Cobalt blue in medieval ceramic production in the Valencian workshops , and ,

* f aume Coll Conesa

,\ummary

( )obalt was first used in the production of , pigment tbrougb the years; this fact, when considered ¡trouiding improuement in tbe manwfacture of tin with shape and decoratiue euoLutìon, allows us to ylaze decoration during tbe first half of proþose a uery cLose dating for some decoratiue grouþs tltc fourteenth century. X-Ray fluorescence analysis produced in Manises and Paterna. That is the main s,rqg¿sls a uariation in the detected spectrum of bLue target of this þaþer.

lntroduction with a lead-tin glaze, known since at least the Taifa period, though used at that time only ln this paper we will discuss the results of the most in cuerda seca (dry line or resistware) decoration. lccent reseârch on the characterisation of cobalt blue This colour is mentioned in Cardinal Audoin ¡rigrnent and the technical aspects of Medìeval blue Aubert's contract with potters from Manises and rvirre production from Medieval Valencian workshops. Paterna to make 'regolarum et operis de Melicha sive tebularum terre pictarum invernizatarum colorum First archaeolog¡cal finds videlicet lividi albi viridi et morati' for Avignon (1358- 1364). The fact that 'safre' is not used seems ro indicate l¡ 1907 a site known as El Testar del Molí was that cobalt was not yet widespread at the time. Indeed, .liscovered at Paterna. This comprised an enormous the medieval documentation uses several terms to refer tlc¡rosit of medieval ceramic wasters. Massive ex- to blue, such as the Latin lividus, which the author r'¡tvations financed by antique dealers such as José believes refers specifically to turquoise, and the Catalan Alrnenar, Vicente Gómez Novella and Vicente Petit blau, safre, açafre or che Italianate azvt oÍ zaffera thcn began. The following year the ceramics were (Porter 1997; Caroscio 2008) for the cobalt blue. slrown at the Retrospective Exhibition of Lo Rat Penat The first document that mentions cobalt in the hcld in honour of Jaime I, the founder of the Kingdom Valencian a¡ea is dated 1333, and indicates rhar ir of Valencia. On celebrating its centenary in 2008, it was combined with gold pigment: 'opus terra daurati is particularly appropriate to recall that in Gonzâ\ez cum safra' (L6pez Elum 1984, 33). Both safre and the Mrrrtí's texts on cobalt blue we find the Castilian wordzafre âre âpparently derived from the lirst careful description relating to its manufacture Arabic s'afra or s'oufr, meaning rust-coloured, golden,

(( ) onzâlez Marti, 19 0 8 ) . The âuthor emphasises that yellow or shiny, and this is presumably also the origin the cobalt was applied under the glaze, and indicates of al-zàfran. The term could have originated from I hat he has observed evidence of this on tiles and frag- the Latin word sulphur, associating the name of the nlcnts of bowls, plates and jugs in which the design is pigment, in this case, with the natural colour of the .lritwn in black strokes which turn blue where thev raw material. This seems very likely, bearing in mind lr,rve been splashed by a drop of gIaze. that many cobalt-rich minerals utilised in the Middle Ages had a reddish, ochre-coloured or reddish-whire Historical references colour and a shiny appearance. Perhaps the process of turning the mineral into an artificial pigment It is worth recalling here that, as García Porras (2002) through the techniques employed in glaztng and in lr,rs explicitly stated, the earliest blue documented the and ceramics industry led to the term safre ,r rclraeologically, in Hispano-Muslim of the being associated with the resulting dark blue colour, r\ lrrrohad period, was achieved using not cobalt but or even black, bearing in mind the Hispano-Arabic ( ()[)per oxide. This was a turquoise or blue-green term çáffra, recorded by the vocabulist Pedro de pil¡rnent obtained by mixing a small proportion of Alcalá (Coll Conesa 1995).

