AGENDA REPORT CITY MANAGER’S OFFICE
DATE: April 28, 2009
TO: Mayor McLaughlin and Members of the City Council
FROM: Bill Lindsay, City Manager
SUBJECT: FOOD PACKAGING POLICIES
STATEMENT OF THE ISSUE:
In December 2007, the City Council directed City staff to recommend policies that incentivize the use of biodegradable food ware and explore the feasibility of implementing a Styrofoam ban on prepared food packaging for City of Richmond food vendors. This report details staff research findings and provides recommendations for action.
RECOMMENDED ACTION:
1) RECEIVE this report on the environmental impacts of to-go food ware and the effectiveness of food ware ordinances at reducing those impacts 2) PROVIDE staff direction regarding the development of a food ware ordinance that a) prohibits the use of expanded polystyrene food ware by Richmond vendors, City facilities and departments, and vendors doing business with the City, b) requires that Richmond vendors, City facilities and departments, and vendors doing business with the City use food ware that is biodegradable or compostable, and c) includes funding for City staff to develop a comprehensive outreach and education program to educate and assist food vendors in the procurement of biodegradable or compostable food ware 3) SUPPORT the development of a residential and commercial food waste collection and processing program in the City of Richmond
FINANCIAL IMPACT OF RECOMMENDATION:
The City will absorb any increased costs associated with purchasing biodegradable or compostable food ware products for use in City facilities. Implementation of a food ware ordinance is expected to require an average of 20 percent of the Sustainability Coordinator’s work hours over twelve months and an average of 5 percent of four Green Team member’s work hours over two months,
April 28, 2009 1 of 13 or a total of $12,050 in staff costs. Costs of educational materials are estimated to be $10,000.
DISCUSSION:
Background Expanded polystyrene, also known as “Styrofoam,” is formed by adding a blowing agent to a petroleum-based plastic material with the resin identification code #6. Expanded polystyrene is a valuable commercial material because of its good insulation capabilities and light weight. It is often used to protect or insulate items during shipping in the packaging industry. In the food service industry, it is used to manufacture cups, plates, bowls, take-out containers, and other food ware designed for single-use.
Growing public concern about the environmental impacts (litter and marine pollution) and human health (toxicity to consumers and worker health and safety) of Styrofoam has resulted in the enactment of food ware ordinances by many California communities (See Appendix A) and other U.S cities prohibiting the use of expanded polystyrene food ware and requiring that food ware be biodegradable, recyclable, or compostable. This has been part of a larger movement of cities and countries around the world that have taken action to achieve a deep reduction in plastic litter and waste.
Litter and Marine Pollution Food ware ordinances have primarily resulted from concern about the environmental impact of expanded polystyrene plastic as land and marine pollution. Expanded polystyrene degrades the aesthetic quality of a landscape and has high collection and cleanup costs. Even when disposed of properly, its light weight causes it to blow away from landfills. Expanded polystyrene represents 15 percent of the total volume of litter recovered from the storm drains in California4. Results from the 2008 Richmond Coastal Cleanup determined that expanded polystyrene by far constituted the greatest percentage debris type by number of pieces (94 percent of all debris pieces collected). While this does not reflect litter composition by volume or weight, it illustrates the prevalence of plastic debris as litter, which affects the marine environment in ways that are not yet well understood. The City of Richmond has 32 miles of shoreline, which may make a food ware ordinance particularly relevant, although the origin of debris in an area is often difficult to determine because trash and litter may travel long distances before being deposited on shorelines or settling at the bottom of the riverbed, bay, or ocean.
A 1997 study found that at least 267 species have been affected by marine debris worldwide, including 86 percent of all sea turtle species, 44 percent of all seabird species, and 43 percent of all marine mammal species, as well as numerous fish and crustaceans8. According to the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, samples of water from the northern Pacific Ocean show that plastic
April 28, 2009 2 of 13 debris consists of several plastic types and may outweigh the dry weight of plankton by up to six times7. In the marine environment, plastic breaks up into tiny pieces that persist and may harm wildlife upon ingestion7,8 (See Appendix A). Because plastic pieces are similar in size to plankton, they may pose a large risk to filter feeders.
A 1998 study of beach debris in southern California showed that the most abundant item was pre-production plastic pellets followed by foamed plastic4. Point sources of plastic pollution include plastic manufacturers and fabricators. Non-point sources include litter from beach goers and litter farther inland that is carried by wind or streams to the sea.
In the case that paper food ware products are improperly disposed and end up in the marine environment, they have the advantage of being able to completely biodegrade within a reasonable time frame, whereas plastics will only photodegradea into smaller pieces. Degradability of compostable food ware products in the marine environment is largely unknown because such products are relatively new.
A proposed preventative measure for reducing the discharge of non- biodegradable litter into waterways is a trash source reduction section in the Municipal Regional Stormwater Permit, which would provide a 20% reduction in the requirement to install trash capture devices if the City prohibits or controls the use of non-biodegradable packaging or plastic bags17. The reduction is expected to save the City of Richmond $10,000-$40,000 in capital expenditures. It may also save an additional $30,000 in annual maintenance costs14.
Toxicity and Health Toxicity and human health effects were evaluated from three sources: 1) styrene that may be inhaled or absorbed by workers in the manufacturing process 2) ingested through the use of expanded polystyrene and alternative products and 3) pollution that may result from manufacturing processes.
1. Styrene is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IRAC) as a possible carcinogen to humans1. Styrene, an organic compound, is primarily used in the production of polystyrene plastics and resins. The highest potential exposure of workers to styrene occurs in the reinforced-plastics industry, where workers may be exposed to high air concentrations and also have dermal exposure to liquid styrene or resins. Workers involved in styrene polymerization, rubber manufacturing and styrene-polyester resin facilities and workers at photocopy centers may also be exposed to styrene1. Exposure to styrene can result from inhaling fumes from manufacturing facilities, breathing indoor air that is contaminated with styrene vapors, inhaling cigarette smoke,
a Through exposure to sunlight, plastics will break down into minute plastic pieces that retain their molecular composition. They will not biodegrade, or be decomposed by biological activity into natural elements, within a reasonable time frame.
April 28, 2009 3 of 13 using photocopy machines, breathing contaminated workplace air, skin contact with liquid styrene and resins, drinking or bathing in contaminated water and ingesting food or liquid that is packaged in expanded polystyrene1.
Chronic styrene exposure results primarily in central nervous system effects and/or neurotoxicity5. Numerous occupational studies have noted central nervous system disturbances in styrene-exposed workers such as decreased manual dexterity, decrease visuomotor accuracy and/or abnormal vestibuloocular reflex (ability to track moving objects)5. Short-term exposure to styrene in humans may result in mucous membrane and eye irritation and nervous system and gastrointestinal effects12. Effects of animal exposure to styrene include lung, olfactory epithelial and forestomach lesions5.
2. Styrene has been shown to migrate from containers into food or drink. The amount of styrene that migrates into food or drink increases with higher temperature and increased fat content of the food or drink16. However, limited studies exist on human health effects from this method of exposure.
Many plastics may release pollutants into food or drink because of their original additive components. Chemicals like nonylphenols, PBDEs, phthalates, and bisphenol A are added to plastics during production to give it different properties like flexibility, durability and UV resistance. These additives have the potential to be released from plastics into foods and other products that come into direct contact with skin, and some are considered hormone disruptors with considerable effects on human health. Studies show that plastics #3 (polyvinyl chloride), #6 (polystyrene), and #7 (other) leach chemicals that adversely affect human healthb,6,13.
3. Both the plastics and paper manufacturing industries are heavily polluting industries. The plastics manufacturing process releases toxic emissions primarily into the air, also releasing toxic emissions into water and soil. Commonly released chemicals include carbon disulfide, methanol and other volatile solvents and monomers9. The paper manufacturing also contributes to air, water and soil pollution. A primary concern is the use of chlorine-based bleaches and the resultant toxic emissions.
Solid Waste and Recycling Plastics altogether represent 12.1 percent of the U.S. municipal waste stream11. In 1999, an estimated 300,000 tons of polystyrene plastic (0.8 percent of the waste stream by weight) were disposed of in California landfills4. Non-recyclable plastics present a pervasive challenge in the recycling industry. #1 plasticsc and #2 plasticsd are currently the only plastics with viable recycling markets allowing
b Phthalates, an endocrine disruptor, are typically used as a plastic softener in the manufacturing of vinyl chloride. Bisphenol A, also an endocrine disruptor, is used in the manufacturing of many #7 plastics. c #1 plastics (polyethylene) consist primarily of water and soda bottles. d #2 plastics (high-density polyethylene) consist primarily of laundry detergent and milk jug type bottles.
April 28, 2009 4 of 13 recyclers to economically collect and recycle these materials. The West County Resource Recovery Facility, which processes recyclables in the City of Richmond, currently does not accept plastic food ware, including hinged containers, cups, and cutlery, or any wide-neck containerse for recycling because of the lack of recycling markets for these material types. Recycling food ware is complicated further by the presence of food residue. Commercial and institutional polystyrene products, including food service polystyrene, represent 42 percent of polystyrene production4. No meaningful recycling of food service polystyrene or any other #6 plastics currently occurs. In terms of recycling and waste reduction, expanded polystyrene, wide-neck containers, and #3-7 plastics are arguably equally unfavorable. An ordinance that allows food vendors to substitute expanded polystyrene food ware with food ware made from other plastics would not divert waste from landfills.
