Counterpoint: Essays in Archaeology and Heritage Studies in Honour of Professor Kristian Kristiansen

Edited by Sophie Bergerbrant Serena Sabatini

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Counterpoint: Essays in Archaeology and Heritage Studies in Honour of Professor Kristian Kristiansen

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The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment is available free from Hadrian Books or may be downloaded from www.archaeopress.com Bronze Age Voyaging and Cosmologies in the Making: the from Viksø Revisited

Helle Vandkilde

Abstract: The twin helmets from Viksø open a window into a Bronze Age world of cosmological and corporeal journeying while also shedding light on shape-changing, human-animal hybrids, and the cult and making of heroes in southern Scandinavia. Keywords: helmets, masks, hybrids, heroes, cults, death, cosmology, mythical and epic cycles, re-enactment and transformation, journeys, sea, water, beliefs, netherworld

And gave to a bow and a quiver and a sword, and about his head he set a helm wrought of hide, and with many a tight-stretched thong was it made stiff within, while on the outside the white teeth of a boar of gleaming tusks were set thick, to and fro, well and cunningly, and on the inside was fixed with a lining of felt. This Autolycos on a time stole out of Eleon when he had broken into the stout-built house of , son of ; and he gave it to of Cythera to take to Scandeia, and Amphidamas gave it to Molos as a guest-gift, but he gave it to his own son Meriones to wear; and now, being set thereon, it covered the head of Odysseus. (Murray 1946: X: 260-71)

The boar tusk helmet that was put on Odysseus’ head prior to numerous prehistoric offerings are known. The National Museum a nightly spying expedition into the Trojan camp was by then immediately undertook a rescue excavation that brought to light an outstanding piece of war gear because of the epic genealogy fragments of the helmets and additional pieces of pottery and inseparable from the helmet itself. Despite the rich array of wood. It was stated that the bronze objects had been recovered weaponry metal finds from the Nordic Bronze Age, there are at a level c. 70 cm below the topsoil. The find was published remarkably few helmets. The paired helmets from Viksø – by Norling-Christensen (1946a-b). He suggested that at least dating to Period IV, c. 1200/1100-1000 BC and thus broadly one helmet had been standing on an ash wood tray (or shield), contemporaneous with the Homeric situation – are fairly unique. but according to the archival report, the radiocarbon dates of They are indeed special objects in their own right (Fig. 1), as the wooden remains thought to have derived from the so-called testified by the keen interest they have attracted since their tray are much older than the helmets. According to the original recovery from a bog at Viksø, north-west of Copenhagen, Zealand descriptions of the peat workers, the collected sherds from a in 1942. Like the Mycenaean boar tusk helmet, they must have storage pot occurred at a level above the helmets and are perhaps formed a part of rich narratives and taken pride of place among the not to be associated with them. A nineteenth-century map suggests accoutrements of warriors fighting and proving their valour, but that the ‘Brøns Mose’ bog was a pond or a lake in the Bronze they were so much more than that. To pinpoint the nature of this Age; a northern extension of the present lake Løged Sø (Fig. 2). amorphous category of ‘more’ I will reconsider the properties of Even the overall place name ‘Viksø’ suggests open water: after the two helmets and their cultural contexts, where the association deposition, the helmets were not likely to have been retrievable. with ships may be especially noted. It is proposed that the answer to the question of the function of the Viksø helmets might be Even prior to discovery of the Viksø helmets debates raged found both in the realm of warfare and sea travel and in the ritual about Bronze Age religion. Almgren’s (1927) seminal work on practices of religious beliefs. rock art imagery stated that Bronze Age beliefs materialized in cultic processions to serve those forces that controlled fertility The fact that they occur as a pair is surely significant and has and death, and this interpretation still has relevance. The Viksø together with similar paired representations given rise to the helmets have been associated with rituals and religion, while a notion of twin gods in several of Kristian’s writings. His varied possible association with warfare has not gained the same support authorship has furthermore put much emphasis on travelling. My (e.g. Althin 1952; Broholm 1965; Kaul 1998; 2004a; Thrane 2006 contribution pays tribute to both these interests, by suggesting contra Goldhahn 2009). They have probably contributed to a keen that the twins should be understood not as gods but as semi-divine interest in pre- and protohistoric religion (cf. Kaul 1998, 2004a; heroes able to travel between worlds. I shall furthermore argue that Andrén, Jennbert & Raudvere 2006). by the Late Bronze Age a hero cult had been established. Thrane (1990: 84) proposes the existence of a personified sun Bronze Age research – the Viksø helmets and beyond god in Bronze Age religion, exemplified by the depiction on the razor from Voel, while Glob (1969: 197) prefers ‘twin gods’ who The helmets1 were discovered during peat cutting in Brøns Mose personified the power of the sun. Kaul (1998, 2004a) interprets at Viksø (Veksø), which forms part of a wider wetland area in the Viksø helmets as cult objects that were used in enactments north-eastern Zealand along the River Værebro, from which worshipping the eternal cycle of the sun. Objects and images, including those at Kivik, suggest a tripartite cosmology in which 1 SB 31 Veksø sogn, Ølstykke herred, Frederiksborg amt. http://www.kulturarv. the sun travelled by means of a solar boat in the night time (Kaul dk/fundogfortidsminder/Lokalitet/95258/

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Fig. 1A: The helmets from Viksø (after Jensen 2002). 1B: A close-up of the swan-headed devices on stern and rear (after Kaul 1998).

