The Costs of the Free Movement of Labor

A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of The Cevro Institute

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts

Maxime Renaud September 2019

1 CONTENTS

Introduction...... 3

Methodology...... 4

Crime rates...... 5

Economic Impacts...... 22

Education...... 34

Politics and voting patterns...... 39

Conclusion...... 45

Sources...... 47

2 The costs of the free movement of labor

The free movement of labor is one of the few topics left on which most economists, and increasingly many politicians, seem to agree. Even President Donald

J. Trump, the ultimate "anti-immigrant" politician as far as the media is concerned, pushes for more immigration through legal means. Indeed, in February 2019, USA

Today published an article entitled "Donald Trump says he wants to see more legal immigration to the U.S.1" referencing the President's latest remarks on the topic. Thus, the only discussion about immigration is not about if it is positive to the receiving nation, but on procedural details (ie legal vs. illegal immigration). This thesis aims to differentiate between abstract notions of "immigrants" and to distinguish different ethnic or cultural groups and to study the costs of the free movement of labor.

Economists do not appear to treat "immigrants" as blood and flesh human beings, but as an obscure category of people. As immigrants bring their own language, mentality, and way of life to their new host country, it appears unlikely that immigration has a positive impact in every possible setting. Some groups of migrants seem to use welfare programs at a much higher rate than native-born populations, work ethics differs often drastically, and cultural or religious background may determine the costs and benefits of migration. I will analyze available evidence from economic and non-economic literature in order to see whether the economic consensus breaks down when a broader perspective is considered.

1 Collins, Michael, and Alan Gomez. "'We Need People': Donald Trump Says He Wants to See More Legal Immigration in U.S." USA Today. February 06, 2019. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://eu.usatoday.com/story/ news/politics/2019/02/06/immigration-trump-says-he-wants-more-legal-migrants-u-s/2792732002/.

3 This thesis' hypothesis is that immigration may be either detrimental or beneficial to economic growth depending on whom migrates where. I will analyze which factors enhance the positive effects of migration and which ones can be responsible for negative outcomes.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology used in this short study is one first used by P.T. Bauer, and popularized by Thomas Sowell. Since there is no way to isolate the "immigration" variable in the study of economics (ie. one cannot precisely calculate Canada's economic growth from 1980 to 2000 without the immigration factor), both authors have studied the same cultural groups in different countries and have assumed that the similarities between the same ethnic groups in completely different settings

(institutions, climate, etc.) should be attributed to their culture. This approach seems appropriate for a graduate thesis with the very humble aim of pointing out some costs of immigration. This thesis does not claim that cultural group x is superior or inferior to cultural group y in every possible setting. The only aim of this thesis is to point out various costs to immigration that are omitted by Keynesian and Free-marketeer economists alike.

4 CRIMES RATES

In The Economics of Immigration: Market-Based Approaches, Social Science, and Public Policy, Brian Caplan states that immigrants have a lower crime rate than

American citizens2. This may very well be true overall, but is not true of every single ethnic group. It is unclear why the vast majority of economists insist on putting every immigrant group in the same basket, instead of focusing on more successful ethnic or cultural groups and promoting the immigration of these groups. In the West, one of the most overrepresented groups in their crime rates are the Muslims. This may partly be caused by Muslims being much younger than Westerners in general, but a 2016 study in Denmark showed that Somali (hailing from an exclusively Muslim country) men were

26 times more likely to rape than Danish men, adjusted for age3. A January 2018 study in Germany showed that 90% of the rise in violent crimes could be attributed to young male migrants, who predominantly originate from Muslim countries4. Indeed, in 2017, studies had shown that approximately one fifth (20%) of the prison inmates in the

United Kingdom were Muslims, despite them making up only 5% of the population in

2 Powell, Benjamin. The Economics of Immigration: Market-based Approaches, Social Science, and Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

3 Murray, Douglas. The Strange Death of Europe: Immigration, Identity, Islam. London: Bloomsbury Continuum, 2018 p.251

4 Alkousaa, Riham. "Violent Crime Rises in Germany and Is Attributed to Refugees." Reuters. January 03, 2018. Accessed March 24, 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-germany-crime/violent-crime-rises- in-germany-and-is-attributed-to-refugees-idUSKBN1ES16J.

5 the U.K.5. In the United States, adherents of Islam make up close to 1% of the population, and yet are some 10% of the inmates6. The Telegraph estimated that

Muslims made up only 8% of the French population, and yet were 70% of the inmate population7. However, the New York Times and The Economist estimated that Muslims made up to 10% of France's population, while reducing their Muslim inmates' population estimates in French prisons to "only" 60%8. It should be noted that the cost of having people imprisoned is not limited to the costs of building prisons, paying the guards, etc. which is made higher because of Muslim immigration. One should add the cost of having Western countries' limited policing resources redirected to an entire community or neighborhood, and away from the peaceful population, who therefore

find themselves more likely to be victims of crimes. An analysis of immigrant groups' contributions towards Social Security and taxes cannot possibly take these costs into account, although the costs exist.

With the mass arrival of muslim migrants to Europe in recent years, Swedish crime rates have increased dramatically, with 298 people having been wounded from shootings in immigrant heavy Stockholm and Gothenburg between 2010 and 2015, whereas only 70 had been wounded from shootings in Helsinki, Oslo, and Copenhagen

5 Kassam, Raheem, and Nigel Farage. No Go Zones: How Sharia Law Is Coming to a Neighborhood near You. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, a Division of Salem Media Group, 2017 p.4

6 "Religious Affiliation of Inmates in U.S. Prisons, 2011 | Statistic." Statista. Accessed March 24, 2019. https:// www.statista.com/statistics/234653/religious-affiliation-of-us-prisoners/.

7 Kassam, Raheem, and Nigel Farage. No Go Zones: How Sharia Law Is Coming to a Neighborhood near You. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, a Division of Salem Media Group, 2017 p.91

8 Ibid. p.91-94

6 combined9. It should be noted that 298 people having been wounded may sound like very little to Americans in particular, but to Swedes this statistic represents a dramatic increase. Also, the combined population of Stockholm and Gothenburg is of approximately 1.5 million people, whereas Helsinki, Oslo, and Copenhagen have a total population of 3.3 million people10. These countries have a similar culture, and the main differentiating factor is that Sweden has accepted a much higher proportion of Muslim immigrants when compared to the other Nordic countries11.

The safety costs of Muslim immigration in the West is also related to Muslim males' attitudes towards women. In Britain, a case of female genital mutilation is reported every hour, and The U.S.'s Center for Disease Control has estimated that half a million young women in the United States are vulnerable to female genital mutilation12. A new case of genital mutilation is reported every hour in the U.K.13 After opening up its borders to mass migration from Muslim countries on 2014-2015,

Sweden's agency for crime prevention (BRÅ) has reported that Sweden now has the second highest rate of reported rapes in the world, with half of those being committed

9 Sanandaji, Nima. Debunking Utopia Exposing the Myth of Nordic Socialism. Washington, D.C.: WND Books, 2016 loc 2136

10 Ibid loc 2136

11 loc 2136-2143

12 Mather, Mark, and Charlotte Fieldman-Jacobs. "Women and Girls at Risk of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in the United States." Population Reference Bureau. February 5, 2016. Accessed March 24, 2019. https:// www.prb.org/us-fgmc/.

13 Ferguson, Kate. "One Female Genital Mutilation Case Reported Every Hour in the UK." The Independent. February 06, 2017. Accessed April 04, 2019. https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health- news/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-case-per-hour-uk-nhs-circumcision-a7564571.html.

7 against children14. Sweden's laments 63.5 reported rape incidents per 100,000 residents, whereas the U.S. has a rate of 27.3 reported rape incidents per 100,000 residents15. The agency (BRÅ) also reported that the increase of reported child rape alone has been of 13% in between the years 2017 and 201816. It should be noted that reported rapes do not equal rapes, but it is the difference in the rate of reported rapes that is noteworthy. Indeed, in 1975, only 421 rapes were reported to the police, whereas in 2014, the number had increased exponentially to 662017. It is unlikely that this increase is exclusively or even mostly attributed to women's increased willingness in reporting rapes. To prove this point, it has been shown that most rape victims in

Sweden claim not knowing their attackers before the attack occurs, which contrasts with the United States, in which victims usually know their attackers18. Furthermore, immigrants tend to live in urban centers, and exposure to sex offenses is more common among persons living in Sweden's biggest cities (2.4%) than in rural areas

(0.9%)19. Sweden's statistical agency also reported that, since 2005, there was a constant 1% of Swedes who claimed having been victims of sexual assaults. There was a jump to 1.7% in 2015, the year of the migrant crisis20. Also, the increase of persons reported having been raped in Sweden increased in the exact year that Angela

14 "Anmälda Brott 2018 – Preliminär Statistik." BRÅ - Brottsförebyggande Rådet. Accessed March 20, 2019. https:// www.bra.se/om-bra/nytt-fran-bra/arkiv/nyheter/2019-01-17-anmalda-brott-2018---preliminar-statistik.html.

