PAKISTANI!1g9oSt
Public Disclosure Authorized I N'E~~fl NA7 ON1, SBANKFrC).,I RICONSTRUi("YI2ON AND DtWVTQ0kN4N'Nr
PAKISTAN I)RAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
- NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME Public Disclosure Authorized
~~~~~~~~~~~~~* .;- . lh
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORTS Public Disclosure Authorized
JUNE 1993 Public Disclosure Authorized
PI ~~NA'riONALIVINGINIARRtNCI, Mulloai - -~~ S1RVICF1SPAKISTAN (PVT) MAliOAI IFIEW LIMITIAD li i ntornallonalLimliod ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN
WATER & POWER DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
PAKISTAN DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
VOLUME 3
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORTS
JUNE 1993
Effi NATIONAL ENGINEERING Mott __ - >SERVICES PAKISTAN (PVT) 1 MacDonald FU _1 LIMITED j J Intcrmational Limitcd PAKISTAN DRAINAGE SECrOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT -NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
(LIST OF VOLUMES)
VOLUME I - PAKISTAN DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
VOLUME 2 - CONCEPT FRAMEWORK NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
VOLUME 3 - SUPPLEMENTARY REPORTS
VOLUME 4 - DATA (WATER, SO'1 & AGRICULTURE) VOLUME 3
SUPPLEMENTARYREPORTS
REPORT AUTHOR
1. FORESTRY T. A. ANSARI
2. FISHERIES SECTOR SYEDUDDINKHURSHID
3. BIRDS OF THE WETLANDS OF PAKISTAN DR. ALEEM CH.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ASPECTS (ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF DRAINS) S. A. ZAIDI
5. ROLE FRAMEWORK FOR INSTITUTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR ACTION (INCLUDING REFERENCE TO SOCIAL ASPECTS P. M. OATES SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT
FORESTRY
BY
T. A. ANSARI DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMMCE)
FORESTRY
Page No. List of Contents i List of Tables iv Abbreviations v Local Terms ConversionTable vii List of Trees and Plants ix Summary Xii
1. GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN'S FOREST POLICY I
1.1 Governmentof Pakistan Forest Policy 1980 1
1.2 Five Year DevelopmentPlans (1988-93) 1
1.3 Governmentof Pakistan's Forest Strategy 2
1.4 EnvironmentalProfile of Pakistan 2
1.5 National ConservationStrategy 3
1.6 United Nations EnvironmentalProgramme 3
1.7 Forest Types in Pakistan 4
1.8 Forest Production 5
1.9 Forests and the NationalDrainage Programme 5
2. RIVERINE FORESTS 6
2.1 General 6
2.2 Riverine Forests of Sindh 6 2.2.1 Introduction 6 2.2.2 Landuse 6 2.2.3 Present Condition 7 2.2.4 Forest Utilization 8 2.2.5 DevelopmentProjects 8 2.2.6 Break up of Area of Riverine Forests 9
i 2.3 Riverine Forests of the Punjab 10 2.3.1 General 10 2.3.2 Area of Riverine Forests 10 2.3.3 Species Used in Riverine Forests 10 2.3.4 Present Afforestation Progranmnein Punjab 10
2.4 Irrigation and Water Managementin Riverine Forests 11 2.4.1 General 11 2.4.2 High Areas Subjectto OccasionalInundation 12 2.4.3 Long Term Potential of Riverine Forests 12
2.5 Riverine Forests and the National Drainage Programme 13
3. MANGROVES 14
3.1 General 14
3.2 Area under MangroveForest 14 3.2.1 Area Statement 14 3.2.2 Description of Mangroves 15 3.2.3 Flora of Mangroves 16 3.2.4 Dependenceof Mangroves on Freshwater 17
3.3 Mangroves Ecosystem 17
3.4 CommercialProductivity of Mangroves 18 3.4.1 Economic Benefits 18 3.4.2 Fishing Industry 18 3.A.3 Tourism 18
3.5 Degradationof the Mangroves 19 3.5.1 Reduced Freshwater Supply 19 3.5.2 Ecological Impacts 20 3.5.3 Preservation of the Mangrove Environment 21 3.5.4 DevelopmentProjects/Plans 21
3.6 Mangroves and the National Drainage Programme 23 3.6.1 Existing Position 23 3.6.2 Existing Outfall Drains 23 3.6.3 Field Observation by the Consultants 24 3.6.4 Positive Impacts 24
4. IRRIGATED PLANTATIONS 25
4.1 Introduction 25
4.2 Irrigated Plantations in the Punjab 25 ii 4.3 Irrigated Plantations in Sindh 26
4.4 Saline and WaterloggedAreas in Reserved Forests 27 4.4.1 In the Punjab 27 4.4.2 In Sindh 27
4.5 Irrigated Plantationsand the National Drainage Programme 29
5. SALINE FORESTRY 30
5.1 General 30
5.2 Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar 30
5.3 Punjab Forestry Research Instiute, Faisalabad 31
5.4 University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 34
5.5 Nuclear Institate for Agriculture and Biology, Faisalabad 35
5.6 Quaid-i-AzamUniversity, Islamabad 37
5.7 University of Karachi, Karachi 38
5.8 Sindh Forest Departnent, Hyderabad 38
5.9 Trees Recommendedfor Saline and Waterlogged Lands 39
5.10 Developing Forestry Potential 40
5.11 Biological Control as an Alternative to Drainage 41 Referees
Appendkces
Appendix 1 National Conservation Strategy - Developing a Sustainable Forest Resource Appendix2 List of Riverine Forests of Sindh
Appendix 3 List of IRiverineForests of the Punjab List of "DiscussionsWith Extenal Agencies".
... LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page No.
1.1 Physical Forestry Targets in the Seventh Five Year Plan 2
1.2 Output of Forests 4
1.3 Pakistan Forest Area by VegetationTypes 5
2.1 Landuse in the Riverine Area of Sindh 6
3.1 Mangrove Area 14
3.2 Designed Discharge of Kotri Surface Drains 23
4.1 Area of Irrigated Plantationsin the Punjab and Sindh by Forest Circles 26
4.2 Saline and WaterloggedAreas in the Punjab Forest Irrigated Plantations 27
4.3 Saline and WaterloggedAreas in Sindh Forest Irrigated Plantations 28
5.1 Survival Percentage of Tree species on Saline Soils 30
5.2 Survival Percentage of Tree species on Saline Soils (in India) 31
5.3 Trial of Salt Tolerant species imported from Australia 32
5.4 Planting Techniques on WaterloggedLands 33
5.5 Planting Techniques fbr Eucalyptuscamaldulensis 33
5.6 Economic Returns from Tree species on Saline Lands 35
5.7 Trial of Australian Woody species on Saline Lands 36
5.8 Growth of Casuarina glauca on different Saline Lands 37
5.9 Growth and Productionof Casurarina glauca on Saline Lands 37
iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
A
ACIAR Australian Centre for InternationalAgriculture Research ADB Asian DevelopmentBank
C
CS[RO CommonwealthScientific and Industrial Research Organisation CIDA Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency cu Centimeter cu.ft Cubic feet cu.m Cubic meter Cusec Cubic feet per second
E
EC or Ec Electric Conductivity
D
DPOD Dhoro Puran Outfall Drain
F
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FYP Five Year Plan
G g gramme GOP Governmentof Pakistan
H
ha Hectare
I
IBRD InternationalBank for Reconstructionand Development IUCN InternationalUnion for Cunservationof Nature and Natural Resources
K
Kg Kilogramme Km Kilometer L
LBOD Left Bank Outfall Drain
M
m meter MS,ms,mS Micro Semen Mt Million tonnes/tons
N
NIAB Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology NWFP North West Frontier Province p
PAEC Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission PARC Pakistan AgriculturalResearch Council ppm Parts per million
R
RBOD Right Bank Outfall Drain
S
SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio SFD Sindh Forest Department Sq.km Square kilometer SUPARCO Pakistan Space and Upper AtmosphereResearch Commission
U
UN United Nations UNEP United Nations EnvironmentalProgramme
vi DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL TERMS
Abkalani The rise in the level of the water in the river; The annual flood.
Bela Riverine forest.
Bund Embankment/Dyke
Dhand Water left in a low-lying place after floods. A small pond.
Dhora A natural water channel. A creek. A low-lying area.
Kachcha/Kachcho Unstable, newly formed land created by a change in the course of the river.
Kallar Soil having high concentrationsof salts.
PuccalPacco Stable land.
Rabi Winter cropping season from October to April.
CONVERSION TABLE
English Units Metric Units
1 inch (in) = 25.4 millimetres (m)
I foot (ft) = 30.5 centimetres (cm)
1 yard (yd) = 0.915 meters (m)
1 mile (mi) = 1.609 kilometres (km)
1 acre (ac) = 0.405 hectares (ha)
1 square mile (sq.mi) = 59 ha
1 pound (lb) = 0.454 kilograms (kg)
1 long ton (1 g ton) = 1.016 metric tons (t)
1 cubic foot/second (cfs) = 0.0283 cubic meters/second (m3/sec) = 28.32 litres/second (1/sec)
vii LIST OF TREES AND OTHER PLANTS
Scientific Name Local Name
Acacia farnesiana Kikri Acacia nilotica Babul/Kikar Acacia senegal Valaiti KikarlKhor Aegiceras corniculatum Chor Albizzia lebbek Safed Siris Albizzia procera Siris Azadirachta indica Neem Avecinnia marina Timur
Bruguigera gymmorhiza
Casurarina equisetafolia Jaugli SarulJhao Ceriops tagal Chanhr Comocarpus lancepholeus Ethopian teak
Dalbergia sisso Shisham
Leucacena leucocephala Ipil Ipil
Morus alba Mulberry/Shehtut/Toot
Parkinsonia aculeata Parkinsonia Phoenix dactylifera Datepalm/Khajoor Phticolibium dulca Jungli Julibi Pongamia glabra sukhchain Poplar/Bahan Populus euphratica Poplar/Bhan Prosopis cineraria Kandi/land Prosopis glandulosa and P. Juliflora Mesquite/Devi Psidium guava Guava/Amrood
Rhizophora apiculata Rhizophora decaudra Rhizophora mucronata Kandall
Salix spp. SalLx Sesbania aculeata Sonneratia caseolaris Syzgium cummini Jaman
Tamarix articulata TamarisklAsro Lai/Lao Tamarix aphylla TamarisklLai Terminalia arjuna Arjun
Zizyphus jujuba Ber Zizyphus mauritiana Mallah/lhar ber
viii EXOTIC TREES IMPORTEDFOR SALINEAND WATERLOGGED LANDS
(No Local Names)
Acacia ampliceps Acacia auriculiformis Acacia calcicola Acacia cambagei Acacia holosericea Acacia kempeana Acacia ligulata Acacia maconociana Acacia salicina Acacia saligna Acacia selerosperma Acacia stenophylla Acacia victoria
Casuarina cristata Casuarina cunmighamia Casuarina glauca Casuarina obesa
Eucalyptus globulus Eucalyptusmicrotheca Eucalyptus occidentalis Eucalyptusrudis Eucalyptustriticornis
Melaleuca bracteata Melaleuca halmaturoru Melaleuca leucadendra
Sesbania formosa Stylobasiumsbathulatum
SHRUBS AND GRASSES
Acluropus spp. Sukarr Atriplex spp. Atriplex
Calotropis procera Akh Cenchrus spp Gah Cyprus conglomeratus Bakhar
ix Diplachne fusca Kallar grass
Heliotropuim curassivicum Lathani Heliotropuim undulatum Poenr Halophrum macronatum Batan Heleochloa dura Dhakar
Saccharum munja Kana Saccharum sportaneum Kahi Salsola barysoma Lani Solanum surettense Damaheyoum Sueda fruticosa Lano
Urochondra setulosa Dhukar
x SUMMARY General
The construction, operation and maintenance of irrigation and drainage projects have the potential to cause a number of negative environmentalimpacts alongwith the environmental benefits associatedwith enhancing agricultural productivityand its effects on society.
No documentationexists regarding the ecological impact of irrigation drainage on natural resources in Pakistan. Empirical observations indicate ecological effects occur from all irrigation and drainage programmes, which alter the water quality and quantity in the area.
In Forestry, the potential environmental impacts of a drainage project may include modificationof riverine forest and mangroves from changes in surface water hydrology and water quality from drainage water.
The environmentalimpacts on the various types of forests would be: Riverine Forests
Riverineforests are flood plain forests. They depend upon annual floods to provide the water necessary for growth and regeneration. These forests are found along Chenab. Jhelum and Ravi rivers. but mostly along the Indus. They vary in size from small scattered bits in the Punjab to large forests in Sindh that cover thousand of hectares.
The total area of riverine forest is 243,000 hectares. Of this 190,000 hectares are located in Sindh and 53,000 hectares in the Punjab.
In the province of Sindh, the riverine forests are the main productive forest and the most important landuse of the riverine lands.
During the non-flood season (October to April) the flow in river remains confined within its banks. Therefore the drainage water during the non-floodseason will remain confined within the river banks and as it will not spill on to the flood plain and therefore will not affect the riverine forests.
Drainage effluent discharged in the flood season will be mixed with a very large volume of fresh water. Hence it is unlikely to have such a high concentrationof salts as to affect the tree growth.
Further more, the irrigation canals take off from the various dams and barrages in the Country. These canals irrigate the agricultural lands. The canals taking off from the Kotri barrage irrigate agricultural lands upto the sea. As the canal irrigation water does not have any negative impact on irrigated agricultural crops, the river water, which flows down a barrage, will also not have any impact on the riverine forests.
In any case the riverine forests can be affected only if the drain effluent passed into the river exceeds permissible levels, which is unlikely to be allowed.
Therefore, the river water quality in relation to riverine forests, its dynamics and productivity will be the same as of canal irrigated agricultural crops and will have no negative impact on
xi the riverine forests. As long as the river water is fit for irrigated agriculture, it is equallyfit for riverine forests:
Mangroves
Most of the coast line in SineAhstretching over 227 km has mangroves spread over 0.60 million hectares. These Indus delta mangroves contribute directly towards the economic developmentof the coastal village communities.These forests have been extensivelyutilised by coastal people not only as a place to live but also as a resource for a variety of products, which include fuel wood, timber, fodder and medicines.
Economically,the mangrovescontribute towards earning the foreign exchange, as most of the commercially exportable important fish specially, the shrimp grow in the mangroves.