' ¡,rr rrne,coll@mcu,es r Coll Conesa t2 Jaume

Archaeological wasters and technical inferences

Manufacturing Process

Good archaeometrical data exists to help us understand the general âspects of medieval ceramic technology in . Nevertheless turning now to Spain (Moier a et al 1'999) ' the way in which decorative strokes in that pigment were initially applied to Valencian eartheuware, according to the classic hypothesis, was by painting direcly onto the layer of tin-gl,aze. This was applied to the obiect by immersion when it had already been bisque-fired, which must have been the most common procedure; however it may have required the use of some sort of organic binder incorporated into the glaze (gum arabic, starch, etc.) to avoid imperfections in the brushwork' People have defended this rechnique while forgetting about about Gonzâ\ez Martí's views on cobalt decoration which he stated long ago (Coll and Pérez Camps 1993; ColI Conesa 2002) ' His views were Figure I fìrst fìring, without tin-glaze' even refuted by some authors without solid arguments Jug decorated with cobalt after de Valencia Collection in the National Museum of (Mesquida 2001'a, 2002, 200 4) . Ayuntamiento Nevertheless, there are abundant examples of bisque Ceramics, fired pieces decorated with blackish strokes of fired cobalt rvith no tin-glaze (Fig. 1) (Coll and Pérez Camps 1.993). GonzâlezMattí assumed that the piece was thrown, dried and bisque-fired, then painted with the cobalt and later bathed in tin-glaze. It was then ready for the second or 'fine' 6ring, so that the blue emerged the glazeif ân adequâte firing temperature was :4' w-ith reached. If not, the blue decoration appeared very faint or faded, as can be seen in some shards' The presence of pieces that have been fired and decorated only with cobalt, without giaze, does not explain the latter evid- ence, since it implies that the two phases, painting and immersion in the glaze before the second firing' must have been consecutive, ar.rd just prior to loading 'Why, and firing the . then, do we find occasionally pieces painted with blackish designs with acciclental splashes of glaze showing the blue colour? A satisfactory explanation for the phenomenon was found in the excavations carried out by V' Algarra and P. Berroc aI (1993) in Manises. Sure enough, in the workshop knowt.r as 25 Valencia Street in that town a pottery was found with rectangular workrooms arrattged around â courtyard. Inside the builclings, next to the walls, a series of caviries dug into the floor indicated the substructure of the potter's wheels, of a semi-interrecl type, together with basins which contained clay, and the remains of various fittings' The structures were certainly very similar to those excavated in Paterna by Mercedes Mesquida (2001)' Figure 2 in cobalt blue. The greatest surprise was finding hundreds of fragments Unfìred fragments of majolica painted 25 street inside some of the clay basins from pieces that had been lYuseu de Ceràmica de Manises, from Valencia thrown and were already decorated with cobalt (Figure excavation, 2); these probably broke during the drying process and were then thrown back into the basin so âs to reuse the clay in the next batch. The decorations were exactly Cobalt blue in medieval ceramic production in the Valencian workshops t3

Figure 3 Figure 4 Fragment of pitcher decorated with cobalt after fìrst fìring, Fragment of dish showing the lost of tin-glaze only above the with blue emerging under tin-glaze drops. cobalt lines. lYuseu de Ceràmica de 14anises N¿Lion¿l lt'luseum of Ceramics

t he same as those usually found on pieces decorated could not be erased before they were fired. Perhaps irr blue, and therefore these were objects made in the for this reâson, other material evidence suggests that rrsual way. This helped to solve the question of why on other occasions the cobalt was applied to the bisque there were bisque-fired pieces painted with cobalt but after firing. Some objects show that the glaze has only rrnglazed, since these were the result of the first bisque become detached along the line of cobait oxide, and the f ìring. Indeed it demonstrates a procedure similar to the only explanation for this is that the cobalt pigment has common technique of shaping and painting Chinese acted as a barrier between the glaze and the ceramic ¡rorcelain decorated with cobalt (one-step firing body causing poor adhesion between the interface and rìrethod after glazingdescribed by Juan, Leung and the supporting surface (Figure 4). An excess of cobalt