15Kassam, Raheem, and Nigel Farage. No Go Zones: How Sharia Law Is Coming to a Neighborhood near You. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, a Division of Salem Media Group, 2017 p.64-66

16 Ibid

17 Murray, Douglas. The Strange Death of Europe: Immigration, Identity, Islam. London: Bloomsbury Continuum, 2018. P.250

18 Ibid p.66

19 Ibid p.66-67

20 Ibid. p.68

8 Merkel opened Europe's doors to Muslim immigrants, and 54% of the convicted rapists in Sweden in the last five years were foreigners, with 23% being of "North

African and Middle Eastern origin21". Moreover, Sweden also has problems with female genital mutilations, with a reported 38,000 girls and women genitally mutilated in

Sweden in 2012,22 with the number being much higher now according to the Swedish government. Indeed, in August 2018, Sweden's self-proclaimed "Feminist government" even had to put out an action plan to prevent female genital mutilation and other

"honor-related crimes" committed by immigrants from countries in which this is common practice23. This is yet another cost to Muslim immigration. In 2018, the

International Federation on Gynecology and Obstetrics reported that girls in the

Swedish city of Gothenburg were advised to put a spoon in their underwear prior to passing though the airport's metal detectors if they thought they were brought abroad for "illegal purposes" which means FGM and other honor related crimes24.

In 2009, the Norwegian police revealed that immigrants from non-Western backgrounds were responsible for 100 percent of the reported "grab rapes" in which the victim is grabbed in a public place and then raped25. The rate of rape increased in

21 "Sweden Rape: Most Convicted Attackers Foreign-born, Says TV." BBC News. August 22, 2018. Accessed March 25, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45269764.

22 "Fact Sheet: National Action Plan to Combat Female Genital Mutilation." Regeringskansliet. August 29, 2018. Accessed March 24, 2019. https://www.government.se/information-material/2018/08/information-material-national- action-plan-to-combat-female-genital-mutilation/.

23 Swedish Government. "Fact Sheet: National Action Plan to Combat Female Genital Mutilation." Regeringskansliet. August 28, 2018. Accessed April 13, 2019. https://www.government.se/information-material/2018/08/information- material-national-action-plan-to-combat-female-genital-mutilation/.

24 FIGO. "Sweden Introduces New 'code' to Help Girls at Risk of FGM to Raise Alarm." FIGO. June 1, 2018. Accessed April 13, 2019. https://www.figo.org/news/sweden-introduces-new-code-help-girls-risk-fgm-raise- alarm-0015986.

25 Ibid p.56

9 every one of the sixteen German federal states in 2016, after Merkel opened Europe's doors to Muslim immigrants26. The Norwegian News Agency NRK reported that 80% of

Swedish police officers considered quitting because of an increasingly heavy workload27. Indeed, Sweden had enjoyed one of the lowest crime rates in the world prior to mass immigration from Muslim countries, but their institutions are not equipped to deal with a very high number of young, and mostly male immigrants from a culture which breeds higher rate of criminality than Swedish culture. Indeed, the ratio of crime committed by people of foreign backgrounds in Sweden compared to native Swedes is between 2.5 to one and 3.5 to one28. It will hence be necessary to either increase the amount of police officers, to increase their salary, or to reduce the requirements to become a policeman in Sweden to deal with this low morale.

Aside from outright rapes, there are more subtle costs to Muslim immigration. In

September 2015, Bavarian officials warned local parents that their daughters should not wear revealing clothing in public because it could lead to "misunderstandings" in regards to the Muslim migrants29. Women were also advised not to walk alone around

26 Ibid. p.197

27 Magnus, Anders, and Mohammed Alayoubi. "Svenske Politifolk Frykter at De Taper Kampen Mot Kriminelle." NRK. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://www.nrk.no/urix/svenske-politifolk-frykter-at-de-taper-kampen-mot- kriminelle-1.13138829.

28 Drum, Kevin. "We Should Practice Truth in Statistics, Even When It Hurts." Mother Jones. June 23, 2017. Accessed April 04, 2019. https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2017/02/we-should-practice-truth-statistics- even-when-it-hurts/.

29 The Local. "Refugee Host School Bans Revealing Clothes." Refugee Host School Bans Revealing Clothes - The Local. June 26, 2015. Accessed March 24, 2019. https://www.thelocal.de/20150626/refugee-school-calls-for- uniform-modesty.

10 train stations at night30. The costs of Muslim immigration overlooked by economists and politicians alike is hence not limited to rape victims' lives being destroyed by an attacker unfamiliar with Western customs. The costs include heavier surveillance, more resources devoted to preventing rapes, the cost of citizens' worrying about their female relatives' and friends' wellbeing when they find themselves alone, whereas prior to mass Muslim immigration, women had been more independent than ever, after centuries of being kept from going out alone "for their own good". In December 2015

The New York Times reported that the Norwegian authorities were starting to give classes on how to treat women to immigrants to reduce the increasing rates of rape31.

The classes consist of explaining to immigrants that, if a woman smiles to them or revealed some flesh, this was not an invitation for raping her32. This article may sound like satire, but it should be no surprise that importing people whose treatment of their female counterparts is similar to how Western women were treated in the 19th Century will lead to those people treating Western women like they were treated in the 19th

Century. Indeed, the grooming of young British girls and selling them for sex trafficking was said to be linked to specific ideas held by some Muslims about non-muslim women according to a UK government commissioned-inquiry33. In this particularly

30 Wyke, Tom. "Migrant Rape Fears across Europe as Women Are Told Not to Go out at Night Alone." Daily Mail Online. January 31, 2016. Accessed March 24, 2019. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3390168/Migrant- rape-fears-spread-Europe-Women-told-not-night-assaults-carried-Sweden-Finland-Germany-Austria-Switzerland- amid-warnings-gangs-ordinating-attacks.html.

31 Higgins, Andrew. "Norway Offers Migrants a Lesson in How to Treat Women." The New York Times. December 21, 2017. Accessed March 24, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/20/world/europe/norway-offers-migrants-a- lesson-in-how-to-treat-women.html.

32 Ibid

33 Rotherham Metropolitan Borough Council. "Rotherham Metropolitan Borough Council Download - Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Exploitation in Rotherham (1997 – 2013) | About the Council | Council News." Rotherham Borough Council. April 01, 2005. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://www.rotherham.gov.uk/downloads/file/1407/ independent_inquiry_cse_in_rotherham.

11 tragic event 1400 British children had been caught by mostly Pakistani child grooming gangs specifically because they were non-Muslim and White according to the court hearings34.

European women also find it riskier to celebrate as they could prior to the mass immigration from Muslim countries to European countries, as an estimated two thousand men formed rape gangs in Cologne on New Year's Eve in 2015. They stole from and sexually assaulted some 1200 women on this night's coordinated attacks.

Videos of the events as well as women testimonies confirmed that most attackers had a Middle Eastern appearance. Public swimming pools have also been used by Muslim immigrants for sexual assault and public masturbation, and Swedish authorities launched a "don't touch me" wristband in an "effort" to deter sexual abuse of young girls at music festivals35. Further, a popular music festival has been cancelled in

Sweden after reports of rapes and sexual attacks had been reported in 2015, and the artists refused to perform for another year unless Swedish authorities could ensure that girls at the festivals would be safe36. The costs of Muslim immigration are hence varied and include an environment of fear of going out and enjoying public facilities and music shows because of a radically different worldview held in many Muslim countries.

34 Colebatch, Hal G.P. "What Rotherham Means." The Spectator. May 30, 2018. Accessed March 24, 2019. https:// www.spectator.co.uk/2018/06/what-rotherham-means/.

35 Perring, Rebecca. "Swedish Police Respond to Soaring Numbers of Migrant Sex Attacks With... Bracelets." Express.co.uk. July 07, 2016. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/687294/Swedish- sex-attacks-police-wrist-bands-no-groping-migrant-assault.

36 "Swedish Music Festival Is Cancelled in 2018 after Rape and Sexual Assault Claims - BBC Newsbeat." BBC News. July 03, 2017. Accessed March 20, 2019. http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/40477791/swedish-music- festival-is-cancelled-in-2018-after-rape-and-sexual-assault-claims.

12 Massive islamic immigration has also lead to the appearance of so-called "No-

Go Zones" (NGZ) in Europe. In short, NGZs are areas in which there are abnormally higher crime rates than in "normal" neighborhoods, and police officers cannot work as they would in any other neighborhood in the country. While these may sound like some neighborhoods in West Baltimore and Southside Chicago to Americans, the main difference is that European NGZs are overwhelmingly Islamic and hence created by immigrants. There are currently 80 NGZs in France according to University of Lyons professor Fabrice Balanche37. Swedish ambulance union chief Gordon Grattidge claims that he "cannot risk sending ambulances to No-Go Zones anymore38". Torsten

Elofsson, a former Interpol officer in Malmo, claims that the city needs to send two or three police units to No-Go Zones when one was enough before39. Moreover,

PostNord, a Swedish-Danish postal delivery company, stopped delivering mail to two hundred addresses located in NGZs40. UPS has also stopped delivering to the heavily migrant-populated no-go Malmö suburb of Rosengård, claiming the area has become too dangerous41. The costs of Islamic immigration hence includes a loss of basic services, for a peaceful majority residing in No-Go Zones, both native and foreign born,

37 Kern, Soeren, and Soeren Kern. "French Suburbs Becoming 'Separate Islamic Societies'." Gatestone Institute. October 10, 2011. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/2487/french-suburbs-islamic- societies.

38 Stromme, Lizzie. "Swedish Medics Need Military Equipment to Enter Certain Areas – Ambulance Drivers Union." Express.co.uk. February 28, 2017. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/773310/ Swedish-medics-military-equipment-enter-no-go-zones-Ambulance-Drivers-Union.