Environmental degradation has occurred in the Indus delta mangroves as a result of the establishmentof major irrigation structures along the rivers. There has been a drop in water discharges into the deltaic region, which has reduced the active delta from approximately 25,000 sq.km to a 2,500 sq.km triangular area near Ketibunder. The mangrove ect system is under great stress due to the high sea water salinitiesof 37,000 to 41,000 ppm resulting from gradual but drastic reduction of freshwater input to the delta from Indus river. The average rainfall of 200 mm is too low to compensatefor the reduced supply of fresh water.
Any addition of water, however small or large in quantity, with salinities less than sea water salinities. is a most welcome addition to help maintain the mangroves and its re!ated ecosystem. As the drain water salinities will always be less than the sea water salinities, the addition of drain water will have a positive impact on the mangroves.
It has been observed, that mangroves in the areas near the outfall drains are healthy indicating that the drain water compensatesfor the decreasingfresh water from the Indus river.
Irrigated Forest Plantations
In the canal irrigated zone. the irrigated forest plantationsoccupy 231,000 hectares - 149,000 ha. in the Punjab and 82,000 ha in Sindh.
A drainage programme will always have a positive impact on the irrigated forest plantation as in case of agriculture. A drainage programme will reclaim the salinity and waterlogging and will lower the water table. 7.800 ha of saline and waterloggedareas in the irrigated forest plantations in the Punjab and 21.100 ha in Sindh will be reclaimed in the same way as agriculture lands.
Natural Forest Policies and the National Drainage Programme
The forestry scenario in the National Drainage Programme with the Government forest policies
GOP's Forest Policy-1984 GOP's Seventh Five Year Plan-1988to 93 EnvironmentalProfile of Pakistan-1987 National Conservation Strategy-Draft(1990) .x1I all emphasize increasem forest area, forest cover and the forest production. As a drainage programmewill have positiveimpacts on some types of forest and no negative impacton any forest, it will meet the objectivesset forth in the national forest policies.
As the forests are a source of supply of goods and services to the people, the improvements in forestry due to a drainage programme will help in the long term ecological and environmentalsecurity and combinethe environmentalimperatives and production.
xiii PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
FORESTRY
1. GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN'S FOREST POLICY
For the environmentalassessment of the 'National Drainage Programme' for forestry sector, it is necessary to examine the Forestry Policy of the Government of Pakistan.
1.1 NATIONAL FOREST POLICY OF 1980
The latest national forest policy was issued by the Government of Pakistan in 1989. The National Forest Policy (1980) calls for:
i) a bigger thrust in at.orestation with fast growing species;
ii) development of compact plantations;
iii) motivating people for large scale tree plantation on private farm lands; and
iv) well planned integrated and co-ordinated forestry development at national and provincial levels.
1.2 FIVE YEAR DEVELOPMENT PLANS (1988-93)
Next to the forest policy are the Five Year Development with regard to forestry, the objectives of the Seventh Five Year Plan (1988-93) are to:
i) evolve an integrated programme for developing barani, riverain and mountainous forests as part of long termnprogramme to arrest environmental degradation and conserve the country's physical resources of forest, land and water;
ii) increase in the levels of production by achieving higher.yields per unit area; and
iii) meet the growing demand for fuelwoodthrough social forestry and energy plantations on private lands.
The strategy devised for the Plan is to launch a comprehensiveprogramme for affbrestation, watershed management, range managementand resource conservation, including:
- iimproved management of irrigated plantations to increase productivity from the present low levels;
1 - increased production on farm lands through social forestry; and
- Rehabilitationof riverine forest and the mangroves.
The physical annual targets during the Plan period are given in Table 1.1.
TABLE 1.1
Physical Forestry Targets in Seventh Five Year Plan (1988-93) ------Item Units Annual Target ------Wood cu.m x 1000 1,200 - Fuel wood cu.m x 1000 760 - Timber cu.m x 1000 440
Compact plantation ha 40,000
Distribution of million 400 plants for social forestry farm plantations ------Source: Seventh Five Year Plan (1988-93)
1.3 GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN'S FOREST STRATEGY
The Government of Pakistan have adopted the following overall strategy for development of forestry: i) In Government forests to maximize production through intensive management by planting of bare areas in hill, riverine and irrigated forests and improved management of mangrove forests along the sea coast. ii) Outside the Government forests to develop social forestry to increase production of wood on privately owned lands through a large scale planting programme.
1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE OF PAKISTAN AND FORESTRY
For the environmentalmanagement of the NationalDrainage Progranmne,the role of forestry in the overall environmentalmanagement of the country needs to be defined.
Two enviromental profiles have been prepared for the country. In the 'Environmental Profile of Pakistan' prepared by the Arid Lands InformationCenter, University of Arizona, Tuscon, Arizona (USA) for U.S. Man and the Biosphere Department of State, Washington, D.C (USA) in 1981 and the 'Environmental Profile of Pakistan' drawn by the Environment and Urban Affairs Division, Government of Pakistan in 1987, deforestation has been ranked 2 as a critical environmentalproblem of Pakistan.
In the Profile of 1981 "Deforestation and desertification' has been spelled out as the Pakistan's principal environmentalproblem after:
- Waterlogging, salinity and sedimentation,and - Disease
In the Profile oi 1987, the primary reasons of ecological deterioration have been broadly categorised into four groups:
- Deforestation - Soil erosion and degradation - Desertification,and - Species extinction
In the Profile of 1987 it has also been stated that there are substantialevidences of widespread environmental degradation throughout the terrestrial ecosystem of the country. 'In many instances such degradation is already far advanced and may be difficult if not impossible to arrest or even reverse-particularlywith limited financial means; in other areas, the process of ecologicaldeteriorattion has recently begun to accelerate and threaten the present insoluble problems unless remedial action is taken very soon; in still others, the destructive forces have begun to emerge, but serious consequences could still be averted with appropriate action". IBRD (1985) 'Pakistan Environmental Rehabilitation, Protection and Management' ReconnaissanceMission Report.
1.5 NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY
The Government of Pakistan in their draft "National Conservation strategy" drawn by the Environment and Urban Affairs Division, GOP and the InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) have attached great importance to the preservation of forests and have emphasizedfor "Developinga Sustainable Forest Resource".
Extract from the "National Conservation Strategy' in this regard are attached as Appendix 1.
1.6 UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME (UNEP)
UNEP, which is the U.N. Secretariatfor Environmentin their report for the year 1990 have stated that the environmental and natural resources management and conservation are extremely important and need to have a high priority.
With reference to mangrove forests, UNEP have further observed that although the coastal zone constitutes only about 10 percent of the total area, it accounts for more than half of the ocean's biological productivity and nearly all the world's catch of fish. In addition coastal areas contain many kinds of ecosystemsthat are vital to marine life and human kind. In fact. about 60 percent of the world population, or nearly three billion people live on or withi some 100 km of a sea coast and more than half the population of developing countries obtai 40 percent or more of its total animal protein intake from fish. 3 UNEP have also started an international campaign to produce a global strategy and action plan to halt the destruction of the earth's biological diversity and genetic heritage. It has been estmated ithat25 percent of the world's plint and animal species face extinction within the next 25-50 years, if current losses continu : and that .ie world is being deprived of its most fundamental capital stock - its species, hat itats and ecosystems.
As will be seen from the analysis in the following chapters, the area under forests, as will well the productivity of forests is likely to increase with a drainageproject, thereby achieving the objectives are laid down in the Government Forest Policies and Environmental Management Programmes.
1.7 FOREST TYPES IN PAKISTAN
The major forest resource can be categorised as
Coniferous forests in the temperate zone Cinthe North) Irrigated forest plantations } in the Indus Riverain forests } plains Mangroves along the Indus delta. scrub forests
The breakdown of forest area is given in Table 1.2.
TABLE 1.2
Pakistan Forest Area by Vegetation Type
Vegetation Type Area Percentage (million ha) share
Coniferous 0.92 32.3 Irrigated Plantaticns 0.22 7.7 Riverain 0.28 9.7 Mangroves 0.35 12.1 Scrub: Hill 0.84 - Plain 0.25 38.2
Total: 2.86 100.0
Source: Govemment of Pakistn, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and co-operatives(1989). Note: These figures do not tally with the figures given by theConsultants in thefollowing chapters. The areas of forest types given by the Consultants details the source of data.
4 1.8 FOREST PRODUCTION
The foaowing table gives dhe Forestry production:
TABLE 1.3 outfall of Forests
Year Major (Million cub.ft) Minor (Million rupees)
Total Timber Fire- Total Grazing Others wood & Fodder Grass
1977-78 20.8 (0.59) 4.6 (0.13) 16.2 (0.46) 15.1 - 15.1 1978-79 28.5 (0.81) 8.1 (0.23) 20.4 (0.58) 14.3 _ 14.3 1979-80 23.5 (0.67) 8.2 (0.23) 15.3 (0.44) 14.2 - 14.2 1980-81 22.2 (0.63) 6.4 (0.18) 15.8 (0.48) 14.0 - 14.0 1981-82 22.2 (0.68) 5.1 (0.14) 17.1 (0.49) 24.5 1.5 23.0 1982-83 24.2 (0.68) 7.4 (0.21) 16.8 (0.47) 25.8 1.7 24.1 1983-84 18.3 (0.52) 6.0 (0.17) 12.3 (0.35) 27.4 2.9 24.5 1984-85 27.4 (0.70) 11.3 (0.32) 16.1 (0.46) 33.3 3.5 29.8 1985-86 24.7 (0.78) 11.1 (0.31) 13.6 (0.39) 24.9 1.7 23.2 1986-87 33.6 (0.98) 14.4 (0.41) 19.2 (0.54) 29.1 2.4 26.7 Note: The figures in brackets are in million cubic meter. Source: Pakistan Statistical Yearbook, 1989-FederalBureau of Statistics, GOP, Karachi.
1.9 FORESTS AND THE NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMGM
The forests that are likely to be aftected by a drainage system are:
i) Riverine forests ii) Mangroves
These forests are described in detail in Chapter 2 & 3.
Any drainageprogramme will also have an environmentalimpact on the-irrigatedplantations. These have also been discussed in Chapter 4.
5 2. RIVERINE FORESTS 2.1 GENERAL
Riverine forests are flood plain forests. They depend upon annual floods to provide the water necessary for growth and regeneration. These forests are found along Chenab, Jhelum and Ravi rivers, but mostly along the Indus. They vary from small scattered bits in the Punjab to large forests in Sindh that cover thousandsof hectares.
Each year the Indus river floods and inundates large areas. To protect villages, roads, and canal, irrigation system from these floods, a protective dyke or bund was constructed on either side of the river to contain the flood water.
The riverain forests are located between the protective 'bunds'. The total area of riverine forests is 243,000 ha. Of this 190,000 ha are located in Sindh and 53,000 ha in the Punjab. There are no riverine forests in NWFP or Balochistan.
The flood plain soils consistof alternatinglayers of alluvialclay and sand. Clay predominates at the higher elevationsand sand in the lower or 'kachha' belas along the rivers. The 'kachha' belas are the areas near the river that flood even with a small rise in the water level in the rivers. Only high floods inundatethe 'pucca' or highlyingbelas. The groundwater level varies from one meter to about five meters.
2.2 RIVERINE FORESTS OF SINDH
2.2.1 Introduction
The ecology of Sindh is dominated by the water regime of the lndus river rather than the general climate. The meanderingcourse of the Indus within Sindh is 933 km (580 miles) long covering a straight line distanceof 610 km (380 miles).The waters of the Indijs are contained by artificial embankmentsconstructed along the lengthof the river on both sides about 16 km apart. The land between the two embankments which fonms the flood plain is known as riverain land. In the riverain areas, flood water from the river is directly available to the plants for up to 3 months in a year. This water keeps the forest crops submerged sometimes upto a height of 1-2 meters.
2.2.2 Land Use
Land use in the riverain area in Sindh is given in Table 2.1.
TABLE 2.1 Land Use in the Riverain Area of Sindh
Land Use (ha) Area (percentage)
Gross area between river embankments 677,842 (100) Forest 237,497 (35) Arable C;.lturable 216,473 ( 32) Non Culturable 223,872 ( 33)
Source: Agriculture Census Report, 1980-81. 6 According to the Agriculture Census 1980/81, 237,497 ha of the riverain land are under forests. However, accordingto the SindhForest Departmentrecords, the riverain forests are 190,357 ha (470,366 acres). Of this 141,600 ha (353,998 acres) are wooded and the remaining area is bare. Acacia nilotica, Prosopis cinereria Populus euphratica and Tamarisk Spp. (Tamarix articulata, T. aphylla) the two species growing in the forest. These species form climax vegetation. Among these, Prosopis cinereria is the only species that is a true xerophytic, but it grows equally well in the wet in the riverain forests. Other species are not xerophytic. This conversion of a dry and arid region into 'Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest' is mainly due to the irrigation flows of the river.
The distributionand growth of these four species are greatly influencedby soil conditionsand irrigation. These two factors are continuouslychanging owning to the unceasing activity of the river, leading to corresponding changes in the compositionof the forests crops.
The compositionof the crop in the forest, excludingthe bare areas is: 'Babul' and/or Kandi 75 percent, Tamarisk 23 percent and Poplar2 percent. The percentage of 'Babul' and 'Kandi' in the total growing stock in Upper and Lower Sindh is almost equal, because in Upper Sindh due to the heavier incidence of frost 'Kandi' is more common than 'Babul', while in Lower Sindh 'Babul' is more common than 'Kandi'.
Agricultural 'rabi' crops including wheat, barley and pulses are generally cultivated immediatelyafter the flood water recedes. Fresh deposits of silt fertilise the lands and the crops generally give high yields.
Someriverine lands are also pasture lands supportinga big livestockpopulation. The riverine forests are an important resource within the riverainzone and need to be maintained,at least, in their present health.
2.2.3 Present Conditions
The riverine forests were one of the most productivetimber lands in the country. They have been a major source of timber and fuelwood and have provided ideal habitat for wildlife. These forests have traditionally lined the banks of the Indus river and have been flooded annually.Fresh deposits of silt fertilisedthe area. With the constructionof dams and barrages and the withdrawal of water in the upper reaches of the river, the duration of the flood has diminished and, therefore, the area where trees can grow, is shrinking.
The Sindh Forest Department in their Position Paper dated 1987 stated that:
"An inventory carried out lately shows that almost 50 percent of the riverain forests have so degenerated that their productivity is no longer of economic value. This position is bound to deteriorate further if effective measures are not adopted to provide improvement of the water regime to augment the source, in order to make the forest land productive, the usual protective effects of the forest will be lost, as a consequenceto which the entire ecologicalset up is likely to d.generate.-
In their Final Report titled "Pakistan Forestry Sector Analysis-1987" the Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency (CIDA) stated that the plantingof bare area in the riverain forests of Sindh Province is the mostcritical issue in the afforestationprogramme of Pakistan.