.f ir,rzhi,2007). in the previous procedure, applied before bisque-firing, The splashes explain ânother interesting technical could also câuse a similar problem, in which case we rìspect, given that no boxes () were found for ought to find evidence of a blackish line firmly integrat- fìring the glaze.ln this case the splashes suggest thât ed into the supporting surface. the pieces to be bisque-fired were placed in the oven Finall¡ Grutttze and others (1996,8I) have detected so that they formed a sort of protective screen round a third procedure for painting with cobalt on tiles the pieces being glazed. !íhen the glaze boiled it could produced by one Jehan de Valence (le Sarrasin) at have splashed the pieces being bisque-fired, which were Bourges for the Duc de Berry's chateau of Mehun-sur- sharing the kiln, and thus drops of glaze formed on Yèvre in L382.In these the safre is found in a vitreous pieces that were only bisque-fired (Figure 3). Iayer applied under the glaze. One can surmise that in FIowever, on a practical levei the foregoing pro- this case the blue came in a vitreous emulsion which cedure made production less versatile by limiting its remained at the interface between ceramic body and ability to respond to the changing demands of the glaze as a clearly independent and distinct layer. This rurarket, since once the pieces were painted the designs procedure would solve the problem of applying cobalt F t4 Jaume Coll Conesa to unfired (or bisque) ware by incorporating the actual C Fe-Co-Ni-Cu and Fe-Co-Ni combinations pigment into vitreous fluxes, but so far it has not been detected in other examples and it coulcl be due to the This is wirere the presence of Ni clefines the group. Co- urrusual use of a pigment in a vjtreous prepârâtion. Ni-Cu is found in 14 samples from the l4th and 15th centuries, whereas Co-Ni appears ir.r 11, dated between the 15th and the 20th century. The basic association Cobalt pigment compos¡tion detected allows us to postulate that the origir.ral ores could have been erythrite or smaltite, both containir-rg arsenic (As), Composition and provenance although this component could have beerr lost dr-rring the process of roasting the ore beforehar-rd at high Previous studies have considered the nature of the temperâtuiie. However, pyrites are also found with cobalt pigment in order to discover its provenance and low proportions of Ni-Co and r.ro As. so suggest the possible origin of the techr.rique, and the resources and channels of its commercial transmission. D Fe-Co-Ni-As combination Using LA-ICP-MS analysis, Gratuze and others found similarity between the composition of the cobalt pigment Arsenic is the characteristic element ir-r a group of 16 used in the glass industry and that used for ceramics, samples all dating from the sixteenth century ouwarcls. and proposed four chronological groups (Pérez Arante- The ore employecl could have been the salne as in group gui et a1.2008). C, but the preparatior.r it.rvolving roâsting at high temp- A research project on cobalt in Valencian ceramics erature which preserves the As. was recently developed using EDXRF spectrometry Also, the use of EDXRF non-destructive analytical ar.ralysis, led by the Gonzâlez Martí, National Museum techniques, has enabled us to work out protocols for the of Ceramics and Sumptuary Arts and the Archaeometry detection of underglaze ancl (Coll Unit of the Materials Science Institute at Valencia Conesa et all..2002; Rolclán et alr.2004). University (Coll et al.2002; Roldán, Coll Conesa and Ferrero 2006 and 2008; Roldan et al.2004); it was Recently the LA-ICP-NIS technique has been triecl out carried out to focus on this issue, as an essential pârt on part of the group previously analysecl in order to of the problem, and also to try olrt non-destructive compare the valiclity of the two methods. The results standardised classification methocls. It involvecl were similar in terms of qualitative rneaslrremellts, obtaining relevant information on the nature of though more precise, since tl.rey refer only to sanples the chemical compositior.r associated with cobalt taken fror.n the glaze. The most notable couclusiot.t between the fourteenth and the nineteenth centuries. is confirmation that Zn, Mn ancl As âre the best An initial study was carried out on 73 fragments to discriminants and that elements such as Fe and Ni detect the major cornponents associated with cobalt have less characterising valr-te. However, despite that (Nln-Manganese, Fe-Iron, Co-Cobalt, Ni-Nickel, fact those elements lvill still be recorded in future Cu-Copper, Zn-Zinc and As-Arsenic), though witl.rout evaluations, since ir.r the author's point of view they do any quântitative approximation; in broad terms it is not alter the overall reading ar-rcl at the same time they considered that this technique allows one to correlate may add information of interest, particulariy in the the data obtained with the proposals made by the light of the constant presence of Ni in samples from authors mentioned above. From this, four groups of the 15th century and its clear absence in earlier times. combinations are derived: In the light of this and according to the results of ottr analyses, the great variability of the samples allows us A Fe-Co-Zn combination to suggest the possibility that the cobalt came from a local ore, such as asbolane (Mn-Co and Co-Cu) from This is found in 16 fragments. It presumably indicates Chóvar (Castellón), the closest cleposit to both Manises a cobalt ore originally associated with Zn. A first rough and Paterna, lying 50 km away; erythrite frorn Guajar approximation indicates that the samples could be in Granada, Mâlaga ar.rd Almería; pyrite with low Ni- dated between the fourteenth and the fifteer-rth century. Co content from Chodes (Zaragoza); skutterudite and chloanthite with As from Gistain (Hr-resca) (Porter

B Mn-Fe-Co-Ni combination 19 97 ) . lH'ow ever, no rnedieval do cuueutary evidence exists to prove this. This is where the presence of Mn define the group. Apart from this, we âre still faced with the problem This has been found in 16 cases, with the variatious of whethe r the technique arrived with the craftsmen Mn-Fe-Co-Ni-Cu in 3 cases, Mn-Fe-Co-Ni in 6, and who brought the more specialised raw materials, such Mn-Fe-Co in 3. The presence of Mn could indicate as cobalt. The 14th century docLlmentâry evidence that an asbolane was used or added in order to reduce from Manises could be of interest, as it is stated in the the diffusion of the cobalt, since the latter acts as ân earliest contrâcts for earthenware that the contracting ântiflux. This association seems to extend from the merchant had to provide the main components of end of the 14th century to the 19th. rhe glaze (tin and lead); nothing is said about the Cobalt blue in medieval ceramic production in the Valencian workshops l5 elements which gave it added value, such as copper and lnângânese pigments, cobalt, or the cinnabar, and iron needed to carry out the secret technique of lustreware.

