The Religious Impact of “Pestilences” by Reinder Bruinsma

ESCHATOLOGY God and Pandemics: THE RELIGIOUS IMPACT OF “PESTILENCES” BY REINDER BRUINSMA

Drawing of plague doctor with human skull

Many Christians are wondering whether Past and Present Herodotus as an epidemic caused by the current global plague must be regarded Deadly pandemics in the Bible are infected mice. as one of the pestilences that Christ invariably characterized as the result of Te Plague of Athens (430-426 B.C.), predicted would signal his soon return divine intervention. Te sixth plague which claimed the lives of more than to this world (Luke 21:11). Teories, in Egypt, with its “festering boils” that a quarter of the city’s population, may 1 opinions, and conspiracies abound; afected humans and livestock (Exod. 9:9, have been an outbreak of typhoid, and however, I want to look at the question NIV, NRSV), may certainly qualify as an smallpox may have claimed as many in a broader perspective: what has been epidemic. Te sudden demise of 185,000 as 5 million in the Antonine Plague the religious impact of pandemics or Assyrian soldiers (Isaiah 37:36) during of A.D. 165-180. A century later the epidemics, and how does that compare their assault on Jerusalem, in the reign of Cyprian plague brought havoc to the with our reaction to COVID-19? Judah’s King Hezekiah (729-686 B.C.), was Mediterranean region, and the Justinian described by the Bible as God’s vengeance Plague—possibly an early manifestation and explained by ancient Greek historian of bubonic plague—began in the

18 ADVENTIST TODAY mid-sixth century and was followed by method to stem the disease. Tis was Te H1N1 (Swine fu) pandemic of decades of new outbreaks, during which the precursor to the smallpox vaccine 2009 infected 10 percent of the world’s the population in some areas may have developed in Victorian times. Objection population, with an estimated 20,000 been reduced by as much as 40 percent. to vaccination is not new: even in the fatalities, though some speculate a much Te Black Death. Te most dramatic 19th century, inoculation was suspected higher number. Te Ebola outbreak of plague was “Black Death,” a disease of being unchristian. Britain already had 2014-2016, though confned mostly to referred to as bubonic plague. It campaigns by anti-vaccinationists, and Central Africa and West Africa, caused originated in China in 1334 and spread on the European continent, opposition worldwide concern due to its extreme to Europe, Russia, and the Middle against inoculation lasted even longer.3 contagiousness and high case fatality, and East. Te Black Death annihilated Te Spanish Flu. Seven waves of recent reports indicate that this horrible entire communities. Although the total cholera rolled across the world in the disease may again raise its ugly head. number of victims remains unknown, 19th and early 20th centuries. Although Perhaps the most notorious pandemic some experts put the death toll at a cholera vaccine was created in 1885, in the Western world was HIV and approximately 75 million. As many as the pandemics continued, and even AIDS. Damir Huremović, a prominent half of all Europeans died. today the bacterial disease remains a New York psychiatrist, wrote, “HIV/ Smallpox. One of the great successes threat when sanitary conditions are AIDS is a slowly progressing global of humankind’s fght against deadly seriously compromised. pandemic, cascading through decades of diseases was the eradication of smallpox Te infuenza of 1918, though, is time, diferent continents, and diferent (variola) in the early 1980s. In the 20th ofen regarded as the frst truly global populations.”5 Although HIV infected century alone, smallpox killed nearly pandemic, with fatalities as high as 50 tens of millions of people, so far no 300 million people—three times more million or even 100 million—far more vaccine exists to prevent it, and the than the combined number of deaths than the death toll from World War 1. worldwide death toll is over 40 million. from all of the wars in that period.2 It became known as the Spanish fu, not Te number of victims would have been Smallpox had a tremendous geopolitical because the disease originated in Spain, higher had not efective medication impact. Te great Islamic expansion but because that country had remained enabled people to live with the virus as a across North Africa and the Iberian neutral in the World War and provided chronic but controlled condition. Peninsula from the sixth to eighth uncensored reporting of the death toll.4 centuries spread smallpox across Africa Since 1918. For a long time, diseases God and Pandemics and Europe. Colonization exported such as measles or poliomyelitis (polio) What is the religious impact of these the disease to the Americas and other exacted a high death toll. Te extremely pandemics? Comments by University continents, in the process eliminating contagious Severe Acute Respiratory of Cambridge historian Andrew many indigenous populations. Syndrome (SARS), which frst surfaced Cunningham are worth quoting: In the 18th century, variolation— in 2002, caused international concern “For Christians the visitation of that is, inoculating individuals with because of its high mortality rate but disease has always been an ambiguous material from a smallpox-infected was kept under control. Appearance of matter, since their God is a benign god, person to immunize them—became a “bird fu” set of another global scare. and nothing happens without His will

