was dug in bedrock with similar characteristics to those Europe has four experimental in the Meuse/Haute-Marne research sites in clay formations: area, as well as in the Mont- Mol in Belgium, Mont-Terri in Terri international experimen- Switzerland, Tournemire and tal facility; Bure in France. IRSN (like Andra) n carrying out modelling and is involved in several European developing its capacity for programmes calling for these simulating various safety- sites and for analytical experi- related phenomena. Within ments aimed at modelling the this context, IRSN developed behaviour of the components MELODIE, a software of the disposal facility and its application for simulating ultimate environmental impact. in underground formations.

Significant results

New programmes are under way The studies performed and to support the Institute’s initia- results obtained by IRSN at tive to assess several key points Tournemire confirmed that the regarding safety at the future dis- progress of water through the posal facility. These programmes undisturbed clay formation is concern, in particular, the impact very slow (a few centimetres in of excavation regarding bedrock a million years). damage, the impact of the degra- They also highlighted the dation products of the materials complexity of forecasting the brought into the disposal faci- behaviour of rock around the lity (concrete and metal com- drifts (damage, desaturation, pounds) on the clay’s confine- etc.). The research carried out ment capability, and assessing also tested the limits of the the effectiveness of underground geophysical seismic reflection structure seals. method for identifying faults 22 with slight vertical offset, thus reconnaissance campaign on the providing vital knowledge for site considered for the future appraising the results of Andra’s disposal facility.

An informed choice IRSN’s research programmes design expertise and the provide France with an National Assessment Board’s independent capability for guarantee of scientific rigour assessing the safety of a with the preliminary research, this capability, will allow France geological waste disposal site to move ahead in an area where for high-level and long-lived expectations are high among radioactive waste. all stakeholders, i.e. ensure the safety of this one-of-a-kind When the decision is made to nuclear facility that will be the proceed with the construction keystone of radioactive waste of the facility, above Andra’s management strategy.

Dry boring in a drift in the Tournemire experimental tunnel (Aveyron). 23 Photo credits: Andra (Francis Roux p.4 right/Films Roger Leenhardt p.16/Philippe Demeil p.7 left, p.6-9-12-18-20) n CEA (P. Dumas cover p.13) n Cogema (Philippe Lesage inside front cover/Eurodoc La Hague p.2/Eurodoc Centrimage p.16) n EDF Médiathèque (Henri Cazin p.5 left/Jean-Claude Raoul p.5 right) n IRSN (C. Cieutat p.4 left/Olivier Seignette, Mikaël Lafontan p. 21-23) n SOCODEI (Patrick Lefèvre p.7)

L’IRSN The French Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN) is responsible for the scientific assessment of nuclear and radiological risk. It is an “EPIC” (a state-owned industrial and commercial enterprise) that carries out research and surveys for the French Government and the general public. It is a reference body both in France and internatio- nally, with a workforce of over 1700 people who cover a diverse range of disciplines ranging from life sciences to . It carries out research and assessments in the following areas of expertise: n protection of people and the environment against the risks of ionising radiation; n safety of facilities and transportation of radioactive material and its protection against malicious acts; n monitoring of nuclear materials and products that may be used in the manufacture of weapons; n emergency response. It also provides the public with information.

Radioactive waste Radioactive waste is generated not only by the nuclear power industry, but also by hospitals, universities and non-nuclear industries. All the regulations applying to waste in general also apply to radioactive waste. However, radioactive waste emits radiation, which makes it a particular hazard for human health and the environment. It must therefore be managed with special care, from generation to final disposal. Finding suitable waste dispo- sal solutions is a major challenge for all stakeholders, industry, regulatory authorities, public authorities, local communities and the population.

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