39 Lane, Oliver JJ. "A Tale of Two Cities: Retired Police Chief Talks Malmo to Breitbart London." Breitbart. September 18, 2015. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2015/09/18/interview-retired-swedish- police-chief-says-malmo-crime-skyrocketing-due-uncontrolled-immigration-no-go-zones/.

40 Mailonline, Isobel Frodsham For. "Swedish Mail Firm Halts Deliveries to 'no-go Zone' Rinkeby." Daily Mail Online. April 11, 2017. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4400856/PostNord-halts- deliveries-Rinkeby.html.

41 Tomlinson, Chris. "Courier Stops Delivery To Swedish No-Go Suburb Due To Danger." Breitbart. February 27, 2019. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2019/02/27/courier-stops-delivery-swedish-no- go-suburb-due-danger/.

13 because of the much higher crime rates in overwhelmingly Islamic communities. The higher economical and human costs incurred by different agencies and first responders acting in these communities is hard to estimate to a dollar amount, but the point of this thesis is to point out to costs that are forgotten or omitted by economists and politicians alike. It is also hard to know which group of Muslim in particular has a higher crime rate and which has a lower crime rate, because Sweden stopped releasing data regarding ethnicity and crime in 2005. In a politically correct world, it is unlikely that the

Swedish government would have stopped releasing this information if the results showed how immigrants committed less crimes per capita than native Swedes42. The last report states that a majority of the crimes committed in Sweden are committed by

"persons born in Sweden to Swedish born parents43" before adding that almost one quarter of the crimes are registered by persons born overseas44" which is a much higher rate per capita than native Swedes. Today, 54% of Sweden's inmates are foreigners, when only 17% of Swedes are of foreign origin45.

Another name for No-Go Zones is the politically correct "marginalized cities". In

1990, only three Swedish neighborhoods were described as "marginalized cities" by

Sweden's Liberal Party whereas the number mushroomed to 128 in 2002 and 156 in

42 Sanandaji, Tino, and Tino Sanandaji. "What Is the Truth about Crime and Immigration in Sweden?" National Review. February 27, 2017. Accessed March 20, 2019. https://www.nationalreview.com/2017/02/sweden-crime- rates-statistics-immigration-trump-fox-news/.

43 Martens, Peter, and Stina Holmberg. "Crime among Persons Born in Sweden and Other Countries." Crime among Persons Born in Sweden and Other Countries - Brottsförebyggande Rådet. 2005. Accessed March 24, 2019. https:// www.bra.se/bra-in-english/home/publications/archive/publications/2005-05-14-crime-among-persons-born-in- sweden-and-other-countries.html.

44 Ibid.

45 Kassam, Raheem, and Nigel Farage. No Go Zones: How Sharia Law Is Coming to a Neighborhood near You. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, a Division of Salem Media Group, 2017 p.60-61

14 2006 and 186 in 201246. The definition of a marginalized city by Sweden's Liberal Party is where less than 60% of the population is employed, and either less than 70% voted in latest local elections or less than 70% of children have passed the ninth grade47.

This growth was prior to the mass migration from Muslim countries to Sweden, and updated data is currently unavailable. These marginalized cities caused Sweden to have one of the highest rate of Islamic States recruits per capita, and the costs involved in higher levels of surveillance to native Swedes because of some choosing to

fight Jihad are rarely mentioned by economists. Those costs are already felt by everyday citizens. In France, it is now commonplace to get your purse, coat, or backpacks checked a the entrance of malls and museums, which makes daily life look more and more like the security checks prior to flying in an airplane in the post 9/11 world. Since 9/11, 380 of 580 convicted "violent extremists" in the U.S. have been

Muslims48, and the burden of extra surveillance is bared by adherents of every other religion and atheists alike. In 2015, there were more British Muslims fighting for Isis than for the British armed forces49.

Some may link Muslims' higher crime rates to poverty, but from the earliest period of Japanese immigration to the U.S., the very poor Japanese-American community committed far fewer crimes than other Americans, and the crimes they did

46 Sanandaji, Nima. Debunking Utopia Exposing the Myth of Nordic Socialism. Washington, D.C.: WND Books, 2016 loc 2113-2121

47 Ibid 2113

48 Farivar, Masood. "Researchers: Fear of Muslim American Violent Extremism Overblown." VOA. February 08, 2017. Accessed March 21, 2019. https://www.voanews.com/a/fear-of-muslim-american-violent-extremism-overblown- researchers-say/3710606.html.

49 Murray, Douglas. The Strange Death of Europe: Immigration, Identity, Islam. London: Bloomsbury Continuum, 2018 p.313

15 commit were less serious50. Moreover, a survey in 1946 showed only one arrest over the 1938-1945 period in New York's Chinatown, and zero arrests for murder or any other major crime during that period51. Chinatowns were not always as tourist-friendly as they are today, and were generally very poor areas. Juvenile delinquency rates were very low for both Chinese Americans52 and Japanese Americans53. This difference in crime rates between Muslims in Europe in the 21st Century and Japanese and Chinese

Immigrants in the 19th and 20th Century to the United States cannot be blamed on discrimination. The Chinese and Japanese have arguably been the most discriminated against of all ethnic groups who came freely to America. In 2016, according to the

Federal Bureau of Investigations' statistics, Asians, which includes but is not limited to

Americans of Chinese and Japanese origin, were arrested for 1.1% of the murders,

1.8% of the rapes, and 0.9% of the robberies committed in the U.S. that year54 despite accounting for 4.8% of the population according to the latest census55. There must be another explanation than "poverty" or "discrimination" to Chinese and

Japanese people being law abiding immigrants, whereas Muslims are comparatively not. Cultural differences, and not race, seem to explain different crime rates, as Irish- born immigrants accounted for half of the people arrested in New York in the year

50 Kitano, Harry H. L. "Japanese-American Crime and Delinquency." The Journal of Psychology66, no. 2 (1967): 253. doi:10.1080/00223980.1967.10544903.

51 Sung, Betty Lee. Mountain of Gold the Story of the Chinese in America. New York: Macmillan, 1967 p.171

52 Ibid. p.177

53 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992 p.169

54 "Table 21." FBI. September 18, 2017. Accessed March 23, 2019. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2016/crime- in-the-u.s.-2016/topic-pages/tables/table-21.

55 Humes, Karen R.; Jones, Nicholas A.; Ramirez, Roberto R. (March 2011). "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010" United States Census Bureau. US Department of Commerce Retrieved December 25, 2011.

16 185056, while it would be difficult to pinpoint genetical difference between the Irish and the British. Jews had comparatively very low crime rates even though they were living in "slums"57 in New York's Lower East side, and the poverty-stricken Italians also had lower crime rates than immigrants in general58. Likewise, Blacks immigrating from the

West Indies in the 20th Century had lower crime rates than American whites in general59.

The Center for Immigration Studies (CIS) often reports on illegal immigrants committing many more crimes per capita than native-born American citizens and legal immigrants. The CIS reports that illegal immigrants account for some 27% of federal prisoners, whereas they make up an estimate of 9% of the population60. It is often claimed that the vast majority of those crimes are simply caused by being illegally in the United States and not for committing actual crimes and decreasing American citizens' day to day wellbeing. Indeed, most studies do not show that illegal immigrants in the United States (the overwhelming majority of whom are either Central Americans or Mexicans), commit more crimes per capita than Americans in general. The Cato

Institute, much like Economist Brian Caplan, goes further and claims that illegal

56 Handlin, Oscar. Boston's Immigrants: A Study in Acculturation. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941 p. 254

57 Rischin, Moses. The Promised City: New Yorks Jews 1870-1914. Cambridge, MA, 1978 p. 89

58 Handlin, Oscar. Race and Nationality in American Life. New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1957 p.102

59 Reid, Ira De Augustine. The Negro Immigrant: His Background, Characteristics, and Social Adjustment, 1899-1937. New York: AMS Press, 1970 p.138-142

60 Camarota, Steven A. "Immigration and Crime." CIS.org. November 18, 2009. Accessed March 21, 2019. https:// cis.org/Report/Immigration-and-Crime.

17 immigrants may, in fact, commit a little less crimes than American citizens61 . However, the Government Accountability Office reported62 that only 45% of illegal immigrants arrests were related to non-violent drug related offenses or their being in the country illegally. Most had been arrested more than once:

In our population study of 55,322 illegal aliens, we found that they were arrested at least a total of 459,614 times, averaging about 8 arrests per illegal alien. Nearly all had more than 1 arrest. Thirty-eight percent (about 21,000) had between 2 and 5 arrests, 32 percent (about 18,000) had between 6 and 10 arrests, and 26 percent (about 15,000) had 11 or more arrests63

The report adds that "about 15 percent were property-related offenses such as burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and property damage. About 12 percent were for violent offenses such as murder, robbery, assault, and sex-related crimes64". The myth hence propagandized in the media that illegal immigrants commit less crimes than the native born U.S. population do not seem hold up to scrutiny. It would indeed be strange if illegal immigrants in the U.S. would be outstanding citizens because of the sheer difficulty of their trip to the the United States. Central American illegal aliens in particular need to reach Guatemala by car, cross the Usumacinta river, and then take a ride on a cargo train (called La Bestia or the Beast), which lasts a

61 Nowrasteh, Alex. "New Report on Illegal Immigrant Criminality Reveals Little & Admits Its Own Shortcomings." Cato Institute. December 21, 2017. Accessed March 21, 2019. https://www.cato.org/blog/new-report-illegal- immigrant-criminality-reveals-little-admits-its-own-shortcomings.