7 The reasons given for this decline in the riverine forests were the lower flood dischargesand, at least as important, shorter duration of floods. Acacia nilotica, which is the principal species, will survive reduced flooding, but the trees need flooding over a minimum period of 20 to 25 day each year to achieve optimal growth. The Sindh Forest Department considers peak flows of 800,000 cusecs at Guddu as more like the optimum, without taking account of the key factor of flood duration. On present evidence, it does not appear that the possibility of damaging impact can be dismissed; whether or not the damage is avoidable is another matter.
2.2.4 Forest Utilization
The main centre of wood consumption is Karachi, a city with a population of about 10 million. Hyderabad and Sukkur are other consumptioncentres of wood -coming from the riverain areas of Sindh. Timber, mining wood, and fuelwood from riverain forests are also exported to Balochistan and Lahore. Fuelwood is used for domestic purposes and by flour mills, rice busking machines, and brick kilns. Timber is used in the mining industryof Sindh and Balochistan, and for agricultural implements,construction, and furniture industry.
The riverine forests of Sindh will remain importantsources of timber and fuelwood for Sindh and Balochistan and also for the country. The forests are located in Jacobabad, Shikarpur, Larkana, Sukkur, Khairpur, Nawabshah, Dadu, Hyderabad and Thatta districts.
2.2.5 Development Projects
In addition to the afforestation done in the riverain forests under non-developmentbudget, six development schemes for planting of 13,100 ha riverain forests are under implementation in Sindh as under:
- "'Reforestationof highlying area in riverain forests of Larkana district' will plant 1,140 ha at a cost of Rs 18.180 million. Rs 5.436 million were spent up to June, 1992.
"Reforestation of 2,200 acres (890 ha) in riverine and irrigated plantations*of Khairpur District". Total cost of this project is Rs 9.838 million. It envisages plantation of 880 hectares. Rs 4.531 million were spent upto June, 1992.
"Reforestationof high-lyingareas in Riverine Forests of Dadu District.' This scheme will plant 460 ha at a total cost of Rs 5.295 million. As of June 1992, Rs 3.595 million have been spent on this scheme.
"Rehabilitation of high-lying areas of Ketishah, Ketiabad, Bindidhareja, Budh, and Raunti Forests of Sukkur AfforestationDivision over an area of 1,640 ha". The total cost of this project is Rs 13.038 million. Rs 8.175 million have been spent on this project upto June 1992.
"Afforestationof high-lying areas in Nawabshah AfforestationDivision over an area of -2,024 ha'. The total cost of this scheme is Rs 22.968 million. Upto June, 1992, Rs 6.103 were spent on this project.
8 - Sindh Forestry Development Project" financed by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The Sindh Forest Department will develop 7,000 ha in six riverain forests into well managedforests. Constructionof canal systerns in Viran, khadi, khirsar, Bao Purandos, Bijore & Mari riverain forests is envisaged. The total cost of the project to be executedover a period of seven years starting, July 1992 is Rs. 1144 million. The other componentsof the Project are:
Social Forestry
Assistance to farmers by establishing private farm wood lots and tree plantations in shelterbelt areas, on eroding areas and along water ways covering 12,000 ha.
Rehabilitationof Government Reserved Forests
Rehabilitationof 21,000 ha of selected Government Reserved forests, which are seriously degraded due to lack of regular water supply and require silviculturetreatment. This includes 7,000 ha of riverine forest and 14,000 ha of in land forests.
InstitutionalSupport
Strengtheningof the institutionalcapabilities of the Sindh Forest Department, through the provision of staff training, research facilities, and consultant services; and
Private Sector Credit Component
Provision of credit on a pilot basis for private sector participation in the developmentof upto about 3,000 ha of selectedGovernment Reserved forests in combination with the production of agricultural crops and/or industrial wood.
22.6 Breakup of Area of Riverine Forests
The riverine forest area according to Sindh Forestry Department, in the various reaches between the barrages is:
River Portion Area (in ha) From Guddu Barrage to Sukkur Barrage 53,943 From Sukkur Barrage to Kotri Barrage 93,764 From Kotri Barrage to the sea 42,647
Total: 190,354
The total area of riverainforests below Sehwan town, where the proposed Right Bank Outfall Drain (RBOD) will discharge drain water is 108,370 ha.
The details of area forest wise are given in Appendix 2.
9 2.3 RIVERAIN FORESTS OF THE PUNJAB
23.1 General
In the riverain forests of the Punjab, shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) is the predominant species. Shisham is not quite as prolific as babul. New plants sprout from the roots of recently cut trees. So, although stands do regenerate after harvest, the Forest Department speeds up the process and makes it more uniform by also planting seedlings produced in nurseries. These young trees will not grow if planted too close to the river because they cannot survive deep floods in their early years. The species must be planted some distancefrom the river so that flooding is only moderate. However, the species will not also survive if planted too far from the river because, after the floods, residual soil moisture must be adequate for growth and survival till the next year.
The riverine forests of Punjab are mainly located in Dera Ghazikhan, Muzafargarh, Gujrat, Jhang, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Lahore and Jhelum districts.
2.3.2 Area or Riverine Forests
The total area is 53,816 ha. Of this, 27,071 ha are wooded, while the remainder is blank. The details of the area forest wise are given in Appendix 3.
2.3.3 Species Used in Riverine Forests
The major species in the Punjab riverain forests (called locally as 'belas') is shisham with a few scattered trees of 'babul'. 'Bahan' comes up in the forests of southern zone and mulberry (Morus alba) has appeared in some belas of the north. The undergrowthusually consists of 'lai' (Tamarix aphylla), 'mallah' (Zizphus mauritiana), 'kikri' (Acacia famesiana), 'kana' (Saccharum munja), and 'kahi' (Saccharumspontaneum).
The soil consists of alluvial deposits of alternating layers of clay and sand, being mostly clay at the higher elevations and sand in the lower areas. Due to the proximity of these areas to the rivers, the depth to groundwater varies from about 1 m during summer to about 3 to 4.5 m deep in winter. At places, the watertable goes even below 4.5 m depth. Due to the existing conditionof soil and moisture, the species best suited for these areas is 'shisham'.
Shisham is a natural inhabitant of 'bela' area of the Punjab. It is a large deciduous tree, a strong light demander, and frost hardy. Seedling assume a bushy form if persistently browsed. It coppices well and regenerates from root suckers. Seed ripens in February and the tree seeds profusely. Light, growing space, soil drainage, weeds, and water supply affect regeneration and plant growth. 'Shisham' produces excellentcommercial wood for furniture, construction, and veneer.
2.3.4 Present Afforestation Programme in Punjab
At present, one project for afforestation of blank areas is under implementation in Muzaffargarh district. It was originally approved-for the plantable blanks scattered over the entire division but the work was subsequentlyconcentrated to IsanwalaForest for economy of scale and closer supervision. Planting is done at a distance of 5 m x 5 m in boat shaped pits. Plants are watered by hand usipg water from kachha wells. To date, 500 ha has been
10 establishedand success is good. The cost of planting and maintenanceis under Rs 3,000 per hectare.
2.4 IRRlGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN RIVERAIN FORESTS
2.4.1 General
Floodplain forests are ecological suited to their natural environment. That is, they rely on annual or period flooding for their survival. Along the Indus and its tributaries, the water starts rising in April and continues until it reaches its annual peak in July or August. The subsidence is rather rapid and the rivers assume their normal size by the beginning of October.
In order to protect the wide floodplainsfrom the damages of high water levels, a continuous protective dyke or 'bund' has been constructed on either bank of the Indus along its entire length. The bunds are not always located near the river. The distance between the two varies from 17 to 25 km.
Some of the floodplainforests were cut in two by the protection bunds. The portion of the forest lying away from the river is no longer flooded. In Sindh, only those forests which are located between the bunds and the river are known as Riverain Forests. The forests lying outside the bunds are now called inland forests. In Punjab, some forests are still called riverine forests even though they are no longer susceptibleto flooding.
That portion of the Indus river which flows through Sindh is one of the very few rivers in the world which flows on a ridge. Consequently,it changes its course frequently. The result is that in a given year, large tracts of land on one bank of the river can be eroded while corresponding areas of dry land are accreted on the other bank. Discharge increases tremendouslyduring the flood season. As the discharge increases, the river becomes deeper and wider. The main current of the river strikes and undermines the banks. When this happens, large areas are washed away. The impingementof the main current against the banks is so forceful that, at times, the river takes away strips over 1.5 km in width. The undermining activity of the river continues till the water overflows the banks.
While erosion takes place along one bank, accretion takes place along the other. Thus, an area approximatelyequal to that eroded appears on the opposite bank. New areas appearing in this way are known as kachhas. In the initial stages the kachhas are mostly pure sand, unstable, and unfit for afforestation.With subsequentsilting the kacchas become stable and suitable for regeneration operations.
Due to differences in topography, not all areas of the floodplainare flooded equally. The area between the protective bunds can arbitrarily be divided into high areas which are seldom flooded, intermediate areas which are subject to flooding every five or six years, and low- lying areas subject to annual flooding. The land in each of these classes must be managed differently. Obviously, there are gradations in altitude and not all land fits conveniently into one class or another. In these cases, foresters exercisejudgement when choosing appropriate managementtechniques.
Also, the topography of the floodplainschanges annually. The river deposits large quantities of silt, causing considerable changes in the ground level. While some areas are being built II up, the river also creates low areas and by-rivers, 'dhands', and 'dhoras'. some of these are large enough to have water throughout the year. These factors have a very important bearing on the managementof riverain forests.
Meanwhile, the flow of the river is changing over time. Due to the construction of various barrages and reservoirs on the Indus and its tributaries, the magnitude and the duration of annual floods is gradually decreasing.This has resulted in a greater part of the riverine forests going dry. The drought caused in this way has deterioratedthe growing stock in forests that are no longer inundatedby annual floods.
2.4.2 High Areas Subject to Occasional Inundation
These areas are subject to occasional inundationand the water table is usually more than 3 m underground. Some portions of the flood plain have increased in elevation over time due to the depositionof silt at high flood levels. As the elevation increases, the area becomes less likely to be flooded in the future. For instance, an area may be susceptible to flooding at a frequency of once every 5 years. Durin, one of these 5-year floods, sediment is deposited on the area. In the future, this area should only be flooded by a flood whose recurrence interval is, say, 8 years.
In Sindh, a discharge of about 300,000 cusecs remains confined within the banks. Discharge beyond 300,000 cusecs starts inundatingthe forest areas. When discharge reaches 500,000 cusecs, the river floods the mid level riverine forests. At this discharge, about 50% of the riverine forests are flooded. The high-lyingarea receive river water only when the discharge is 700,000 cusecs or more. A discharge of I million cusecs will flood the entire area. Ordinarily, river water enters the forests in May and recedes in August. During this period, the forest may be flooded to a depth of 1.5 meter.
2.4.3 Long Term Potential or Riverine Forests
li) Productivity or Riverine Forests in Sindh
Tme total area of Riverain forests in Sindh is 190,354 hectares. Out of this 138,000 ha are wooded and remaining are blank.
The total production from the Riverainforests in Sindh has been 46,664 cu.m of timber and 76,508 cu.m of fuelwood during the year 1989-90.
Based on the standard yield tables for Acacia nilotica prepared by the Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, the annual production potential of the riverine forests has been estimated at 442,000 cu.m of timber and 718,000 cu.m of fuelwood.
The reasons for the low production have been attributed to the decreasing flood water in Indus river and consequent adverse affects on ffie riverine forests.
(ii) Productivity or Riverine Forests in Punjab
At present, 27,071 ha of bela land is under forests. Another 3,246 ha is fit for planting. Accordingto Forest Department records, an area of 23,499 ha 12 constitutesunplantable blanks.
The total production from the riverine forests in the Punjab has been 4,950 cu.m of timber and 13,725 cu.m of fuelwood during the year 1989-90.
2.5 RIVERINE FORESTS AND NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
In Sindh the flow in Indus river upto 300,000 cusec is confined in the river channel and it does not spill on to the flood plain and flood the riverain land, where the riverain forests are located. Therefore drainage water during the non-floodseason will remain confined within the river banks and will not affect the riverine forests in any way. At present there are no drains discharging drain water into the river.
In the Punjab also, during the non-floodseason, the drainage water, in most of the cases, will remain confined within the river bank and is not likely to affect the riverine forests.
Drainage effluent discharged in the flood season will be mixed with a very large volume of fresh water. Hence, it is unlikely to have such a high concentration of salts as to affect the tree growth. There will thus be no significant impact on the riverine forests.
In Sindh there is no drain falling directly into the Indus river. In the Punjab, however, a number of drains discharge drainage water into the various rivers.
The Consultantsvisited Jhok riverine forest situated about 5 km above Hudiara drain and also Mohlamwalriverine forest located about 10 km downstream, where the drain discharges into Ravi river.
No difference, whatsoever, was noticed in the growth of there forests and the regeneration new planting and the general form and shape of the trees of all age classes indicated that the drainage water had no effect on Mohlamwal riverine forest at all.
As the situation exists at present, the drainage water will provide additional water to the river system. This additional water will not significantly affect the growth of tree crops.
The irrigation canals take off from the various dams and barrages in the country. These canals irrigate the agricultural lands. The canals taking off from the Kotri barrage irrigate agricultural lands upto the Sea. As the canal irrigation water does not have any negative impact on irrigated agricultural crops, the river water, which flows down a barrage, will also not have any impact on the riverine forests. In any case, the riverine forests can be affected only, if the drain effluent passed into the river exceeds permissible levels, which is unlikely to be allowed.
Therefore it may safely be concluded that the river water quality in relation to riverine forests, its dynamics and productivity will be the same as of canal irrigated agricultural crops and will have no negative impact on the riverine forests. And as long as the river water is fit for irrigated agriculture, it is equally fit for riverine forests.
13 3. MANGROVES
3.1 GENERAL
Mangroves are the characteristiclittoral formations of tropical and subtropicalsheltered coast lines. They have been variously described as 'coastal forests', 'tidal forest', and 'mangrove forest'. They are generally called mangroves.
Mangroves are derived from a variety of plant families and they vary in their dependence upon littoral habitats. Where conditionsare suitable, the mangroves may form very extensive and productive forests.
Given suitable conditionsfor growth, propagulesof these species colonise, and establishment begins. With the passageof time communitiesof speciesare assembled which interact among themselves and with the physical environment as an ecosystem.