The California Integrated Waste Management Board (CIWMB) reports that replacing single-use food service polystyrene with compostable alternatives provides polystyrene source reduction potential4. However, the environmental benefits of biodegradable or compostable food ware in terms of reducing waste are significantly diffused by Richmond’s lack of a food waste collection and processing program. Many compostable materials, which include food contaminated paper products and biodegradable food ware, must currently be placed in garbage carts and are disposed of in the landfill. In landfills, anaerobic conditions inhibit the natural decomposition of paper and biodegradable materials and promote the generation of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
Republic Services hopes to begin composting onsite at the West Contra Costa County Landfill once the landfill is capped, which is expected to be complete in 2010. The existence of a food waste processing program does not ensure that all biodegradable or compostable food waste will be biodegraded, as some biodegradable plastic food ware, such as those made from corn or bagassef, require high temperatures and specialized equipment in order to decompose properly.
The West Contra Costa Integrated Waste Management Authority will solicit bids for a green waste processing program that may include mixed yard waste and/or food waste processing. Programs may vary from composting to anaerobic digestion for energy production. The program is expected to be in place by October.
Resource Consumption Environmental staff considered the broad implications of a food ware ordinance by evaluating the general life cycle impacts (cradle to grave environmental impacts) of plastics, paper and compostable products and manufacturing processes.
e Wide-neck containers are not constricted at the neck. Examples are margarine tubs and yogurt containers. f Bagasse is the leftover fiber resulting from sugarcane processing.
April 28, 2009 5 of 13
There is considerable debate surrounding the issue of whether the manufacturing of plastic or paper food ware products results in less energy consumption and environmental impact. Plastics are made from a non-renewable resource. Paper is also arguable made from a non-renewable resource. The pulp and paper industry is the largest industrial process water user in the U.S. Environmental impacts are significantly greater if paper products are not made from recycled materials.
In terms of energy and resource consumption, the manufacturing processes of plastic and paper arguably have comparable environmental impacts. When effects on marine litter and human health are considered, paper products are preferable. Furthermore, unbleached, recycled paper products are preferable to bleached, virgin paper products and the life cycle impacts of paper products can be reduced by the existence of food waste collection and processing programs.
The manufacturing of plant-based plastics may also be resource intensive. One analysis argued that producing one type of plant-based plastic required more energy and raw materials than do most petrochemical manufacturing processes19. More recently, plant-based products manufacturers are exploring the feasibility of using renewable energy to balance plant energy requirements. The competition of biodegradable food ware products for food crop sources is currently negligible because of the small size of the industry. The resource consumption potential of plant-based plastics should be considered, even though the industry is not currently large enough to have considerable environmental impacts in comparison to other industries. Few studies on this topic exist because the industry is small and relatively new.
Biodegradable and Compostable Products and Their Costs Alternatives to expanded polystyrene are paper, plastic, plant-based plastics, cardboard, aluminum foil and biodegradable products. Biodegradable and compostable food ware products are paper products and may include biodegradable food ware made from corn, potato, sugarcane, and other plant- based materials.
An important concern regarding food ware ordinances is its potential to increase costs for food vendors. A preliminary cost study conducted by environmental staff showed that biodegradable or compostable food ware may be two to five times more expensive than their expanded polystyrene counterparts. For example, expanded polystyrene take-out boxes average 11 cents per unit, while biodegradable take-out boxes range from 27 to 60 cents per unit. Paper products tend to be more expensive than expanded polystyrene products, though in some cases they were found to be cheaper. The cost study showed that plastic and paper food ware prices are on average similar (Appendix C and D). Thus, if a food vendor currently uses plastic food ware, the business may switch to paper products without seeing a considerable price increase.
April 28, 2009 6 of 13
In order to lessen the burden of cost increases to food vendors, many food ware ordinances include an affordability clause that allows food vendors to apply for an exemption if the cost increase is excessive. This will be discussed in more detail in later sections.
Based on data provided by the City’s business license department, City environmental staff estimates that 100 food vendors would be affected by a food ware ordinance in Richmond. This is a relatively small number compared to some cities that have implemented ordinances, such as Santa Monica, which has 600 affected food vendors and San Francisco, which has 4,500 affected food vendors. An ordinance would only affect vendors of prepared foodg, also known as takeout food. These would include all restaurants and some peddlers.
Food Ware Ordinances To investigate the effects of a food ware ordinance in Richmond, environmental staff analyzed polystyrene ordinances that have been implemented in other California cities and surveyed their administrators on strategies, successes, and challenges. City staff interviewed representatives from the cities of Emeryville, Millbrae, Oakland, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, Santa Cruz, and Santa Monica. All of these cities have food ware ordinances in place with the exception of the City of Santa Barbara. See Appendix E for a summary of food ware ordinances of California cities.
Food ware ordinances typically contain these clauses:
¾ Expanded polystyrene ban – prohibits the use of disposable food ware that contains expanded polystyrene by prepared food vendors, City facilities and departments, and food vendors doing business with the City. ¾ Recyclability and/or compostability requirement – requires that food ware be biodegradable, compostable, or recyclable. ¾ Alternative packaging affordability – requires that non-expanded polystyrene food ware be used as long as the price of alternative food ware be within a given price range. ¾ Exemption for hardship – allows establishments, for which the requirements of the ordinance will inflict undue hardship, to request the City administrator for an exemption. ¾ Fine for non-compliance – is typically a warning for the first violation, a fine of no more than $100 for the second violation, a fine of no more than $200 for the third violation, and a fine of no more than $500 for the fourth violation within a one year period.
g Prepared food means food or beverages which are served, packaged, cooked, chopped, sliced, mixed, brewed, frozen, squeezed or otherwise prepared on the food vendor’s premises for immediate consumption. Prepared food does not include raw, butchered meats, fish and/or poultry sold from a butcher case or similar retail appliance.
April 28, 2009 7 of 13 A summary of key observations pertaining to the food ware ordinances and feedback are provided below:
¾ A ban on the use of expanded polystyrene has constituted the basic premise of food ware ordinances and has been easily implemented and enforced. ¾ All cities have included a biodegradability, compostability, or recyclability requirement on food ware in addition to a ban on expanded polystyrene products. ¾ The inclusion of a biodegradability or compostability requirement on food ware has not been contingent upon the existence of a food waste collection and composting program. ¾ Enforcement of the ordinances is complaint-based (with the exception of the City of San Francisco, which had a volunteer committee that ensures compliance). ¾ Cities generally have had few complaints from businesses that the food ware ordinance creates undue hardship. ¾ A comprehensive educational campaign for businesses and citizens and assistance to businesses from City staff is an essential component of implementation. ¾ Thorough planning and preparation, including environmental review, in the months prior to implementation of a food ware ordinance is highly encouraged. ¾ Implementation and enforcement of the food ware ordinance have been conducted by one or two staff members that dedicate varying percentages of their work hours to the issue depending on the number of food establishments, the implementation phase (with the exception of the City of San Francisco, which utilized a volunteer base in the enforcement phase) and extent of the accompanying educational campaign. ¾ Many City representatives stated that an observable decline in litter resulted from the enactment of a food ware ordinance, although no studies observing litter quantities before and after enactment of a food ware ordinance were conducted.
Criticisms of Expanded Polystyrene Bans The American Chemistry Council, the major trade association representing the U.S. chemical industry, has been a vocal opponent of ordinances that limit the use of plastics, as have other plastics manufacturers, businesses, and citizen groups. A summary of principle arguments against expanded polystyrene bans and ordinances that limit the use of plastics is provided below:
¾ Ordinances should promote alternatives to expanded polystyrene rather than ban the material altogether. ¾ Ordinances that ban expanded polystyrene burden businesses with potentially added costs and fewer choices.
April 28, 2009 8 of 13 ¾ Ordinances that ban or limit the use of plastics hinder innovation of plastics recycling technology and programs. Although polystyrene is currently not easily recycled, recycling polystyrene is an emerging market that should be supported. ¾ Expanded polystyrene and other plastic products are often environmentally preferable to paper products: They often require fewer raw materials and energy to produce and transport than do paper alternatives. Expanded polystyrene and paper products are not consumed at equal rates. Because of the poor insulating properties of paper cups, consumers double up on the cups to store hot liquids, thereby using more resources. Substitute products for expanded polystyrene are generally not recycled. In order for paper products to hold liquid, they must have a waterproof coating, which is often petroleum-based. Neither plastic nor paper products break down in a landfill. When paper products do biodegrade in a landfill, they have the adverse environmental effect of releasing methane. Polystyrene does not biodegrade and hence does not release methane. ¾ Administrators should focus on anti-litter programs aimed at creating behavioral changes among the public. Requiring that food ware be biodegradable or compostable only substitutes one litter type for another. ¾ Expanded polystyrene used for food service packaging constitutes less than one percent of the waste stream. Fast-food containers comprise no more than one-third of 1 percent of an average landfill by volume18.