Valencian Majolica Series decorated with cobalt

The relationship between the majolica series that were manufactured, their dating and the mineral composition associated with the cobalt may perhaps cnable us to ansrver some questions about seriation ¿rnd relevant technical aspects, which I shall now proceed to break down in detail. Figure 5 Lustreware with blue decoration Fragment of early lustre and blue Málaga-style Valencian lustreware. The first type of production that presents cobalt National Museum of Ceramics, clecoration in the Valencian area has historically come ¡o be known as 'early Mâlaga style', based on terms that appear in the documentation as 'opus aureum et products and are the first to appear in archaeological album' (Manises 1.326) or 'operis terre Maleche [...] contexts, which must therefore be contemporaneous cum picturis dauratis prout dicte operi pertinebat' with the documentation cited. (Manises 1332), which were synonymous according Pieces from these series have been found both at toL6pez Elum (1984). A certain confusion is involved Manises, in the workshop at25 Valencia Street (Algarra in defining Valencian majolica as'Mâlaga style' when and Berrocal 1.993), and at other urban sites (personal we know that there are examples of lustreware made comnrunication from J.Pê.rez Camps), and are always in Málaga which do indeed have traditional'MâIaga associated with wares decorated in green and black in style' decorations and Hispano-Muslim subject-matter, the classic style (Pascual and Martí 1986); they are the just as there were in Granada or Almería. In order to oldest examples of majolica documented in this city. standardise the terminology for general purposes an At Paterna (Mesquida 2001b) individual examples are irbbreviated nomenclature using acronyms has recently found on certain urban sites such as no. 93 Molinos l'reen proposed (Coll Conesa 2004a, b;2010). Once Street, where we see bowls with metopes enclosed codified, this enables one to establish comparisons in blue trefoils in profile, and in Conde Montornés with series produced in other places. It has been also Street, which has yielded designs with heart-shaped proposed to standardise other types of Valencian leaves and spirals, in lustre only. In Valencia it has been nledieval majolica production. Of these, listed here found in the rectangular pit in La Almoina, in the Vall xre those that present decorations in cobalt, along Vell in contexts earlier than 1348 (UE 5111), in the with their stylistic, chronological and archaeometric levels covering the Bab al Hanax cemetery, in Palma of cl.raracteristics, according to current knowledge. Majorca in pitT at Santa Catalina de Sena (1311-1343), The reader will find below the acronyms, meaning, and in Torre Bofilla (Bétera) (1.310-1348158) (López rrnd association to a detected blue cobalt pigment EIum 1994). A group of Spanish bacini - in our case composition together with accompanying chrono- towers decorated with bowls - such as San Francisco in l

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Figure ó Figure 7 Dish of developed Málaga-style Valencian lustreware. Bowl with Pula type decoration, from Manises' Nation¿l Museu'n of Cer¿mics N¿Lional Museum olCeramics from that series in the complexity of the borders, by Tommaso in Pigna (1340-1350), to cite a ferv cases incorporatingzigzaglines or plant-scrolls or bands of (Berti, 2002). Pir.re cones r,vith golden tassels are four-rd heart-shaped palmettes, as well as striped palmettes in Sar-rt'Ambrogio in Yatazze, where they apparently with internal virgulae, dotted panels, human or date from before 1350. Subsequently nlrmeroLrs locatiot.ts animal 6gures, and by the fact that the star-shapecl are recorded, such as Santa Maria Maggiore itl Rome compartmentalisation occasionalìy extends over the (1370-1380), the convent of Sant'Anr-ra in Pisa (c. 1375) whole piece, in examples from pottery 1 in Huertas and Sant'Antonio Abate at the Steri Palace in Palermo Street in Paterna (Mesquida,2001b: nos. 30 and 31). (i350-1382). In Paterna such pieces have been four-rd It is worth recalling that the pieces from this source in contexts at pottery L and 4 in Fluertas Street, in the include some in the Pula style, which are clearly similar Castle moat and in the Clot ac the excavation in tl.re Plaza to those in the original group, and others which do not del Pueblo, correspondir.rg to what has been called the display such clear parallels. Torre Bo6lla, abandoned in 6rst period of production there (Mesquida, 2001b, 2002). 1348, features LVIvIDA and LVMDE pieces, but these In Valencia they have appeared in Unión Street, at a site are not similar to the group discovered at Pula. datable to between 1'363 and 1395, and moreover we The composition of the cobalt pigment shows the kr.row of several wrecks in Spanish wâters' at Ibiza combination Fe-Co-Zn, except in one case where we and Arenys, containing collections charactelistic of the also 6nd Cu, an element of no great significance, since second half of the 14th century (Coll Conesa 2010,76) - it is the main constituent of the lustre-red colouring. As in the previous groups' the Fe-Co-Zn combination continues to predominate, but Cu is more widespread Valencian Lustrewate front the Pula group (LVDP) and in one case Mn appears. (Coll Conesa 2010,75; Figure 7) Classic Yalencian lustrewarc with blue (LVDAC) This series was originally defined by the collection of Valencian and Malaga lustreware found in the Fifteenth-century lustreware includes at least three church at Pula (Sardinia), together with the odd piece major styles, and the corresponding series alternate decorated in green and black. Studies by Van de Put, over time (Coll Conesa, 20046; 2010, 83-92). Gonzâlez Martí (1'944), Olivar Daydí (1'952) and Blake The first displays decorative elements of Islamic (1986), among others identified its specific character by or Persian origin (LVDACM fMuhammadan (after establishing that it originally came from Valencia, and Frothingham 1951) classic Valencian gold ancl blue especially from Paterna. lustrewâre, ]), with motifs such as alafias, solid arab- The Italian bacini illustrate the early presence of esques, borders of fish, spirals and parallel lines, the pieces with simple radial decorations which can be hom (tree of life) and pine cones, spurs' lattice circles, assimilated into the Pula group in Santa Maria Novella sebqa tracery, etc. (Figure 8). in Pisa (1330-1332) and in the Ospedale vecchio di The second includes Gothic motifs (LVDACG), with parsley, S. Giovanni in Rome (1338-1348), which are already the following series: Ave Maria, IHS, bryony, combined with pieces exhibiting pseudoepigraphic dotted flowers, crown' ferns, chestuut, flowers and bow, cartouches and cross-shaped composition in Sant' half orange,feshy arabesqlres, thistles' and ivy leaf Ambrogio Nuovo inYarazze (1338-1350) and in San (Figure 9). T-- Cobalt blue in medieval ceramic production in the Valencian workshops t7

