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C om m unity Radio in Ireland: Building Community, Participation and Multi-Flow Communication Rosemary Day B.A., H.Dip in Ed., M.A.C.C.S. Thesis presented for the award of Ph.D. Dublin City University School of Communication Prof. Farrel Corcoran August 2003 I hereby certify that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the programme of study leading to the award of Ph.D. is entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others save and to the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work. Signed: Id No: 96970065 Date: Q & . 0 * 2 - Rosemary Day, 2003 Community Radio in Ireland: Building Community, Participation and Multi-Flow Communication. Abstract: The core aims of community radio stations foreground the principle of participation by the people in the communication process. Community radio stations broadcast to build the communities which they serve. Six Irish community radio stations are studied to examine the implementation of these aims. The study asks how community radio stations • try to build the communities in which they broadcast? • promote multi-flow communication? • facilitate participation? Three main frameworks are employed in the analysis of the research. The ideal construct of community is understood to be formed on the four bases of place, relationship, time and belief. Enzensberger’s dichotomy of repressive and emancipatory media is built upon to examine how multi-flow communication can be facilitated. A hierarchical model which identifies seven possible levels of participation in media is employed. The key finding of the study is that it is the facilitation of participation which enables community radio stations to successfully implement their core aims. Irish community radio stations seek to build their communities. Many of them adopt a community development approach to their work. Irish community radio stations facilitate the human right to communicate. They do this by providing a communications link for their communities. This provides the basis for communication to flow in many directions rather than in the traditional, one-way flow of mass media generally. Irish community radio stations frequently target specific segments of their communities which enables the provision of multi, micro-public spheres. Reflections on the observed practice of the community radio stations studied, when linked to the conceptual frameworks outlined, provide useful norms to inform the emerging communication theory of community media. Contents: Acknowledgements viii S E C T IO N I Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. The Research Project 1 Chapter 2 COMMUNITY RADIO 6 2.1. What is Community Radio? 6 2.1.1. What Community Radio is Not 9 2.2.Ü. Community Radio Activists ’ Understanding o f Community Radio 14 AMARC-Intemational 15 AMARC-Europe 16 IRTC/CRF 17 2.2.111. Community Radio in Legislation 19 2.1.iv. Norms for Irish Community Radio 21 2.2. The Establishment of Community Radio in Ireland 21 Chapter 3 3.0. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 33 3.1. Introduction 33 3.1.L Community 34 3.1.11. Four Bases o f Community 37 Place (Geographic Community) 37 Relationship (Community of Interest) 39 Belief (Longing for Community) 42 Time (Community Past and Future) 45 3.1.11. The Understanding of Community for this Project 46 3.2. Community Development 47 3.2.1. What is Community Development? 48 3.2.11. Community Development and Community Radio 51 3.3. Démocratisation of Communication: The Human Right to Communicate 56 3.3.1. The Human Right to Communicate 56 3.3.11. Emancipatory Uses o f the M edia 64 Two-way Flow Theory 64 3.3.111. Community Radio and the Public Sphere 73 Many Public Spheres 74 Civil Society 77 3.3.iv. A Space for Community Radio 79 3.3.v. Community Radio as a New Social M o v e m e n t 80 3.4. Participation 87 3.4.1. Levels o f Participation 88 3.4.11. Towards a New M odel o f Participation 89 3.4.111. Why Provide fo r Participation? 