Mangrove ecosystem are reservoir of species of plants and animals bound together over a long evolutionaryline.
3.2 AREA UNDER MANGROVE FOREST
3.2.1 Area Statement
Most of the coast line in Sindh from Balochistan - Sindh border through Karachi to Indo- Pakistan border, stretching over 227 Km has mangroves.
The total area under mangroves as determined by Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO)with the Landsat data is 0.60 million hectares as under:
TABLE 3.1 Mangrove Area
Mangrove type Area (in Mill: Percentage hectares)
i) Area under mangrove vegetation 0.40 66
ii) Area with no vegetatior.i.e. blank area/sand. 0.04 7
Total land area: 0.44 73
iii) Area under water channels i.e. area under water within mangrove forest. 0.16 27
C-rnd total of -mangrovesarea 0.60 100
Source: Sindh Forest Department
14 Indus delta mangroves spread over 0.60 millionha rank as one of the largest single mangrove area in the world.
3.2.2 Description of Mangroves
For the purpose of description of the growing stock, the forests can be divided broadly into the following three main categories:
Mangrove Total Area % of vegetation (million ha) Total Area i) Dense Mangrove 0.05 9 ii) Normal Mangrove 0.21 35 iii) Sparse Vegetation 0.14 22
Total: 0.40 66
Source: Sindh Forest Department.
i) Dense Mangrove
These forests are found either in narrow stretches or in blocks of more or less rectangular form along creeks, carrying profuse growth of Avicennialocally known as 'Timer' which grows abundantlyon muddy sheltered shores subjectedto periodic inundationfrom tidal action of sea water. The width of these forests varies from a hundred metres to a kilometre or so, usually along the periphery of island.
The area bearing dense growth of Avicenniahas the soil of almost recent formation due to accretion. The soil is well drained and lowlying and is of better composition. All these factors are probably conducivefor replacement of grasses by Avicennia, which grows faster and flourisheswell throughout its age, till these favourablefactors degenerate due to mountingup of deposits of silt and clay, making the land higher. As the land rises from silt deposition, it does not get daily submersion, and access of tidal water. becomes limited to areas of relatively lower level and as such, the growth retards and crop deteriorates. ii) Normal Mangrove
It is widely scattered in the Indus delta. It forms about 35 percent of the total vegetation. Normal mangrove occurs in the areas where conditionsare fairly good. Avicennia is the main species of this type of vegetation. Behind the coastline and above the high water line in sheltered areas getting fresh water during rains from small rivers some growth of Tamarix Spp. and bushes of Acacia nilotica and Acacia senegal are frequently seen. Small bushes of Calotropisprocera are also found in the under growth. iii) Sparse Vegetation
This type of vegetation occurs in dry-rann and sandy areas. Sand dunes are common all along the main coastline. They appear as small hillocks of sand derived from the sandstone beneath and carry practically no vegetation towards sea side. The 15 vegetation, however, starts as the site factors improveon the farther side of land from the sea. The vegetation mainly consists of shrubs and grasses. Prominent shrubs are Suada fruticosa, Salsola, barjsoma, Helio tropium undulatum, Helitropium curassivicum, Solanum surettense, Heliotropium xurassivicum, Solanum surettense, Cyperus conglomeratus and grasses such as Heleochloa, Halopyrum macronatum, Cenchrus species, Urochondra setulosa and Acluropus. Dry ranns are unproductive waste lands and found mostly on the northem side over extensive tracts. These areas are swept over by the tidal water during monsoonwhen high velocity winds give rise to the cyclones. In these areas, sea salt can be found in the form of thick layers covering larger patches. Vegetationgrowth in dry ranns is practically absent except for some occasional salt bushes in localised areas.
3.2.3 Flora of Mangroves i) In the Past
The Indus delta mangroves had eight plant species belonging to six genera and five families as under:
a) Rhizophoraceae
i. Bruguiera Conjugata (Syn: Bruguiera conjugata) ii. Ceriops tagal (Syn: ceriops candollana) iii. Rhizophora decandra (Syn: Ceriopsrox burghiona) iv. Rhizophora apiculata (Syn: Rhizophora conjugata) v. Rhizophora mucronata (Syn: Rhizophora microhiza)
b) Hyrsinaceae
vi. Aegicerus corniculatum(Syn: Rhizophora corniculata)
c) Avicinniaceae
vii. Avecinnia marina (Syn: Avecinniaofficinalis)
d) Sonneraticeae
viii. Sonneratiacaseolaris (Syn: Rhizophora caseolaris) ii) At Present
At present, only four species are found in the mangroves. There are:
a) Avicennia marina b) Ceriops tagal c) Aegiceras corniculatum d) Rhizophora mucronata
16 Avicenniamaina, a colonizingand pioneer species adaptable to newly formed or relatively poor habitat conditions, is the major species of the mangrove fbrest. It attains a height of 9 meters and girth of 1.5 meter in areas with better soil and drainage, and where incidenceof inundationby tidal water is more effective. In dense crop the Avicenniagrows straight with a small crown and in places where growth is sporadic, trees are of stunted trunk and lateral branches develop in the form of umbrella, about a meter above the ground.
Beside Avicennia Spp. the other species found occasionallyin localised patches are Ceriops tagal Aegiceras corniculatum and Rhizophora mucronata. Ceriops tagal is locally called 'Chanhr' and occurs mostly in Khai and Dabbo creeks. The trunk of Ceriops is single, straight and solid and the leaves are not browsed. It attains a height of 2-3 meter in best conditions and produces propagules from the end of June to mid-August. Rhizophora mucronata is locally called 'Chor' and occurs in Dhaboo and Khanjar creeks. It is found on the banks of the creek but rarely at the seaward fringe. Salt tolerance of the species is less than Avicennia and Ceriops. It is a highly branched shrub. The propagules are produced in the months of July and August.
Dense mangroves are present in Korangi, Phitti, Wadikhudi Khai, Patiani, Dabboo Sissa creeks of northern area and Kanjar, Pakhar and Sir creeks of southern area.
3.2.4 Dependence of Mangroves on Fresh Water
Mangroves are tolerant of sea water but depend on a steady supply of fresh water to keep the salinity levels within certain limits. The mangrovesthus grow in a mixture of sea water and fresh water. They will die if either supply of sea water or fresh water is cut off.
The mixing of sea and fresh water provides an ideal environmentfor the mangrovevegetation and the fauna includingmangrove related fish and shrimp.
3.3 MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
What characterises mangroves as an ecosystem is that it is always an open system with extensive exchanges with adjoiningsystems. It is open land-wardsfrom where it imports silt carrying water from land runoff. Fresh water washesexcess salinity from mangrovesoils and carries the salt back to the sea.
The system on the whole exports water seawards to the coastal area, carries literfall, aquatic vegetation, large and small particulate organic matter, dissolved nutrients and a variety of chemical compounds produced by the 'metabolism' of the mangrove system as a whole. Mangrove ecosystemsare also a sink for the sedimentload carried by rivers that accumulates among pneumatophoresand proproots. Much organic matter is also deposited and trapped .n the mangrove sediments. Mangrovesare open-endedecosystems with an overall transport of matter and energy from land to sea.
There are several mangrove related systems of importance that vastly benefit from the intensive energy budget and exports from the mangrove. Biologicalcycles are compleud in a short span of time, the turnover rate is intense, microbial degradation is fast and the tendency to form anoxic sediments and acid sulphate soils is also processed very fast. However, sea water entering the system neutralizes the-tendencyto form acid sulphate soils and leaches away toxic substance that accumulateduring the periods of exposure to air and 17 waterlogging. Litterfall from the forest is mechanically and biochemicallybroken down by animals that feed on it, mainly crabs, and this is the first step in nutrient recycling. Fragmented vegetable matter and animal excreta are fwutherdigested by micro-organisms while fine particulate organic matter and dissolved nutrients are used by filter feeders and phytoplanktonrespectively. The tidal rhythm with its comings and going brings with it an overall long time of residence of the waters in the mangrove. This coupled with high temperatureand high relative humidity,promotes intensiverecycling insidethe mangrovearea itself. The whole system behaves as an enormous cauldron where rich nutrient broth is continuouslyproduced, day and night.
3.4 COMMERCUILPRODUCTIVITY OF MANGROVES
3.4.1 Economic Benefits
Mangroveforests have been extensivelyutilized by coastal people not only as a place to live, but also as a resource for a variety of products, which includefuel wood, timber, fodder and medicines. Local communities regularly gather mangrove leaves for cattle, buffalo and donkey fodder. The mangrove system also supports a wide variety of other wildlife of conservation importance.
The role of mangroves as a potential sustainablesources of fuel wood is an important one to meet the increasing need for wood energy. It is anticipated that establishment and proper management of this renewable fuel wood resource will become an essential part of the national forestry and energy programmesof the country.
The mangrovesin Sindh contribute directly towards the economicdevelopment of the village communities.A number of fishing villagesare situated along the shore line. Nearly 100,000 people live along the coast. Most of them are fishermen and others are connected with the fishing in one way or the other. In additions hundreds of people are engaged in fishing business such are marketing, storage, freezing plants and export etc. of fish and shrimp.
The mangroves of the Indus delta accumulatesilt, accrete shore line, reduce erosion of the coast line and beaches and also prevent flooding. Mangroves consolidate the substrate in which they grow. The extensiveroots of mangrove trees inter wine to form a mat below the mud surface. This helps to prevent coastal erosion, and even traps sediment and extend sealine seawards. Its most importantfunction is to provide food, shelter and serve as nursery grounds for larvae and juveniles of marine organisms.
3.4.2 Fishing Industry
It is estimated that 90 percent of commerciallyimportant fish species specially shrimp grow in the mangroves. The total production of fish in Pakistan is in the order of 0.40 m.t. of which 0.33 m.t. is marine fish. During 1988, 0.25 m.t. fish were caught off the Sindh coast, which is 76 percent of the marine fish and 63 percent of the total fish cath in the country. Further during this year (1988) Pakistan earned Rs 2.25 billion from fish exports, over 70 percent of which came from shrimp produced in Indus delta mangroves. The remaining fish caught is either used for local consumptionor converted into fish meal to support the thriving poultry industry.
18 3.4.3 Tourism
They are also a great source of tourism and a place of scenic beauty. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNHS) and the Karachi Development Authority (KDA) have prepared the "Karachi Coastal RecreationDevelopment Master Plan 1990-2000",which seeks to improve recreation facilities and to protect environmentallysensitive areas of Karachi's Coastline. The plan estimates that 120,000 persons now visit coastal areas for recreation on a holiday. More than twice as many visitors are projected by the year 2,000, when over half a million people are likely to visit these places on a given holiday.
The Plan identifies mangrove forests of Indus delta as areas to be safeguarded for their vegetation and wildlife habitats and to protect the scenic beauty, which draws visitors to the Coast. 3.5 DEGRADATION OF THE MANGROVES
3.5.1 Reduced Fresh Water Supply
The Gazetteer of Sindh (1907) has described the mangroves of Indus delta as under:
'Mangrove (Rhizophora mucronate - Kandall) and white mangrove (Avicinnia officinalis - Timar), which grow, where the fresh water meets sea water are said to bind the soil with far reaching roots and effectivelyprevent erosion and to provide a breeding ground for marine life. The wood fumished the best fuel available for river steamers in the early years of British rule and the foliage provided excellent fodder for camels. It is also reported that mangroves 'Timar' and 'Chauri' or 'Kirari' (Ceriops candollana) were much used for boat building."
Most reports from the Sindh Gazetteer (1907) down to the Asian DevelopmentBank's (ADB) Fishery Sector Study (1987) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (TUCN)study (1987) emphasizethe process of environmentaldegradation in the Indus delta.
The Asian Development Bank (1987) study notes that:
"The influence of the Indus river system on the marine fisheries of the Sindh coast is substantial as this river has historically transported enormous quantities of water, nutrients and sediments on to the continentalshelf. With the establishmentof barrages and dams across the Indus, the annual river flow into the ocean has been radically reduced, mangrove forests are rapidly disappearingand the potential negative effects on many species of marine fish and shrimp that rely on the delta for part of their life cycle are largew
"The diversion of Indus waters for irrigation uses has radically altered the Indus delta area over the past decade and average salinities have increased sharply in the tidal creeks. As a result the juveniles of the preferred commercial species have virtually disappeared from the creeks."
"Environmental degradation has occurred in the Indus delta as a result of the establishmentof major irrigation structures along the Indus river. These has been a dramatic drop in water discharge and sediments in the deltaic region which has 19 reduced the active delta from approximately 25,000 Sq.Km to a 2500 Sq.Km tri- angular area near Ketibunder. This has resulted in inundation of the lower deltaic plain by the intrusionof sea water which in turn has adversely affected the mangrove ecosystem. Since this ecosystem serves as a feeding place and nursery ground for many fish and shrimp species in the early stages of their life cycles, these resources can be assumed to be adversely affected by changes along the Indus river. The decreased in-flux of nutrient rich waters has also affected off shore fisheries. Yearly catches of fish off the Sindh coast declined after a major barrage was constructedon the Indus river in 1956"
"All these conditionscan be expected to worsen overtime because of continuingplans to eventually divert more of the water flow from the Indus river. Since all the factors which constitute an environmentallysound estuary are also important conditionsfor shrimp culture, the prospects for developing shrimp farming in the future are expected to further deteriorate."
The mangrove ecosystem of the Indus delta is thus under stress due to the high sea water salinities of 37,000 to 41,000 part per million (ppm) resulting from gradual but drastic reduction of fresh water input to the delta from the Indus river. The average rainfall of 200 mm is too low to compensatefor the reduced supply of fresh water.
3.5.2 Ecological Impacts
With reduced water supply, the ecologicalimpacts have been: i) Reduction in species diversity: of the seven plant species occurring in mangroves:
- Avecinnia marina - Ceriops tagal - Aegiceras corniculatum - Rhizophora mucronata - Bruguiera gynorhiza - Rhizophora decandra - Rhizophora apiculata - Sonneratia caseolaris
during early ninetees only one species viz Avecinnia marinea with a few plants of Ceriops tagal, Aegiceras corniculatum and Rhizophora mucronata are found. The other four species have become extinct.
In addition many animal species have also become extinct. The most famous example is that of genus Lingularepresented by four species viz. L. anatina, L. hian, L. recvii and L. Jaspidae, which was of commonoccurrence along the coast in mangroves has died out. The death/extinctionof this species is of great concern because it was a very hardy species, who withstoodthe changes on this planet for million of years, without undergoing any structural modifications,what so ever, and for that matter has been designated as "Living fossil". ii) Presistant changes in envirommentalparameters result in shifts in the otherwise regular reproduction/breedingpatterns of some of the marine organisms.