62 Office, U.S. Government Accountability. "Information on Certain Illegal Aliens Arrested in the United States." U.S. Government Accountability Office (U.S. GAO). May 09, 2005. Accessed March 21, 2019. https://www.gao.gov/ products/GAO-05-646R.

63 Ibid

64 Ibid.

18 minimum of three weeks and a maximum of 5 months65. On their way to the United

States, Central American and Mexican migrants need to be wary of gangs who prey on defenseless migrants, and on the Mexican War on Drugs and Plan Frontera Sur which give complete power to the Mexican armed forces and Mexican police to do what they want to defenseless migrants66. The sentiment of ethnic superiority felt by Mexicans towards Central Americans makes the trip even worse for Central American migrants67.

Those who survive the trip, then, are often the toughest and those who are ready to bend the law, whereas law abiding citizens will tend to stay home or won't make it to the U.S. border. Migrant women who attempt to take the dangerous trip on La Bestia tend to be sexually assaulted by either other migrants, the Mexican police and armed forces, or criminal gangs who prey on migrants. It is estimated that up to 80% of

Central American women and girls who enter the United States illegally have been raped along the way, with Amnesty International estimating the number at the relatively more conservative figure of 60%68. It is unknown how American politicians can expect to make productive and peaceful workers out of people going through this much to reach their destination.

65 Internet, Unidad Editorial. "Mxico | América." 'La Bestia', Un Tren Con Precios De Lujo Y Un Destino Que Puede Ser La Muerte | Mxico. August 30, 2013. Accessed March 21, 2019. https://www.elmundo.es/america/2013/08/30/ mexico/1377854922.html.

66 Castillo, Alejandra Coha. "Programa Frontera Sur: The Mexican Government's Faulty Immigration Policy." COHA. October 26, 2016. Accessed March 21, 2019. http://www.coha.org/programa-frontera-sur-the-mexican- governments-faulty-immigration-policy/.

67 Deutsche Welle. "Migrantes: Tampoco México Se Libra De La Xenofobia | DW | 14.11.2018." DW.COM. Accessed March 24, 2019. https://www.dw.com/es/migrantes-tampoco-méxico-se-libra-de-la-xenofobia/a-46297807.

68 Bonello, Deborah, and Erin Siegal McIntyre. "Is Rape the Price to Pay for Migrant Women Chasing the American Dream?" Splinter. July 24, 2017. Accessed March 21, 2019. https://splinternews.com/is-rape-the-price-to-pay-for- migrant-women-chasing-the-1793842446.

19 The overrepresentation of Hispanics in criminal activities has been known for a long time. For instance, in 1977, it was estimated that some 13,000 Mexican American youths belonged to gangs in Los Angeles County69. In the 1970s, Puerto Ricans had the highest proportions of crimes committed in multiethnic Hawaii70, and Puerto Rican neighborhoods in New York City had comparatively higher rates of homicide, and robbery than other neighborhoods71. Unlike their Irish, Jewish, and Italian counterparts, however, Hispanics have not stopped working in criminal gangs when their community in general advanced relative to American citizens. Out of the 8000 gang members arrested by the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement in the 2005-2007 period, some 74% were Hispanics, 59% of whom were Mexican72.

Black people in the United Kingdom are interesting to study because, unlike the

United States, Black people have usually immigrated to the U.K. both willingly and recently. In London, Blacks were 67% of those caught by police for gun-related crimes,

54% of those caught in muggings, and 32% of all sex offense suspects73. Also, 45% of knife crimes committed by women were committed by black women and 52% of robberies committed by females were committed by Black females74. In England and

69 "TIME Magazine -- U.S. Edition -- October 16, 1978 Vol. 112 No. 16." Time. October 16, 1973. Accessed April 04, 2019. http://content.time.com/time/magazine/0,9263,7601781016,00.html.

70 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992. Chapter 7

71 Glazer, Nathan, and Daniel Patrick Moyhinan. Beyond the Melting Pot. Boston, MA: MIT Press, 1970 p.90

72 Feere, Jon, and Jessica M. Vaughan. "Taking Back the Streets: ICE and Local Law Enforcement Target Immigrant Gangs." CIS.org. September 30, 2008. Accessed March 23, 2019. https://cis.org/Taking-Back-Streets-ICE-and- Local-Law-Enforcement-Target-Immigrant-Gangs-0.

73 Camber, Rebecca. "Metropolitan Police Crime Statistics Reveal Violent Criminals Are Mostly Black - and so Are Their Victims." Daily Mail Online. June 27, 2010. Accessed April 04, 2019. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/ article-1290047/Metropolitan-Police-crime-statistics-reveal-violent-criminals-black--victims.html.

74 Ibid.

20 Wales, it was found that "Black men were over three times as likely to be arrested than

White men" and "Black women were over twice as likely to be arrested as White women75".

To conclude with this section, It is unclear why scholars insist on not discriminating on which immigrants are the best fit for Western societies when it is undeniable that some groups are over represented in crime statistics. In The

Economics of Immigration: Market-Based Approaches, Social Science, and Public

Policy, Brian Caplan takes the example of Japan and The United States to

"demonstrate" how immigrants do not commit more crimes than the native population,76 but omits European countries where the opposite is true. It is understandable from the point of view of politicians who do not pay any price for being wrong, and whose incentives are to judge any situation in a "100% positive" or "100% negative." For instance, it would be rather complicated for an elected official to explain to voters which immigrant group is best adapted to a given society and why voters should support his policy restricting immigration to this cultural group. It is much simpler for politicians to state "immigration = good" or "illegal immigration = bad" which can fit on a "bumper sticker" and is easy to remember for voters. This still does not explain why scholars tend to insist that "immigrants in general do not have a higher crime rate than the general population" when, Muslim immigrants very much differ from

Japanese immigrants.

75 "Arrests." GOV.UK Ethnicity Facts and Figures. March 18, 2019. Accessed March 25, 2019. https://www.ethnicity- facts-figures.service.gov.uk/crime-justice-and-the-law/policing/number-of-arrests/latest.

76 Powell, Benjamin. The Economics of Immigration: Market-based Approaches, Social Science, and Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

21 ECONOMIC IMPACTS

As previously stated, there seems to be a consensus around the statement that

"overall, immigrants have a positive effect on Western economies." It is unlikely, however, that every single group of immigrant is a benefit to Western economies, because all groups trail the long shadow of their history behind them. Historian Ulrich

Bonnell Phillips is credited with the quote that "we do not live in the past, but the past in us" which applies to every ethnic group, even though we would like to think that immigrants become Westerners as soon as they become Western citizens. Logically, it should be unsurprising that cultures which have developed in urban settings are more likely to specialize towards the kinds of things that are useful in commercial activities.

On the other hand, it is very hard to find an ethnic group with an agrarian background that became successful in an urban environment in less than three generations. For instance, the Jews, one of the most successful immigrant group in the U.S. in monetary terms, had been living in urban environments long before migrating to the

United States. In 1885, 234 out of 241 clothing factories in New York City were owned by Jews, many of whom were familiar with the clothing industry in Europe upon their arrival77. However, the highly agrarian Irish immigrants to the U.S. struggled for generations when they found themselves in urban settings, and had lower earnings and a lower status than Blacks in Boston prior to the civil war78. Likewise, Indian Chettyar

77 Ressner Thomas. The Golden Door: Italian and Jewish Immigrant Mobility in New York City, 1880–1915 . (Urban Life in America Series.) New York: Oxford University Press. 1977 p.60

78 Handlin, Oscar. Boston's Immigrants: A Study in Acculturation. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941 p. 69-70, 253.

22 money lenders overwhelmingly became money lenders, whether in Fiji, East Africa, or

Burma79. What puzzles historians and economists alike is how agrarian unskilled worker from China became businessmen throughout Southeast Asia and the Americas, and how their descendants could excel in STEM fields in these countries80.

Welfare statistics show how some immigrant groups choose to work and others not to. Some objections raised to this explanation may include the fact that the welfare state should not even exist, or that it is unfair to include some groups which have likely simply been priced out by minimum wage laws or forbidden to work because of licensing and union laws. However, some groups, such as the Italians, have historically been against government handouts in the U.S. even when they could have received welfare81 because of their cultural attitudes towards government handouts. Likewise, there were more Irish than Italians in New York's Almshouses in 1906, even though

Italians arrived much later to the U.S82. Furthermore, close to no Japanese-American applied for for relief following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake because their prefecture organizations organized massif aid for them83. The same pattern was observed during the Great Depression of the 1930s84. Chinese-Americans were also

79 Sowell, Thomas. Migrations and Cultures: A World View. New York, NY: BasicBooks, 2016 chapter 7

80 Ibid.

81 Arnold, Martin. "The City's Italian‐American Needy: Too Proud to Take Aid They 'Earned'." The New York Times. September 29, 1972. Accessed April 01, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/1972/09/29/archives/the-citys- italianamerican-needy-too-proud-to-take-aid-they-earned.html.

