lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND CHANGE IN LATIN AMERICA

On the Brink of Survival: The Movement in the Morales Era by Nicole Fabricant | Towson University | [email protected] and Kathryn Hicks | University of Memphis | [email protected]

As part of a general leftward political the “redistributive agenda of Morales” lies Globally, critics of the plan point out a turn in Latin America in the twenty-first upon extractive industries, which wreak number of potential weaknesses. The century, elected social democratic havoc upon the natural environmental main issue for many is the vague and president Evo Morales in 2005. A former and have social, economic, and labor voluntary nature of the agreement. While leader of the coca grower’s union, consequences for majority indigenous and the text acknowledges differentiated Morales was seen by many early on rural communities. We examine some of the responsibility and capability, sustainable in his presidency as advancing a social conflicts between members of the Morales development, and climate justice, all movement agenda. He sought to advance administration and members of the climate concepts pushed by countries in the the interests of the majority indigenous justice movement in Bolivia based on the global South, their implementation is left peoples and trade unionists, for example, competing demands of mitigation of and open to interpretation (Robins 2016). by opening up space for their participation adaptation to , and efforts The text makes no real mention of which in government. The Bolivian Platform to push for a more ecologically sustainable countries and industries are responsible for against Climate Change, which formed development model to improve the welfare GHG emissions and contains no legally in the early years of his presidency, is a of marginalized communities. This is an binding targets and timelines (Morgan civil society coalition designed to address important question for environmental 2016). Further, many acknowledge that the unjust effects of global warming. The activists throughout the global South as the the agreement and Intended Nationally Platform worked in creative tension with world works toward finalizing a climate Determined Contributions (INDC) thus far the Morales administration to demand change agreement with no binding targets. submitted are insufficient for achieving the better environmental protection within stated aims (Clémençon 2016). Hope seems Bolivia and to put pressure on the major to rest on the willingness of nations to carbon emitters of the global North to Global Context of Climate Change develop more ambitious targets over time, take responsibility for their actions. This and on appeals to technological solutions collaboration has led to strong and visible Since the end of the in that remain largely unspecified (Morgan Bolivian leadership on the global stage, 2012, the international community has 2016). pushing climate change negotiators to been working slowly and painfully toward acknowledge the rights of Mother Earth, a new deal to avert the worst effects of Representatives of Bolivia, a signatory to and the climate debt owed by more human-induced climate change. These the , have been aggressive powerful to less powerful nations. Recently, negotiations culminated in the Paris in pushing nations in North America and however, there has been a major break Agreement in the spring of 2016, which Europe to recognize their responsibility in this relationship due to concerns on will take force only after it is ratified by at for climate change and their “climate the part of environmental activists that least 55 nations, collectively responsible debt” to the global South. In advance of the Morales administration is violating for at least 55 percent of greenhouse the negotiations in Paris, Evo Morales its own alternative vision of sustainable gas emissions (GHG). As of September convened a second World Peoples development. 2016, both the and China Conference on Climate Change and the have committed to the agreement. Social Defense of Life to discuss approaches to In this article, we explore Bolivia’s role movement actors and environmentalists climate change that recognize indigenous in global climate change negotiations. have been mixed on the value of the rights and knowledge and the rights Morales, alongside Platform for Climate agreement, with some relieved that the of Mother Earth, and address climate Change actors, played a critical role need for action is finally being formally justice. The Morales administration in focusing global conversation on the acknowledged. The agreement calls for has consistently maintained an overtly structural and systemic problems of limiting the rise in global temperature to anticapitalist position. When Morales was hypercapitalism in industrialized nation no more than 2 degrees Celsius above elected in 2005, he had a two-pronged states and holding them accountable pre-industrial levels and expresses the national strategy to undo the long history for CO emissions. Closer to home, the 2 desirability of aiming for 1.5 degrees. It of neoliberal reforms by nationalizing Morales administration has struggled to calls on all nations to develop and regularly key industries like oil and gas, and to maintain an anticapitalist stance in its submit plans on how they will contribute incorporate native peoples into the economic and social practices. Much of to these efforts. new state through the rewriting of the