20 iii) The diminishingfresh water flows leads to increase in salinity of creek water, which increases stress on mangroves requiring them to spend more energy on regulating their internal water balance on the growth.
The sea water salinities in the Indus delta mangrovesare influencedby the following factors:
Variation in the Indus river discharges,
Variations in the influx of open sea water, tidal flushing, water exchange, mixing, and water circulationpatterns.
- Variations in the rates of evaporation and precipitationin the area.
Dependingon these factors, the sea water salinities in the greater part of the intertidal delta remain between 37,000 to 41,000 ppm during most part of year. It drops to about 1000- 10,000 ppm in certain parts of the delta during August to October due to flood water from the Indus river.
The estuarine conditions (sea water salinities 2000-20,000 ppm) exist only in a limited area around the Indus river discharge and that too during August to October, when the Indus river floods the area.
There is practically no other source of fresh water input to the delta.
3.5.3 Preservation or the Mangrove Environment
The basic problem is the preservationof the mangrove environment in Sindh, in the frame work of a long term national planning, so that the resource base of mangroves is not destroyed but is developed for he socio-economicamelioration of the coastal people, who have lived on the coast from times immemorial.In fact mangrovesneed to be preserved and developedfor their important role in the economic, social and cultural development of the country.The socio-economicframework of the local communitiesresiding along the sea coast has to be given due considerationand the mangroves, so crucial to the land-marineecosystem need to receive the attention they deserve from the Government.
The Indus delta mangroves represents a major example of the negative effects of the progressive reduction in the fresh water discharge over a period of many years. Historical record indicates that the distribution of the mangroves in the Indus delta has significantly changed. Until recently the Indus river had a relatively large river dominated estuary, but increasedutilization of the river water for irrigation has restricted the discharge of the fresh water to the Arabian sea to the summer monsoon.
3.5.4 Development Projects/Plans
Somestudies are in hand or proposed which would allow a proper evaluationof the situation affectingmangroves in the Indus delta. These are:
(a) World Bank Project
Concerned about the increasingdegradation of the natural environmentand its impact on the productivity of environmentalresources, the World Bank has considered the
21 need to intensify efforts to preserve, restore and manage the ecological systems. The proposed World Bank Project titled "Environmental Protection and Resource Conservation Project' includes the sub-project 'Rehabilitation and replanting of the Indus delta mangrove forests".
The main objectives of the project are:
Determine the status includingarea and compositionof the mangroves with special reference to the existingphysiographic conditions.
Investigate the effect of various adverse factors such as decrease of flood water from the Indus river and pollutionetc. on the mangrove vegetation and to work out the mitigationmeasures.
- Prescribe an improved system of conservation,exploitation and management for optimum production on sustained yield basis.
The project has not yet been approved and started.
(b) Feasibility Study for Rehabilitation of Indus delta Mangrove Forests
The objective of the study is to find out the causes of mangrove degradation and resource depletion. A part of the study has been done in 1991-92 and the remaining study will be completed in 1992-93.
(c) Working Plan of Mangrove Forests rrom 198546 to 2004-2005 prepared by the Sindh Forest Department
The report provides the detailed information on the area extent and composition of mangrovesin the Indus delta, together with a programmeof replanting, rehabilitation and management.
(d) Environmental Management of Korangi/Phitti c_reek by the World ConservationUnion (IUCN)
A first phase study in the Korangi/Phitti creek area, south-east of Karachi, an area of mangroves and tidal flats under consideratl- pressures from multiple and sometimesconflicting uses has already been completed in 1989. The second phase of the study which includes planting of blank areas w';;hexotic mangrove species, with high salinity tolerance, has been undertaken.
(e) LBOD Project
The Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD)project which is ongoing as a development but for which a further study in relation to the possible effects on the mangroves and the wetlands in the Project area has been completed in 1989.
For the future, since restoring freshwater flows from the Indus throughout the delta area is scarcely conceivable, ameliorationof the adverse impact which development of water resources has had on the mangroves may depend on:
22 (a) re-seedingand replanting using species, which can tolerate higher salinities, and
(b) better managementto control exploitation.Trials of such species has already begun, with encouraging results.
3.6 MANGROVES AND NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
It is against this background that the environmental assessment of the National Drainage Proforma on the mangroveshas to be judged.
3.6.1 Existing Position
The indicationsso far have been that the various existing irrigation drains dischargingdrain water into the sea in Thatta and Badin districts help in maintaininglower salinities of sea water in areas adjacentto discharge points of these drains.
The sea water salinitiesin greater part of the intertidal delta remain between 37,00041,000 ppm during most part of the year. It drops to about 1,000-10,000 ppm in certain parts of the delta during Augustto October due to rains and influx of flood water from Indus river.
The typical sea watersalinities vary between 36,000 to 37,000 during dry season and 30,000- 33,000 ppm during rainy season and 2,000 to 20,000 ppm in the creeks which receive a regular discharge of freshwater from the irrigation drainage or from the Indus river. This zone is very much influencedby the freshwater dischargesfrom the irrigation drainage in the areas close to the irrigated lands.
The estuarine conditions(sea water salinities 2,000-20,000 ppm) exist only in a limited area around the Indus river discharge in the upper parts of Khobar creek. Keti Bunder. and adjacent creeks. The salinities of 20,000-30,000 ppm exist in parts of Dabbo and Hajamro Creeks. The lower salinities only occur during the periods of Indus discharge (August- September). During the most part of the year the freshwater discharges from the Indus river are almost negligibleand the irrigation drainage therefore has become the major source of maintaining the lower salinities in limited areas of the delta adiacent to the outfall drains,
3.6.2 Existing Outfall Drains
The following table gives the outfall drains constructedunder the Kotri Surface Drainage 'roject discharge drain water directly into the Sea:
23 TABLE 3.2 Designed Dischargedof Kotri Surface Drains
Name of the Drain DesignedDischarge (in cusecs)
1. Khui Gharo Outfall Drain 950 2. Jam Sakro Outfall Drain 686 '. Ghorobari Outfall Drain 940 4. Ochito Outfall Drain 1,300 5. Nagan Dhoro Outfall Drain 282 6. Jati Outfall Drain 1,232 7. Karo Ghungro Outfall Drain 1,232 8. Fuleli Guni Outfall Drain 1,594
Source: WAPDA-LBODdata.
The proposed constructionof Tidal link of Dhoro Puran Outfall Drain to the Sea in the Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) Project will discharge 3,000 cusecs of drain water into the Sea.
3.6.3 Field Observations by the Consultants
The Consultants have noted that the mangroves located near the Khui Gharo and Jam Sakro outfall drains are in no way different from the other nearby mangroves. The conclusionsare based on the form of trees and their reproductive capacity both useful measures of judging the general condition of trees. In a flourishingtree population, there is a preponderanceof young plants, with relatively fewer as height (c age) progressivelyincreases. In contrast a *top heavy' height distribution may suggest a failure of reproduction, with relatively few seedlings being produced to the number of mature trees present.
It has also been observed, that the mangrovesin some of the areas closer to Karachi, which are subject to varying degrees of pollutionand exploitationare surprisinglyhealthy. This may relate to the inflowof relatively fresh water from surface drains discharging in these areas'.
In any case no adverse effect of drainage water discharging into the sea from the various drains has been noticed anywhere.
3.6.4 Positive Impacts
In case of mangroves conclusion may safely be drawn that the drainage water will help maintain the lower salinities in the mangrove area. With the decreasingwater in Indus river, the water from the drainage system will help keep supply of fresh water with salinities much lower than the sea water for a greater part of the year.
Any addition of water, however small or large in quantity, with salinities less than the seawater salinities, is a most welcomeaddition to help maintain the mangrovesand its related ecosystem. The mangroves will thus benefit from a drainage progranmme.
Water Sector Planning Study-Volumem: Supplementary Reports-EnvironmentalStudies (1989) 24 4. IRRIGATED PLANTATIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Punjab and Sindh, the thorn forests and farmlands have always been the primary sources of fuelwood. Since the low productivity of these arid areas was not likely to satisfy growing needs, it was decided to establish compact forestry plantations aDd irrigate them with canal water. The first irrigated plantation was started in 1866at Changa Manga, 65 km southwest of Lahore. Chichawatni, Khanewal,Kamalia, Daphar, and Miranpur were created soon after that. As time passed, the needs of the country have grown and changed. Additionalareas have been allocated to irrigated forestry production and production objectives have been modified to account for changes in the economy.
Irrigated plantationsoccupy 231,000 ha in the Punjaband Sindh. The irrigated plantationsare considered the second moit important category of forests, after the hill forests. The area of individual irrigated plantations varies from the 20 ha village plantations of the Thal to plantationssuch as Khanpur Baga Sher (Punjab)and Khipro (Sindh) which cover over 12,000 hectares.
In Pakistan, the term 'irrigated plantation' has two different meanings. The general use of the term refers to those 95,000 ha of forestry plantationsthat are irrigated. Tle term is also used to refer to all 231,000 ha of Reserved and Protected Forests that have been allocated to the Forest Departmentsfor irrigated forestry production.
In the plantations of Punjab, shisham and mulberry are the main tree specis. Approximately half of the area of irrigated plantationsin Punjab is allocated for growing shisham or shisham and mulberry. These species constitutea two-storied forest, with shisham in the upper storey and mulberry in the lower storey. Shisham and mulberry plantations are established using cuttings of plants produced in nurseries. Most commonly,trees are spaced every 2 meters in rows 3 meters apart. Water requirementsare taken to average 1 cusec for every 40 hectares.
In Sindh, babul is the most important species. Plantations are established either by sowing babul in rows or by broadcastingseed. Plantationsare usually cleaned after two years to give a 2 meters by 2 meters spacing. Since babul thrives on lesser quantities of water, these plantations are said to require 1 cusec for 60 hectares. Of late Eucalyptus Camaldulensis (Eucalypts) is being planted on a large scale. The plantations of the two provinces are discussed separately.
4.2 IRRIGATED PLANTATIONSIN THE PUNJAB
In the Punjab 148,665ha land has been allocatedfor irrigated plantations. Out of this, 70,455 ha have been planted, and 78,210 ha are lying blank. Again the blank area can be subdivided into two categories. An area of 29,633 ha, which has been designatedas plantable blanks i.e. the area that could not been planted due to mainly financial constraint and 48,577 ha unplantable blanks, which cannot be planted due to non-availabilityof irrigation water.
Similarly in Sindh an area of 7,411 ha cannot be planteddue to non-availabilityof water. The details are given in Table 4.1. 25 TABLE 4.1 Area of Irrigated Plantations in Punjab and Sindh by Forest Circle (ha)
Province Area Plantable Unplantable Total Circle Planted Blanks Blanks Area
Punjab Lahore 8,355 522 1,424 10,301 Sargodha 19,066 11,933 2,909 33,908 Multan 14,434 410 1,586 16,430 Bahawalpur 10,083 2,052 28,626 40,761 Lal Sohara National Park 2,672 2,429 5,101 D.G. Khan 15,845 12,289 14,032 42,166
Sub-Total 70,455 29,633 48,577 148,665
Sindh 24,291 50,607 7,411 82,309
Total 94,746 80,240 55.988 230,974
Source: Punjab Forest Department.
4.3 IRRIGATED PLANTATIONS IN SINDH
The Indus river flows on a ridge through Sindh Province. Farmland was flooded whenever the river rose above its banks. To reduce flood damages, earthen embankments were constructed on both sides of the river, parallel to the banks. Those floodplain forests which are now outside the protective bunds are called inland forests. These forests no longer receive annual floodwaters from the Indus and thus have deteriorated. When canal irrigation water became available from Sukkur, Guddu, and Kotri barrages, those inland forests under the cultural command of these canals were designated as irrigated plantations. Some important (inland) irrigated forests are Mirpur, Gihalpur, Sarhad, Garhiyasin, Hassan Wahan Maragi, Andaldal, Gajan, Pai, Miani, Katiar, Mulchand, Penah, Huderani, Surjani, Ganj, Hazari, Garko, Khanani, Malirli, and Khoso.
Most of the irrigated plantations are along the Indus river. In addition to these inland forests which were previously floodplainforests, certain wastelandsaway from Indus came under the command of the new canals. These were also taken up for managementas irrigated forests. Important plantations include, Rari, Buharki, Khipro, Nabisar and Adalpur.
The total area of irrigated plantations in Sindh is 82,309 hectares. The location of the irrigated plantations, barrage-wise, is as under:
On Guddu Barrage command 18,406 ha On Sukkur Barrage command 34,618 ha On Kotri Barrage command 29,285 ha
Total: 82,309 ha
26 Forest Department norms require I cusec of irrigationwater for 60 ha (150 acres) of irrigated forestry plantarion.
The total requirement for Sindh's irrigated plantations is, then, 1,335 cusecs. Water actually sanctionedby the Irrigation Department is 1,270 cusecs. The areas not receiving irrigation; water will continue to lie barren till alternates arrangements for irrigation have been made, It has been estimated that an area of 7,411 ha will remain unplanted due to non-availability of irrigation water.
4.4 SALINE AND WATERLOGGED, AREAS IN RESERVED FORESTS
4.4.1 In the Punjab
7.8% of the irrigated plantations fall into this category. Shorkot, Rakh Deosial Reserved Forest, Chak 155RB,Chak 46GB, Chak Jalaluddin, Aliwala, and Serian are the forest areas included in this category. The main tree species cultivated in these areas are 'babul' (Acacia nilotica), eucalyptus, and siris (Albizzia lebbek). The new grass species cultivated in these saline areas is 'kallar' grass (Diplachnefusca). Kallar grass is a good fodder and is reputed to reclaim saline soils.
TABLE 4.2
Saline & Waterlogged, Areas in Punjab Irrigated Plantations
Plantation Total Planted Blank Area Area Area
Shorkot Plantation 4081 962 3119 Rakh Deosial 475 208 267 Chak No. 15/RS 187 23 164 Chak No. 46/GB 191 18 173 ChakJalaluddin 284 162 122 Aliwala 1874 14 1860 Serian 702 173 529
7793 1560 6234
Source: Punjab Forest Department.