82 Handlin, Oscar. Boston's Immigrants: A Study in Acculturation. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941 p.45

83 Light, Ivan Hubert. Ethnic Enterprise in America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973 p.63

84 Ibid p.88

23 underrepresented in relief statistics during both the 1906 earthquake85 and The Great

Depression86, in part because they took care of their kin through Chinese mutual aid organizations. This does not mean that changes to the welfare system have nothing to do with the welfare use of immigrant groups over time. The difference between ethnic and cultural groups is what is of importance to this study. In the United States, when

American Blacks were overrepresented in welfare statistics in the 1970s, Blacks originating from the West Indies had a lower welfare rate than the American population87. The 1990 census showed that those arriving to the United States in the previous five years were significantly more likely to be on welfare (9.8%) than were their counterparts in 1970 (5.5%)88. The American welfare state had changed between those time periods, but so did the immigrants' countries of origin. Here, the definition of

"welfare" excludes non-cash programs like Food Stamps and Medicaid.This being said, in the 1990s, it was found that less than 5% of the immigrants coming to the U.S. from the UK or Germany go on welfare, compared to more than one fourth of immigrants from Vietnam and nearly half of those from Cambodia89. Laotians (46.3%),

Dominicans (27.9%), non-Marielito Cubans (15.3%) and Soviet Refuseniks (16.3%) also

85 Light, Ivan Hubert. Ethnic Enterprise in America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973 p.87

86 Light, Ivan Hubert. Ethnic Enterprise in America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973 191-192

87 Sowell, Thomas. "Ethnicity: Three Black Histories." The Wilson Quarterly (1976-) 3, no. 1 (1979): 96-106. http:// www.jstor.org/stable/40255565.

88 Brimelow, Peter. Alien Nation: Common Sense about Americas Immigration Disaster. New York, NY: HarperPerennial, 1996. Loc 3777

89 Ibid loc 3805, 3777

24 showed very high rates of welfare use in the 1990s90. Only 14% of American Blacks, which are overrepresented in welfare statistics, were on welfare at the time91.

In 2012, the Center for Immigration Studies' Steven A. Camarota reported that

73% of households headed by either a Mexican or Central American used at least a welfare program, compared to 48% for Africans, 32% for East Asians, 30% for

American citizens, 26% for European immigrants, and only 17% for South Asians92. His

findings include the disputed claim that, overall, immigrants in the U.S. are a drain of resources, but Camarota's findings do not include Social Security and Medicaid contributions. Others have found that, when Social Security and Medicaid contributions are included, immigrants to the U.S. are net contributors to the Federal government, but use more services than they pay for at the State and Local level93.

Nonetheless, the difference between different ethnic group is what is of importance to this study, and Camarota's finding are hence relevant, because Economists should focus on maximizing the benefits and minimizing the costs of immigration.

In Sweden, it was found that only 0.3% of the people who applied for asylums in

2015 (most of whom are Muslims) found a job94. In Sweden, Somalian born immigrants

90 Ibid loc 3723,3786

91 Ibid. loc 3723

92 Camarota, Steven A. "Welfare Use by Legal and Illegal Immigrant Households." CIS.org. September 9, 2015. Accessed March 23, 2019. https://cis.org/Report/Welfare-Use-Legal-and-Illegal-Immigrant-Households.

93 Powell, Benjamin. The Economics of Immigration: Market-based Approaches, Social Science, and Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

94 The Local. "Fewer than 500 of 163,000 Asylum Seekers Found Jobs." Fewer than 500 of 163,000 Asylum Seekers Found Jobs - The Local. May 31, 2016. Accessed March 23, 2019. https://www.thelocal.se/20160531/fewer- than-500-of-163000-asylum-seekers-found-jobs. And Kassam, No Go Zones 2017 p.45

25 have a 21% employment and half of those living in Norway and Denmark are neither employed or educated95. Some 15 years after the average Iranian had immigrated to

Sweden, 33% of Iranian households in Sweden were still on welfare in 1999. Another

33% was mainly supported by various forms of public transfers96.

In the United Kingdom, Sub-Saharan Africans have the highest unemployment rate at 18.3%. Indeed, Almost all minority groups in the UK have higher unemployment rates than the national average, except East Indians97. According to Britain's Social

Mobility Commission of 2017, just one in five adult Muslim works, and only 6% of the

Muslim population are in the professions98. In the same Social Mobility Commission of

2017, Muslim women were also found to be 71% more likely to be unemployed than white Christian women99. In the United States, Puerto Ricans in 1930 had the highest proportion of people on relief in Hawaii, and had one of the highest unemployment rates in the country100. It is true that Puerto Ricans hold American passports and are

American citizens, but the stark cultural difference between Puerto Rico and the United

States make Puerto Ricans a different ethnic group. In the 1920s and 1930 relief rolls,

Mexican immigrants had unemployment rates twice as high as American Blacks and

95 Sanandaji, Nima. Debunking Utopia Exposing the Myth of Nordic Socialism. Washington, D.C.: WND Books, 2016. Loc 1846-1855

96 Ibid.

97 Kassam, Raheem. Enoch Was Right. London: CreateSpace, 2018. Loc 2313 of 4428

98 Social Mobility Commission. "Social Mobility Challenges Faced by Young Muslims." GOV.UK. September 06, 2017. Accessed March 23, 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/social-mobility-challenges-faced-by- young-muslims.

99 Ibid.

100 Fitzpatrick, Joseph P. Puerto Rican Americans: The Meaning of Migration to the Mainland. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987 p.155

26 three times as high as American Whites101. In the 1970s, Mexican-American unemployment was twice the national average102.

Ethnic groups have also differed in their work habits, and some of these differences have persisted throughout history. For instance, Germans have been brewing beer since days of the Roman Empire, and German businessmen have founded beer companies in different settings such as the United States and China103.

Very few German immigrants to America were unskilled workers: only 14% of them were "day laborers" in mid-19th Century Philadelphia104. Likewise, in Boston in 1890, while 5% of German immigrants worked in the professions (1% more than the

American population), when less than 0.1% of the Irish did, even though they had the advantage of knowing the English language105. The German"advantage stayed up to the 1970s, when Americans who self-identified as "German American" had an income

11% higher than the average.106 At the end of the 19th Century, 6% of the Irish immigrants were engaged in white-collar work, compared to 31% of the American population107. On the other hand, Jewish American quickly adapted to the American way of life, and their representation in white collar jobs jumped from 5% to 15% from

101 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992 p.252-253

102 Grebler, Leo, e al. The Mexican-American People: The Nations Second Largest Minority. New York: Free Press, 1970 p.208-209

103 Sowell, Thomas. Migrations and Cultures: A World View. New York, NY: BasicBooks, 2016 chapter 2

104 Sowell, Thomas. Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups. Washington: Urban Institute, 1978 p.111

105 Thernstrom, Stephan. The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978 p.131

106 US Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, series P-20, no 249 (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office 1973) p.25

107 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992 chapter 2

27 between 1880 and 1905108. Differences within communities are also worth noting: the

Jewish upper-class in Philadelphia in 1940, long after the mass arrival of Eastern

European Jews, was almost entirely German in origin109. By the 1970s, Jewish

Americans had 72% higher income than American population in general110. As previously mentioned, it is likely that their heavily agrarian background is what prevented the Irish from becoming successful in monetary terms upon arrival, whereas the overwhelmingly urbanized Jews were more adapted to life in the American

Northeastern cities. The point of this thesis is not to simply state that, for example,

Jewish culture is superior to Irish culture. Some cultures are simply better adapted to life in urban settings whereas some are not. The opposite is also true: the very few

Jews who engaged in agricultural work in the U.S. failed in their endeavors111. Some economic disparities between some of the 1890-1920 immigrant groups, who mostly came from Southern and Eastern Europe, and were likely unfamiliar with Northern

European labor practices, persisted for as much as four generations112. The average income earned by the bottom 15% of Northern European immigrants was equal to the average income earned by Southern European immigrants113 in the U.S. over this period.

108 Ressner Thomas. The Golden Door: Italian and Jewish Immigrant Mobility in New York City, 1880–1915 . (Urban Life in America Series.) New York: Oxford University Press. 1977 p.60

109 Batlzell, E. Digby. The Jews: Social Patterns of an American Group. ed. Marshall Sklare. New York, The Free Press, 1958 p.274

110 Sowell, Thomas. Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups. Washington: Urban Institute, 1978 p.364-365

111 BRINKMANN, TOBIAS. "Between Vision and Reality: Reassessing Jewish Agricultural Colony Projects in Nineteenth Century America." Jewish History 21, no. 3/4 (2007): 305-24. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20728552.

112 Brimelow, Peter. Alien Nation: Common Sense about Americas Immigration Disaster. New York, NY: HarperPerennial, 1996 loc 2049

113 Sowell, Thomas. Migrations and Cultures: A World View. New York, NY: BasicBooks, 2016 p. 17

28 American officials' recent focus on "diversity" also brought many immigrant groups coming from cultures that are radically different from America, and the income differences between American citizens and immigrant incomes between 1970 and

1990 has consequently widened from 16.8% to 31.7%114. In his well cited book Alien

Nation, author Peter Brimelow argues that this difference is caused by a focus on the racial/ethnic/cultural "diversity" of immigrants that has been policy in the U.S. since

1965. That culturally different immigrants lag host populations his is not an exclusively

American phenomenon: in the 1970s, Southern European immigrants (most specifically

Greek, Italians, and Yugoslavian) incomes' to Australia lagged behind the incomes of immigrants from West Germany or English speaking countries115. In Sweden, the average income for Turkish and Iranian immigrants was of respectively 74% and 61% what native Swedes earned between 1993 and 2000116. Some 13% of Iraqi women and

23% of Iraqi men were employed in Sweden in the 1990s., and they were quantitatively more educated than the native Swedes117. It is obvious that there were (and still are) important qualitative difference between Iraqi/Iranian/Turkish and Swedish education, but these migrant groups were not "unskilled and/or agrarian labor." In a 2004 study, the Swedish newspaper Dagens Nyheter has found that some ten years after refugees from around the world immigrated to Sweden, their median yearly income was of only

114 Brimelow, Peter. Alien Nation: Common Sense about Americas Immigration Disaster. New York, NY: HarperPerennial, 1996. loc 3642

115 Sowell, Thomas. Migrations and Cultures: A World View. New York, NY: BasicBooks, 2016 introduction

116 Sanandaji, Nima. Debunking Utopia Exposing the Myth of Nordic Socialism. Washington, D.C.: WND Books, 2016 loc 1895

117 Ibid. loc 1911

29 133,200 Swedish Crowns compared to a national average of 284,400 Crowns118.