97 3.4.iv. Lim itations to and D ifficulties with Participation 99 3.4.v. The Im portance o f the Study o f Participation for the Current Research 103 3.5. The Not-For-Profit Sector 104 3.5.i. Not-For-Profit, the Voluntary Sector, the Third Sector 105 3.5.11. Ownership and Management 108 Chapter 4 DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT 111 4.0. Introduction 111 4.1. Key Research Questions 111 4.2. Research Context 113 4.2.1. City Stations 114 4.2.11. Country Stations 116 4.3. Research Methods 117 4.3.1. Documentary Analysis 118 4.3.11. Sem i-Structured Interviews 120 4.3.iii. Long-Term Observation 123 4.4. Analysis of Research Findings 126 4.5. Presentation of Research Findings 127 4.6. Research Limits and Suggestions for Further Research 128 s e c t i o n n Chapter 5 FINDINGS: COMMUNITY 131 5.0. Introduction 131 5.1. Building Community on the Basis of Place 132 5.2. Building Community on the Basis of Relationship 135 5.3. Building Community on the Basis of Belief 138 5.4. Building Community on the Basis of Time 140 5.5. Facilitating the Work of Community Activists to Build Community 141 5.6. Community Development 147 Chapter 6 FINDINGS: MULTI-FLOW COMMUNICATION 156 6.0. Introduction 156 6.1. ‘To Inform, Educate and Entertain’ 157 6.2. Communication Networks 167 6.3. Démocratisation of Communication 171 6.4. Some General Conclusions 184 v Chapter 7 FINDINGS: PARTICIPATION 187 7.0. Introduction 187 7.1. Participants 190 7.1.i- Number o f Participants 190 7.1.11. Satisfaction with the Rate o f Participation and the Rate o f Turnover o f Volunteers 191 7.1.ÜL Division between Paid and Unpaid Participants 193 7.1.iv. Types o f Participants 197 Gender 199 Age Groups 202 The Unemployed 204 The Isolated and Lonely 204 New Immigrants 205 Travellers 205 Others 206 7.2. Level of Participation Facilitated 208 7.2.1. O w n e r s h ip 208 Direct Ownership 209 Ownership in Partnership 211 7.2.11. M anagement Structures and Styles 214 Managers 216 Participation in Management 218 7.3. Strategies for Ensuring Participation and Difficulties Encountered with its Facilitation 225 7.3.1. Recruitment 225 7.3.11. Care o f Staff (CE W orkers and Volunteers) 233 7.3.iii. T r a in in g 237 7.3.iv. Physical Access to Stations 239 7.3. v. A tm o s p h e r e 241 7.3.vi. Barriers and Limitations 243 Transmission Area 244 Lack of Resources 245 Poor PR 247 Clique Formation 248 Complacency 249 Management 250 Decline of Social Capital 251 Chapter 8 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY 254 8.1. Implications for Communication Theory 254 8.2. Implications for Future Research 264 8.3. Focail Scoir/Parting Words 266 vi Figures: Figure 1. Table 1. Aims of Community Radio 19 Figure 2. Model 1. Linking the Personal to the Collective, Rubin and Rubin, 1992 49 Figure 3. Table 2. Enzensberger’s Dichotomy of Repressive and Emancipatory Media (1970) Applied to Community Radio 67 Figure 4. Model 2. A New Model for Participation in Radio 92 Figure 5. Model 2. A New Model for Participation in Radio 188 Figure 6: Model 2. A New Model for Participation in Radio 256 Figure 7. Model 3. Participation as Central to the Aims and Work of Community Radio Stations 257 Figure 8. Chart 1. Community Radio: An Emancipatory Use of the Medium 260 Bibliography Appendices: Appendix A: Community Radio Stations Licensed by the 1RTC/BCI, 1993-2002, including abbreviations as used throughout text. Appendix B: AMARC International Appendix C: Legislation Relevant to Community Radio in Australia, Canada and South Africa Appendix D: List of Organisations, Schemes and Practices Referred to Appendix E: AMARC-Europe Appendix F: IRTC/BCI and CRF Appendix G: NACB Appendix H: Maps. Appendix I: CE and Other Employment Schemes Appendix J: The Milan Declaration Appendix K: Mills’ Dichotomy of Mass and Public Communication Appendix L: Splichal’s Constituent Elements of the Right to Communicate Appendix M: Community Radio Mapped on to Scott’s Description of NSMs Appendix N: Discussion of Community Radio Finances Appendix O: Years of IRTC Evaluation of Community Radio Stations Appendix P: Final schedule for Semi-Structured Interviews Appendix Q: List of Interviewees and Key to References in Text Appendix R: Models of Management Proposed by Stations in Applications for Licences in 1994 and in 1997/8. Mo bhuiochas o chroi le gach éinne a chuidigh leis an tionscnamh seo a thabhairt ar an saol.......... to all who contributed to this research project in any way, in particular • to the participants in community radio in the six stations for their welcome, their time and their reflections • to my supervisor, Prof. Farrel Corcoran for his insights and guidance in steering the project over the years • to my colleagues in the Department of Media and Communication Studies, the Library and the LSU of Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick and to the institution itself for the support granted • to all in the IRTC/BCI and CRF/CRAOL • to my sister, Dr Therese Day for her academic input and personal support • to my husband, parents, family and friends My heart felt thanks ..................go mba fada buan sibh. Chapter One, Rosemary Day, 2003 SECTION I: CHAPTER ONE Introduction Chapter Summary 1.1. The Research Project Outline of Research Questions Guide to Thesis Layout 1.1.