1998, 2004; Randsborg 1993). The souls of the dead were paddlers of the ships that transported the sun through all spheres, and they were honoured in cult houses. Although initially cautious about the idea of gods in Bronze Age beliefs, Kaul (2005) later mentions a sun god who was captain of the sun-boat and states that this god sometimes had a twin appearance.

A deviant genre is preoccupied with Bronze Age eschatology. Goldhahn (2007) has researched the ritual aspect of death, as has Kaliff (e.g. 1997). In the recent study of the burial from Hvidegården, Goldhahn (2009) hypothesizes that remembrance depended on death and warfare, and the Viksø helmets are interpreted as weapons of war.

Kristian argues for a Nordic version of the proto-Indo-European myth of divine twins although simultaneously insisting that the twins were heads of Bronze Age chiefly life, an important part of which was long-distance journeys (Kristiansen 1998, 2002, 2006a, 2006b, 2010; Kristiansen & Larsson 2005). Like Ling (2008), he contends that the mythology was inspired by real journeys and that it was these expeditions in wheeled vehicles and in Hjortspring- type plank-built ships that literally made the chiefs who were honoured through the erection of monumental mounds and in Fig. 2 The wetland area at Viksø with the find spot marked the legends carved into rocks. Likewise, it is evident that pairs (yellow circle) on a nineteenth-century map (reproduced from of identical males were significant. Kristian dubs them horned http://www.kulturarv.dk/fundogfortidsminder/ See Brøns gods with reference to rock carvings, bronze figurines, and finds Mose). from the eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamia (Kristiansen & Larson 2005: 232f; Kristiansen 2006b).