Figure I Figure 9 Flower-pot, so-called olfabeguer, decorated in Muhammadan Dish with briony decoration, from Manises. scyle, from Manises. lYuseu de Ceràmica de , ÌYuseu de Ceràmica de Barcelona

Levels III-IV at 23 Castillo Street in Paterna offer t¡s lustreware with spirals and parallel lines, Per-sian r'()settes with blue lobes, borders of fish, bands with ,r lafias and large zoomorphic motifs outlined in ¡1

.f rrume and the Infanta Isabel of Aragon (married in 1407), with decorative motifs of vegetal tendrils and snrall-leaved trefoils, spirals and parallel lines, pieces f'r'om the Pula group, plates with Ave Maria epigraphic rìrotifs, dotted flowers, parsley leaves and crowns: sclies which were to extend over a considerable period .f time in the fifteenth century. In the first half of this Figure l0 (crìtury, in addition to the styles of Islamic origin, the Dish with plateresque decoration, silversmith style ¡rrcdomi-nant mode was the Gothic (LVDCG), National lYuseum of Ceramics, acc n, CEI/13030 incorporating naturalistic motifs from this tradition vcry closeiy related to series with decorative elements ,rI a vegetal character (bryony, ilex, dotted flowers, Fe-Co-Ni in pottery from ¡he Muhammadàlr group

t'tc. ) and with large ivy leaves, and also with Cu in the ala6a The categories of chemical composition which arise and Muhammadan series. in series from the end of the fourteenth century until In the second half of the century decorative styles the mid-fifteenth century are: show a continuity with those of Islamic and Gothic Fe-Co-Zn in pieces decorated with spiral and origin. Naturalistic motifs become more abundant, ¡rrrrallel motifs and triple blue rosettes. with the appearance of so-called ataurique , Fe-Co-Zn-Mn in pottery with motifs of tiny leaves. developed ivy leaves, thistle leaves, and also, in the last Fe-Co-Zn with Ni in crown pieces, some of which quarter of the cen_tury the silversmith style (LVDCO) ,rlso include Cu. which characterises this phase in pieces which seek to t8 ]aume Coll Conesa T I emulâte metâlwork, r,r'ith tiny motifs (a diaper pâttern inspired by blr-re and gold Málaga lustreware' r,vith I of dots and stalks, Frothingham Lg5l), thistle flou'ers stems topped by Muhammadan pitte-cor.res. and florets, laceu'ork, seeds, medium-sized ivy le ave s The Geometric group (LVASG), consisting of less and four-lol¡ed palmettes, etc. (Figr-rre 10). carefully executed pieces it.r inteuse blue with a tir-r-glaze As regards cobalt we find the follorving glor-rpings: of very variable quality, some exat-ttples evell being r-rr-r- Fe-Co-Ni-Cu-À4n, in pieces r'vith atauriqtte glazed on the reverse, dotlinatecl b)' s¡t-t*t.-,.t.totif, highly arabesques. geometrised radial de coratious, sltch as bowls rvith Fe-Co-Ni-Mn-As, associated with pieces clear:ly palmettes or rvith spiral-shapecl designs of reticulated belor-rging to the sixteenth centltrl', according to the palmettes, ar-rd rvitl-r circles or sqtlare s irt the b:rckground. conclusior.rs of Zvccltiatti, r'vho detects As fror.r.r 1517 It is derived frorn the previotts series ar.rd appxrentl)¡ onwards (Zucchiatti et al, 2006). began to be produced from tl.re thilcl quar:ter of the 14th ce ntur)', doub¡less contir-ìuing r'vell itito the 15rh. Other' Blue majolica pieces display conceutric fillets usually enclosing a small cer.rtral medallion u,itl.r a st1'lised face (Figur:e 13) Mediei,al Valer.rcian ir-r Manises and Paterna, or palmettes, more carelessly rnade and belongir.rg to âmong others, produced ar.r huge quantity of majolica the last phase of productiot.t, rvhich lies r-nainly r'vithir.r decorated in blue on white clulir.rg the 14th and 15tl.r the 15th cer'ìtury. Frnally some pieces with n:rturalistic centnries, a i'ery rvidel)' drstributed utilitariar-r product' motlfs occasionally presellt human or attit-nal figules, Some years ago it lvas proposed that tl.re seriation of clumsily drar,vn and tending ro be geometrised, r'r'ith blue or-r white Valenciar-r majolica be clivided into four small fìller eleuents such as polygons of lir.res ancl grolrps (Coll Conesa 1995 ; 2004a; 2010,76J9): spirals. In these the clesigr-r occupies the rvl.role sulfilce' fìllir-rg the spaces r'vitl.r abundant Llicroelemeuts, though Simple \ldlencictn bbre majolica (L\|AS ) (Figure 11) r,vithout going so fal as to present clecoratiot'l as clense as thât ir.r tl.re follorving group. This series shorvs clecorations based prir.rcipally on In this grolrp we find the follou'ing cotr-rpositions a radial scheme, although designs u,ith a spiral or associ,lted rvith the bltre pigrrre rrt: concentric rl-r1'tl-rm ale also comInoll, the latter beir-rg Fe-Co-Ni-Cu, for rnajolica decorated u'ith small cor-rfinecl to fillets for:r-r-rrng hoops or rings, occasionally as1'mmetrical vege ral elements (LVAS) or radial rounded off u,ith some sort of circular medallion. palrnettes (LVASG). The brushstrokes are careful and assured, fairl1'flr-ter-rt Fe-Co-Ni-Mn, in pieces rvith radial pahnettes ancl not excessively el¿rbor¿rte. Thei' ale tin-glazecl on (LVASG). botl-r the obverse and the re\¡erse. Within this gr:oup Fe-Co-Cu, for LVASG pieces u,ith the large r':rclial r'r,e find pieces ir.r the 'i\4álaga style' (LVASM) (Figure palme ttes. 12), so called by virtue of their very close sirnilarity to Tlre abser-rce c¡f Zn from most of the group artalysecl Nasrid models, in that thel' exhibit radral or ceutral ir-rdic¿rtes that these prodncts can l¡e clated ¡o r1.re 15th cornpositions, \X/e can fincl Islamic motifs directlv ce lltur)'.