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and knowledge. Obviously, God sends Penitent processions were one of the since it was of relatively short duration, disease, and obviously it must be as most radical attempts to appease an the crisis soon faded from public memory punishment for sin. But it was not always angry God. Flagellants, for example, and later was ofen referred to as the clear, even to men of religion, quite which beat themselves until blood fowed, “forgotten pandemic.” sins were being punished by a particular believing that their physical sufering Western scientists knew by this time visitation of a pestilence, nor why the was redemptive. how infuenza was spread, so they good died under God’s justice as well as recommended the temporary closing of the wicked.”6 In actual fact, “there is no It was to be expected public buildings. While many Protestant, single predictable religious response” as Catholic, and Jewish leaders were willing environments also greatly difer.7 that many Christians to comply, some believed the doors of Let’s concentrate on the religious impact their churches and synagogues should of the Black Death, the Spanish fu, the would regard these past remain open.13 HIV/AIDS pandemic, and the current In response to the viruses that have COVID-19 crisis, with special attention to plagues as signs of the caused near omnipresent death since 1918, Seventh-day Adventist believers. “some turn to traditional religions and God and the Black Death. Barbara W. certainty of Christ’s deities, as before, but most are turning to Tuchman, a two-time Pulitzer Prize- our secular deity, the state” for a solution winning historian, provides a detailed coming and that to the problems caused by the pandemic, description of the impact of Black Death only to fnd that “our faith in modern in “the calamitous 14th century” that Adventists who lived states cannot make the virus go away.”14 includes the religious aspects.8 She Not surprisingly, one of the ramifcations explains that a vast majority of people were through the Spanish ﬂu, of the Spanish fu was an increase in the convinced that human sin had evoked popularity of occult practices such as divine wrath and that people needed to who saw how HIV and communicating with the dead. do everything possible to appease God. Te diverse religious response to Te blame was to a large extent laid upon AIDS ravaged particular the Spanish fu in South Africa was Jews, with traditional accusations of their refected in other regions of the world. being Christ-killers, of desecrating the segments of society, In the space of just six weeks, the fu host, and poisoning wells. Te result was killed approximately 300,000 South expulsion, persecution, and seizure of would emphasize this. Africans, or roughly 6 percent of the Jewish property. population. Hindus, Jews, and Muslims Te church, which in many ways Pope Clement’s formulation of the all acknowledged that the pandemic formed the backbone of medieval society, theory of indulgences linked forgiveness of had a divine cause, but they remained took a severe battering. Clergy died at the sins with the exchange of money: people mostly quiet, at least publicly, about why same rate as the rest of the population, could buy a share in “the treasury of merit” the people should deserve this divine their number sharply diminished while accumulated by the blood of Christ and action. Traditional African religions saw their reputation was severely tarnished the good deeds of the Virgin and the saints, the plague as the revenge of indignant by ethical abuses and lack of moral and thus acquire a pardon for personal sins. ancestors—or caused by nefarious standards.9 As a result of the plague, “a Tuchman concludes: “What the Church witches or wizards. terrible pessimism permeated society.” gained in revenue by this arrangement was Historian Howard Phillips writes Many adopted “a live-for-today” attitude, matched in the end by loss in respect. ... Te that Christian clergy pointed to “divine while others “went of the deep end with Church emerged from the plague richer if visitation” as punishment for sins.15 quackery and mysticism.”10 Says Tuchman, not more unpopular.”12 As always, he says, “generic sins like “Te sense of a vanishing future created a God and the Spanish Flu. Te Spanish immorality, drunkenness, and lax church kind of dementia of despair.”11 fu of 1918 caused unimaginable mayhem attendance featured prominently in the in Europe and around the world. But list of those that were said to have called