166 Helle Vandkilde: Bronze Age Voyaging and Cosmologies in the Making

Epic helmets with strong animal features. This should remind us that today’s rigid distinction between species of humans and animals is a The introductory analogue may suggest that the Viksø helmets consequence of the philosophy of the Enlightenment and that were objects with a rich cultural biography, possibly heirlooms human-animal hybrids (cf. Haraway 1991; Ingold 1994) were and gifts circulating within the Bronze Age gentry, whereby myth accepted categories in the Nordic Bronze Age (Kristiansen & and legend were remembered and renewed. The Homeric epics, Larsson 2005: 324ff). more generally, serve to document just how deeply a warrior ethos permeated the high-status masculine self in Bronze Age Europe Mighty objects of transformation and transmission and how it was mediated jointly through elaborate weaponry and epic narratives (cf. Treherne 1995; Kristiansen 2002; Whitley The animals of the helmets refer to different spheres of the 2002; Kristiansen & Larsson 2005; Vandkilde 2006a-c, 2011). universe (cf. Kaul 2005, 2010); the bull horns pointing towards The Homeric quote may especially serve to illustrate in what way the celestial realm, whereas the suggested horse and hawk could wearing the helmets enabled the wearer to become part of the be indicating both sky and netherworld (Green 2002, 2011). Swans helmets’ genealogy of previous owners and attached histories; in conquer the sky, but are also creatures of the earth inhabiting a sense the wearer became inseparable from them. The materiality ponds and lakes, and hence able to use their snake-like heads to and narrative power of the helmet were transferred to the wearer. look below water level into the realm below. Each animal may have been perceived as an upwards or downwards boundary- The Viksø helmets, however, possess strong cosmological crosser from this world, or both these directions. Birds, especially references that point far beyond Homeric analogies. The fusion birds of prey, can be seen as representatives of the human soul of animal and human features in their design is highly significant, flying away after death. The horse is a true traveller between as are the watery settings in which weapons and cultic gear were realms (Green 2011): like ’s Sleipnir, able to journey back predominantly deposited. and forth between sky and underworld, most especially the latter (Hedeager 2011). Movement is further underlined by the presence Helmet materiality of the ship for travelling. Taken together, putting on the helmets bestowed power on their wearers to move between worlds and in The Viksø helmets are almost identical and were surely considered situations of war quite possibly enhanced bravery in combat. In a pair. They are made of high-tin bronze (16.8%), with low-level short, the animal-human hybridity of the helmets was meant to impurities of lead (0.35-0.95%), arsenic (0.22-0.24%), antimony transfer to their wearers. (0.11-0.23%) and nickel (0.13-0.32%) and faint traces of silver (0.05-0.06%).2 Their basic forms are simple hemispheres, The double character of the Viksø items as headgear and masks resembling the masculine textile hats from oak-coffin burials, but with hybrid features is in tune with the suggested ability to transfer also other metal helmet types of the Urnfield period (cf. Clausing exceptional power to their wearers and possibly the ability to 2001). The hemisphere was hammered into shape from two pieces, transform into other beings or another state of existence. Through riveted together and secured by a heavy fitting across the top. the mask or its qualities, the wearer would become someone else The ornamentation included bosses of different sizes arranged and was thereby able to achieve something beyond the human in rows across the surface – a fashion employed on other items capabilities of everyday sociality. of the Urnfield period. At the front and back of the helmet, the lowest row of small bosses terminates in s-shaped figures of swan There are many examples of transformations connected to the necks heraldically confronting each other: each helmet has two wearing of masks. Through a ritual process, each of the Avatip double-sterned ships, so-called Vogelsonnenbarken. The cast horns men in lowland Papua New Guinea became transformed into are turned in a way suggestive of a bull’s horns, the twist recalling another person: initiated men put on a ritual war mask, making that of the lurs, which also occur in pairs. On each side of the crest them capable of extreme violence (Harrison 1993). When putting is a circular fitting originally adorned with bird feathers.3 Quite on one of the Viksø helmets the wearer presumably transformed possibly the crest itself was adorned with hairs imitating a horse’s into a being with animal-human qualities. By wielding the powers mane (Fig. 3)(Kaul 2010: 82). The crest of the helmets ends at of certain animals, it might have been thought possible to transfer the front in a hook-like protrusion, which turns out to imitate between worlds. I will suggest that this ‘being’ was a celebrated the beak of a bird of prey, possibly that of a hawk or falcon. The hero ancestor residing in the netherworld and that the wearer of beak is framed by huge bulging eyes beneath distinct eyebrows: a the helmet took on his identity and supernatural powers. This human-like face; literally a mask or the representation of one. That may recall Nordic early history where people were thought to the face is humanoid is supported by parallels among the figurines have several ‘souls’ that were able to leave the body in human or (Fig. 3). The helmets unite select, distinct and significant parts of animal shape. Such shape-changing was an acknowledged part of animals rather than their wholes. Likewise, the human face is also society and belief systems; a perceptual reality where some people represented only in part; it lacks both nose and mouth. had alter egos – a new physical shape could be taken outside the primary body (Raudvere 2004; Hedeager 2011: 81ff). The wearing of the crested helmets would have considerably increased the height of the wearers; an awe-inspiring advantage Physical-visual manifestations of Bronze Age rituals and in warfare and in ritual performance. The bull horns are in myth keeping with this, as they are often interpreted as signs of divine power and strength. The helmets are furthermore objects rich in The Viksø helmets and their imagery belong to a wider complex symbolic references meant to enable a transfer of meaning and of objects and images in which a high proportion of ships vigour from helmet to wearer: A partial human-like face fused and an emphasis on horses underline the central position of journeying. One may distinguish between material presentations of mythological tales and objects used in ritual-religious 2 Metal analysis undertaken by the company Bergsøe og Søn in 1944 and available celebrations of central themes in these myths, but the borderline in the archive of the Danish National Museum. 3 Archive of the Danish National Museum. seems deliberately blurred.

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Fig. 3 The original appearance of the Viksø helmets (A) reconstructed (after Kaul 2010) in comparison with one of the Grevensvænge figurines (B) of twin horned males (after Jensen 1990) and the twins on the Fogdarp yoke (after Larsson 1990). Note their faces (C) with large eyes and accentuated eye brows.