Sweden, like most Western countries, have a family reunification program. Most family members immigrating through this program with refugees barely earned 54,000

Swedish crowns per year kronor 10 years (!) after entering the country119. Of course, money is not everything in life and only a materialist would say that x group of immigrant is, overall, a burden to his host country because he earns much less than the native population. Maybe that is all this person needs. However, in a 2016 paper published by Linnaeus University's "Centre for Labour and Discrimination Studies"

Mats Hammarstedt and Lina Alden argue that the average refugee creates a net costs of $23,000 after the first year of migration, and that this sum is reduced to $14,500 five years later120. Those costs do not include the refugees extremely high crime rates, and the paper suggests that favoring highly educated refugee may reduce these costs, whereas I've already pointed out that this did not make a difference for the Turkish,

Iranian, and Iraqi refugees.

As previously stated, these differences cannot be reduced to discrimination.

Chinese people, whether in Malaysia, in Vietnam, in Indonesia, In Brazil, or in the U.S., have almost always had higher incomes than the native population121. Chinese people have managed this feat even though they almost always had to deal with laws explicitly

118 Sanandaji, Nima. "Swedish Welfare Model Traps Immigrants in Poverty." CapX. October 08, 2015. Accessed March 26, 2019. https://capx.co/swedish-welfare-model-traps-immigrants-in-poverty/.

119 Ibid.

120 Alden, Lina, and MATS HAMMARSTEDT. "Refugee Immigration and Public Sector Finances." Linnaeus University. August 2016. Accessed April 4, 2019. https://lnu.se/contentassets/ac906546f65348358d07984c47e56e4c/ klarahrefugeeimmigration_edited_161023.pdf.

121 Sowell, Thomas. Migrations and Cultures: A World View. New York, NY: BasicBooks, 2016 chapter 5

30 discriminating against them (for instance, affirmative action laws and a hostile native population)122. Likewise, by the 1970s, Chinese Americans had higher incomes than

Americans in general and higher occupational status123. This difference may simply have been caused by Chinese Americans residing in high income areas (mainly big cities), but it is noteworthy that one-fourth of all employed Chinese Americans are working in scientific and professional fields124. Depending on one's viewpoint, Chinese

Americans were also either workaholics or hard workers: close to 20% of Chinese families had three or more income earners, compared to 7.5% for Puerto Ricans, and

12.5% among Whites125.

Japanese Americans were, much like the Chinese, highly discriminated against in the U.S., and they have been infamously sent to concentration camps by the

Roosevelt administration during World War 2. Japanese Americans started out as agricultural laborers, and were preferred to any other ethnic group (including the native

Whites) thanks to their high productivity: when Japanese agricultural laborers were paid on a piecework basis, they earned up to twice as much as other laborers126. Even

Roosevelt interning the Japanese Americans did not manage to destroy Japanese

Americans' human capital, because only 15 years after having been sent to concentration camps, Japanese-American males on the mainland of the United States

122 Ibid chapter 5.

123 Sowell, Thomas. Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups. Washington: Urban Institute, 1978 p.299

124 Ibid. p. 299

125 Ibid p.266,284,302,386

126 Higgs, Robert. "Landless by Law: Japanese Immigrants in California Agriculture to 1941." The Journal of Economic History38, no. 01 (1978): p.208 doi:10.1017/s0022050700088252

31 earned only 1% less than their White counterparts, and only 2% less when age is taken into account127. As previously stated, this is not a racial, but a cultural matter: in the

1970s, Second-generation Blacks from the West Indies had higher incomes than

Whites128. It is likely that their urban backgrounds have contributed to their success:

80% of them immigrated from cities129. Also, in New York, Puerto Ricans in the 1970s had 16% lower incomes than American Blacks residing in those areas130 although the difference may disappear when adjusted for age, since Puerto Ricans were the youngest of all immigrant groups at the time131. Puerto Rican women had a very low labor force participation rate in 1978, which was one half that of Black women at the time132. This is not a cost to society in and of itself, but not working, in the modern

West, often means being on welfare, especially if we are studying comparatively poorer communities. Mexican Americans, had a comparatively slower rise in their incomes than that of other immigrant groups. In 1959, Mexican Americans in the South-West were 62% of the American average, and in the early 1970s they earned 73% of the

American average133. As we will study over the next section, the difference may mostly be due do less schooling among Mexican Americans. For example, in 1971, it has been found that Mexican Americans had higher incomes than American citizens at

127 Petersen, William. Japanese Americans: Oppression and Success. Lanham, MD: University Press, 1971 p.114

128 Sowell, Thomas. "Ethnicity: Three Black Histories." The Wilson Quarterly (1976-) 3, no. 1 (1979): 96-106. http:// www.jstor.org/stable/40255565.

129 Reid, Ira De Augustine. The Negro Immigrant: His Background, Characteristics, and Social Adjustment, 1899-1937. New York: AMS Press, 1970 p. 89

130 Glazer, Nathan, and Daniel Patrick Moyhinan. Beyond the Melting Pot. Boston, MA: MIT Press, 1970 p.116

131 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992 chapter 7

132 US Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, #224 p.9

133 Godsell, Geoffrey. "The PUERTO RICANS." The Christian Science Monitor. May 01, 1980. Accessed April 04, 2019. https://www.csmonitor.com/1980/0501/050153.html.

32 every educational level up to eight years, and an impressive 90% of the U.S. average for those who had completed high school134. The problem is that too few completed high school. Furthermore, almost half of low income Mexican Americans in Los

Angeles reported having difficulty in speaking English135. In the 1950s, only 8% of

Southwestern Hispanics had completed high school, with the number growing to 29% in 1970, which represented an impressive increase, but they were still underrepresented in high school graduation rates136.

To conclude this section, it is apparent that the same cultures which had lower crime rates upon their arrival to the U.S. in the 19th and 20th century (the Jews, the

Japanese, the Chinese) have better adapted to American life and even surpassed

Americans in regards to their average incomes. It is also clear that immigrant groups with higher crime rates (Hispanics, Muslims, 19th-century Irish) overall earn less and consequently use more welfare services. As previously stated, it of course is not a cost in and of itself if someone is happy with their minimum wage job as a cashier. However, the welfare state makes it that groups which earn very little are very likely to use welfare, with some historical exceptions such as the Italians.

134 Ibid.

135 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992 chapter 8

136 U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 Census of Population, Subject Reports, PC(2)-1D, p.21

33 Education

The income difference between different cultures and ethnicities can partly be explained by their differing educational habits. It has been argued that education should not be conflated with learning, with most people likely getting diplomas to

"signal" to potential employers that they are conformists, dedicated, and goal- driven137. It is nonetheless fair to assume that high levels of education in a given population is symptomatic of the cultural inculcation of values that are useful in developing human capital. For instance, among Japanese immigrants, their success in

America was more highly correlated with the average levels of education in their home prefecture than their own individual levels of education138. Furthermore, cultural groups who tend to get more education also study in fields that are better suited to the needs of the market (ie STEM) and in institutions known for their higher quality. In 1973, there were "only three Mexican Americans with Ph.D.s in Economics, eight with Ph.D.s in political science, and only two dozens with Ph.D.s in sociology139", whereas there were already three Chinese American Nobel Prize recipients at the time, all in physics. The

Mexican American was (and still is) much larger than the Chinese American population.

Also, Jewish people's overrepresentation in Nobel Prize has continued, if not accelerated, upon their massive arrival to the U.S.140 Not only do they study for longer

137 Caplan, Bryan Douglas. The Case against Education: Why the Education System Is a Waste of Time and Money. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018.

138 Levine, Gene N., and Darrel M. Montero. "Socioeconomic Mobility among Three Generations of Japanese Americans." Journal of Social Issues29, no. 2 (1973): 33-48. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00071.x p.40

139 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992 p.269

140 Van Den Haag, Ernest. The Jewish Mystique. New York, 1977 p. 22-23

34 and at better institutions, but Jewish Americans also tend to study in more demanding

fields such as medicine, the hard sciences, and law141. The same pattern can be observed among Japanese142 and Chinese Americans143, who have been overrepresented for decades in STEM fields. Hispanics not only tended to have less education, but also one of lower quality. In Texas, prior to affirmative action, three times more Mexican Americans enrolled at the lower ranked University of Texas at El Paso than its higher ranked Austin counterpart144. It is worth pointing out that the University of Texas at Austin was (and still is) much larger than at El Paso.