20 ADVENTIST TODAY forth God’s wrath.”16 And, as could be A survey of Adventist reactions to the conferences were held at diferent levels expected, both a global World War I and 1918 infuenza as seen in the Columbia of the church, and some AIDS-related the devastating plague were put into an Union Visitor gives little indication that initiatives were undertaken, notably eschatological framework and seen by church leaders and members saw the in Africa. Activities by the Adventist many as signs heralding the soon return pandemic primarily as a sign of the Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) of Christ. nearness of Christ’s second coming. deserve special mention. A book published in 1938, written by Numerous articles reported, rather, how Gradually ofcial Adventist journals James Edson White (1849-1928) and later the church did all it could to continue its began to publish articles about the AIDS updated by Alonzo L. Baker, referred to various ministries.22 epidemic, as a rule being careful to avoid the Spanish fu as “the most decimating God and HIV/AIDS. Acquired giving the impression that HIV/AIDS was pestilence of all history.”17 Yet this pattern immunodefciency syndrome (AIDS) was also a problem in the Adventist Church. of thought did not appear to characterize frst identifed and named in 1981. Its Tey remained circumspect in speaking Adventist thinking when the pandemic precise origin is still unknown. Te HIV/ about the issue of homosexuality, due was actually taking place. Seventh-day AIDS disease difers in a very signifcant to the church’s strong rejection of it. Adventist church members were surely not aspect from other pandemics, in that the Adventist sociologist Ronald L. Lawson, immune to the Spanish fu, but we have initial expansion (in particular in the emeritus professor of Queens College no way of knowing how many succumbed United States) was predominantly among (City University of New York), concluded to it.18 Most of our information about gay men. a detailed survey of Adventist attitudes it comes from Adventist commentary Its connection with homosexuality toward HIV/AIDS with this sobering within the United States. West Virginia and also with substance abuse, together statement: “Te response of the Seventh- Conference President T. B. Westbrook with an initial high death rate, led many day Adventist church to the AIDS crisis wrote in November 1918: “If there was conservative Christians to believe that has been extraordinarily slight.”24 ever a time in the history of the world God was using AIDS to punish the (in An ofcial statement about HIV/AIDS when we needed to ofer incense (pray) to their eyes) heinous sin of homosexuality. issued in 1990 by the quinquennial world God for help it is now. All our churches are Some, such as Jerry Falwell (1933- congress in Indianapolis referred to the closed, and some lines of the work are at a 2007), were adamant that the virus was moral questions surrounding the pandemic standstill. Te plague, or Spanish Infuenza a biological judgment on those who but avoided the term “homosexuality.” epidemic, is raging everywhere and there engaged in sexual promiscuity and drug Te statement acknowledged that AIDS are many dead bodies in every place.”19 abuse. Mainline Christian churches had made its entrance into the Adventist Interestingly, we have no evidence generally rejected such stigmatization, Church and stressed the importance of Adventist protests against limiting and several started initiatives to minister of accepting persons with AIDS and religious freedom once authorities to victims of AIDS. ministering to them.25 demanded in 1918 that churches and Many Christians still see a moral When Lawson conducted his schools be closed, though one article dilemma regarding how to deal with research in Africa, he found that many in the Review and Herald noted the persons with AIDS. On the one hand, they denominational leaders there denied the scarcity of medical personnel.20 Church “blame the victim by defning AIDS as existence of AIDS in the Adventist church leaders at various levels urged the punishment for sin” while, on the other even though, in reality, HIV/AIDS was a members to isolate when needed and hand, they recognize that sick people need major crisis among believers, especially in “exercise intelligent faith” in dealing with care.23 Tese views continue to underline the countries around Lake Victoria, where the enormous threat, mindful of the the incorrect idea that HIV/AIDS is there is a high density of Adventists. principles of the church’s health message. invariably linked to a gay lifestyle. God and COVID-19. It is too early Many Adventist schools, meanwhile, Because of the frequent association to analyze the religious impact of the saw a signifcant increase in enrollment of HIV/AIDS with homosexuality, COVID-19 pandemic in any depth. in medical courses, and Adventist Adventists have seemed reluctant to Certainly, we may see signifcant lasting periodicals carried extensive advertising speak about it. In 1987 the denomination changes in the way people “do” church for the Red Cross.21 established an AIDS Committee. A few (or synagogue or mosque) as a result of