Figure I I Small cup of LVAS blue on white group. National Yluseum ofCeram cs, acc n CE 104747 Figure l2 LVASM early group. Ayuntamiento de Valencia Col ection in the National lYuseum of Ceramics T- Cobalt blue in medieval ceramic production in the Valencian workshops t9

Complex Valencian bLue majoLica (LYAC) Ming , such as the 'borders of fish', which recall borders on those kinds ofporcelain. The blue 'fhis '!üithin type exhibits bands or medallions of considerable is dense and applied with assured strokes. tlecorative density and of a highly geometrical nature. this group, the decoration in the geometric series It is very difficult to make out the initial source of predominantly consists of open forms on the inside inspiration, generally from Málaga-style motifs, and closed forms on the outside, fully occupying the rrclapted in the Nasrid melting-pot from so-called available space. The bowls and plates exhibit one or Sultanabad or Ilkhanid pottery. An underlying Far more horizontal bands arranged in a concentric pattern llastern influence can be perceived in them, given that and generally enclosing a central medallion (Figure 14). some bowls in the LVAC series seem to have been In the closed forms the same elements can be seen in inspired by products of the Hongwu era (1368-1399), horizontal bands and fillets on the outside (Figures 15 ir.r that they exhibit decorative elements common in and 16). Despite their geometric appearance, one can see that they were inspired by naturalistic, vegetal or epigraphic motifs (alafias, palmettes, etc.) A variant of the geometric series makes sporadic use of naturalistic elements, such as deer, birds or human figures, with frames formed from pavilions of parallel lines and spirals. They seem to have begun in the third quarter of the fourteenth century, although they con- tinued to be produced after this. Apart from a fragment of a decorated, unfired bowl, we do not have any chemical data on the elements associated with the cobalt in this group.

Figure l3 LVASG bowl with radial decoration. Yluseo de Cerámica de Paterna

Figure l4 Figure l5 LVAC cup with band decoration. LVAC decoration on a.jug or pitcher. l'.lational Museum of Ceramics NaLion¿l lYuseum of Ceramics 20 Jaume Coll Conesa

Scbematic Valencian blue (LYAE)