30 constitution. His administration has taken CAFOD (a British development agency), of the Morales administration and its advantage of key natural resources (oil, along with rural Bolivian social movements economic policy. Vilela argues that “it gas, soy, minerals), in what Linda Farthing like CONAMAQ (National Council of became ever more obvious post-TIPNIS2 and Benjamin Kohl (2014) have called Ayllus and Markas of the Qullasuyu), that Evo Morales’ party Movimiento al a form of “progressive extractivism,” in the Bartolina Sisa Movement (rural Socialismo (Movement toward Socialism) order to redistribute some portion of the peasant women’s movement), CIDOB (MAS) was going to put everything up revenue to disadvantaged populations (Confederation of Indigenous Peoples for sale. . . . Everything we had worked and create a social welfare system. While of Bolivia), CSUTCB (Unified Syndical so hard for would be undermined by Bolivia contributes minimally to GHG Confederation of Rural Workers), and the overarching economic agenda of the emissions compared to hyperindustrialized CPESC (Regional Federation of Indigenous administration.” In 2013, the government nation-states largely dependent upon Peoples of Santa Cruz)—were critical unveiled its new national development nonrenewable fossil fuels, its economic actors at the climate summit and helped plan called La Agenda Patriótica 2025 policy heavily depends upon natural draft the People’s Accord. They also helped (the Patriotic Agenda for 2025). In it, the resource extraction, which has social and organize the first Tribunal Internacional de government describes how it hopes to environmental consequences. Justicia Climática (International Tribunal make Bolivia a “sovereign and dignified” on Climate Justice) in Cochabamba in country. Mining and hydrocarbons will 2009, and have worked on issues of continue to figure largely in the picture, Bolivia’s Climate Change Priorities adaptation to climate change within but Bolivia will also develop new, Bolivia. La Plataforma proposed seven important sources of income. First, it When climate negotiations in Copenhagen critical development goals leading up will become a major exporter of energy, failed to produce a binding agreement that to the United Nations Conference on drawing on its hydroelectric potential as could protect nations like Bolivia from Sustainable Development, known as well as its capacities. radical environmental changes,1 Morales Rio+20. The official discussion at Rio+20 Conversations have already begun about led a stinging denunciation of the entire focused on building a green economy building a mega-dam similar to those in process. He declared, “We come from the to achieve sustainable development. Chile. Second, it will become a producer culture of life, whereas the Western model From this perspective, the solution to and exporter of food products, converting represents the culture of death. At these the current ecological crisis is in large its artisanal farming processes into summits, we have to define whether we are part tied to “green economics,” or the mechanized, irrigated, and technologically on the side of life or on the side of death” idea that economic policies should build advanced systems. This is part of a larger (Aguirre and Cooper 2010, 1). It was in environmental costs into the price of push toward food sovereignty aimed, response to the failure in Copenhagen to products and services. This outlook is on one hand, at ensuring food security reach this binding international agreement also evident in the Paris Agreement. among Bolivians, but on the other hand, that Morales convened the first World La Platforma took a critical stance on at massively industrializing food, forest People’s Conference on Climate Change the green economy, once again using products, and biodiversity resources. He and the Rights of Mother Earth in April indigenous worldviews and the People’s explains that it was in the aftermath of 2010, in which 30,000 activists, including Accord to challenge market-based the TIPNIS controversy and the unveiling labor organizers and NGO representatives, approaches: “Putting a price on nature is of this development plan that some came together in Tiquipaya, Cochabamba, not a solution and will only benefit big members of La Plataforma split from to propose an alternative legal framework capital” (Global Alliance 2012). Morales and from the international NGOs; drawing on indigenous knowledge and some members formed international values. After Rio+20, according to Martin Vilela coalitions with Climate Justice Action, (former director of Aguas Sostentable a network of international (mainly The Platform for Climate Change, or and member of La Platforma) and European) grassroots movements fighting La Plataforma—a loose organization other active members of La Plataforma, for global climate justice. The intent comprised of international NGOs such climate justice activists have become was to link grassroots efforts in order as Oxfam International, Christian Aid (a increasingly uncomfortable with the to have a more powerful international British relief and development agency), contradictions between the rhetoric presence. Other large NGOs like Oxfam