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the physical closure of large numbers of church running during this crisis. Tey anti-vaccine groups, have melted into places of worship around the world and stress that many of the church’s ministries new umbrella-like conspiracies, such as the extensive use of online platforms for have continued to function and that new the ID2020 theory. According to fringe communal worship. creative initiatives have been launched. Christian conspiracy sites, the vaccines Te titles of two small books are a cover for implanting some by Christian authors illustrate the form of microchip, radio frequency diferent theological interpretations implantation (RFID) chip, or other of the pandemic. In Corona Crisis: Adventist Review, to digital tracking device. The plan is, Plagues, Pandemics, and the Coming allegedly, part of a global New World Apocalypse, Professor Mark Hitchcock its credit, has decried Order. These microchips, some argue, of the conservative Dallas Teological may well represent the apocalyptic Seminary places COVID-19 in an false, alarmist ideas mark of the beast. eschatological context. Te global health It was to be expected that such crisis, he maintains, is a prelude to that are circulating theories would appeal to segments of Earth’s fnal events.26 the Adventist Church, since media In God and the Pandemic, prominent among Adventists on its right wing have long been open New Testament theologian Tom Wright to conspiracy theories. Tey did not, looks at the coronavirus outbreak from and pointed out that however, speak with one voice with quite a diferent perspective.27 We must regard to any linkage between the accept that we do not fully understand any linking of the COVID-19 vaccine and the “mark of the events, he says, and we must acknowledge beast.” One YouTube video circulated that humans play a role in what happens, mark of the beast by Walter Veith “put the vaccine in the and Christians in particular have special context of manipulation and control responsibilities in confronting the with a COVID-19 by the Jesuits.”29 David Gates, an consequences of such events. independent Adventist evangelist who We fnd this same dual track in the vaccine has no basis in itinerates around the world, promotes Adventist media. Te eschatological the idea that the COVID-19 vaccines, emphasis, which is very pronounced in Adventism’s traditional together with the 5G-signal, are a satanic the media of independent ministries on tool to destroy humanity and make the right wing of the church, can also be eschatological human beings into automatons.30 seen in some ofcial church statements. Adventist Review, to its credit, decried An Adventist Review news article about understanding. false, alarmist ideas that are circulating COVID-19 vaccines combined both the among Adventists and pointed out that eschatological and pragmatic aspects: Conspiracy Theories any linking of the mark of the beast with “Seventh-day Adventists look to the I have already said that during the a COVID-19 vaccine has no basis in coming of Christ as the great culmination 14th-century bubonic plague, Jews were Adventism’s traditional eschatological of history and the end of all disease, scapegoated. Spanish fu conspiracy understanding. Te article downplays sufering, and death. At the same time, we theories ofen focused on the Germans: the eschatological signifcance of the have been entrusted with the Adventist fake news reports claimed that German pandemic, warns against acceptance of health message” that teaches “healthful submarines purposely spread the disease these and other extremely speculative living through practical and wholistic around the world. ideas, and encourages church members to 28 [sic] lifestyle behaviors.” Not surprisingly, millions have place full trust in the vaccines that have 31 Generally, ofcial denominational embraced various conspiracy theories been developed. media have spent the most time on in connection with the COVID- In an article for Amazing Facts pragmatic aspects of the pandemic, such 19 pandemic. Existing conspiracy ministries, Gary Gibbs, president of the as worship services and keeping the movements, including anti-5G and Pennsylvania Conference, insisted that

22 ADVENTIST TODAY “the mark of the beast concerns enforced the signs.34 According to this view, all 10 Carlin, p. 134. 11 Tuchman, p. 99. worship,” and “this is not an element of epidemics and pandemics of the last two 12 ibid., pp. 121-122. the current pandemic.”32 millennia may be seen as genuine signs 13 “Signs of the Times,” Christian Science of the times. Tey all are signals pointing Sentinel (Nov. 30, 1918), p. 258. 14 UdayChandra, “Tinking Teologically with Pandemics as Signs of the End mankind to the climax of history, the Pandemics,” Al Jazeera (July 28, 2020). 15 Whenever pandemics struck, Christians second coming of Jesus Christ. Howard Phillips, “Why Did It Happen? Religious Explanations of the ‘Spanish’ Flu Epidemic in asked whether they were seeing a sign It was to be expected that many South Africa,” Historically Speaking, Vol. 9, No. 7 of Christ’s second coming, and this is a Christians would regard these past (September/October 2008), p. 34. 