4.4.2 In Sindh
All the irrigated plantations on the right bank of Indus river are either already waterlogged or semi-waterloggedor are becomingwaterlogged, excepting some area in Garhiyasin Forest. The details are as under:
27 TABLE 4.3 Saline and Waterlogged Areas in Sindh Irrigated Plantations
Name of Plantation Area (in ha)
Total Planted Blank Area Area Area
Shikarpur Forest Division
New Gublo 466 20 446 Gandher 177 140 37 Badani 290 108 182 Gihalpur 1840 496 1344 Garhiyasin 5142 2833 2309 Andaldal 267 267 Mohramari 2880 279 2601
11062 4153 6909
Ladeana Forest Division
Madeji 555 - 555 Bahman 583 160 423 Amrote 2769 214 2555 Hosan Wahan 271 134 137 Ghanghirko 2326 1336 990 Tatri 175 133 42
6679 1977 4702
Dadu Forest Division
Nari 598 267 331 Kasimshah 818 534 284 Budedero,Kanotibagban,} Bhan Saidabad, Kalor } 1947 - 1947 Bhori & Shahgarh }
3363 801 2562
21104 6931 14173
Source: Right Bank Master Plan-Lower Indus Region -Working Paper No. 38-Forestry Studies, GOP, WAPDA.
28 4.5 IRRIGATED PLANTATIONS AND THE NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
A drainage programme will always have a positive impazcton an irrigated forest plantation, as such a programme will reclaim the waterloggingand salinity and will lower the existing watertable. 7,793 ha of saline and waterloggedareas in the irrigated forest plantations in the Punjab and 21,104 ha in Sindh will be reclaimed, thereby increasingthe existingproductivity of these lands in the same way as increase in productivity of the agricultural lands in a drainage system.
29 5. SALINE FORESTRY
5.1 GENERAL
Recently interesthas been generated in raising of forest plantationson saline and waterlogged lands. Efforts are also being made fbr using the drainagewater for growth of trees. Research is being conductedto identify the salt tolerant or salt adapted tree species for use on saline soils and also trees, which are suitablefor growingon waterloggedlands or lands having high water tables. In this connection, the work done by the various institutions is reviewed.
5.2 PAKISTAN FOREST INSTITUTE, PESHAWAR
Research trials to find out trees suitableto be grown on saline and waterloggedsoil were first carried out at the Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar.
After a series of experimentsit was concludedthat Eucalyptuscamaldulensis, Acacia arabica, Populus euphratica, can be successfully planted on saline and waterlogged lands. (Sheikh, 1974).
In similar experimentscarried out on soils with salt concentrationfrom 0.05 to 0.80% it was found that Zizyphusjujuba, Albizzia lebbek and Acacia arabica were most salt tolerant. The other species included in the trial were Parkinsonia aculeate, Prosopis cinerera and Rubinia psendo-acacia (Bangesh 1977).
Still in another experiment (Sheikh, 1983), where the pH of the soil varied from 8.2 to 9.5 and electrical conductivity range from 2.7 to 28.0 (mmhos/cm), the survival after one growing season was found to be:
TABLE 5.1 Survival Percentage of Tree species on Saline Soils
Name of Species Survival Percentage
Tamarix articulata 53 Eucalyptuscamaldulensis 44 Prosopis juliflora 43
In India also in an experiment on the germinationtrials of a number of Australian species on saline soils with salt concentrationsof 0.2, 0.6 and 1.0%, and electrical conductivitiesof 2.2, 5.0 and 15.0 (mmhos/cm)respectively the followvingresults were obtained (Gogate 1984):
30 TABLE 5.2
Survival Percentageof Tree Species on Saline Soils (in India)
Name of species Survival Percentage
Casuarina cristata 33 Casuarina obesa 20 Acacia nilotica (local) 30 Casuarina cunninghamiana 0 Melaleuca glomerata 0
5.3 PUNJAB FORESTRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE, FAISALABAD
The research trials on introductionof salt tolerant Australian woody species in saline and waterloggedsoils has been taken up by the Punjab Forestry Research Institute, Faisalabad.
Three experiments have been started at Shorkot forest plantation as under:
Experiment No. I
To find out suitabilityof various of various salt tolerant woody species on saline and waterlogged lands.
The soil is saline, with upper 30 cm. layer having pH value ranging fro 7.9 to &4. The quantity of total soluble salts ranges from 0.27 to 2.56 percent.
Seeds of 22 species of Australian salt tolerant trees were obtained from Australian Tree Seed Centre of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization(CSIRO) and sown in the field in September, 1990. The following data was recorded in December, 1991:
31 TABLE 5.3
Trial of Salt Tolerant Tree Species Imported from Australia
Name of species Survival Height of Percentage Trees (m)
1. Acacia amplicepts 14 0.93 2. A. auriculjibrmis 69 1.18 3. A. Salicina 92 1.43 4. A. Saligna 47 0.70 5. A. Selerosperma 11 0.77 6. A. Victoria 7 0.12 7. Eucalyptus microtheca 92 1.78 8. E.Camaldulensis (Lot 1544) 96 4.12 9. E.Camaldulensis (Lotl4194) 96 4.00 10. E. rudis 88 2.98 11. E. occidentalis 58 2.26 12. Melaleuca leucadendra 22 0.73 13. M. brac bracteata 92 1.48 14. M. halmaturoru 62 0.81 15. M. lenceolata 88 1.56 16. Casuarina equisetafolia 88 1.66 17. C. glauca 100 2.45 18. C. cunmighamina 96 0.86 19. C. obesa 73 0.93 20. Sesbania formosa Nil Nil 21. Terminalia arjuna 77 0.81 22. Tamarix articulata 44 1.34
The results indicatethat so far, the performanceof Eucalyptuscamaldulensis has been the best followed by the Casuarina glauca.
The experiment will be continued for fwe years, when the final results will be available.
Experiment No. 2
To find out proper techniques for planting trees on waterlogged(and saline) lands:
Date of commencement: June 1989
The following date was recorded in June, 1989 i.e. after 30 months of the planting.
32 TABLE 5.4 Planting Techniqueson WaterloggedLands
Planting on Trenches Planting on raised mounds Name of species Survival Average Survival Average Percentage Height Percentage Height (m) (m)
1. Terminalia arjuna 67 1.00 60 1.16 2. Casuarina equasitifolia 77 0.85 90 0.98 3. Albizzia procera 12 0.56 8 0.47 4. Albizzia lebbek - - - 5. Eucalyptuscamaldulensis 93 3.05 97 2.42 6. E. microtheca 78 1.65 77 1.64 7. Parkinsonia aculeata 60 0.90 58 0.85 S. Azadirachta indica 57 0.63 72 1.49 9. Acacia nilotica 59 2.18 90 1.75 10. Psiduim guava 90 0.82 63 0.84 11. Zizygium cummini 82 0.92 85 0.78 12. Tamarix articulata 33 0.70 68 0.71 13. Leucaenialeucocephala 97 2.59 97 3.10
The results indicate that in both cases, the performance of Eucalyptuscamaldulensis has been the best followed by Leucaenialeucocephala and Acacia nilotica.
Experiment No. 3
To find out different techniques of plantingEucalyptus camaldulensis on salt infested lands.
Date of commencement: August, 1989
The following data was recorded in Dlecember,1990 i.e after 17 months.
TABLE 5.5 PlantingTechniques for Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Planting hole filled Planting hole filled back with original back with original soil (without soil (with polythene polythene sleeve) sleeve along walls of the hole) Name of species Survival Height Survival Height Percentage (m) Percentage (m)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 94 2.17 90 2.13
33 The results indicate that the techniquesof planting Eucalyptuscamaldulensis with a planting hole filled back with original soil (withoutpolythene sleeve) is better than the other technique.
5.4 UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, FAISALABAD
A number of research trials have been carried out at the Saline Agriculture Research Cell, Department of Soil Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad on the establishment and growth on saline lands as under:
Study No. 1 Surface Salinity (0-30 cm depth Effect of amendmentson establishment of soil) varied and growth of selected plant species between 15 and with normal irrigation in a saline/ 41 dSmn',SAR sodic field. between 13 and 17 & in general Study No. 2A. decreased with increase in Long term study regarding survival soil depth. and growth of plant species in well drained salt affected soils.
Study No. 2B. Surface Salinity (0-30 cm depth Long term study on the performance of soil) varied of selected species in a hightly between 3.4 to salt-affectedwell drained soil. 15.2 dSmr', SAR between 45.5 and Study No. 3 92.6 & in general decreased with Replicated trial on survival and increase in soil growth of various tree species in depth. a highly salt affected dense soil.
Of the various tree species tried, the best results in establishmentand growth are given in the order of performance as under:
No.1 Eucalyptuscamaldulensis No.2 Leucaenia leucocephala No.3 Acacia nilotica No.4 Albizzia proceca No.5 Prosopis cineraria No.6 Terminalia arjuna No.7 Tamarix aphylla No.8 Sizgiumcummini No.9 Parkinsoniaaculeata No.10 Zizyphusjujuba
34 The best economicreturns from different tree species grown on saline-sodiclands were found t.obe as under:
TABLE 5.6
Economic Returns from Tree Species Gram on Saline Lands
Return from Name of species one acre Gross return (1000 trees) per annum (Rupees) (Rupees)
1. Eucalyptuscamaldulensis 120,800 16,107 2. Acacia nilotica 75.000 10,000 3. Albizzia lebbek 49,500 6,600 4. Leucaenia leucocephala 45,000 6,000 5. Prosopis cinerera 26,000 3,467 6. Tamarix articulata 17,500 3,182 7. Pongamia pinnata 19,000 2,533 8. Terminalia arjuna 17,500 2,333 9.Zizyphus jujuba 16,000 2,133 10. Parkinsonia aculeata 10,500 1,400
These experiments indicate that the performanceof Eucalyptus camaldulensis both in growth and economic returns has been the best followed by Acacia nilotica and Leucaenia leucocephala.It has also been observedthat the other species of EucalyptusViz. E. triticornis and E. globulus did not do well and the last one i.e. E. globulus completelyfailed.
5.5 NUCLEAR INSTITUTE FOR AGRICULTURE AND BIOLOGY (NIAB), FAISALABAD
A collaborative research project between Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) has been undertaken on "Australian woody species for saline sites" at the Bio-salineResearch Station of Nuclear Institute of Agriculture and Biology, Faisalabad. The experiments are being conducted for screening of forest trees.
The results can be summarized as under:
Results after three years growth as recorded on 20.9.91.
35 TABLE 5.7 Trial of Australian Woody Species on Saline Lands
Average Average Name of species Survival Height Percentage (m)
1. Parkinsonia aculeata (Local) 54.15 149.43 2. Casuarina glauca (Local) 47.91 121.21 3. Terminalia arjuna (Local) 47.75 81.07 4. Acacia stenophylla 14670 43.75 124.21 5. Acacia maconociana 39.66 99.76 6. Casuarina obesa 37.75 91.90 7. Tamarix articulata (Local) 37.50 200.57 8. Acacia nilotica (Local) 37.50 80.88 9. Acacia amplicepts 15769 35.41 103.72 10. Acacia amplicepts 15741 31.23 94.38 11. Acacia stenophylla 17491 25.00 101.53 12. Acacia sclerosperma - 8.33 22.00 13. Acacia saligna 15789 8.33 33.75 14. Acacia victoria 17209 4.16 21.33 15. Acacia auriculiformis 16147 2.08 16.00 16. Acacia saligna 15795 0.00 0.00 17. Acacia auriculiformis 16106 0.00 0.00 18. Acacia auriculiformis 16114 0.00 0.00 19. Acacia liqulata - 0.00 0.00 20. Acacia victoria 15461 0.00 0.00 21. Acacia holosericea - 0.00 0.00 22. Stylobasium sbathulatum - 0.00 0.00
The experiment has shown that the perfcrmance of all the local species viz; Parkinsonia aculeata, Terminalia ariuna, Tamarix articulate and Acacia nilotica has beezLgood. The performance of some exoties including Casuarina glauca and Acacia stenophylla and A. amplicepts has been good.
In another study with ten tree species of Acacias imported from Australia, it was found that some species displayed high degree of salt tolerance from 4.5 to 27.7 dSJm as under:
Name of species Rootzone Ec (dS/m)
Acacia cambagei 27.7 Acacia calcicola 16.5 Leucacenia leucocephala(Local) 12.4 Acacia Kempeana 11.0 Acacia holosericea 9.0
Note: Ec level causing 50% reduction in yield compared to control.
This study also showed that only one species A. cambagei could survive at Ec level of 30 dSMmand two species A. calcicola and A. holosericea upto Ec 20 dS/m. Rest of the seven
36 species could not survive at these salinity levels.
5.6 QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD
The Department of BiologicalSciences, Quaid-i-AzamUniversity, Islamabadin collaboration with the Pakistan Agriculture Research Council (PARC) conducted experiments with Casuarina elauca, which is a nitrogen fixing nodulatednon-leguminous plant.
The experimentswere carried out on saline lands at Saline AgriculturalResearch Sub-station at Sadhoke near Lahore and also or non-saline lands at the Miani Forestry Research Station, near Hyderabad.
It was observed that in the saline soils at Sodhoke, the growth and nodulation were both promoted by low concentration of salts, whereas high concentrationshad inhibitory effect. This is shown in the following table:
TABLE 5.8
Growth of Casuarina glauca on different Saline Lands
ECe Levels (dS.m-1)
Plant Characteristics - -- - 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
Short length (cm) 39.00 52.75 35.25 29.28 15.35 12.60 Root length (cm) 17.80 21.71 15.82 15.17 5.50 5.36 Dry weight/plant (g) 1.46 2.80 1.33 0.93 0.12 0.04 No. of nodes/plant 37.00 66.42 34.00 29.00 4.56 3.67 No. of nodules/plant 3.80 5.40 3.20 2.00 1.12 0.00
The performance of Casuarina glauca under waterloggedconditions has been as under:
TABLE 5.9
Growth and Production of Casuarina glauca on Saline Lands
Age Height Diameter Weight of (Months) (cm) Green Wood (Kg/plant)
5 45.40 2.50 0.49 (46.50) (2.40) (0.56)
11 96.18 3.68 0.95 (90.37) (3.48) (0.92)
In parentheses are the control values.
In these experiments, it was also observed that the growth at Sodhoke with saline and 37 waterlogged soils was comparable to that at Miani, where the experiments were conducted under normal (non-salineand non-waterloggedland) conditions.
The studies indicate that Casuarina glauca is quite tolerant of salinity and waterloggingthus confirming about its survival and growth under saline conditions, and nitrogen fixing ability through root rodules. On the basis of the research findings C.glauca has been recommended for planting under saline and waterloggingconditions.
Research work has also been initiated on use of saline water/drain water for raising of forest plantations.