31 lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

International remained aligned with the Growing Tensions between Morales scale genetically modified soy production is MAS government. Morales’s economic and La Plataforma wreaking havoc environmentally, on soils, policy does not necessarily contradict waterways, and even food sovereignty. the Paris Agreement, as the agreement Critics (some from within La Plataforma) recognizes that developing countries have pointed out that these development Alongside soy expansion lie governmental will take longer to limit their growth plans have dangerous implications for the plans for more oil and gas exploration, in carbon emissions in order to achieve environment and are inconsistent with which will include more deforestation, development goals. Bolivia’s INDC begins this anticapitalist rhetoric. For example, opening up remote rural areas, making with the argument that the commitment in 2014, Morales declared that by 2025, it easier to slash and burn, and polluting of developing countries to their targets the country should increase hectares water basins and drinking water. As will depend on aggressive action from of production from the current level anthropologist Bret Gustafson (Fabricant more powerful nations, and that in the of 3.5 million hectares to 10 million. and Gustafson 2016) documents, rural shorter term, economic development To accomplish this, the government communities in the Chaco region bear will take priority (Estado Plurinacional has recently agreed to allow people to the burden of gas extraction: rivers and de Bolivia 2015). It also credits climate deforest up to 20 hectares without any streams are now tapped by industry to change to the global capitalist system permission from the Forest Ministry, as provide water for drilling as toxic waste and a drive toward unlimited growth, long as they use the land to produce food. increases. There is even talk of possible and proposes an alternative model. It This represents a radical departure from fracking, which will continue to exacerbate argues, “the capitalist system seeks profit previous regulations and promises a rapid environmental inequities for rural and without limits, strengthens the divorce deforestation of fragile Amazonian lands. indigenous communities. The possibility between human beings and nature; This past summer (2016) when talking of reconstructing the climate justice establishing a logic of domination of to lowland social movement activists movement is challenging in a place like men against nature and among human like former Landless Peasant (MST-B, Bolivia today. beings” (Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia El Movimiento Sin Tierra) leaders, they 2015). Thus, “Bolivia presents its intended explained this development plan as one contribution consistent with its vision of the great fracasos (failures) of this An Uncertain Future for Bolivia of holistic development of the Rights of government. Silvestre Saisairi (former Mother Earth and Integral Development leader of MST-Santa Cruz) describes Where does this leave us in terms of to Live Well. . . . Bolivia understands it as an ecological disaster waiting to thinking about radical social movements Living Well as the civilizational and happen. Some think that the combination in Bolivia, particularly a climate change or cultural horizon alternative to capitalism, of deforestation and the expansion of climate justice movement? Martin Vilela, linked to a holistic and comprehensive monocultures are key drivers of the former member of La Plataforma, argues vision that prioritizes the scope of holistic this year. Even the big agro- that “we must rearticulate a movement that development in harmony with nature industries are suffering because animals has the capacity to understand complex and as a structural solution to the global (particularly cattle) are dying from lack systemic relations, the structural causes of ” (Estado Plurinacional de of water in the lowlands. Saisairi, along the climatic crisis and the limitations of the Bolivia 2015). It puts forward a Climate with others, argue that much of the governing structure of the UN. This would Justice Index to determine each nation’s “food sovereignty” plans (expansion of be a movement capable of confronting the share of emissions budgets, recognizing small-scale agriculture for peasant family powerful states and businesses [ historic responsibility for GHG emissions, consumption) of the government have been industries], but a movement that could and colonial and neocolonial exploitation. undermined by proposals to continue to put into effect an alternative practice of It proposes that non-Annex 1 countries deforest large parts of the Amazon and solidarity and complementarity” (Skype (those least responsible for historic carbon expand monocultures like soy. Places like interview by Nicole Fabricant, March emissions) retain 89 percent of future Santa Cruz (the agro-industrial capital of 2016). He argues for the importance carbon emissions, and Annex 1 countries Bolivia) are referred to as the epicenter of building a more 11 percent. of export-oriented soy production independent from the nation-state and (Fabricant and Gustafson 2016). Large- capable of confronting the internal