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Images and small-scale objects may refer to a mythical world Mortuary customs are in keeping with the hypothesis that of interacting animals, humans, and hybrid creatures: horned death was perceived as a journey to other realms with the final males, ships with animal sterns, human-like figures with bird- destination likely to be the netherworld. Objects of profane of-prey-faces, ram-horned snakes, horses with horns, humans character in burials suggest a belief in an afterlife (Green 2011: copulating with horses, etc. Notably the imagery on razors and 111), which was imagined as not differing decidedly from earthly rock allows glimpses into this mythology of epic voyages as do the life. The mound occupied the realm of earth, but also reached Grevensvænge and Fårdal figurines (Glob 1962; Thrane 1999) and towards the sky (Kristiansen 2006a: fig. 45) whereas interior even the Trundholm sun-chariot. Such small-scale objects were constructions, including the burials, were perhaps areas of transit, presumably meant to be carried in a procession or exhibited on a not quite sky and not yet netherworld. Motion (and emotion) is platform. In my opinion, the focus on the eternal movement of the integrated into both inhumations and cremations (Sørensen & Bille sun (Kaul 1998, 2004a, 2005) does not exclude the co-occurrence 2008). The deceased body was meticulously prepared for travel of other themes within the same epic cycle, or even other mythical – in special cases clad in fine woollen clothes and accompanied cycles. Adventurous travels within and between realms arguably by personal items, food and drink. At first the body was inhumed form the crux of the matter. and later the transfer was accelerated by fire and light (Sørensen and Bille 2008; Sørensen and Rebay 2007). In the earlier Bronze Full-size objects – helmets, paired axes and round-shields – were Age, sun attributes were quite widespread in burials while horses, worn by human actors in ritual enactments in which certain more ambiguously indicating both sky and underworld, occurred objects, animals and humans acted together in prescribed ways, almost throughout the period as figure heads and images. as the Kivik cist allows an early glimpse of. Later, dramas were often performed on a ship deck (Kaul 2004b). The horse yoke The body was sometimes accompanied by objects and images from Fogdarp in Scania (Larson 1974, 1990) belongs here, as directly targeted towards ensuring a successful journey to the do the lurs. Other helmets once existed as suggested by a single underworld, perhaps believed to enhance benevolent relations horn found at Grevinge. The full-size headgear from Viksø with chthonic creatures encountered en route. Of particular signifying the partial bodies of an animal-human may sustain interest is a group of Period IB-II male burials with fish hooks, the idea that such re-enactments of mythological events should which match the fish hook and fish imagery in the Valsømagle enable shape-changing connected to the transfer between realms. hoards (Vandkilde 1996). Fish images also occur occasionally on The enactments may then have had the character of religious other bronzes and on the Kivik cist (Kaul 2004a: 320ff). Fish mysteries in which rituals were targeted towards the transfer images, fish bones, fish hooks and indeed eelgrass may have to other worlds. Below, I shall propose that these rituals of been perceived as symbolic manifestations of the underworld transformation and transfer were spliced with a hero cult and hero (cf. Goldhahn 2007: 187) or symbols intended to secure entry worship in which the identity and life of named ancestor heroes of to the realm of the dead. The emphasis on ships in Bronze Age war and adventure were re-lived through prescribed celebratory iconography, and the construction of stone ships for funerary re-enactments in which their favour could be requested. These purposes, is commonly interpreted as a means of transporting the rituals were accompanied by the sound of lurs and the drinking souls of the dead (e.g. Kaul 2005). of mead from gold bowls with horse-headed handles. Hvidegården and Maglehøj are among the best known among The context of the helmets supports the idea that travelling within the so-called ritual specialist burials (Goldhahn 2007: 180ff) with and between the spheres of the cosmos is one key to Bronze Age their strange inclusions such as a snake tail, horse bones or teeth, myths, religion, and cults. The mortality of humans is here an a squirrel jaw, the foot of a falcon or hawk, and a Mediterranean inescapable and thus central issue, since death was never far away. sea snail. In a clear analogy with the imagery of Viksø, the Therefore, the notion of an afterlife and the means of ensuring it animals represent or transgress different realms of the cosmos. must have been prominent concerns. The fact that these representations are of parts rather than wholes of animals may indicate a hybrid state in which the person in Cosmology, death and travelling question – when empowered by these partial bodies – became an animal-human able to transfer between worlds. Interpreting Kaul’s acknowledged cosmology for the Nordic Bronze Age boldly, these individuals were heads of the mysteries of transit, (1998, 2004a, 2005; Kristiansen 2006a: 175ff; Bradley 2006; directing the ritual enactments taking place near perceived points Nord 2009) has a basis in the so-called axis mundi model. Here of transition: at the world centre, or at the edge of the sea. Upon the human world is perceived as flat with the celestial world above the death of these cult leaders, successful transfer to the other and an invisible underworld below. The three realms are united worlds was ensured through the accompanying items of their by a central pole enabling passage between them. There would profession. have been numerous such world centres in that every community would have their own versions of sacred liminal points through So-called cult houses associated with cemeteries are interpreted which the other realms could be accessed. Alternative areas of as sacred ancestral precincts (Victor 2002). Here, rituals should transition would logically be located where the three realms met, facilitate the transfer of the body from life to death, or even namely at the sea shore: this would imply the attribution of special facilitate the release of the soul from its bodily existence in the significance to water, ships, and creatures of the sea, below the liminal phase (cf. Kaliff 1997; Goldhahn 2007). This would surface of which the netherworld may have been thought to extend suggest an alleged area of transit that antedated the final burial. with the possibility of yet other worlds beyond the horizon. This Cult houses contain burnt debris with animal bones (including perception (or similar) was common in pre-modern worldviews horse), burnt human bones, and bronze-working as well as (Eliade 1957; Bradley 2000: 31), and therefore likely to have been other remains compatible with transformation through fire (cf. relevant for the Bronze Age since we see the axis mundi model (Goldhahn 2007: 279ff). The precinct may moreover have been maintained in later periods (Hedeager 2011; Andrén, Jennbert and subjected to commemorations of the dead through the consumption Raudvere 2006). How is such a worldview manifested in funerary of ritual meals (Goldhahn 2007, 2009). In Jutland and the Danish and sacrificial sources of the Bronze Age? Isles, a ritual building was erected at or near the foot of a mound