5.7 UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI, KARACHI
The BalochistanForest Department has raised mesquite(Prosopis juliflora) plantationsover more than 300 ha at coastal areas of Pishukan, Gwadar and Pasni using highly saline undergroundwater for irrigation. The plantationswere initiated around 1970 in Pasni, 1972 in Gwadar and 1982 in Pishukan.
These forest plantations have been analysed scientificallyfor growth and productivityby the Botany Department. University of Karachi under the "Co-ordinatedResearch Programme on saline Agriculture" of the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council.
In the analysis. it has been brought out that the plantation has been done under the prevailing edaphic and climatic conditions.The water table varied depending upon the distance from the sea coast, within a distance of 500 m from the coast in sandy terrain it was not more than 1.6 m. whereas at a distance of about I km it was around 4.2 to 10.5 m. In sites of compact old alluvium, the water table was much deeper than 10.5 m. The underground water is moderately to highly saline and the EC of the vater of the functional wells at these places varied from 7.0 to 21.0 dS/m-'.
Six-monthsold seedlingstransplanted at a distanceof 2.0-2.5 m were each irrigated with 10- 12 litres of water at weekly internals during the summer and fortnightlyduring winter for a two year period. Within 10 yeats growth period, the plants reached a height of 6-7 m with average canopy cover as large as 57 sq.meter, and diameter of stem 17 to 20 cm. Dry wood productivity of these plantations varied depending upon the physiographic conditions and ranged from 2.18 to 3.28 m tons/ha/year. The wood was tested for quality and the results indicated that the quality of wood remained more or less unaffected.
5.8 SINDH FOREST DEPARTMENT, HYDERABAD
The Forestry Research Wing of the Sindh Forest Department has undertaken research on growing forest plantations using the drain water.
The research and development project titled "Research on use of drain water of Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) for afforesting forest lands adjoining Thar desert" has the following objectives:
To use 10 cusecs of drainage water from Dhoro Puran Outfall Drain (DPOD) of LBODfor raising irrigated plantationsin Boharki Forest, which is outside the irrigation command and do not receive any canal irrigation water, 38 To find out appropriatetree species, which can be grown on drain water, and
To collect necessary data with regard to the saline forestry.
The species to be tried include:
- Eucalyptuscamaldulensis - Acacia nilotica - Leucaenia leucocephala - Casuarina equasitifolia - Cornocarpus lancifolius - Albizzia procera
The project has already been started from July, 1988 and the results will become available when the project ends in June, 1993.
If the research trials are successful, the SFD proposes to plant 12,000 hectares of the forest land with the entire discharge of 2,000 cusecs of water from the DPOD.
5.9 TREES RECOMMENDED FOR SALINE AND WATERLOGGED LANDS
As a result of the research trials the provincial forest departments recommend the following tree species for planting:
For saline lands
Eucalyptuscamaldulensis Acacia nilotica Terminalia arjuna Leucaenialeucocephala Albizzia lebbek Albizzia procera Prosopisjuliflora Azadirachta indica Casuarina equasitifolia Parkinsonia aculeata Sizygiumcummini Sesbania aculeata
As regards planting techniques channel planting method has been recommended. Where irrigation is not available pit planting is suitable. With variable rainfall berm or slot planting is better.
39 For Waterlogged Lands
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Acacia nilotica Terminalia arjuna Casuarina equasititolia Populus euphratica Phoenix dactylifera Prosopisjuliflora Albizzia lebbek Tamarix aphylla Salix spp. Sizygium cumini
Plantingtechniques include planting by making 0.3 m high mounds/ridges encircled by 0.3 m deep trenches. This technique in waterloggedlands gives good results.
5.10 DEVELOPING FORESTRY POTENTIL
If the tree species for saline and waterlogged areas can be identified and the planting techniques refined and further developed, 7,793 ha of saline and waterlogged areas in the irrigated forest plantationsin the Punjab and 21,104 ha in Sindh could be reclaimed, thereby increasingthe forest production..
Further if the drain/saline water could be used for raising trees, then 48,577 ha of forest lands in the Punjab and 7,411 ha in Sindh, which are located in the irrigated zone and which have so far remained barren due to non-availabilityof canal irrigation water, could be successfully planted.
In fact in such a case the activity of afforestationwould not be limited to the planting of barren forest areas only, but the activity could be extendedto the other saline. waterlogged and barren lands outside the jurisdiction of the Forest Department, thereby increasingnot only the forest cover but also the forest production.
In this context the Consultants recommend that a social forestry programme need to be undertaken, whereby all canalside, roadside and railwayside land strips would be planted, with trees like Eucalypts so that the salinity and waterlogging may be controlled. The programme would also ..clude planting on the farmnlands. The farmers can plant trees along their field boundaries, water courses and internal roads.
5.11 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO DRAINAGE
The developmentof salt tolerant or salt adapted trees will allow use of saline soils, which at least in areas of high water table level - an expanding problem - can only be reclaimed by providing water table control via drainage. Similarly, if trees adapted to high water tables could be successfullyidentified or developed,the need for drainage could be directly avoided. Developmentof tree crops adapted to both saline and waterloggedconditions would provide even greater flexibility in land utilization.
40 The emphasis on means of reducing the need for drainage, therefore, seems likely to be necessary. One such means is the development of saline or high water table adapted tree cultivation systems.
So far most attention has, quite reasonably, been directed towards tree species which could not only grow in waterlogged conditionsbut which also produce an econonmicreturn. It may be that consideration should be given also to species which can simply help to control watertable levels through transpiration: acting as natral 'pumps'. This in fact is a characteristic of certain encalypts, of which Eucalyptus camaldulensisis a notable example - in this case a species also producing9 useful products. Experience in Western Australia has demonstrated clearly this kind of effect: removal of eucalyptusforests has resulted,in rising watertables and soil salinization, a process now being reversed by re-planting the trees.
The most promising line seems to be the development of the potential for growing trees on saline soils. The research trials suggest good potential using a number of tree species, both indigenous and exotic. Finding ways of tackling alternative production from land with high saline watertables has proved much more difficult. There are some indicationsthat certain tree species such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis could successfully exploit moderately saline groundwaters.
In a symposium on "Eucalyptus-Wateruse" arranged by the Instituteof Hydrology, U.K and Oxford Forestry Institute, U.K in collaborationwith KarnakaForest Departmentat Bangalore, India (1992), it has been brought out that in some findings showed water use greater than annual rainfall.
One hypothesis is that the roots penetratedeeper each year - perhaps by as much as one meter - they 'mine" successfully deeper layers of soil water. An alternative hypothesis is that the trees are drawing on water stored in the soil from years with higher than average rainfall.
There are also reports from Australia of annual water use of 3600 mm in areas where the rainfall is only 800 mm. In such cases the root; seem to be taking water directly from the water table.2
The planting of trees as biological control could perhapes be an alternative to drainage.
2 Overseas Issue No. 5 (1991) - Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, U.K. 41 REFERENCES
CHAPTER 1 - GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN'S FOREST POLICY
1. Arid Zone EnvironmentalProfile of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan - Arid Information Lands Information Center, University of Arizona USA (1981). U.S.A
2. GOP Envirownental Profile oc Pakistan - Government of Pakistan, Envirommentand Urban Afftirs Division Publication (1987)
3. GOP Proceedings of the InternationalSeminar on Pakistan Forest Policy, Karachi (1989)
4. GOP The Sixth Five Year Plan: 1983-88, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan.
5. GOP The Seventh Five Year Plan: 1988-93, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan.
6. IUCN Pakistan National ConservationStrategy-Phase I Report-Internation Union for Conservation of Nature (1986).
7. PFI The state of Forestry in Pakistan- PakistanForest Institute,Peshawar Publication (1988)
CHAPTER 2 - RIVERINE FORESTS
1. Ashraf, Mian Mohammad, Inayatullah Choudry, and Gerold Grosenick. September, 1991. Draft Report on the Riverine Forests in Pakistan. Forestry Sector Master Plan Project. Islamabad.
2. Asian Development Bank. November, 1990. Appraisal of the Sindh Forestry Development Project in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
3. Asian Development Bank, September, 1991, Forestry Sector Master Plan Project - Draft Report on the Riverain Forests in Pakistan.
4. Baig, Mirza Asif, December, 1989. Pak Sindh Forestry Development Project - Hydrology Report. NESPAK.
5. Canadian International Development Agency - Final Report 'Pakistan Forestry Sector Analysis' (1987)
6. Sindh Forest Department - Position Paper on Forestry (1987) - Internal Paper
7. WAPDA - Water Sector Investment Planning Study. Vol: III Supplementary Reports - Environmental Studies by V.C Robertson (1989).
42 CHAPTER3 - MANGROVES
1. Anon: Asian DevelopmentBank - Pakistan Fisheries Sector Study (1987)
2. Anon: Gazetteer of the Province of Sindh - E.H. Atkin (1907)
Reprinted by Indus Publications,Karachi (1968)
3. Anon: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) - 4 reports on Survey f Korangi - Phitti creek of mangroves- Karachi - (1987)
- Base line socio-economicand environmentaldata, - Base line survey of marinepollution, - Rapid assessmentsurvey of the Industrial pollution, - Socio-economicand public health survey.
4. Anon: World bank: Pakistan Forestry Sector Survey World Bank staff working paper Nr. 284 (1978)
5. Anon: EnvironmentalProfile of Pakistan - Universityof Arizona, Tuscon, Arizona, U.S.A (1981)
6. Anon: A country profile of marine environment- Pakistan, GOP, Enviromnent and Urban Affairs Division, Islamnabad(1986)
7. Anon: EnvironmentalProfile of Pakistan - GOP, Environment and Urban Affairs Division, Islamabad (1987)
8. Anon: National Conservation Strategy - GOP, Enviromment and Urban Affairs Division, Islamabad (1990)
9. Anon: UNEP Annual Report - Proceedings National Workshop on Mangroves - 8 to 19 August, 1987 at Karachi, published by Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (1985).
10. Ahmad Jamal: Genus Lingula - Zoological Survey Departnent. GOP, Records: Vol X Nos. 1 & 2.
11. Ansari T.A. Research and DevelopmezatStratek y for Manwagvesof Pakistan: Proceedings of symposium of new prospectives in Research and Management of Mangrove Ecosystem - Edited by C.D. Field and M. Vannuci - UNDPIUNESCOPublication (1986).
12. Ansari T.A. Mangroves of Pakistan in "Mangroves of the Asia and the Pacific". Edited by R.M Umali and P.M. Zonosa. UNDP/ UNESCO, Publication (1987).
13. Khan S.A. Working Plan of the Coastal Zone Afforestation Division, Govermnent of West Pakistan Publication Lahore (1986)
43 14. Million Marine Geology and Oceanographyof Arabian sea and coastal Pakistan J. Detal: New York (U.S.A.) 1984.
15. Mirza M.l. Identification and Area estimation of mangrove vegetation in Indus delta using Land sat data - Mangroves of Pakistan - Proceedings of National Workshop on mangroves - Pakistan Agricultural Research Council. PARC. Islamabad (1985).
16. Rizvi, S.H.N Marine Pollution - Coastal EnvironmentalManagement Plan for Pakistan (1989) (Unpublished).Environment and Urban Affairs Division, GOP.
17. Pithawala, A Physical and Economic Geographyof Sindh: Publishedby Sindi Adabi M.B. Board, Hyderabad.
18. Qureshi,M.T. Working Plan of Mangrove Forests. Sindh Forest Department Publication (1985)
19. Wells, J.J & Deltaic morphologyand sedimentology Coleman with special reference to the Indus river delta published by van Nostrand ReinholdCompany Inc. New York (WSA) (1984).
CHAPTER 4 - IRGATED PLANTATIONS I. Asian Development Bank - Forestry Sector Master Plan Project - Draft Report on the Irrigated Plantationsin Pakistan (September 1991).
2. Punjab Forest Department - Draft Annual AdministrationReport for the Year 1988-89.
3. SindhForest Department- PC-Il of Project 'Research on use of EffluentWater of LBOD for afforestation in Uncommandedforest areas adjoiningThar desert' (1989)
4. Sindh Forest Department - Draft Annual AdministrationReport for the Year 1988-89.
5. University of Karachi - Prospects for BiosalineResearch: Edited by Rafiq Ahmad and A.S. Pietro. Publishedby University of Karachi (1987).
CHAPTER 5 - SALINE FORESTRY
I. Anon i) Fifteen years of NIAB - Third Five Year Report on Research and other Activities (1972 to 1987) and
ii) Progress Report of ACIAR Project No. 8633 from June 1988 to December 1991.
Ptublishedby the Nuclear Institute of Agriculture and Biology, Faisalabad (1988)
2. Anon Annual Progress Report 1990-91. Punjab Forestry Research Institute, Faisalabad (1991) 44 3. Bangash, S.H. Salt tolerance of forest tree species as determinedby germination of seeds at different salinity levels. PFJ 27-2 (1971)
4. Ch. A.H, The performanceof Casuarina in problem M. Iqbal and soils of Pakistan in 'Prospects for G.R Sandhu BiosalineResearch" - Proc. USA-Pak. BiosalineResearch Workshop. Rafiq Ahmedand A. San Pietro (Eds) BotanyDepart. Karachi University, Pakistan (1986).
S. Gogate, M.G., Screening through germination trials - Australian species for saline areas. Mittal,R.C. & Indian Forester: 982-988 (1984) Pyarelal
6. Khan,D.Rafiq Case history of Prosopisjuliflora - Plantation at Makran Coast raised Ahmed and through saline water irrigation in 'Prospects for BiosalineResearch " Shoaib Ismail - Proc. USA-Pak. Biosaline Research Workshop. Rafiq Ahmed and A. San Pietro (Eds.) Botany Depart. Karachi University, Pakistan (1986).