16 plagues as signs of the certainty of ibid. question many are asking today. In Luke’s 17 James Edson White and Alonzo L. Baker, Te version of the Olivet discourse, Christ Christ’s coming and that Seventh-day Coming King (1938). 18 mentions among the signs of the end the Adventist Christians who lived through Michael W. Campbell, “Adventists and the 1918 Infuenza Pandemic,” Adventist World (April 3, occurrence of “earthquakes, famines and the Spanish fu, who saw how HIV and 2020). pestilences in many places” (Luke 21:11). AIDS ravaged particular segments of 19 T. B. Westbrook, “Present-day Conditions a Call to Prayer,” Columbia Union Visitor (Nov. 7, 1918), (In some versions of Matthew 24:7, these society, would emphasize this. It would p. 1. “pestilences” are also mentioned, but go against our spiritual DNA if Adventists 20 W. A. Ruble, “Afer Infuenza, What?” Review did not regard the COVID-19 pandemic and Herald (Oct. 31, 1918), p. 16. scholarly opinion almost unanimously 21 Campbell, op. cit. supports the view that the original as a sign of the second coming; indeed, 22 Celeste Ryan Blyden, “How the Visitor Reported Matthean text omits this word.) Te signs it is surprising that the eschatological the 1918-1920 Pandemic,” Columbia Union Visitor (May 21, 2020). of the end would signal the impending dimension does not dominate the 23 Mark R. Kowaleski, “Religious Constructions of doom over Jerusalem, fulflled when the response of most Adventist Christians to the AIDS Crisis,” Sociological Analysis, Vol. 51, No. the current pandemic. 1 (1990), p. 91. Romans destroyed that city in A.D. 70, 24 Ronald L. Lawson, “Is Tis Our Concern? HIV/ and would also remind mankind of the But perhaps Seventh-day Adventists AIDS and International Seventh-day Adventism,” certainty of the second coming of Christ at have gradually learned that although the Paper read at the meeting of the Association for the Sociology of Religion, Pittsburgh (August the end of time. signs of the times surely are important, 1992), posted online June 11, 2018. Te traditional Seventh-day Adventist it is unwise to point to one particular 25 “AIDS – A Seventh-day Adventist Response,” Statement published by the AIDS Committee of view has been that the time of the end event—momentous though it may be— the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists began around the time of the French as proof that Christ’s coming is perhaps (1990). 26 a matter of months, or at most a few Mark Hitchcock, Corona Crisis: Plagues, Revolution, when “the great tribulation” Pandemics, and the Coming Apocalypse (2020). caused by the medieval papacy had come years, from fulfllment. Perhaps we have 27 N. T. Wright, God and the Pandemic: A Christian to an end. In line with this view, signs learned, at long last, that Christ comes on Refection on the Coronavirus and Its Afermath (2020). of the times were expected to occur his own schedule. AT 28 “COVID-19 Vaccines: Addressing Concerns, from that point onward. Epidemics and 1 Damir Huremović, “Brief History of Pandemics Ofering Counsel,” Adventist Review Online (Dec. (Pandemics Troughout History), Psychiatry of 18, 2020). pandemics that occurred since then, 29 Pandemics: A Mental Health Response to Infection “Walter Veith Anti-Vax Video Removed by such as the Spanish fu and the current Outbreak (2019), p. 11. YouTube,” Adventist Today Online (Jan. 18, 2021). 30 COVID-19 crisis, thus qualify as the 2 Michael B. A. Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues & “SDA Evangelist: Vaccine & 5G Will Make You History (1998, 2010 edition), p. 53. an Automaton,” Adventist Today Online (Dec. 10, pestilences Christ predicted. 3 Willam H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (1978, 2020). Hans K. LaRondelle (1929-2011), 1998 ed.), pp. 255-256. 31 “COVID-19 Vaccines: Addressing Concerns, 4 Oldstone, p. 309. Ofering Counsel,” Adventist Review Online (Dec. a prominent Adventist eschatologist, 5 Huremović, p. 22. 18, 2020). emphasized that the so-called “signs 6 Andrew Cunningham, “Epidemics, Pandemics, 32 Gary Gibbs, “Coronavirus and the Last Days,” of the end” cannot be placed in any and the Doomsday Scenario,” Historically Speaking, AmazingFacts.org (April 21, 2020), online at www. Vol. 9, No. 7 (September/October 2008), pp. 29-31. amazingfacts.org/news-and-features/news/item/ chronological order. Tey are “signs 7 Duane J. Osheim, “Religion and Epidemic id/24670/t/coronavirus-and-the-last-days 33 of the age, and characterize the entire Disease,” Historically Speaking, Vol. 9, No. 7 Hans K. LaRondelle, Light for the Last Days 33 (September/October 2008), p. 36. (1999), p. 11. period between Jesus’ two advents.” 8 Barbara W. Tuchman, A Distant Mirror: Te 34 See Jon Paulien, What the Bible Says About the Adventist theologian Jon Paulien Calamitous 14th Century (1978), pp. 92-125. End-Time (1994), pp. 85-87. likewise warns against placing too 9 Dan Carlin, Te End Is Always Near: Apocalyptic Moments, from the Bronze Age Collapse to Nuclear much emphasis on the time element of Near Misses (2019), p. 132.