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(Nielsen and Bech 2004). Finds suggest feasting to have taken are their bones, and an impressive stature is underlined by ‘special place here (Nielsen and Bech 2004: 141), in commemoration of effects’ such as ’ lion skin and club, Jason’s golden fleece the ancestor who was first buried in the mound as well as the and the ship Argo, the shining armour and weapons of , recently dead whose burnt bones were placed in urns and inserted etc. Perilous journeys were undertaken into other worlds; some into the now ancestral mound. This cult may then have targeted familiar while others possess immense strangeness. Such journeys heroes residing in the underworld as well as a privileged class of were interrupted mainly to fight opponents, be they humans or would-be-heroic dead, in particular because of the associated horse hybrid monsters. bones and metal working. A similar worship and remembrance of ancestor heroes may have taken place in front of the rock panels A characteristic trait during an eventful mortal life is to where debris with the same characteristics occurs (cf. Bengtsson occasionally gain access to the underworld through particular 2010; Ling 2008). channels of passage. Odysseus, for instance, visited Hades where the ordinary dead were mere shadows, whilst the former What kind of life did people imagine for the two horned helmets companions at Troy still maintained their bodily shapes because after letting them pass beyond the surface of the lake? Numerous of their status as special dead, as heroes. A few heroes of the other objects occur as wetland deposits in bogs and lakes. These became demigods after death, able to leave the wet places could well have been perceived as alternative points underworld and transfer to the world of heavenly gods, although of passage and were likely often considered dangerous to access only on special occasions, or partially. Castor and Polydeukes and unprepared (Bradley 1990, 2000). It would be in tune with the Heracles are cases in point. argument that magnificent bronze objects were sent on the journey to the underworld through appropriate ritual. The passage through According to Greek sources, then, heroes are boundary-crossers in water must have been considered highly significant as weapons, life and/or in death. They are a combination of warriors, travellers ornaments and other objects became reunited with their owners and adventurers and operate singly, in pairs or in groups. It is only now dwelling in the underworld. Extraordinary objects such as after death – because of its glory and reinforced by the deeds of our helmets are indeed inseparable from their history; their return life – that the status as hero is granted. Long after the death of to their true owners would have been a natural dénouement (cf. famed heroes, local cults arose at the alleged places of burial (e.g. Mauss 1990; Weiner 1992). Whitley 1995), and sometimes a regular temenos with cult house (heroön) was erected. Here, chthonic rituals were performed to ‘Gifts for the gods’ is a commonplace interpretation of Bronze worship the dead hero residing in the underworld, inducing him Age hoards, but the presence of underworld gods in plural is to bestow favour on the worshippers (Whitley 1995; Ekroth 2009). perhaps not self-evident. Rather, the underworld was thought to Hero cult furthermore contains aspects of venerating a grander be inhabited by humans enjoying their afterlife, chthonic creatures past, an age of heroes, in comparison with peoples’ own dull and accompanying individuals I would label semi-divine heroes, present. The heroic events are themselves broadly Bronze Age in who during their life were able to travel between realms on an date, coming to an end with the sack of Troy. occasional basis, and who sometimes maintained this ability post-mortem. The Viksø helmets and other objects deposited in Aegean twins and other heroes in creative translations lakes were then not necessarily thought to disappear into a great watery void. The essence of the Greek hero figure and associated cults aligns well with the sources to the Nordic Bronze Age; not necessarily Heroes and their cults in detail, for the cultural differences were considerable, but in broad outline. A connecting thread of support exists, namely the The sources for the southern Scandinavian Bronze Age propose fondness for twin representations. The very regularity of double heroic valour as a central issue of both life and death. Awe- lookalike deposits demands an explanation: Viksø with two ships inspiring weapons deposited in great mounds and in watery places on each helmet, the Rørby ship-shaped scimitars, giant axes and as well as the images carved into rock sustain this point of view: the lurs as well as the recurring theme of paired males at Fogdarp, Grevensvænge and Stockhult, on razors, and on rock carvings...... travelling chiefs from the North, who instituted new That they are twins is suggested by the fact that each male is crafts and new rituals upon their return. They created the a mirror image of the other in posture, war-like attributes, and first group of mythological sagas about distant and powerful double symmetrical ships. However, were they heroes according origins, and in due time they themselves became local to the above description? heroes, worshipped in oral tradition as well as in rituals at their famous burials, or at the panels of rock carvings I will argue for a yes. Kristian tracks the twins to a proto-Indo- describing their journeys. European myth of divine double rulership (e.g. Kristiansen 2006b, (Kristiansen and Larsson 2005: 208-209) 2009; cf. Ward 1968). I am sceptical towards the assumption of their combined status as gods and as political and religious What is a hero, precisely, then? Here, the world and rulers in Bronze Age Scandinavia although the twins’ bellicose mythology offer inspiration (Farnell 1921; Kerényi 1958; Whitley attributes, stereotypical appearance and association with ship and 1995; Fox 2008; Albersmeier 2009). We tend to use the term in horse do suggest a shared legend. In tune with the imagery they the same way did in the Iliad, where aristocratic warriors were clearly warriors engaging in fighting, they were travellers fighting at Troy are dubbed ‘heroes’. While this is legitimate, the on board a ship, and the adventurous character of the whole above quote touches a central matter, namely that a hero is most enterprise may be implied. Counting on the correctness of Kaul’s often dead and buried and becomes celebrated only posthumously, reconstructed solar cycle, they were also able to transcend the precisely due to the fame of deeds and accomplishments realms of the universe. The horned helmet combined with a large undertaken during his lifetime. To a certain extent, such renowned axe is a particularly indicative trait (Figs. 3-4), easy to recognize individuals defied death, but they are mortals and therefore also for the audience, and it bestows an aggrandizing effect upon an role models for average living humans. They are very big, and so