It has frequently been observed that relatively poorer people have more children than relatively richer people in a given society. However, some ethnic groups have had a harder time to keep the human capital that was gained by their successful offspring, because the successful offspring of low income minority groups choose not to reproduce. Economist Thomas Sowell has indicated that, in the mid 1980s, comparatively successful Mexican American and Puerto Rican women, who had completed high school, had fewer children than any other women with the same education145. When those successful individual of low income background die off without having any "heir," the human capital they have gained through hard work and

141 Ladd, Everett Carll., and Seymour Martin. Lipset. The Divided Academy: Professors and Politics. New York: Norton, 1976 p.88 and 150

142 Petersen, William. Japanese Americans: Oppression and Success. Lanham, MD: University Press, 1971 p.114

143 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992 chapter 6

144 Stoddard, Ellwyn R. Mexican Americans: Ethnic Groups in Comparative Perspective. Washington: University Press of America, 1981 p. 133

145 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992 chapter 7 and chapter 8

35 dedication leaves this earth at the same time as they do. This factor hence contributes to some cultures advancing at a much slower rate than others.

The main point of this thesis is that culture matters. One of the most interesting countries to study, for this reason, is Italy. Italian immigrants to the United States originated from both Northern Italy, whose culture is similar to that of Northern Europe and consequently that of the United States, and "Southern Italy" (which includes the central part), whose culture is more similar to that of Portugal and Greece. Northern

Italians even convinced the American authorities to keep separate statistics for the two groups146. In 1912, merely 12% of Northern Italian immigrants in the United States were illiterate, compared to more than half of Southern Italian immigrants who couldn't read147. In Australia, Southern and Eastern European immigrants were often illiterate and could only communicate in their local dialects, not in English or in the main language of their home countries148. Again, patterns which were found in their home countries were simply repeated in their new host countries: Germans in the Austro-

Hungarian Empire had an illiteracy rate of only 6%, whereas Serbs' and

Croatians' (living in the same empire) illiteracy rate was of 75%149. For this reason, it is interesting that the generally illiterate (more than 50%150) Eastern European jews encouraged their children to go to school and rent books from public libraries. This can

146 Gambino, Richard. Blood of My Blood. Toronto: Guernica, 2011 p.85

147 Tomasi, Silvano M., and Madeline H. Engel. The Italian Experience in the United States. New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1977 p.112

148 Sowell, Thomas. Migrations and Cultures: A World View. New York, NY: BasicBooks, 2016 chapter 1

149 Ibid. p.4

150 Sowell, Thomas, and Lynn D. Collins. American Ethnic Groups. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1978 p.116

36 be explained, in part, by the positive attitudes of the Jewish community towards education in general151. For instance, in a New York Russian-Jewish library, more than half of the books borrowed were non-fiction works, and bestsellers stayed on the shelves152. Out of all the European immigrant groups, Irish immigrants to the United

States have taken a very long time to reach American educational and income averages, which can partly be explained by Celtic culture's hostility towards literacy153 and lack of intellectual tradition154. In the early 1900s, an era in which high school diplomas needed to be earned, 16% of Jewish and 15% of German teens graduated high school, whereas only 1% of Irish children and close to no Italian did155. It is worth noting that the average Italian immigrated to America much later than the average Irish immigrant did.

In short, the pattern seems to be very similar in immigrant's educational preferences as they are of their propensity to crime and rate of welfare use. Immigrant groups who gravitate towards more education, especially towards the STEM fields, medicine, and law, tend to have lower crime rates and higher earnings than those who get less education. To this point, it would seem preferable to choose foreign students who study in STEM fields, medicine, or law in Western universities as immigrants. To

151 Haag, Ernest Van Den. The Jewish Mystique. New York, 1977. Chapter 1

152 Feldstein, Stanley, and Lauwrence Costello. The Ordeal of Assimilation. New York: Anchor Books, 1974 p. 122-123

153 OBrien, Máire, and Conor Cruise OBrien. A Concise History of Ireland. London: Thames and Hudson, 1994 p.25

154 Greeley, Andrew M., and Daniel Patrick Moynihan. That Most Distressful Nation the Taming of the American Irish, .Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1997 p. 250

155 Ravitch, Diane. The Great School Wars. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1974 p.178

37 make the "green card" contest competitive, it would be possible to exclusively accept

STEM, medicine, and law graduates with a Grade Point Average of 4 and more.

Western Universities graduates most likely already know their potential home country's language and were, in most cases, ready to incur the great cost of tuition fees for international students for a chance to a better future. This solution would also be politically feasible, since there is no reason why this policy should à priori favor one ethnic group over another. Affirmative action laws do not favor minorities graduation rates, they penalize minorities in mismatching them: if some student would do great in studying at a State university, but knows that he could be accepted in a top-rated

University, chances are he will choose the top university. The problem arises when this student cannot graduate from this top university because he has been mismatched by affirmative action. He simply is not qualified for top university school work. Favoring

STEM graduates over others would appear preferable to having bureaucrats, who pay no cost for being wrong, pick and choose who would be a good fit to live in their country, far away from where they live. Nonetheless, in today's racially obsessed society, in which any discrepancy between the sexes or ethnic groups is taken as

"proof" of discrimination, it is possible that there would be backlash should the immigrants not come from the countries currently in vogue among the intelligentsia.

Politics always favor extreme proposals, and it is unlikely that anything other than

"open borders" or completely closed borders will be popular among the electorate. As we'll explore over the next section, favoring STEM graduates would not necessarily reduce the political costs of immigration, which are often ignored by economists.

38 Politics and Voting Patterns

Immigrant groups' effect on politics is rarely discussed. Former Quebec Prime

Minister Jacques Parizeau, following the "No" victory on the 1995 Quebec referendum on Independence, famously said that "we have been beaten by what? By money and by ethnic votes." Generally, Western politicians stay away from such comments, but tribalism is still in vogue in modern times. Immigrants are not always the culprits, but are often the victims of changes in local politics. For instance, the Irish were victims of the nativist Know-Nothings, who physically attacked them156 and burnt their churches157. Many employers had No Irish need apply signs on their store158. Irish riots targeted Blacks for lynching159, and the Irish have led physical and political attacks against Chinese Americans160.

Ethnic hatred is not an exclusively American phenomenon. In the days of the

Russian Empire, the Baltic Germans were a dominant economic force and Latvians who wanted to become successful needed to germanize themselves by speaking

German, acting German, and getting an education at Dorpat University in the German

156 Jones, Maldwyn Allen. American Immigration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998 p.157

157 Ibid. p.150

158 Sowell, Thomas. "The Multicultural Cult: Part II, by Dr. Thomas Sowell." , by Dr. Thomas Sowell | Creators Syndicate. October 18, 2010. Accessed April 08, 2019. https://www.creators.com/read/thomas-sowell/10/10/the- multicultural-cult-part-ii.

159 McCague, James. The Second Rebellion: The Story of the New York City Draft Riots of 1863. New York: Dial, 1968 p.74

160 Wittke, Carl Frederick. The Irish in America. New York: Russell and Russell, 1970 p.183-184

39 language161. However, when Latvians became more successful, they decided to engage in identity politics. A similar situation occurred between the Czechs and the

Germans in Bohemia162. For centuries, the Germans were more successful, and Czech demagogues promoted ethnic nationalism which eventually lead to the expulsion of

Germans from Czechoslovakia to "go back where they came from" even though many had lived in what became Czechoslovakia for generations. The Czechoslovak economy was thus hurt by the demagogues who insisted on expelling the ethnic group with the most human capital. This pattern was not exclusive to those two countries, and most

Eastern European countries engaged in ethnic cleansing against the Germans after

World War 2163. Yale School of Law's Amy Chua explains how a highly successful minority, relatively free markets, and democracy are a sure recipe for ethnic hatred.

Professor Chua does not explain why she believes that ethnic minorities weren't mistreated in the Soviet Union, or aren't currently mistreated in communist Cuba and

China. Chua's points on democracy and dominant minorities is still worth mentioning.

In her book World on Fire, she documents how "market-dominant minorities are the

Achilles' heel of free market democracy.164". Indeed, it has been found that, post World

War 2, the world has seen many socialist movements which were not necessarily

161 Sowell, Thomas. "The Multicultural Cult: Part II, by Dr. Thomas Sowell." , by Dr. Thomas Sowell | Creators Syndicate. October 18, 2010. Accessed April 08, 2019. https://www.creators.com/read/thomas-sowell/10/10/the- multicultural-cult-part-ii.

162 Sowell, Thomas. "The Multicultural Cult: Part II, by Dr. Thomas Sowell." , by Dr. Thomas Sowell | Creators Syndicate. October 18, 2010. Accessed April 08, 2019. https://www.creators.com/read/thomas-sowell/10/10/the- multicultural-cult-part-ii.

163 Taylor, Adam. "The Forgotten Story of When the Germans Were the Refugees." The Washington Post. September 03, 2015. Accessed April 08, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/09/03/the- forgotten-story-of-when-the-germans-were-the-refugees/?utm_term=.a4c887d54e95.

164 Chua, Amy. World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability. London: Arrow, 2004 page 6

40 motivated by socialist ideals or by the Soviet Union, but by sheer jealousy of a more successful ethnic group. The vast democratization process that happened following the Evil Empire's demise has lead to many demagogues who, from their point of view, rationally called for the majority population's votes through ethnic cleansing or socialist expropriation. For instance, in Indonesia, the Chinese, who represent 3 percent of the population, own an estimated 70% of the country's capital165. They were overwhelmingly targeted during President Sukarno's nationalization of the 1950s and

1960s166. Furthermore, former Burma dictator U Nu's main goal in confiscating private assets mainly held by the Chinese minority was merely to burmanize the economy167.