Responses to Criticisms ¾ The most acute effects of expanded polystyrene and plastics that require immediate attention are in the areas of marine pollution and human health. While alternative products may have other negative environmental impacts in terms of energy use and solid waste, managing the use of expanded polystyrene and plastics is one step towards addressing the immediate effects on marine pollution and potential hazards to human health. ¾ An affordability clause and the ability of food vendors to request exemption for hardship through the food ware ordinance would help relieve the burden on businesses of potentially added costs. ¾ A food ware ordinance prohibiting the distribution of expanded polystyrene food ware will help protect the health of the community and its citizens. The general public is not typically warned of any potential hazard from styrene or other plastic types, particularly in the immigrant and non- English-speaking community. ¾ Environmental staff recommends a food ware ordinance in addition to promotion of biodegradable and compostable alternatives and anti-litter education:
April 28, 2009 9 of 13 Ensuring compliance with a food ware ordinance allows reduction in use of non-biodegradable packaging to be measured and verified. Staff time and resources required to promote alternative food ware and to provide anti-litter education will be comparable to that required to verify compliance with a food ware ordinance in addition to these actions. Thus, the City of Richmond should take the additional step of implementing a food ware ordinance to achieve the benefits of verified compliance. ¾ No meaningful recycling of food service expanded polystyrene currently occurs. This is not likely to change because of the light weight of expanded polystyrene, making it difficult to bundle for shipping, its low scrap value, and food residue contamination.
RECOMMENDATION The persistence of all types of plastics in the environment indicates that a meaningful reduction of plastic contamination will require a comprehensive strategy that addresses all plastics as a waste category. Since all types of disposable food packaging products will have adverse environmental impacts as litter, measures should be taken to address public and institutional behavior to ensure that one litter type is not substituted for another. Achieving waste reduction and natural resource consumption as a whole will be an ongoing engagement. The City of Richmond should pursue such a program to facilitate the most environmentally preferable method of handling these materials at end- of-life.
A food ware ordinance in Richmond will help address the persistence of plastic marine litter and protect the community from a potentially hazardous material. Additionally, pending on approval of the NPDES permit, the City of Richmond may reduce installation and maintenance costs by implementing a food ware ordinance. Given that food ware ordinances have been easily implemented and enforced in neighboring jurisdictions, environmental staff recommends that the City of Richmond move forward by implementing a food ware ordinance immediately while pursing plastic waste reduction efforts.
A successful food ware ordinance should be, at least in the initial phases, primarily an educational campaign for Richmond businesses and residents. Furthermore, the ordinance should provide a sufficient period of adjustment for food vendors because they may carry a disproportionate amount of the economic burden of switching to biodegradable or compostable food ware.
Therefore, City environmental staff recommends that the City of Richmond:
¾ Prior to the implementation of a food ware ordinance, develop a comprehensive educational campaign geared towards residents and businesses that includes:
April 28, 2009 10 of 13 Mailings to restaurant owners with information about the upcoming food ware ordinance. Brochures that list alternative food ware suppliers and detail products. Site visits to food vendors before and after implementation of the food ware ordinance. Presentations to the community, including the Chamber of Commerce, etc. Information on the City website about the food ware ordinance, potential health effects of expanded polystyrene products and problem of marine litter. ¾ Prior to the implementation of a food ware ordinance, prepare a Negative Declaration for the food ware ordinance in compliance with the California Environmental Quality Act. ¾ Implement a food ware ordinance that 1) prohibits the use of expanded polystyrene food ware by Richmond vendors, City facilities and departments, and vendors doing business with the City, and 2) requires that Richmond vendors, City facilities and departments, and vendors doing business with the City use food ware that is biodegradable and/or compostable. ¾ Include in the food ware ordinance an affordable alternative clause to ensure that restaurants for which the ordinance inflicts undue economic hardship are temporarily exempted. ¾ Designate City staff to assist food vendors in switching to biodegradable, compostable, or recyclable food ware products. ¾ Develop a food waste collection and processing program for Richmond residents and businesses immediately.
See Appendix F for a suggested ordinance implementation timeline.
Other Actions 1. The City of Richmond should collaborate with local retailers to phase out the sale of expanded polystyrene and to ensure that a variety of biodegradable and compostable food ware is available at Richmond stores. 2. The use of paper food ware products that are composed of recycled material should be highly encouraged to food vendors and retailers. 3. The City of Richmond should also evaluate the economic and environmental ramifications of a plastic bag ban. 4. Promote Richmond businesses that provide biodegradable and compostable food ware.
April 28, 2009 11 of 13 References
1. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Styrene Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Styrene. U.S. Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA. 1992.
2. American Plastics Council. Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis of Foam Polystyrene and Bleached Paperboard Containers, Prairie Village, Kans., June 1990, prepared by Franklin Associates, Ltd.
3. California Integrated Waste Management Board (CIWMB). Statewide Waste Characterization Study 2004.
4. California Integrated Waste Management Board (CIWMB). Use and Disposal of Polystyrene in California. Dec 2004.
5. California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. Chronic Toxicity Summary: Styrene. Accessed 15 Jan 2009.
6. Center for Environmental Oncology. Frequently Asked Questions about Plastics. University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute. Accessed 2 Mar 2009.
7. Charles J. Moore. 2008. “Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat,” Environmental Research 108, 131-139. See appendix for complete article.
8. D.W. Laist. 1997. Impacts of marine debris: entanglement of marine life in marine debris including a comprehensive list of species with entanglement and ingestion records. In Marine Debris: Sources, Impacts, and Solutions, eds. Coe, J.M. and Rogers, D.B. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 99-139.
9. EPA. EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project: Profile of the Plastic Resin and Manmade Fiber Industries. Sep 1997.
10. EPA. EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project: Profile of the Pulp and Paper Industry 2nd Edition. Nov 2002.
11. EPA. Plastics. Wastes Website. Accessed 20 Jan 2009.
12. EPA. Styrene. Air Toxics Website. Accessed 13 Jan 2009.
April 28, 2009 12 of 13 13. Jennifer Walsh. Press Release: EPA should pursue cumulative risk assessment of phthalates and other chemicals. 18 Dec 2008. The National Academies. Accessed 3 Mar 2009.
14. Lynne Scarpa, City of Richmond Stormwater Program Manager. E-mail correspondence. 04/03/2009.
15. Mark Paster, U.S. Department of Energy. Joan L. Pellegrino and Tracy M. Carole, Energetics Inc. Industrial Bioproducts: Today and Tomorrow. July 2003.
16. M.S. Tawfik and A. Huyghebaert. 1998. “Polystyrene cups and containers: styrene migration,” Food Additive Contamination. 15(5): 592-9.
17. NPDES No. CAS612008. Municipal Regional Stormwater Permit. Section C.10.a.viii.
18. Society of the Plastics Industry. Five major myths about garbage, and why they’re wrong. Accessed 6 Mar 2009.
19. Tillman U. Gerngross and Steven C. Slater. “How Green are Green Plastics?” Scientific American. Aug 2000. Accessed 13 Mar 2009.
April 28, 2009 13 of 13
Appendix A: List of California Communities that have Enacted Food Ware Ordinances Prohibiting the use of Expanded Polystyrene
Cities Alameda Berkeley Calabasas Capitola Carmel Emeryville Fairfax Hercules Laguna Beach Long Beach Los Angeles Malibu Millbrae Newport Beach Pacific Grove Pittsburg San Bruno San Francisco Santa Cruz Santa Monica South San Francisco Counties Los Angeles Monterey Orange San Mateo Sonoma Ventura
Source: Californians Against Waste. List of Local Food Packaging Ordinances. Accessed 2 Mar 2009.