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Fig. 4 The horned and axe-wielding twins aboard a ship with horse-headed stern and rear, a horse for each hero, on the razor from Vestrup. The twins are pursued by an over-sized human figure and a big snake, with other animals and cosmic (?) signs nearby (after Glob 1962). already-oversized body with accentuated calves. These traits and and between realms of the cosmos. Many pictures, however, depict ‘special effects’ recall the characteristics of a hero. only the manned ships as if the rest of the story is deliberately left out. Ling (2008) has shown how such ship-only carvings occur This Nordic twin existence is strikingly similar to Castor and primarily at the edge of the sea, only visible from the seaside and Polydeukes (Dioskouroi), the twin heroes popular among the carved where water touches rock (Ling 2008). This was where Greeks (e.g. Kerényi 1958). One had a partly divine origin. the realms of the cosmos were, arguably, believed to meet and Zeus came to Leda in the shape of a swan (!) and she bore two therefore a sanctified border zone: here between land and sea with sets of twins: Helen and Polydeukes to Zeus and Castor and access to other worlds long-ships were repeatedly carved. The Klytaimnestra to her husband. Importantly, the Diskouroi lived a central significance of the maritime component in life and death mortal, though adventurous, life and are often depicted identically (Bradley 2006), and in between, thereby becomes still clearer. on horseback wearing broad-brimmed travellers’ hats. They were in fact considered protectors of seamen and sea voyages, Returning to Viksø: Myths and cosmologies in the making and were furthermore often associated with horses (Buxton 2004). They went on their own adventures, but also engaged For Kerényi, mythology is ‘a body of material contained in tales in other endeavours such as the sea journeys of the Argonauts. about gods and god-like beings, heroic battles and journeys to the This actually corresponds well with some Nordic rock carving Underworld’ (Jung and Kerényi 1985: 3). Reality, nevertheless, scenes in which twin figures can be discerned among groups of mattered in myth-making as inspirational material. Creative fighting males near long-ships, animals and sometimes strange resources were likely extraordinary objects, ritual events, warfare beings (Fig. 5). In between them, ambiguous signs may refer to and bravery, adventurous expeditions, long-distance travels, and different spheres of the universe (sun, bird, wheel, hand, feet etc.) the natural environment of animals and particular geographies. (Kaul 1998, 2004a, 2005; Goldhahn 2007). These cosmological Archaeological sources broadly suggest, as argued above, that components fit well with the story of the Dioskouroi, who died death was perceived as a perilous sea journey to other realms, while on a cattle raid. Afterwards, one twin was confined to the eventually to the netherworld where an afterlife was envisioned underworld, while the other was allowed to visit the celestial gods. even if access to the celestial realm may have been hoped for. This The animal-humans with bird-of-prey faces on the rock carved belief must surely have been deeply rooted in the world of the panels, however, suggest an animalistic shape-changing element living. The sources are themselves indicative of the experienced of transformation, which is vague in Greek myths and seems entanglement of the profane and the sacred, indeed of life and indigenously Nordic. death, in the minds of Bronze Age people. As scholars we can take the liberty to analytically keep those domains apart, and now turn The Nordic images are not exactly focused on twin heroes with to the social reality of long-distance travelling. Again, the Viksø horned helmets. Singular figures of huge size or unusual strength helmets, and horned helmets as such, take centre stage, coupled also occur who are captains of ships or can lift a long-ship with with the insight that providing the raw materials for bronze was one or two hands (Fig. 6), and these bear a great resemblance to necessary for social interaction in southern Scandinavia. the accomplishments of the physically powerful hero Heracles, who was able to escape the underworld in life as well as in death. The Viksø helmets fuse Nordic and Urnfield features and were In other situations, larger groups of males are shown in the rock produced in Scandinavia while European bronze-working carved scenes (Fig. 5), as when Greek heroes joined forces to techniques were employed. The swans of the ships’ rears and overcome a perilous challenge as in the story of the . sterns reproduce the swimming bird symbol of Urnfield Europe (Kosack 1954), but most other features tally with a Nordic The Nordic epic cycles incorporated central heroic figures who Bronze Age setting. The helmets were used in rituals, but likely travelled, warred and experienced incredible adventures within also belonged among the paraphernalia of war leaders, along

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Fig. 5 Rock carving scenes from Tanum 255 (A) and Kville 124 (B) showing complex events with several fighting warriors, ships and signs (after Ling 2008).