The identifying feature of this group is that it offers a very simple, fluent type of decoration, generally executed with rapid, careless strokes, in which the elements stand out by virtue of the large empty spaces in the composition and are clumsiìv drawn, with filler motifs repeated fairly rhythmically. These were doubtless the most inexpensive products âmong the varieties of majolica decorated in blue cobalt. The glazes tend to have a low tin content and hardly ever cover the reverse. Some authors ârgue that the schematic series must be contemporâneous with the green and mânganese maiolica from the end of the thirteenth century or the beginning of the fourteenth, because of the coincidence between their borders of strokes and elements such as the 'Hand of Fatima', castles, the keys of paradise, or heraldic elements, including an abundance of Barcelona coâts of arms. However, although they have similar influences, one can see that these ceramics are chronologically the from the mid-fourteenth most long-lasting, ranging 'llithin century to the end of the fifteenth. this group, the naturalistic, epigraphic and figurative series is characterised by the presence of a central element which is not excessively geometrical, though simply drawn. Typical of the epigraphic series are bowls with inscriptions, anthroponyms and sometimes verses from the Qur'an, or religious phrases or polite expressions such as 'May it please you'. Other pieces exhibit non- Figure ló centred elements, such as human figures flanked by LVAC decoration on a jug or pitcher palms or phytomorphs, forming a composition that is National l'4useum ol Ceramics, symmetrical on a horizontal axis, or a central element and a schematic border with the motifs cited above, or even ânthropomorphic or phytomorphic elements enclosed in a border consisting of a double ring with groups of radial strokes extending from it (Figure 17). Sometimes they present a simple central element: small shields reduced to lines or simple motifs such as crosses, X-shaped figures with dots, or superimposed double angles forming a central rhombus, etc. Other pieces display a central element and a band with a schematic border, featuring stylised vegetal elements, sometimes enclosed in stars of double squares, borders of concentric fillets with strokes extending from them in groups of two to five lines, or alternatively borders of little bows (Figure 18) or scrolls of leaves (Figure 19). Finally, we can see decorations concentrated in the border with alternating motifs, a characteristic example being the pseudo-epigraphic motif of the alafia, which seems ât present to be typical of Catalan rather than Valencian workshops. The pieces analysed exhibit Fe-Co-Ni-Cu, Fe- Co-Ni-Mn and Fe-Co combinations, which seems to Figure l7 indicate in particular a late dating in the second half LVAE schematic decoration on a dish. of the fifteenth century, if we compare this result with National Museum of Ceramics. those obtained in the case of lustreware. The presence of combinations thât are not shared with other groups might suggest the possibility that a more inexpensive r Cobalt blue in medieval ceramic production in the Valencian workshops 2l

fl

Figure l8 Figure 20 LVAE band of blue bows decoration on a bowl. LVAG tile with human f igures traced in solid silhouette. Nation¿l lYuseum of Ceramics. National Museum of Ceramics, acc.n, CEl107)93

rD

Figure 2l Figure l9 LVAG cup with zoomorphic figure traced in solid silhouette, Na LVAE bowl with blue-line decoration. tional lYuseum of Ceramics, acc n. CEI/00740, National lYuseum of Ceramics,

rype of cobalt, perhaps of local origin, was used in to cater to the tastes of a more refined clientele with this case, alongside the more formal source of pigment greater purchasing power than the scherlatic pieces. found in lustreware. In them we see birds, wild boars or human figures traced in solid silhouette (Figures 20 and21), although

G o t h i c - n atur a Li s ti c V a L e n ci an b lu e m a j o li c a ( L\/ AG ) line drawings are also found occasionally (Figure 22). In the borders and backgrounds cân be seen leaves or This group displays the typical Gothic-naturalistic fruits in â clear Gothic style, ân exact transposition clecorations characteristic of the fifteenth century, of the naturalistic motifs used on lustreware. They on works that are generally carefully thrown and apparently began to be produced from the beginning clecorated, with delicate, vigorously drawn designs. of the 1Sth century and continued until the beginning Far from being mass-produced, they seem perhaps of the 16th century. Jaume Coll Conesa

century is notable for the clear presence of As, which we have not found in series fron the 15th centurl-, in contrâst to what was previottsly suggested by Gratr-rze and Corvisiero. In this general approach we have also seen how ernployir-rg a non-destructive techr.rique like EDXRF, which is easy to use and reliable, wher-r checked against othel methocls such as PIXE ancl LA-ICP- lvlS, can assist ns in rhe task of classifying rnedieval Valencian ceramics. \)ile have yet to cletermine wl-rether the cliffelent compositions we have detected reflect particular factors rvhich may allow us to clistinguish the provenance of the resources used in the pigmer-rt or advances ir-r the 1-ristorical techniques of processing the ore, but it convir.rcir.rgly indicates an interesting ror.lte Figure 22 lvhich we must continue to explore. LVAG cup with human figure traced in line drawings. Keywords cobalt in tinglaze and earthenware

A single piece from this group, which exhibits a dull I ustreware blue colouring and a style of manufacture suggesting Manises and Paterna that it rvas produced as late as the 16th century, medieval Spain contains the combination Fe-Co-Ni-Mn-As.