Appendix B: Article “Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long- term threat” ARTICLE IN PRESS
Environmental Research 108 (2008) 131–139
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Environmental Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envres
Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat
Charles James Moore Ã
Algalita Marine Research Foundation, 148 N. Marina Drive, Long Beach, CA 90803, USA article info abstract
Article history: Synthetic polymers, commonly known as plastics, have been entering the marine environment in Received 14 March 2008 quantities paralleling their level of production over the last half century. However, in the last two Received in revised form decades of the 20th Century, the deposition rate accelerated past the rate of production, and plastics are 13 July 2008 now one of the most common and persistent pollutants in ocean waters and beaches worldwide. Thirty Accepted 22 July 2008 years ago the prevailing attitude of the plastic industry was that ‘‘plastic litter is a very small proportion of all litter and causes no harm to the environment except as an eyesore’’ [Derraik, J.G.B., 2002. The Keywords: pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 44(9), 842–852]. Marine debris Between 1960 and 2000, the world production of plastic resins increased 25-fold, while recovery of the Plastic debris material remained below 5%. Between 1970 and 2003, plastics became the fastest growing segment of Thermoplastics the US municipal waste stream, increasing nine-fold, and marine litter is now 60–80% plastic, reaching Persistent organic pollutants Micro-plastic pollution 90–95% in some areas. While undoubtedly still an eyesore, plastic debris today is having significant Xenoestrogens harmful effects on marine biota. Albatross, fulmars, shearwaters and petrels mistake floating plastics for food, and many individuals of these species are affected; in fact, 44% of all seabird species are known to ingest plastic. Sea turtles ingest plastic bags, fishing line and other plastics, as do 26 species of cetaceans. In all, 267 species of marine organisms worldwide are known to have been affected by plastic debris, a number that will increase as smaller organisms are assessed. The number of fish, birds, and mammals that succumb each year to derelict fishing nets and lines in which they become entangled cannot be reliably known; but estimates are in the millions. We divide marine plastic debris into two categories: macro, 45 mm and micro, o5 mm. While macro-debris may sometimes be traced to its origin by object identification or markings, micro-debris, consisting of particles of two main varieties, (1) fragments broken from larger objects, and (2) resin pellets and powders, the basic thermoplastic industry feedstocks, are difficult to trace. Ingestion of plastic micro-debris by filter feeders at the base of the food web is known to occur, but has not been quantified. Ingestion of degraded plastic pellets and fragments raises toxicity concerns, since plastics are known to adsorb hydrophobic pollutants. The potential bioavailability of compounds added to plastics at the time of manufacture, as well as those adsorbed from the environment are complex issues that merit more widespread investigation. The physiological effects of any bioavailable compounds desorbed from plastics by marine biota are being directly investigated, since it was found 20 years ago that the mass of ingested plastic in Great Shearwaters was positively correlated with PCBs in their fat and eggs. Colonization of plastic marine debris by sessile organisms provides a vector for transport of alien species in the ocean environment and may threaten marine biodiversity. There is also potential danger to marine ecosystems from the accumulation of plastic debris on the sea floor. The accumulation of such debris can inhibit gas exchange between the overlying waters and the pore waters of the sediments, and disrupt or smother inhabitants of the benthos. The extent of this problem and its effects have recently begun to be investigated. A little more than half of all thermoplastics will sink in seawater. & 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
A major unforeseen consequence of the ‘‘Plastic Age’’ is the material’s ability to proliferate in innumerable sizes, shapes and à Fax: +1562 433 2361. colors throughout the marine environment worldwide (Moore, E-mail address: [email protected] 2003). The physical characteristics of most plastics show high
0013-9351/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025 ARTICLE IN PRESS
132 C.J. Moore / Environmental Research 108 (2008) 131–139 resistance to aging and minimal biological degradation. When lining, and failure to put on fat stores necessary for migration and exposed to the UVB radiation in sunlight, the oxidative properties reproduction. Sea turtles and marine mammals with ingested of the atmosphere and the hydrolytic properties of seawater, these plastic have been found washed up or floating dead, but linking polymers become embrittled, and break into smaller and smaller mortality unequivocally to the ingested debris is difficult. pieces, eventually becoming individual polymer molecules, which (4) Petroleum-based plastic polymers do not readily biodegrade, must undergo further degradation before becoming bioavailable. and are long-lived and slow moving in the ocean. As such, they The eventual biodegradation of plastics in the marine environ- provide substrata for ‘‘bryozoans, barnacles, polychaete worms, ment requires an unknown amount of time (Andrady, 2005). hydroids and mollusks (in order of abundance),’’ and may present A wide range of undocumented estimates for the time needed to a more effective invasive species dispersal mechanism than ship completely mineralize or biodegrade marine plastics—on the hulls or ballast water (Barnes, 2005), and are implicated in the order of centuries—have been made; but they are all, at best, northward range extension of the large barnacle Perforatus educated guesses (Andrady, personal communication). Their perforatus (Rees and Southward, 2008). In some areas, e.g. the persistence contributes to the fact that plastics are accumulating central Pacific gyre, these plastic substrates are so numerous that in increasing quantities in the marine environment (Copello and their ready availability is likely to alter the species composition of Quintana, 2003; Ogi et al., 1999). Slow biodegradation rates do not sessile organisms. (5) Plastic resin pellets and fragments of plastic mean that plastic polymers and their additives are not bioactive. broken from larger objects are sources and sinks for xenoestro- The process of polymerization of the monomers that form plastics gens and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in marine and is never 100% complete, and the remaining monomer building aquatic environments (Moore et al., 2005a; Mato et al., 2001; blocks of the polymer, such as styrene and bisphenol-A, along Rios et al., 2007), and can be readily ingested by invertebrates with residual catalysts, can migrate from the polymer matrix into at the base of the food web (Thompson et al., 2004). (6) Since compounds with which they come in contact. Polycarbonate the majority of consumer plastics are neutrally buoyant (within plastics, when exposed to the salts in seawater, show accelerated 0.1 g/mL of seawater density, USEPA, 1992), grains of sand caught leaching of the bioactive bisphenol-A monomer (Sajiki and in their seams or fouling matter make many plastics sink to the Yonekubo, 2003). Many plastic polymers in commercial use have sea floor. Much of this material consists of thin packaging film and high concentrations of bioactive monomer additives, such as has the potential to inhibit gas exchange, possibly interfering with
UV stabilizers, softeners, flame retardants, non-stick compounds, CO2 sequestration (Goldberg, 1997). Plastic deposited on the sea and colorants, which leach out at faster or slower rates based on floor also has the potential to change the composition, interfere environmental conditions. It is estimated that plastic products with or smother inhabitants of the sediments (Katsanevakis et al., overall are composed of about 50% fillers, reinforcements and 2007; Uneputty and Evans, 1997; Goldberg, 1997). (7) Marine additives by weight (Colton et al., 1974). litter threatens coastal species by filling up and destroying While it is beyond the scope of this paper to delve into the nursery habitat where new life would otherwise emerge (UNEP, intricacies of polymerization, and the production of thermoset 2001). (8) Marine plastic litter fouls vessel intake ports, keels and and thermoplastic resins, the leaching of some bioactive sub- propellers, and puts crew at risk while working to free the debris; stances from commercial plastics will be covered by other papers incurring significant damage to vessels, with economic losses in this series. Briefly, thermoplastics, the main type of consumer estimated by Takehama (1990) to be 6.6 billion Yen/yr in Japanese plastics, are formed by melting the plastic raw material and fishing vessels o1000 gross tons. According to the US National forming it into products, which can be recovered and re-melted. Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) office Thermoplastics are distinguished from thermoset plastics; liquids of Response and Restoration, in 2005, the US Coast Guard found which are ‘‘set’’ by the use of a catalyst, and scorch rather than re- that floating and submerged objects caused 269 boating accidents melt when exposed to heat. Thermoset plastics also break into resulting in 15 deaths, 116 injuries and $US 3 million in property small bits and persist in the environment, and though produced in damage. less quantity than thermoplastics, are recovered or recycled at an Given the variety of problems caused by plastic debris, it is even lower rate. important to gauge its rate of change. In the early 1970s, a study in The modern trend is for nearly all consumer goods to contain the Atlantic Ocean of 247 surface plankton samples from Cape Cod and/or be contained by plastic, and recovery of the material often to the Caribbean found plastic in 62% of samples (Colton et al., does not provide readily realizable profits, or options for reuse 1974). A similar study in the Pacific during the mid-1980s of 203 (Unnithan, 1998); therefore, plastics are the fastest growing samples from the Japan Sea to the Bering Sea and north of Hawaii component of waste. Some of this waste reaches disposal sites, found plastic in 59% (Day et al., 1990). Evidence from archived but much of it litters the landscape. Since the ocean is downhill plankton samples taken from the 1960s–1990s off Great Britain and downstream from virtually everywhere humans live, and showed that microscopic marine plastics increased significantly in about half of the world’s human population lives within 50 miles the North Atlantic. (Thompson et al., 2004). During the decade of of the ocean, lightweight plastic trash, lacking significant recovery the 1990s, plastics in the US municipal waste stream tripled infrastructure, blows and runs off into the sea. There, it moves to (USEPA, 2003) and researchers found increased levels in the innumerable habitats, where it causes at least eight complex marine environment. Plastic was found in all trawl samples in problems, none of which is well understood: (1) plastic trash foul studies from 1999 to 2007 in the north Pacific (Moore C.J., et al., beaches worldwide, devaluing the experience of beachgoers, with 2001, and unpublished data from 2002 to 2007). Moore C.J., et al. a concomitant impact on the tourism industry. Medical waste, (2001) found maximum neuston (surface) plastic levels three plastic diapers and sanitary waste often found among this debris times greater than Day et al. (1990) had found a decade earlier. constitute a public health hazard. (2) Plastic entangles marine life From 1994 to 1998, debris levels around the United Kingdom and kills through drowning, strangulation, dragging, and reduc- coastline doubled (Barnes, 2002), ‘‘and in parts of the Southern tion of feeding efficiency. So-called ‘‘ghost nets’’ continue to fish Ocean it increased 14–15 fold during the early 1990s’’ (Walker after being lost or abandoned by their owners, and kill untold et al., 1997). Ogi et al. (1999) found that neuston plastic increased numbers of commercial species. (3) Ingestion of plastic items that 10-fold in coastal areas of Japan during the 1970s–1980s, but that mimic natural food fails to provide nutrition proportionate to its during the 1990s, densities increased 10-fold every 2–3 years. weight or volume. It weakens and may kill seabirds through Once plastic debris reaches the ocean, the floating component starvation and false feelings of satiation, irritation of the stomach is dispersed in various ways. Onshore winds force debris back to ARTICLE IN PRESS
C.J. Moore / Environmental Research 108 (2008) 131–139 133
Fig. 1. Trawl Sample, August, 2005, AMRF survey: 401 North Latutude, 1401 West Longitude. Photo: Capt. Charles Moore. the shore, while offshore winds push debris toward major ocean year, so does the amount of debris recovered. Between 1996 and current transport systems. Both types of wind have a greater effect 2006, at Escondido Beach, California, 310 total debris items were on objects that have appendages above the sea surface, such as removed, but 182 of those were found in 2005, representing fishing floats and bathtub toys. In the deep ocean, large 59% of the total recovered in the last year of the 10-year effort. high-pressure systems known as gyres tend to accrete the debris, At Torrey Pines State Beach, California, in the four quarters of while low-pressure systems tend to disperse it (Ingraham and 2005, 136 items were removed, but in the second quarter of 2006 Ebbesmeyer, 2000). In the largest gyre, located in the central alone, 189 items were found (Ocean Conservancy, 2007). North Pacific, neuston trawls lined with 0.333 mm mesh yielded It must be remembered that beach cleanups focus on macro- the astounding figure of six kilos of plastic fragments for every debris. Numerous studies have found micro-debris on beaches kilo of zooplankton 40.333 mm in size (Moore C.J., et al., 2001, and in their sediments worldwide, many of the beaches remote Fig. 1). from human activity. (McDermid and McMullen, 2004; Moore S.L., et al., 2001; Gregory, 1977, 1978, 1983, 1991, 1996, 1999; Thompson et al., 2004; Ng and Obbard, 2006). In a study of a 2. Plastic debris concerns beach, near an urban river mouth, Moore et al. (unpublished data) found the sand to be 1% plastic by volume down to a depth of It was inevitable that a lightweight, long-lived (slow biode- 20 cm. grading) product that fills so many commodity niches, and which Floating debris is an aesthetic issue for swimmers, mariners, is often used only once and discarded, would eventually cause coastal and inland water body dwellers, and submerged debris is problems for the marine and terrestrial environments where it an aesthetic issue for divers. accumulates. 2.2. Entanglement 2.1. Aesthetics In the 1980s, researchers estimated that there were approxi- According to the World Health Organization, a clean beach is mately 100,000 marine mammal deaths per year in the North one of the most important characteristics sought by visitors Pacific related to entanglement in plastic nets and fishing line (Bartram and Rees, 2000). The negative effects of debris, defined (Wallace, 1985). Currently in the US, the NOAA is using digitally as solid materials of human origin, are: loss of tourist days, enhanced photos of wounds suffered by marine mammals to resultant damage to leisure/tourism infrastructure, damage to identify the type of line they were entangled in (National Oceanic commercial activities dependent on tourism, damage to fishery and Atmospheric Administration). Lost and abandoned nets, activities, and damage to the local, national and international termed ‘‘ghost nets’’, continue to fish and destroy resources. A image of a resort. ‘‘Such effects were experienced in New Jersey, report by Canada’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1991) USA in 1987 and Long Island, USA in 1988 where the reporting of estimates that 10% of all static fishing gear is lost, and that this medical waste, such as syringes, vials and plastic catheters, along results in a loss of 10% of the target fish population. Efforts to the coastline resulted in an estimated loss of between 121 and remove this gear are growing, but are not widespread, and the 327 million user days at the beach and between US$ 1.3 Â109 and great cost of removal of derelict gear is not borne by those who US$ 5.4 Â109 in tourism related expenditure’’ (Bartram and Rees, manufacture it or lose it. Such costs could threaten the economic 2000). Clean beaches, free from debris, are a thing of the past. In viability of commercial fishing. the 20 years since the US-based organization, Ocean Conservancy Documentation of entanglement of seabirds and other marine organized the first annual International Coastal Cleanup Day, species in six-pack rings used to hold cans and bottles has 6 million volunteers from 100 countries have removed 100 million resulted in changes to the plastic formula to speed up disintegra- pounds of litter from 170,000 miles of beaches and inland tion in the environment. The polymer can be changed chemically waterways. Reports of groups finding nothing to pick up do not during manufacture so that it absorbs UV-B radiation from exist. While the International Cleanup Day effort expands each sunlight and breaks down into a very brittle material in a fairly ARTICLE IN PRESS
134 C.J. Moore / Environmental Research 108 (2008) 131–139 short period of time; however, the resulting particles are no more accumulation zones described as ‘‘gentle maelstroms’’ (Moore, biodegradable than the untreated polymer (Gregory and Andrady, 2003). These areas are over the deep ocean and are oligotrophic, 2003). Such embrittlement accelerators are not used in nets and oceanic deserts (Koblentz-Mishke et al., 1970). Thus, the ratio of lines, however; and volunteer groups worldwide are regularly plastic particles to plankton is highest near the center of high- called on to free entangled cetaceans and other sea life. pressure gyres on average, although after heavy rains, which cause runoff of plastic particles from urban areas, higher ratios are found near urban coastal zones (Moore et al., 2002; Lattin et al., 2.3. Ingestion 2004). Detritus feeders, like the Laysan albatross, have been demonstrated to feed primarily in and around the north Pacific The term ‘‘plastic’’ means ‘‘capable of being formed into any subtropical gyre (Henry, 2004), and the stomach contents of their shape.’’ The plastic objects that populate the marine and aquatic chicks, receiving nutriment only by regurgitation from adult birds, environments, with the exception of fishing lures, are not made to contain alarming quantities of plastic (Auman et al., 1997), as look like natural food to marine creatures. However, thin plastic shown in Fig. 2. Sileo et al. (1990) documented 80 species of shopping bags balloon out in water and resemble jellyfish, and are seabirds that ingest plastic. Carpenter et al. (1972) found plastic regularly consumed by sea turtles (Lutcavage et al., 1997), pellets in eight of 14 species of fish and one chaetognath off especially critically endangered leatherbacks (Barreiros and Southern New England. In USEPA (1992), it was reported that Barcelos, 2001; Karla McDermid, personal communication). It is pellet ingestion was more common in lobster than winter probable that the infinite ways in which the mega-tons of multi- flounder in the New York Bight in 1991. colored plastic debris break down in the marine environment Plastics as a means to transport pollutants to organisms in create mimics for virtually every natural food source. Bern (1990) aquatic and marine ecosystems have become the focus of found that a crustacean zooplankton, Bosmina coregoni, when scientific research as levels of macro- and micro-plastics in these offered polystyrene beads of 2 and 6 mm and 14C-labelled alga of environments increase (Thompson et al., 2004). Mato et al. (2001) equal size, ingested both non-selectively within combinations. studied how polypropylene (PP) pellets in the marine environ- Andrady (personal communication) reported on feeding studies ment adsorb (with adsorption coefficients of 105–106 from by Alldredge at UC Santa Barbara, using Ivlev’s Electivity Index ambient seawater), and transport PCBs, DDE and nonylphenols (designed to quantify prey-selection by predators, especially (NP). Field and laboratory studies of the physiological effects on planktivores), showing that two common species of crustaceans, seabirds that ingest contaminated plastic resin pellets by this Euphausia pacifica (krill) and the copepod Calanus pacificus, had group are in press. Moore et al. (2005a) found polycyclic aromatic values of the index that suggested the ingestion of contaminant- hydrocarbons and phthalates in samples of pre-production plastic free, uncolonized plastic particles, versus natural prey, from a pellets, and post consumer fragments of the same general size mixture of these, appeared to be non-preferential. Most feeding (o5 mm), from rivers and marine beaches near urban centers. that takes place in the ocean, is accomplished by indiscriminate Ryan et al. (1988) found that the mass of ingested plastic in Great feeders with mucus bodies or appendages, which trap anything of Shearwaters was