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Fig. 6 Super-hero lifting a ship (A) at two different rock carving panels in Bohuslän (after Kaul 2004a). Another scene (B) at Tanum 325 similarly shows the leading warrior hero of the ship with oversized body, accentuated calves and horned helmet setting him apart from the crew (after Ling 2008).

Fig. 8 Images from two Iberian grave stelae showing warriors with horned helmets. In addition, these and other pictures represent a panoply of weapons, notably large round shields and horse-pulled carts (after Brandherm 2008).

Fig. 7 Bronze figurine of Sardinian warrior wearing a horned and crested helmet of considerable likeness to the Viksø helmets. Considerably increased close range and long distance mobility Note also the round-shield, the greaves, corselet, sword and characterized Urnfield Europe (Thrane 1975; Kristiansen 1998; bow (?) (after Harding 2007). Vandkilde 2007). Horned helmets and variants of large bossed round-shields concentrate in the Iberian Peninsula and on Sardinia (Harrison 2004) (Figs. 7-8). Brandherm (2008) argues for an early with large round-shields and offensive weapons. Molloy (2009) development of horned helmets in Iberia from around 1100-1000 has convincingly shown that, despite their thinness, Herzsprung BC, independent of Near Eastern bull-headed figures. The early type bronze round-shields and variations thereof were perfectly horned helmets on Sardinian figurines are thought to date to functional in battle. The same would be valid for our two helmets. the period around 1200 BC (Brandherm 2008). This is the time Symbol-rich weaponry may well have been thought to remove fear when chaotic upheavals in the Aegean and the Levant lead to the of death, thereby boosting bravery in combat: By putting on the collapse of palace-organized state hierarchies (cf. Dickinson 2006; Viksø helmets in battles or war raids, the wearer would become Suchowska-Ducke in press), inter alia connected with the legend an invincible animal-human hero ancestor. of the Trojan war. Notably related to these events was a group

173 Counterpoint: Essays in Archaeology and Heritage Studies

Fig. 9 Horned helmets, round-shields and bird-shaped ship sterns connected to the Sea People warriors named Shardana (probably Sardinians) c. 1200 BC. (A) Sea battle scene depicted at the temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu (Battle of Delta 1178 BC) - A close-up of warriors is shown. Note the bird-shaped sterns in the right margin of the photo (Lessing Photos). (B) Sherd from wine crater from the final habitation at the citadel of Tiryns (after Wachsmann 1998).