White minorities are targeted by overtly racist "land reform" policies in South Africa, just like they were in Zimbabwe some decades before168. Prior to this, it was estimated that the Zimbabwe's 1% White minority owned 70% of the land for generations169.

Furthermore, the relatively more successful East Indians were chased out of East Africa and both Uganda170 whose economy has greatly suffered from the loss of this human capital. In multicultural countries, it is always easy to blame foreigners for a given group's relatively worse in society. Economist Thomas Sowell has extensively written on the Japanese people's backwardness in the mid 19th Century, and that their open-

165 Chua, Amy. World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability. London: Arrow, 2004. Page 6

166 Ibid. Page 132

167 Ibid page 132

168 Nkosi, Milton. "Is South Africa's Land Reform an Election Gimmick?" BBC News. August 11, 2018. Accessed April 13, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45099915.

169 Chua, Amy. World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability. London: Arrow, 2004 page 10

170 British Broadcasting Corporation "1972: Asians given 90 Days to Leave Uganda." BBC News. August 07, 1972. Accessed April 13, 2019. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/7/newsid_2492000/2492333.stm.

41 minded attitudes and capacity to self-reflect lead them to develop their human capital171. Japan was a monocultural country, and it was hence impossible for the

Japanese to blame foreigners for their backwardness. The Chinese are a majority in

Singapore and it hence doesn't matter that they are among the most successful ethnic groups there. Problems have a greater probability of occurring when there is a dominant ethnic minority. Racial hustlers and other demagogues capacity to win votes or simple public support (in the case of dictators) in blaming immigrants for economic disparities is hence another cost of immigration. As a result, the world economy is relatively less free because of political feuds between different ethnicities or cultural groups. Amy Chua relates some of the political slogans following the fall of communism: " 'Kazakhstan for Kazakhs', 'Serbia for Serbs,' 'Eritreans out of Ethiopia,'

'Jews out of Russia,'" and many more172.

The Irish also overwhelmingly contributed to the incredibly corrupted Irish

Political Machines, which now rule the cities of Boston, New York, Chicago, and many others173. It should be clear that, even if not corrupt, politics is by definition contrary to the free market and has a negative effect on potential economic growth. Hence, the fact that German immigrants to the U.S. had generally no interest in government or

171 Sowell, Thomas. ""Race, Culture, and Equality"." "Race, Culture, and Equality". Accessed April 13, 2019. https:// www.tsowell.com/spracecu.html.

172 Chua, Amy. World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability. London: Arrow, 2004 page 10

173 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992 chapter 1.

42 politics174,175 can be seen as a net positive, whereas the Irish inclination towards politics, and away from the professions is arguably a cost on the American economy.

Voting patterns are also worth mentioning to this study. If politics is contrary to the free market and economic development, the fact that many minorities vote for comparatively socialist politics parties is of matter to this study. If we accept the premise that, in the last 100 years, the Democratic Party has been relatively more socialist in its rhetoric and policies than the Republican party, voting Democratic is hence a cost to society. It should not come as a surprise that many minority groups in the West vote for openly Left-wing parties. Many come from crony capitalist countries and hold the belief that wealth is always the fruit of inherited privilege and state-backed cronyism. This is not to say that the Republican Party is a friend of the free market. It is simply not as much of an enemy. Furthermore, if there is a greater demand for left-wing policies, every single party will consequently be forced to the left. It has been found that both Mexicans and Puerto Ricans vote overwhelmingly Democratic176. Democratic

Presidential candidates John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Baines Johnson and Humbert

Humphrey got 85%, 90% and 87% of the Mexican votes, whereas the three earned

75%, 86%, and 87% respectively of the Puerto Rican votes177. This pattern does not seem to have changed as Hispanics have adapted to the American lifestyle, as 67% of

174 Furnas, Joseph Chamberlain. The Americans: A Social History of the United States: 1581-1914. New York, 1969 p.86

175 Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1992. Chapter 2

176 Levy, Mark R., and Michael S. Kramer. The Ethnic Factor; How Americas Minorities Decide Elections, by Mark R. Levy and Michael S. Kramer. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972 p.77

177 Ibid

43 Hispanics voted for Barack Obama in 2008178, and 71% did in 2012179. Hillary Clinton was comparatively unpopular among Hispanic voters in 2016 in which she received

"only" 66% of their votes180. Similarly, the Jews overwhelmingly vote Democratic since the days of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. FDR got 90% of the Jewish vote in 1940, and

Adlai Stevenson one of the most unpopular Democratic candidate among the Jewish community since then, still earned 60% of the Jewish vote in 1956181. Today, the

Jewish community gives around 70% of its votes to Democratic presidential candidates182. In France, it has been claimed that Socialist President François Hollande would have lost against the relatively less socialist Nicolas Sarkozy without the Muslim vote. Indeed, Hollande got 93% of the Muslim vote, which is predicted to be worth some 10% of the French electorate in 2022183. Some 90% of Antwerp residents with

Moroccan or Turkish origins voted for left-wing parties in the 2018 elections184. In short, the nativist backlash, in the face of high immigration, calls for a greater socialization of

178 Mark Hugo Lopez. The Hispanic Vote in 2008. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, November 2008

179 Krogstad, Jens Manuel, Mark Hugo Lopez, Jens Manuel Krogstad, and Mark Hugo Lopez. "Hillary Clinton Won Latino Vote but Fell below 2012 Support for Obama." Pew Research Center. November 29, 2016. Accessed April 13, 2019. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/11/29/hillary-clinton-wins-latino-vote-but-falls-below-2012- support-for-obama/.

180 ibid.

181 Levy, Mark R., and Michael S. Kramer. The Ethnic Factor; How Americas Minorities Decide Elections, by Mark R. Levy and Michael S. Kramer. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972 p.103

182 Jewish Virtual Library. "U.S. Presidential Elections: Jewish Voting Record." Jewish Voting Record in U.S. Presidential Elections. Accessed April 13, 2019. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jewish-voting-record-in-u-s- presidential-elections.

183 Gourévitch, Jean-Paul. "Ce Que Pèse Vraiment Le Vote Musulman Dans La Balance Démocratique Française." Atlantico.fr. Accessed July 13, 2019. https://www.atlantico.fr/decryptage/3570338/ce-que-pese-vraiment-le-vote- musulman-dans-la-balance-democratique-francaise-gourevitch.

184 FWM Staff. "Antwerp Reaches the Demographic Tipping Point." Free West Media. February 28, 2019. Accessed July 13, 2019. https://freewestmedia.com/2019/02/28/antwerp-reaches-the-demographic-tipping-point/.

44 the economy, whereas immigrants' voting patterns also call for a greater socialization of the economy.

Conclusion

To conclude, immigration has many hidden costs that are not included in today's mainstream economic studies on the subject. Historically, people have migrated where their labor was most useful (ie where there was more capital), which fits perfectly with economic theory. However, people are not like iPhones, and they bring their own ways of living with them, which may cause higher costs than what has been estimated by economists to this day. The change on the native country's culture is not to be underestimated, as capitalism is the only economic system which relies on a specific culture to survive. Immigrant voting patterns hence need to be included as a cost of immigration. Also, dominant immigrant minorities may be the victims of confiscation of their assets by the country's ethnic majority, as has been seen in many South East

Asian countries. Moreover, immigrants do not pursue the same educational patterns, and some will prefer the highly useful STEM fields while others will not graduate from high school. This is not to say that education is valuable in and of itself, but in the current system of public schooling, if someone fails to graduate from high school and then consequently earns a low-paying job, it is unclear how this person is not a burden on the country's taxpayers. Western societies are still relatively high trust societies compared to the rest of the world, and increase third world immigration may increase transaction costs due to language, cultural differences, or crime. As previously stated

45 in the early sections of this thesis, crime is a major cost of immigration. Much like some groups will specialize in trading (ie the Lebanese in West Africa), others will have relatively higher crime rates than their host societies. This is not necessarily due to poverty, since the Japanese and Chinese immigrants, who were among the poorest and most discriminated against ethnic groups of Canada and the United States, had lower crime rates than the native Whites. Hopefully, Economist Nick Srnicek would take these costs in consideration and decrease his estimate of a $US 100 trillion greater world economy185. Srnicek, like Bryan Caplan, assumes a static world with abstract human beings living in them. It appears that Thomas Sowell's manner of studying peoples (Germans in Brazil, Germans in the United States, Germans in Australia, etc.) makes it easier to identify what, historically, has been typically "German," instead of assuming that some countries are poor because of sweatshops, like Srnicek.

Economist Michael Clemens offers a more sober estimate, with $US 78 trillion being

"left on the sidewalk" by having borders and not the free movement of labor. Here,

Clemens assumes that people migrate in order to work, which is a flawed assumption if we look at the facts. Some immigrant groups prefer to be on welfare, which is very logical, since they can enjoy a better life on Western welfare than by living (and working) in a third world country. Immigrant voting patterns and crime rates are also omitted, and hopefully an Economist will include such costs in future studies, which would undeniably reduce the $US 78 trillion figure. In short, this study did not aim to favor a complete closure of every country's border, but calls for a reduction in immigration and, more importantly, discrimination between immigrant groups given the

185 Srnicek, Nick. "The US$100 Trillion Case for Open Borders." The Conversation. May 22, 2019. Accessed July 13, 2019. http://theconversation.com/the-us-100-trillion-case-for-open-borders-72595.

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