positively correlated with PCBs in their fat tissue an appropriate size with which the organism comes in contact. and eggs. Collection of salps in the North Pacific Central Gyre by Algalita In the ocean, degraded and fragmented bits of polymeric Marine Research Foundation (AMRF) (2006), using both plankton material are assuming the characteristics of a new class of trawls and hand nets, found individuals with plastic particles and sediments. Such fragments are floating on the surface, mixed into fishing line embedded in their tissue (Moore C.J., et al., 2001). The the water column, and embedded in bottom sediments and beach optimum size class of plastic for filter feeder ingestion appears to sand (Colton et al., 1974; Rios et al., 2007). Studies by Gregory be less than 1 mm in diameter, although larger particles have been (1996), Moore et al. (2005c), and Zitco and Hanlon (1991) have found in some individuals. A 1999 AMRF study of 27,448 plastic drawn attention to small fragments of plastic derived from hand particles trawled from the surface of the North Pacific Central cleaners, cosmetic preparations, airblast cleaning media, and Gyre found 9470 particles near 1 mm in size, 4646 near 0.5 mm, production waste from plastic processing plants. The quantities and 2626 near 0.3 mm, suggesting that smaller particles are being and effects of these contaminants on the marine environment removed, or are leaving the system by some unknown mechanism have yet to be fully determined, but in a study conducted on the (Moore C.J., et al., 2001). Thompson et al. (2004) kept intertidal invertebrates in aquaria with microscopic plastic particles o2mm in diameter. The microscopic plastics were ingested by polychaete worms, barnacles, and amphipods during these laboratory trials. Documentation of transmission of these types of particles up the food web has been provided by Eriksson and Burton (2003), who surveyed Southern fur seal scat on Macquarie Island. They found that scats contained plastic particles from the night-feeding myctophids (Lantern fish), active near the sea surface, and consumed by the seals. When plastic debris enters the sea, the proportion that floats, heads for surface accumulation zones. Modeling done by Ingra- ham and Ebbesmeyer (2000), using the Ocean Surface Current Simulator (OSCURS), seeded 113 drifters uniformly over the North Pacific from the US Coast to China. The model showed that after 12 years, winds and currents had gathered 75% of the drifters into an area of the Central Gyre equal to 28% of the total area seeded. The five enormous high-pressure gyres in the oceans comprise 40% of the sea surface, or 25% of the area of the entire earth (Koblentz-Mishke et al., 1970). The mountains of air that create the highs, force the sea level lower near their centers and create Fig. 2. Laysan albatross chick, Kure Atoll, 2002, photo: Cynthia Vanderlip, AMRF. ARTICLE IN PRESS
C.J. Moore / Environmental Research 108 (2008) 131–139 135
Los Angeles and San Gabriel Rivers in 2004–2005, sample analysis municipal waste, 5% is recycled and an estimated 20% is made into with extrapolation found 2 billion plastic particles of all types, durable goods. That leaves 12.5 million tons (25%) unaccounted o5 mm in size, flowing toward the ocean in 3 days of sampling for, which could make its way via rivers to the sea. In 3 days of (Moore et al., 2005b). Teuten et al. (2007) found that a priority sampling on the Los Angeles and San Gabriel Rivers, AMRF found pollutant, phenanthrene, was transmitted to the lugworm, 60 tons of plastic debris flowing towards the sea, representing 2.3 Arenicola marina, by polyethylene contaminated with phenan- billion individual pieces of plastic trash of all size classes 41mm threne absorbed from seawater mixed into sediments inhabited (Moore et al., 2005b). by the worm. According to Andrady (2003) ‘‘y plasticizers tend to Many islands, which act as sieves for ocean-borne plastics, migrate slowly to the surface of the product and can therefore have already been heavily impacted by plastic debris originating enter the environment or come into human contact. Common far from their shores. On the surface of one square foot of beach plasticizers are indeed found in low levels dispersed in the sand on Kamilo Beach, Hawaii, 2500 plastic particles 41mmwere environment in most parts of the world and generally believed to found, and the fact that 500 of them were pre-production plastic be even ingested routinely along with foody Another more pellets, with no processors located in Hawaii, lends credence to recent health concern is endocrine disruption by chemicals, and the concept that these particles are of distant origin (Moore, plasticizers are included in the class of relevant chemical agents.’’ unpublished data). McDermid and McMullen (2004) collected Whether or to what extent estrogenic compounds in plasticizers 19,100 plastic particles from nine remote Hawaiian beaches added to plastics at the time of manufacture, or absorbed from the separated by 1500 miles, and 11% were pre-production pellets environment, are linked to findings such as a high percentage of by count. These pellets come in a variety of shapes, including intersex in Mediterranean swordfish (De Metrio et al., 2003), has rounded, flattened oval, and cylindrical, and are normally o5mm not been investigated; but the presence of micro-plastics in the in diameter. Plastic producers make these pellets and ship them to sea surface microlayer where xenoestrogens are known to plastic manufacturers or processors to be melted into consumer accumulate, has been documented by Ng and Obbard (2006). products. A 1998 study of Orange County Beaches in Southern Some phthalate plasticizers have been banned by the European California showed plastic pellets to be the most abundant items, Commission (Andrady, 2005), and numerous studies have found with an estimated count of over 105 million, comprising 98% of deleterious effects from another common plasticizer, bisphenol-A the total debris (Moore S.L., et al., 2001). Southern California has (vom Saal and Welshons, 2005). the largest concentration of plastic processors in the western United States. A 2005 study by AMRF (Moore et al., 2005b) of the two main rivers draining the Los Angeles, California basin found in 2.4. Collateral concerns one dry and two rainy days of sampling, over 2.3 Â109 plastic objects and fragments being transported to the Pacific Ocean at Just as plastics are widely variable in structure and use, so are San Pedro Bay. Macro-debris 45 mm accounted for 10% of the the concerns raised by their ubiquitous presence as poorly total. Of the identifiable objects, the largest single component was controlled non-degradable waste. Foremost among these concerns pre-production plastic pellets at 2.3 Â108. Ignoring such inputs is the recent explosion in what may be termed ‘‘pelagic plastics.’’ results in underestimates of the total number of pieces of litter For most of their history, synthetic, petroleum-based polymers entering the ocean worldwide on a daily basis. A widely quoted were used and discarded principally in Europe and the United figure of 8 million pieces per day given in UNEP (2001) is, in States, and more recently, Japan. Levels of plastic pollution off reality, only 1% of the total number of plastic pieces flowing to the these coasts increased similarly to the level of plastic production sea from the Los Angeles area in a single day, based on AMRF’s until recently (Ogi et al., 1999; Moore C.J., et al., 2001). During the 3-day totals. AMRF’s figures do not include anthropogenic debris last decade of the 20th century, and continuing to the present, other than plastic. proliferation of plastic packaging and products accelerated world- Plastics form a stable substratum for colonization by marine wide. Sales of PET plastic water bottles in the US alone rose from a organisms, including bacteria, with larger floating items generally million tons in 1996, to 2.5 million tons in 2005 (Beck, 2005). having one side exposed to the sun, and one side ballasted with Many of these bottles are shipped around the world for disaster fouling organisms (Moore, unpublished data). Less than 10% of the relief and other purposes, where no recycling infrastructure exists. micro-debris in a 1999 North Pacific Central Gyre study, however, Dr. Curtis Ebbesmeyer, of the Beachcombers and Oceanographers appeared to host multicellular fouling organisms at all (Moore C.J., International Association (personal communication), has esti- et al., 2001). This may be due to their frequency of tumbling in mated that a single, 1 l plastic water bottle will photodegrade into wavelets and changing the side exposed to the sun. Barnes (2005) enough small pieces to put one piece on every mile of beach in the estimates ‘‘that rubbish of human origin in the sea has roughly world. Two studies in the North Pacific reveal a rapid rise in doubled the propagation of fauna in the subtropics and more than micro-plastic marine debris. Moore C.J., et al. (2001) found the tripled it at high (4501) latitudes.’’ Globally, the proportion of maximum abundance of plastic particles to be three times that plastic among marine debris ranges from 60% to 80%, although it found by Day et al. (1990). Ogi et al. (1999) found plastic particle has reached over 90–95% in some areas (Derraik, 2002). Bartram abundance to be increasing by a factor of 10 every 2–3 years in the and Rees (2000) point out certain exceptions to the percentages, most extreme case off of Japan during the decade of the 1990s. found during United Kingdom beach surveys, and state that ‘‘litter There are now 65,000 plastic processors in India and China, sourcing seems to be highly site specific.’’ consuming nearly as much plastic resin, 49.8 mt/yr, as the United Plastics made up 80–85% of the seabed debris in Tokyo Bay States (Mehta, 2007). Exports of primary plastic resins from the (Kanehiro et al., 1995). The consequences of partially covering the Middle East are growing rapidly in every global market except seabed with materials resistant to gas and water transport have North and South America (Al-Sheaibi, 2002). Consumer plastics not been fully investigated, although Katsanevakis et al. (2007) are going global. Tracking their fate is difficult. Based on statistics found a deviation in the community structure of the impacted compiled in a 2003 California ‘‘Plastics White Paper,’’ that benthic surface from their control and a clear successional pattern included amounts of plastics made, disposed of, and recycled of change in benthic community composition. Goldberg (1997) nationwide, approximately 25% of all disposable plastics remain speculated that benthic debris may interfere with carbon cycling unaccounted for (CIWMB, 2003). With total US thermoplastic in the ocean. Moore (2003) estimated that the weight of plastic resin sales at 50 Â106 tons, 25 Â106 tons (50%) are disposed of as debris on the surface, in an area of the North Pacific Central Gyre ARTICLE IN PRESS