174 Helle Vandkilde: Bronze Age Voyaging and Cosmologies in the Making

of the Sea People who fought naked wearing horned helmets towards ensuring a safe transfer of the dead to an afterlife in the and round-shields in the Battle of the Delta 1178 BC, depicted netherworld. The Earlier Bronze Age had in the Late Bronze in propagandist style on the temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Age become the era of great deeds and great men (Kristiansen Habu (Fig. 9)(cf. Oren 2000). 2010). In the Late Bronze Age, tales of famed ancestors may have been coupled with individuals buried in old mounds, as Kristian The warships in the Mediterranean final Bronze Age sometimes had contends. The cults which I have argued were established in the bird-headed devices on stern and rear (Fig. 9) and Homer mentions Late Bronze Age seem to have been genuine hero cults built on trunked or beaked ships (Wachsmann 1998), analogous to the constructed genealogies rather than true kinship: a place or a Viksø helmets and other Urnfield items with Vogelsonnenbarke. monument claimed to be associated with the death of the hero Some of the ship-borne ‘Sea People’ warriors probably came from (Whitley 1995; Ekroth 2009). The epic nature of the adventurous, the western Mediterranean, and may even have included maritime travelling and fighting heroic figures in rock-cut and bronze-cast warriors from the Atlantic zone and northern Europe. This idea of images supports this conclusion. Urnfield-Mediterranean connections from c. 1200 BC onwards is not new (e.g. Kimmig 1964; Wachsmann 1981, 1998; Kristiansen Life was a hair’s breadth away from death, on the battle field and 1998: 96, 170ff), but it now gains new relevance by revisiting an when voyaging. Fame and death were partners. The hypothesis of old find. A thread leads from war and social upheaval in the east a hero cult goes well with the striking Bronze Age preoccupation Mediterranean over Sardinia and Iberia to Viksø with offshoots with death and warfare (Goldhahn 2009; Green 2011). The delight to adventurous sea travels, warfare, material culture emulation, in, and reverence of, magnificent weapons (Goldhahn 2009; Green transfer of cosmological elements, myth-making and the transport 2011) dispatched on their final water-enfolded journey to reach of bronze along the Atlantic coasts. their rightful owners in the chthonic netherworld illustrates the intertwinement of death, war and travels. We may even wonder Nordic horned helmets, and likely the round-shields, can be seen if these offerings were sometimes made from aboard a ship in in the context of sea journeys, combining trade with raids and celebration of a long-dead ancestor hero and maybe coincided battles. The stelae and rock imagery of Iberia furthermore share with the assumed death of a would-be hero, unreturned from a sea some elements with the Scandinavian images, suggesting a link voyage. The making of heroes is, after all, an ongoing business. between the two regions (Fredell 2010). Iberia and Sardinia are copper-rich regions, which, according to recent science-supported Closing words results, were important resources for the bronze-working traditions of the later Nordic Bronze Age and even insular western Europe In this essay, I have speculated more than usual in honour of (Ling et al. 2013). The ingot-carrying shipwrecks recovered off a living hero of mine, Kristian Kristiansen. I dedicate this tale the coasts of Britain4 are thus coupled with trade in metals in of the twin helmets from Viksø to you Kristian in thankful the European Atlantic zone after c. 1200 BC. Frequent south- acknowledgement of the inspiration you have given me over the west-bound sea voyages must have been undertaken to secure years. regular supplies of copper and probably tin. The extremely high proportion of tin in the two Viksø bronzes favours regular supplies Helle Vandkilde: [email protected] rather than the use of recycled metal. References Atlantic-Mediterranean sea travels arguably fuelled the epic myths encountered in glimpses on Nordic Late Bronze Age bronzework ALBERSMEIER, S. ed., 2009. Heroes, Mortals and Myths in Ancient and rock. It is likely that some of the myths in circulation had older Greece. New Haven and : Yale University Press. roots associated with earlier phases of sea travel between 2000 and ALMGREN, O., 1927. Hällrisningar och kultbruk. Bidrag till belysning 1300 BC, but the onset of the Late Bronze Age brought a changed av de nordiska bronsåldersristningarnas innebörd. Stockholm: Lagerström (Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademiens way of life. Changed religious beliefs materialized most clearly Handlingar 35). in the cremation rites. Forming part of these beliefs were ideas of ALTHIN, C.A, 1952. Hjälmarne från Viksö. In M. Stenberger (ed.), boundary-transgressing mortal heroes, derivatives of the Aegean Arkeologiska forskningar och fynd. Studier utg. med anledning av H. Dioskouroi, Heracles, Jason and others. The story emerging from M. Konung Gustaf VI Adolfs sjuttioårsdag 11. 11. 1952. Stockholm: Leda and the swan concerns semi-divinity in combination with Svenska arkeologiska Samfundet. mortality, and seems to have moved westward and northward in ANDRÉN, A., K. JENNBERT and C. RAUDVERE (eds.), 2006. Old a process of creative translation that included the ship. This and Norse religion in long-term perspectives: origins, changes, and other tales likely moved along the Mediterranean-Atlantic track interactions : an international conference in Lund, , June 3-7, and over time became inseparable from Nordic heroic myths. 2004. Lund: Nordic Academic Press. Returnees may well have claimed a heroic identity based on the BENGTSSON, L., 2010. To Excavate Images. Some results from the Tanum Rock Art project 1997-2004. In Å. Fredell, K. Kristiansen and cultural and economic capital appropriated in distant lands (cf. F. Criado Boado (eds.), Representations and communications. Creating Vandkilde 2008). an Archaeological Matrix of Late Prehistoric Rock Art: 116-131. Oxford and Oakville: Oxbow Books (SARA Volume I). 5 All this may have renewed centuries-old travelling cultures as BRADLEY, R., 1990. The Passage of Arms. An Archaeological Analysis well as instituted refinements of the cosmology. Over the course of Prehistoric Hoards and Votive Deposits. Cambridge: Cambridge of their evolution, these developments became more targeted University Press. BRADLEY, R., 2000. An Archaeology of Natural Places. London and New York: Routledge. 4 September 2011. Please consult: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/environment/ BRADLEY, R., 2006. Danish razors and Swedish rocks: Cosmology and archaeology/7228108/Bronze-Age-shipwreck-found-off-Devon-coast.html, http:// the Bronze Age landscape. Antiquity 80: 372-389. www.machuproject.eu/news/news-55.htm, http://174.122.234.116/showthread. BRANDHERM, D., 2008. The warriors’ new headgear. Antiquity 82: php?t=169486 5 September 2011. Please consult: “Forging Identities: The Mobility of Culture in 480-484. Bronze Age Europe” http://www.forging-identities.com BROHOLM, H.C., 1965. Lurfundene fra bronzealderen. Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag – Arnold Busck.

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