Conclusions References

Over the course of the foregoing commeutary ir Algarra Pardo, V.M.; Berrocal Ruiz, P. 1.993: 'El taller is possible to highlight some âspects. The earliest de cerámicas bajomedievales de la C/. Valèr-rcia, no lustreware displays combinations of elements in the 25, de Manises: espacios y producciór.r',irt Actas del cobalt pigment that are close to oriental lustreware lY Congreso de Arqueología Medieual EspanoLa, production, with the notable presence of Zn. This Vol. III, ( 1993), Asociación Española de coincides with the findings of previous studies of Arqueología Meclieval, Diputación Provir.rcial de vitreous materials and glazes, in that it provides Alicante, Alicante, 1993 : 869-877. evidence of a reìationship with the second group Berti, G. 2002:'Le role des bacini clans l'étude des identified by Gratuze, but in addition it clarifies certait.t céramiques à lustre métailique', in Le calife, chronological questions. This situation is maintained le prince et Le potier. Les à reflets until the beginning of the fifteenth century, with the métalliques, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon, 2002: introduction of series such as those decorated with 220-227. spirals and parallel lines or trefoils and clouble rosettes, Blake, H. 1986 'The ceramic hoard from Pula (prov. motifs represented in paintings such as mâster Jaume Cagliari) and the Pula type of Spanish lustreware'. Ferrer's painting The Last Supper from Solsona, dated Actas del Segundo Coloquio Int. de Ceritmica in the second quârter of the 15th century, and of which Medieual en el Mediterráneo OccidentaL, reliably dated examples are found in archaeological Ministerio de Cultura. , L986:365-407. sites such as Balaguer castle, destroyed in 1413. The Caroscio, M. 2008. 'La transizione fra medioevo e Pula group exhibits two main compositiotls associated rinascimento e l'impiego del blu nelle smaltate with cobalt (Zn and Mn), and of these the one basso medievali italiane. Materie prime e luoghi containing Mn seems to be the later. The preseuce of di approvigionamento: fonti scritte e analisi Zn continues until Ni âppears in series that can be archeometriche a confronto', in Atti XLX Conuegno datecl to the second decade of the 15th century onwards InternazionaLe della Ceramica (Albisola, 2007), (i.e decorations with crown pattern), also represented Centro Ligure per la Storia della Ceramica, Albisola, '!le in the Solsona Last Supper. also find a correlation 2008:1.69-180. here with the groups identified by Gratuze, but, as Coll Conesa, I . t995: El azul en lø Loza de la VaLencia Corvisiero has pointed out, the group containing Ni medieuaL. Catálogo, Sala de Exposiciones de la should be brought forward to the beginning of the Fundación Bancaja, Madrid, Fundación Bancaja, fifteenth century (Corvisiero et a|.2002). In pieces 1199s), [8 pp.]. produced in the middle of the century Cu is also found, Coll Conesa, J. 2002:'Transferencias téct.ricas en but it disappears in later examples, in which we observe la producción cerámica entre Al-Andalus y los developed ivy leaf motifs ancl pieces in the silversmith .reinos cristianos: el caso de Sharq AI-Andalus', in style with musical notes and thistle flowers. The 16th Ceramicas islámicas y cristianas a finales de Ia Edad Cobalt blue irr medieval ceramic production in the Valencian worl

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Résumé Zusammenfassung

La première mention documentaire d'utilisation du Die erste dokumentierte Erwähnung des Gehrauchs cobalt dans le royaume médiéval de Valence remonte à von Kobalt im mittelalterlichen Königreich Valencia 1333, Avant cela, aucune preuve n'existe de l'utilisation reicht bis 1333 zurück. Davor gibt es keine Beweise de pigment dezafÍre ou de cobalt. Le cobalt a commençé für den Gebrauch von Zaffer- oder Kobaltpigment. par ëue utilisé pour la production de poterie mordorée, Das erste Kobalt wurde bei der Herstellung von preuve de l'amélioration de la fab¡ication de céramiques Lüsterware benutzt und beweist die Verbesserungen décorées de glaçure stannique pendant la première moitié bei der Herstellung von Töpferwaren mit Zinnglasur- du 14e siècle. Länalyse par fluorescence X suggère une Steinzeugverzierungen in der ersten Hälfte des 14. Jh. variation du spectre du pigment bleu détecté au fil des ans. Röntgenfluo r eszenzanalys e I ässt auf Veränder ungen Associé à l'étude de la forme, du tracé et de l'évolution im festgestellten Spektrum des blauen Pigments im des décorations, cela nous permet de proposer une date Laufe der Jahre schließen. Zusammen mit der Form, très précise pour certains groupes décoratifs produits à dem Zeichenstil und der Entwicklung der Verzierungen Manises et à Paterna, ce qui est I'objectif principal de betrachtet, erlaubt diese Tatsache es, für einige der cet article. in Manises und Paterna entstandenen dekorativen Gruppen eine sehr enge Datierung vorzuschlagen, Mots-clés was das Hauptanliegen dieses Artikels ist. cobalt dans l'émail stannifère et dans les faiènces Espagne médiévale Manises et Paterna reflet métallique