136 C.J. Moore / Environmental Research 108 (2008) 131–139 known as the ‘‘Eastern Garbage Patch,’’ an area 1000 km in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic water bottles consumed diameter, was about three million tons, based on an average of in the US were recycled. The number of plastic bottles as a 5114 g/km2.(Moore C.J., et al., 2001). Andrady (2000) found that percentage of total debris recovered in beach cleanups is rising plastic fishing gear ‘‘would initially increase in density because of (Beck, 2005). Thin high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and thicker copious fouling,’’ and become negatively buoyant until it LDPE shopping bags are recycled at a rate of around 1% in the US descended below the photic zone where the foulant colony would (USEPA, 2003), with trillions being produced worldwide. Many likely die due to lack of sunlight, allowing the plastic material to become airborne and soar on the wind to distant waterways and float again. This implies that as buoyant plastic fragments become seas. Recently, a BBC photographer (Rebecca Hosking, personal mixed into marine ‘‘snow’’ (the natural detritus of the marine communication), after documenting the effects of plastic waste on environment), the marine snow may be prevented from reaching the Hawaiian Archipelago, returned to her hometown of Modbury, the sea floor where it is a major sequestration vector for UK, and succeeded in getting the town’s merchants to stop using atmospheric CO2. plastic bags. This movement has spread to other towns and the Mayor of London is now considering a 10 pence tax on the bags. The movement to tax or restrict the use of plastic shopping bags is 3. Solutions growing, with new initiatives being reported from around the world on a regular basis, but the author has not been able to locate Because of the enormous diversity of plastic waste, the a summary report where details of these efforts can be found. solutions to the plastic debris pollution problem will also have to be diverse. Despite the recent upsurge in development of 3.4. Source reduction, take-back schemes solutions to prevent plastic pollution, the author is not aware of reports showing measurable overall reductions to this rapidly Because plastic packaging extends the shelf life of products by increasing despoiler of marine and aquatic environments. providing an air and moisture barrier, it is increasingly used in global trade. In some applications, where space is a major concern, 3.1. Structural controls bulk packaging, rather than individual containers are preferred, but the trend is for more individual packaging. Producers of Devices to capture plastic debris before it reaches rivers and consumer plastics in the United States have little incentive to oceans are being installed at urban catch basins, storm drains and minimize the use of their products, or to design them for ease of pumping stations, and debris booms are being placed across rivers recycling. The prevailing attitude among US manufacturers is that draining urban areas. Containment structures cover only a small they are responding to the demands of the market, and that it is percentage of debris conduits, and during heavy storms, these the responsibility of individuals and governments to create devices break or overflow, and release debris. Nevertheless, infrastructure for dealing with the resultant waste. Rarely are these devices are being relied upon by municipalities required US processors required to subsidize the cost of land filling or to reduce trash input to urban waterways by regulations called otherwise disposing of their manufactured plastic products, total maximum daily loads (TMDLs), used by Water Resource which often become fast-track waste. A few US companies have Control Boards to regulate pollutants entering urban waterways. adopted a ‘‘zero waste’’ policy, which requires that their suppliers Structural controls typically capture macro-debris (45 mm) only, take-back packaging and provide take-back programs for their as the legal definition of trash under the TMDL is anthropogenic customers, but these companies remain a small part of industry as debris that can be trapped by a 5 mm mesh screen (California a whole. Regional Water Quality Control Board, Los Angeles Region). Based European countries, however, are responding to so-called on a study of the Los Angeles watershed, 90% of plastic debris by ‘‘green dot’’ initiatives with some packaging reductions. In count, and 13% by weight are micro-debris o5mm(Moore et al., December 1994, the European Union issued the ‘‘Directive on 2005b). Packaging and Packaging Waste.’’ This legislation places direct responsibility and specific packaging waste reduction targets on 3.2. Beach and reef cleanups all manufacturers, importers and distributors of products on the EU market. To meet the requirements of this legislation, While beach cleanups by civic groups raise awareness among manufacturers, importers and distributors must either develop the general public of the plastic debris problem, they are their own take-back scheme or join industry-driven non-profit infrequent and do not stem the tide of debris. In the Northwestern organizations, such as the Green Dot Program, to collect, sort and Hawaiian Islands, NOAA spends 2 million US dollars per year to recycle used packaging. Green Dot is currently the standard take- remove 50–60 tons of derelict fishing nets and gear in an effort to back program in 19 European countries and Canada. Such save the critically endangered Hawaiian Monk Seal, over 200 of programs encourage product and packaging design that gives which have become entangled since records were kept (Foley and waste value when it is recycled as another product in a ‘‘cradle to Veenstra, 2006; Pichel et al., 2007). The amount retrieved does not cradle’’ system (McDonough and Braungart, 2002). Such schemes diminish significantly, year to year, and efforts are currently being may help to reduce plastic waste that ends up in the ocean, but made to find accumulation zones where the nets can be retrieved they are far from universal. at sea before they damage coral reef habitat (Pichel et al., 2007). Recently, civic groups have begun to focus clean up efforts on 3.5. Industry housekeeping storm drains and catch basins upstream from outlets to the sea, which will prevent the debris removed from reaching the ocean. Plastic resin pellets, powders and fragments are widely dispersed from their places of origin. The impacts of powders 3.3. Deposits, fees and plastic debris smaller than pellets are not known, but ingestion by plankton (Bern, 1990; Moore C.J., et al., 2001) and Ten of 52 US states have implemented ‘‘bottle bills’’ which several species of meso-pelagic myctophid fish does occur require a deposit on certain plastic bottles to aid in their recovery (Eriksson and Burton, 2003; Moore, C.J., unpublished data). and recycling, and in 2005, only 17% of the over 50 billion The impacts of pelletized and powdered plastic additives, ARTICLE IN PRESS
C.J. Moore / Environmental Research 108 (2008) 131–139 137 including colorants and conditioning chemicals in the marine service containers (commonly but incorrectly called Styrofoam, environment are not well understood, as research is in the initial which is a patented insulation made by Dow Chemical Co.). phases, but Teuten et al. (2007) states that y‘‘plastics may be Bans on some bags and foamed plastics have been adopted by important agents in the transport of hydrophobic contaminants to several municipalities in the United States and by some other sediment-dwelling organisms.’’ countries, but most types of plastic packaging and consumer Pre-production plastics (in the form of pellets, powders and products are unregulated and continue to litter the landscape, and production scrap) are accidentally discharged to waterways make their way to the ocean. during the transport, packaging, and processing of plastics when Best Management Practices (BMPs, i.e., proper housekeeping 3.8. Biodegradables practices) are not adequately employed. For pellets transported by rail, cars are emptied via a valve that connects to a conveyance All polymers that occur in nature are biodegradable suction hose. The valve should be capped when not in use. Caps (Swift, 2003). are often not replaced, causing pellet loss within the rail yard Many synthetic ‘‘bio-polymers’’ originate from non-petroleum adjacent to a facility. A similar conveyance system exists for resins sources. These include cellulose-based cellophane and rayon, as transported by hopper trucks. Pellets and powders escape when well as the more modern polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydrox- hoppers are emptied through pipes connected to valves at the yalkanoate (PHA), which are derived from fermentation. In bottom of the truck. When handled improperly, resin pellets and general, these plastics biodegrade more rapidly than their powders are also released from conveyance mechanisms on site. petroleum-based counterparts. However, typical tests for biode- In addition to plastic resins, additives used for coloring or creating gradability rely on hot, aerated composting media, based on the specific characteristics of processed plastics are also delivered in metabolism of bacteria, fungi and insects. The marine environ- pellet and powder form. The discharges to local waterways ment is much colder, and many compostable ‘‘bioplastics’’ include colorants and additives, not just plastic resins. Grindings, degrade very slowly at sea, and hardly at all in the deep ocean cuttings and fragments from the processing of plastics, known as (Wirsen, 1971). Currently, substitution for conventional plastics is production scrap, are often part of the mix of debris that is limited by the cost of bioplastics, which is five to ten times greater conveyed by wind and storm water as runoff from plastics than for petroleum-based resins. A 1999 projection of the world facilities to storm drains and nearby waterways (Moore et al., biodegradables market was that it would grow from 30 to 2005c). 