32 inconsistencies of the MAS development large-scale resource extraction to finance Clémençon, Raymond strategy. Finally, he supports a strategy that social welfare, all the while hoping that 2016 “The Two Sides of the Paris Climate brings together distinct political ideologies the largest carbon emitters will act in time Agreement: Dismal Failure or Historic in order to create a broad-based climate to prevent imminent ecological disaster. Breakthrough?” Journal of Environment and justice movement centered on alternatives As Vilela articulates, a strong climate Development 25 (1): 3–24. to capitalism. This anticapitalistic stance justice movement coming out of a place seems key, particularly in a place like like Bolivia—but expanding toward other Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia Bolivia. How and in what ways can nations in the global South—proves critical 2015 “Contribución Prevista Determinada alternative agricultural and energy projects for holding highly industrialized nation- Nacionalmente del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia.” http://www4.unfccc.int/Submissions survive and thrive? What might cooperative states in the North accountable for CO2 or collective laboring relations look like in emissions and demanding critical resources /INDC/Submission%20Pages/submissions. aspx. (Accessed September 6, 2016). rural highland and lowland regions? for adaptation and mitigation programs. Fabricant, Nicole, and Bret Gustafson Vilela’s vision comes out of his positionality as a former NGO worker and urban Notes 2016 “Revolutionary Extraction? Mapping the Political Economy of Gas, Soy, and Mineral mestizo in La Paz; yet articulating this 1 Bolivia, along with other nations in the Production in Evo Morales’s Bolivia.” NACLA anticapitalistic vision and implementing it global South, has contributed negligibly to Report on the Americas 48 (3): 271–279. in rural regions of Santa Cruz, La Paz, or emissions but is beginning Cochabamba seems a bit more challenging. to experience their effects, particularly Farthing, Linda C., and Benjamin H. Kohl in indigenous communities. Impacts of Many rural peasants are focused on daily 2014 Evo’s Bolivia: Continuity and Change. survival. As a former MST organizer from climate change will be complex, given the country’s ecological diversity. The country is Austin: University of Texas Press. Santa Cruz told us this past August, “Antes experiencing radical retreat of in the de usos y costumbres uno es comerciante highlands and major in the lowlands. Global Alliance buscando como vivir/sobrevivir” (before 2 2012 “Bolivian Climate Change Platform usos y costumbres [indigenous uses and In 2010 Morales announced his proposal to build a major highway from the tropics Proposes Alternatives to Green Economy.” customs] one is a merchant searching for through the Amazon to the Brazilian border, Global Alliance for the Rights of Nature, a way to live/survive” (interview, August right through the Isiboro Secure Indigenous May 11, 2012. http://therightsofnature.org 2016). This seems to be the big question Territory and National Park. Many in the /conferences/bolivian-climate-change-platform- today in some of the poorest nation-states lowlands feared that the road, funded by proposes-alternatives-to-green-economy/. Brazilian development dollars, would create in the Western Hemisphere: short-term Morgan, Jamie and daily survival versus reigniting a more significant ecological destruction and native displacements. It is important to note that not radical climate justice movement that 2016 “Paris COP 21: Power That Speaks the all indigenous communities in the lowlands Truth?” Globalizations 13 (6): 945–951. DOI: incorporates local and daily struggles and were opposed to the highway; however, many 10.1080/14747731.2016.1163863. articulates a coherent and practical vision objected to the fact that Morales failed to for more sustainable futures. While Bolivia carry out prior consultation with them as Robins, Anthony might have represented a kind of hope for required by the new constitution. 2016 “How to Understand the Results of the global South in terms of proposing a the Climate Change Summit: Conference of radical alternative to the fossil fuel industry, References Parties 21 (COP 21) Paris 2015.” Journal of they too remain tied into the tentacles of Public Health Policy 37: 129–132. the global resource regimes; today many Aguirre, Jessica Camille, and Elizabeth rural communities and indigenous peoples Sonia Cooper are teetering on the brink of survival. 2010 “Evo Morales, Climate Change and the The Bolivian context illustrates the Paradoxes of a Social Movement Presidency.” impossible set of choices for nations in the Latin American Perspectives 37 (4): 238–244. global South between a noninstrumental relationship with nature and protection of the rights of Mother Earth, and using

33