250 Â 106 pounds per year, while petroleum plastics sell at 1000 Evidence suggests that pre-production plastic resin pellets times that rate, or 250 Â 109 pounds annually (New York Times, accidentally released from plastic processors contribute approxi- 1999). While bioplastics may offer a more sustainable industry mately 10% by count to the plastic debris problem (Moore et al., product with reduced environmental effects, Swift (2003, p. 499) 2005b; McDermid and McMullen, 2004). In response, the states: ‘‘ymodification of natural polymers either by grafting American Plastics Council (APC) and the Society of the Plastics synthetic polymers or by chemical conversions such as oxidation Industry (SPI) in the United States have adopted a voluntary and esterification, changes their properties and biodegradation program of BMPs known as ‘‘Operation Clean Sweep’’ (OCS). OCS characteristics significantly. Therefore, polymers produced by any was first developed in 1980 by SPI. It was recently revised and of these modifications must be evaluated for biodegradability in improved by a collaborative effort between AMRF, APC, and SPI. the same manner as purely synthetic polymers.’’ Measurements of industrial discharge before and after imple- mentation of the program showed reductions of approximately 50% in pellet discharge (Moore et al., 2005c), but recruiting 4. Recommendations participants from the thermoplastic processing sector has proved challenging (American Plastics Council, personal communication). In 2002, the State of California Water Resources Control Board awarded a half million dollar US grant to AMRF and the California Coastal Commission (CCC) to assess the amount of plastic debris 3.6. Recycling entering the ocean from the Los Angeles Basin’s two largest watersheds. The grant provided for a process to develop Plastic is hard to clean due to the penetration of contaminants recommendations to reduce these inputs. In 2005, during the into the polymer matrix. It is also difficult to separate composites first international conference on plastic debris, called ‘‘Plastic and mixed plastic waste into the many different plastic types that Debris, Rivers to Sea,’’ sponsored by the CCC and AMRF require different reprocessing technologies. Furthermore, many (www.plasticdebris.org), the participants were encouraged to thermoplastics melt at temperatures not far above the boiling participate in writing these recommendations. The result was a point of water. Therefore, contaminants are not driven off during comprehensive booklet (Gordon, 2006). It included 63 recom- remanufacture. The price of recycled plastic materials often mendations for action which were grouped into the following exceeds the current price of virgin plastic resin (Brandrup, categories: 2003). Because of contamination, recycled plastics can rarely be used in true ‘‘closed-loop’’ recycling; for example, a layer of virgin 1. the need for improved coordination plastic must be added onto the recycled material for food contact 2. research needs applications. Plastic bags are often used to make plastic ‘‘wood’’, 3. specific sources of land-based discharges rather than more bags. Plastic wood is not widely recycled and 4. product wastes. most will end up as land fill or otherwise discarded. In spite of separation schemes for households, only about 5% of plastics in In part as a result of these recommendations, the California the US are recycled in any way (CIWMB, 2003). Ocean Protection Council (2007) adopted a resolution on marine debris, which listed many of the recommendations found in AMRF 3.7. Bans, legislation and the CCC’s Action Plan. Certain California legislators then proposed, under the mantle of ‘‘The Pacific Protection Initiative,’’ Bans typically focus on high profile waste, such as thin plastic two Assembly bills and two Senate bills to address marine debris shopping bags and expanded polystyrene cups and clamshell food issues. Assembly Bill 258 requires the State Water Board and ARTICLE IN PRESS
138 C.J. Moore / Environmental Research 108 (2008) 131–139
Regional Water Boards to implement a program to control Day, R.H., Shaw, D.G., Ignell, S.E., 1990. The quantitative distribution and discharges of pre-production plastic pellets, which are used to characteristics of neuston plastic in the North Pacific Ocean. 1985–1988. In: Shomura, R.S., Godfrey, M.L. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second International make plastic products, into rivers and streams. The bill was signed Conference on Marine Debris, 2–7 April, 1989, Honolulu, Hawaii. NOAA into law by Governor Swarzenegger on October 1, 2007. Three Technical Memo. NMFS, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-154. other bills are still pending. Assembly Bill 904 would require that De Metrio, G., Corriero, A., Desantis, S., Zubani, D., Cirillo, F., Deflorio, M., Bridges, takeout food packaging be made from recyclable or compostable C.R., Eicker, J., de la Serna, J.M., Megalofonou, P., Kime, D.E., 2003. Evidence of a high percentage of intersex in the Mediterranean swordfish (Xiphias gladius L.). materials starting July 1, 2012. Senate Bill 898 would require the Mar. Pollut. Bull. 46, 358–361. California Integrated Waste Management Board to address Derraik, J.G.B., 2002. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a derelict (abandoned) fishing gear, and assign resin code labeling review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 44 (9), 842–852. Eriksson, C., Burton, H., 2003. Origins and biological accumulation of small plastic for bioplastics. Senate Bill 899 would implement a phased-ban of particles in fur seals from Macquarie Island. AMBIO: A J. Hum. Environ. 32 (6), toxic additives in plastic packaging, such as Bisphenol-A. Details 380–384. of international legal and other actions to deal with marine debris FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), Canada, 1991. In: Smith, A. (Ed.), Report of the Expert Consultation on the Marking of Fishing Gear, Victoria, British are beyond the scope of this review, and the author has not been Columbia, Canada, 14–19 July, 1991. able to locate a comprehensive report that lists and updates this Foley, D., Veenstra, T., 2006. Characterizing and surveying oceanic sources and type of international data, but such a compilation would be of sinks of marine debris. In: Proceedings of the Southern California Academy of Sciences Annual Meeting, 2006, recorded remarks. benefit to those seeking solutions to the problems caused by Goldberg, E.D., 1997. Plasticizing the seafloor: an overview. Environ. Technol. 18, persistent plastic debris. 195–201. Gordon, M., 2006. Eliminating Land-based Discharges of Marine Debris in California: A Plan of Action from The Plastic Debris Project. California State Water Resources Control Board, Sacramento, CA. Acknowledgments Gregory, M.R., 1977. Plastic pellets on New Zealand beaches. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 8, 82–84. I wish to thank the staff of Algalita Marine Research Gregory, M.R., 1978. Accumulation and distribution of virgin plastic granules on New Zealand beaches. N. Z. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 12 (4), 399–414. Foundation, Marieta Francis, Gwen Lattin, Dr. Marcus Eriksen, Gregory, M.R., 1983. Virgin plastic granules on some beaches of eastern Canada and Ann Zellers, Danae Werthmann, Christiana Boerger and Nicole Bermuda. Mar. Environ. Res. 10, 73–92. Chatterson. I also wish to thank the many colleagues who have Gregory, M.R., 1991. The hazards of persistent marine pollution: drift plastics and conservation islands. J. R. Soc. N. Z. 21, 83–100. willingly shared their knowledge with me. Gregory, M.R., 1996. Plastic ‘scrubbers’ in hand cleansers: a further (and minor) source for marine pollution identified. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 32, 867–871. References Gregory, M.R., 1999. Plastics and South Pacific island shores: environmental implications. Ocean Coastal Manage. 42 (6–7), 603–615. 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Another source of pollution by plastics: skin cleaners Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Marine Debris, 1989. with plastic scrubbers. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 22, 41–42. Appendix C: Preliminary Food Ware Price Comparison
EPS Plastic Paper Biodegradable Unit Unit Price Quantity Unit Price Price Quantity Unit Price Price Quantity Price Price Quantity Price 9.39 100 0.09 21.99 125 0.18 17.99 100 0.18 26.99 100 0.27 10.99 100 0.11 36.07 200 0.18 37.13 200 0.19 66.86 200 0.33 10.99 100 0.11 45.99 100 0.46 41.56 200 0.21 107.50 250 0.43 10.79 100 0.11 69.00 100 0.69 86.00 200 0.43 120.00 200 0.60 Box 10.79 100 0.11 81.10 160 0.51 1.29 50 0.03 3.48 150 0.02 15.79 165 0.10 8.69 200 0.04 1.58 100 0.02 56.00 500 0.11 14.69 276 0.05 70.41 500 0.14 5.98 100 0.06 73.02 500 0.15 Plate 4.98 32 0.16 87.75 500 0.18 0.98 51 0.02 74.20 2500 0.03 9.99 300 0.03 68.49 1000 0.07 19.99 1000 0.02 9.99 240 0.04 134.71 2000 0.07 99.43 1000 0.10 2.05 25 0.08 2.28 36 0.06 80.00 1000 0.08 105.34 1000 0.11 Cup 2.48 30 0.08 99.00 1000 0.10 134.59 1000 0.13 1.78 72 0.02 50.62 1000 0.05 8.49 500 0.02 10.00 200 0.05 50.00 1000 0.05 70.00 1000 0.07 Cutlery 70.00 1000 0.07 1.56 50 0.03 7.39 175.00 0.04 7.99 300 0.03 64.06 1000.00 0.06 Bowl 2.98 50 0.06 38.91 500.00 0.08
Compiled in 2009 = Pricing from company websites = Available at a Richmond store (Foods Co. or Smart & Final) = Available at Restaurant Depot (Oakland)
Appendix D.1: Preliminary Findings on Percent Cost Difference between Expanded Polystyrene and Alternative Products
Plastic Paper Biodegradable Box 100% 100% 200% Plate -50% 233% Cup 50% 50% 250% Cutlery Bowl 33%
*Based on prices listed in Appendix C. *Calculated based on the lowest price in each category. *Does not adjust for quantity (Biodegradable products available in smaller quantities may have a greater unit price not reflected in this estimate.)
Appendix D.2: Preliminary Findings on Percent Cost Difference between Plastic and Alternative Products
Paper Biodegradable Box 0% 50% Plate Cup 0% 133% Cutlery 150% Bowl
*Based on prices listed in Appendix C. *Calculated based on the lowest price in each category. *Does not adjust for quantity (Biodegradable products available in smaller quantities may have a greater unit price not reflected in this estimate.)
Appendix E: Food Ware Ordinance Comparison City’s Food Program Bans Affordability Waste Recycles Expanded Biodegradable Clause/ Composti Wide-neck Fine for Date Date Polystyre Recyclability /Compostable Exemption ng Plastic Non- City Enacted Effective ne Requirement Requirement for Hardship Program Containers Compliance Berkeley 1988 1/1/1990 x 50% 50% x x Emeryville 3/20/2007 1/1/2008 x x x x Millbrae 10/9/2007 1/1/2008 x X x x x x Oakland 6/27/2006 1/1/2007 x x x x x San Francisco 11/21/2006 6/1/2007 x X x x x x x Santa Cruz 1/22/2008 6/22/2008 x X x x x x Santa Monica 1/9/2007 1/9/2008 x X x x x x
Appendix F: Suggested Food Ware Ordinance Implementation Timeline
Month Activity Develop educational materials; Distribute 1 mailing per month; 1-3 Presentations to Chamber of Commerce, etc.
Distribute 1 mailing per month; Conduct informational site visits 4-5 Ordinance takes effect; Provide assistance to vendors 6 Provide assistance to vendors 7-8 Conduct site visits to verify compliance; Provide assistance to vendors 9 Provide assistance to vendors 10-12