7. Qureshi RH, Performanceof selected Woody Tree Species under saline-sodic field S. Nawaz and conditionsin Pakistanin "SalineAgriculture Research in Pakistan", University T. Mahmood of Agriculture, Faisalabad (1991) (under print)
8. Sheikh, M.[ Afforestation in waterloggedand saline areas PFJ 24-2 (1984)
9. Sheikh, M.I. Planting of trees in saline and waterloggedareas. & M.N Malik PFJ 33-1 (1983).
45 APPENDICES APPENDIX- 1 DEVELOPING A SUSTAINABLEFOREST RESOURCE
Background
Pakistan is a forest-poor country with only 4.5% of its total land area nominallyin forest. As the population grows, timber and fuelwood requirements increase steadily. The country is importing over 30% of its timber requirements and agricultural residues and cow dung constitutenearly 40% of energy requirements becauseof the scarcity of fuelwood. Since no national survey of forested areas has been conducted in recent years, it is very difficult to know how much of the 4.5%, nominally in forest, is in production and how much has been degraded. The destruction of Pakistan's forests has-accelerated in the last decade. In 1978, the World Bank's Forest Sector Survey of Pakistan reported as follows:
'The acute shortage of Firewood,which in many parts of the country is traditionally a free good obtained by local eollection, is inducing an expanding rate of encroachmentin the woodlands and forests. This pressure and that presented by the quest for grazing fodder are the combined,principal causes of the environmental degradation threatening the country in terms of soil erosion, siltation of dams and water courses, and flash flooding."1
A more recent World Bank Mission in 19852identified the risk of economic and political conflict arising as a direct result of environmentaldeterioration and especially from the loss of forest cover. This has resulted in a rapid rise in the price of scarce fuelwood. Water diversions have dried up the supply of water to the mouth of the Indus for two months each year, depriving the mangroves of necessary fresh water, increasing pollution levels substantially,and causingsevere consequencesfor marine forests, crustaceans,fish and birds. Deprived of forest cover, manmals, birds and reptiles are threatened with extinctionor are endangered.
The 1985 World Bank Report concludesthat:
'In matters concerning environmentalprotection, official attention has focused far more on their immediatefinancial costs than on their longer-term social and economic benefits. Budgetaryallocations for even the most critical and urgent efforts to prevent further ecologicaldegradation are wholly inadequate."
This situation is not new. In 1974, a National Seminar on Ecology, Environment and Afforestation was organized by the Environmentand Urban Affairs Division, Government of Pakistan. The Seminar concluded:
'Pakistan Forestry Sector Survey' - World Bankstaff Working Paper No. 284 - (June, 1978)
2 Pakistan: EnvironmentalRehabilitation, Protection and Management - Report of the World Bank ReconnaissanceMission (October, 1985)
3 Pakistan:Enviromnental Rehabilitation, Protection and Management- Report of World Bank ReconnaissanceMission (October, 1985) "Even as we seek to develop our economy, the resourcesupon which it depends are threatened by both old and new environmentalproblems.
There is continuingdeterioration of the natural habitat through soil erosion, floods, drought, water-loggingand salinity, the ravagesof pests, over-grazingand destruction of forests and wildlife. These reflect a history of damage to the environmentby man long before independence.But they persist. As populationgrows, and our demands on the land increase, the dangers will intensifyand the threat they pose to agr culture, forests, water supply and the safety of settlements will grow. Vigorous action is needed to reverse these age-old problems.
The newer dangers associatedwith urban growth, the spread of industries and modern transportation are as serious in some places as in the industrialised nations. In our cities especially, air, water and soil pollution endanger the health of man, and surrounding plant and animal life. They intensify the adverse-effects of over- crowding, noise and traffic accidents and social upheaval."'
One of the four recommendationsof this conferencewas that a sustainableforest in Pakistan should be many times larger (perhaps 14% or 15% of the total acreage of the country, as contrasted with the 2% or 3% presently in forest). It was recommendedthat extensiveefforts should be made at the local, provincialand federal levels and by leaders and donors to change the approach to forestry and to make it economicallyand socially attractivefor large numbers of people to become engaged in it.
Mountain Forests
Mountain slopes in the north of Pakistan have been denuded in the past 25 years as heavy population pressure has resulted in wood use for fuel and the eliminationof trees from areas where food production is to be attempted.The result has been rapid siltation and loss of land area as streams have swept the unprotected soil down into reservoirs above barrages and dams. Watershed managementschemes for the Mangla and Tarbela areas have led to the planting of many thousands of acres of forest, some of which have survived. Higher in the mountains, a number of special projects such as the Age Khan Rural Support Project (AKRSP), have made a useful beginning to mountainreforestation and may serve as models for larger future projects. Barani Forests
The Barani or rain-fed forests once covered the uplands of Pakistan and the foothillsof the mountainsand dominatedthe watershedsof the major rivers. Much of this forest was stripped away before independenceand the rest of its has disappearedsince. The most recent effort to bring about a sustainable forest programnmein the Barani region centres on what is called watershed management.Watershed management involves changing the attitudes of people to forests to the point where trees are planted on all wastelands,lands with steep slopes, along river and drainage channels, along property margins and along roadsides. A series of workshops for foresters in early 1985 set the scene for a "social forestry" programme. The farmers provide the labour to plant trees in exchangefor food assistancefrom the World Food
Ecology, Environment and Afforestation, National Seminar Report Enviromnent and Urban Affairs Division, GOP, Islamabad(1975) 2 Programme. Efforts are being made to establishcontiguous forest across property boundaries and to tailor the tree species to the soil and climate. Plans are prepared for individual farms and, in the more successful communities, all citizens are involved in the social forestry programme.
'When people are one hundred percent involved, the trees are healthy and happy.-S
Plantation Forests
About 200,000 acres of plantation forests were establishedmany years ago in the Provinces of Punjab and Sindh. These have been intensivelymanaged and provide a substantialamount of pole-woodand timber for constructionuse. The plantation forests provide reassurance that a commercial timber industry is possible in Pakistan given ideal soil and water conditions. As soil salinity increases, a change in species may be required-to offset declining yields and it is possible that salt-tolerant tree species could be introduced into large areas which have been salinated during the past few years. In the future, as timber prices increase, forest plantations should be competitivewith other crops on private lands. Riverine Forests
The riverine forests traditionallylined the river banks of the major rivers of Pakistan. In low- lying areas, they were flooded yearly. A fresh deposit of silt fertilized their growth and they provided some of the most productive timber lands in the country. With the increasing management of the water using high dams and canals, the flood has diminished and, therefore, the area where trees find it possible to grow is shrinking steadily. In some downstream areas of the Indus, the riverine forest has almost vanished and it may be impossible due to low floods to re-establish it. It has been a major source of timber for constructionand provides ideal wildlife habitat. In addition, it has provided fuelwood for large numbers of people who live near the river banks and pitprops for the mining industry. Mangrove Forests
The mangrovesthrived where fresh water provided ideal growing conditionsalong the coast east and west of the Indus delta and in the delta itself. They provided an important source of timber along the coast and the mixing of salt and fresh water provided an ideal growing environmentfor crustaceans and fish. The coastal mangroveshave now been greatly reduced and represent a fraction of their earlier luxuriance. If the Indus waters are further harnessed and the dry period at the mouth of the Indus is lengthened from the present two to three months, if present heavy developmentpressure on the coastal areas continues, and if domestic and industrial pollution continues unchecked, it is possible that the mangrove forests will largely disappear in the next fifteen to twenty years. Savannah/Semi-DesertForests
Over 60% of Pakistan's area is semi-arid or arid rangeland. This belt extends along the Afghan border, from the mountainsof the Hindu Kush down the Afghan border and into the western portion of Balochistan. At one time, these slopes were heavily forested but the forest
Interview with Senior Forestry official. 3 -cover has been lost over the past 100 years leadingto soil erosion and desertification.Areas of forest which had existed for centuries in sparsely populatedareas have been destroyed in the past three years by the influx of three million Afghan refugees. The forests were cut the first year, uprooted the second and by the third year, no trace remained. A similar fate awaits new plantings.
Because of the heavy dependence on wood for fuel throughout Pakistan, the fate of all uncontrolled and unmanaged forests in dryland areas is to be cut as soon as the trees reach a useable diameter. If any effort is to be made to reforest these regions, even in the most promising areas, a change in attitudes will have to take place, much tougher enforcementof regulations will have to be put into effect and far more trees will need to be plantedthanat present.
4 APPENDIX - 2 LIST OF RIVERAIN FORESTS OF SINDH Area
S. Name of Name of Forest (Acres) (Ha.) No. District FROM GUDDU BARRAGE TO SUKKUR BARRAGE I1. Jacobabad Gihalpur 533.9 Gandher 1,440.1 Gondak 3,320.8 Makhan 264.6 New Gublo 6,485.2 Dahvo 3,052.0 Sundrani 1,951.0 Old Gublo 4.632.6 Lalu wah 120.0 Wasti 677.0 Raunti 5,182.5 Total Jacobabad District: 27,659.7 11,193.5
2. Shikarpur Ketiabad 4.862.0 Bagarji 971.5 Mohromari 1,820.0 Keti bagarji 8,650.8 Total Shikarpur District: 16,304.3 6,598.2
3. Sukkur Rohri 531.0 Kutta 124.0 Ghangina 170.0 Ketiabad 4,834.9 Ding 641.9 Keti shah 9,182.1 Keti shahu 17.983.0 Keti bindi 346.4 Aziz pur 252.0 Panhwar 577.9 Shahpur 13,694.7 Bhindi dharajo 6,695.0 Qadir pur 600.0 Shahpur & shalm 7,880.0 Bhab 3,022.0 Sadhuia 11,380.0 Budh 1,197.0 Wahidpur 7,630.0 Shahbello 1,244.0 Raunti 1,330.0 Total Sukkur Discrict: 89.323.9 36.145.1 Tutal from Guddu Barrage to Sukkur Barrage: 133,287.9 53.942.8 FROM SUKKUR BARRAGE TO KOTRI BARRAGE 4. Khairpur Garang 155.7 Nareja 218.1 Mangreja 232.2 Sial 189.3 Taino waro 22.1 Drigh 395.0 Ghazi dero 1,556.0 Korai 43.6 Ghatt chand 186.0 Noor pur 34.0 Butho chunero 136.0 Keti Mohari 421.5 Keti Buth 505.0 Keti Pir Sahib 3,334.1 Keti Pandhi 2,049.4 Keti noorpur 480.0 Bhambodero 5,565.5 Bahro kacho 900.0 Keti abro 1,035.5
Total Khairpur District: 17,521.5 7,090.7
5. Larkana Aghimani 686.0 Noabad 1,516.0 Salehani 709.0 Dossu 1,224.1 Sharifpur 284.0 Madeji 9,932.0 Hassan Wahan 1,983.0 Gajidero 4,266.3 Behghaji 413.0 Soi 5,440.0 Budhodero 1,541.0 Aghani 728.1 Abrapota 919.8 Shahbeg 1,396.0 Mangi 25.0
Total Larkana District: 31,063.3 12,570.9
6. Dadu Keti Lalia 405.0 Lakhat 411.0 Mangai 995.0 Sonabindhi 7,715.0 Karainpur 350.0 P. Khario dero 750.0 Khairo dero 2,712.0 BundhMari 5.0 Kundah 6,753.9 Sub-Total: 20,704.9 8.379.0 6 Forests below Sehwan
Jamshoro 138.6 Railo 1,236.0 Amri 2,584.0 Rajri 12,170.0 Manjhand 195.0 Gedarji 977.0 Uner pur 7,109.0 Budhapur 889.9 Gagh 1,261.1 Sub-Total: 26,560.6 10,748.7 Total Dadu District: 47,265.5 19,127.8
7. Nawabshah Keti Lalia 2,029.3 Lakhat 4,685.0 Kot dinghano 3,652.0 Deh lari 4,334.0 Deh Mal 1,466.0 Deh Chuttan 2,050.0 Mangi mari 1,414.0 Niwaro 153.0 Mohabat dero 3,779.2 Bhaur 5,439.4 Bhorti 8,062.4 Mithiani 3,270.2 Mari 2,080.0 Keti jurio 4,438.0 Kamal dero 30.0 Mud nasri 2,343.0 Mehrab pur 1,332.9 Total Nawabshah District: 50,568.8 20,464.6
8. Hyderabad Miani 5,220.0 Khanote W,16.7 Gundi 2,088.0 Matiari 13,511.0 Haji pur 535.0 Keti mehrani 4,969.5 Bund Rais 7,396.0 Khabrani 3,179.0 Salaro 4,946.0 Sakhat 684.0 Pakko Khanote 3,905.0 Kacho Khanote 6,799.0 Keti Kasai - 605.0 Bhutho 11,399.0 Kari 2,337.0 Rishal 6,428.0 Nur Keti 5,324.0 7 Dalu Keti 628.0 Nuralabad 3,506.0 Keti Bhtho 1,200.0 Total Hyderabad District: 85,276.2 34,510.2 Total from Sukkur Barrage to Kotri Barrage: 231,695.3 93,764.2 FROM KOTRI BARRAGE TO THE SEA
9. Thatta Shah lunko 2,505.1 Bao purandas 5,725.3 Bijora 4,832.0 Gharko 454.0 Sadnani 16,371.0 Cutmonarki 3,050.0 Gulal 1,713.0 Kathore 1,170.4 Hayat Gaho 2,073.1 Nurho Kotri 6,465.0 Viran 8,375.0 Sondah 702.0 Hilaya 7,526.5 Lallang 3,652.0 Mulchand 4,163.3 Jurar 6,241.1 Khaddi 7,967.0 Khokhar 2,411.0 Budka 1,685.1, Khirsar 2,630.0 Kacho surjani 1,576.0 Pako surjani 500.0 Ganj 351.0 Panhwar 3,114.0 Ali Bahar 3,443.0 Munarki 187.0 Chach keti 2,568.5 Bahadipur 1,549.1 Huderani 41.6 Pako Allah Bux 22.0 Budhani 570.0 Ali ganj 751.0 Ban Jamani 997.0
Total Thatta District: 105,382.0 42,646.8
Total from Kotri Barrage to Sea: 105,382.6 42,647.0 Grand Total: 470,365.8 190,354.0
Source: Right Bank Master Plan Lower Indus Region: Working Paper No. 38 - Forestry studies, GOP, WAPDA. 8 APPENDIX - 3 LIST OF RIVERAIN FORESTS OF THE PUNJAB Area
S. Name of Name of Forest (Acres) (Ha.) No. District LAHORE FOREST CIRCLE I1. Lahore Forest Shahdara 1794 Division Anno Bhatti 272 Total: 2066 836
2. Gujranwala/ Jhoke 3071 Sheikhupura Korotana 359 Forest Chak No.1 700 Division Buchoke 1258 Thakarke 517 Haripur 177 Bhagwanpura 891 Rakh Singhpura 547 Qial Jawar Singh 1624 Bansi Nagar 652 Thatta Faqir-ullah 537 Kot Bela 683 Kahngarh 518 Hatrian 162 Sadhwali 452 Faizpur 217 Rampur 266 Dhonike 106 Charkey 137 Behrup Garh 643 Sardarpur Sehgal 847 Dhilwan 598 Sadhanwali 378 Dargai Gil 103 Ratniwal 403 Chah Mangola 87 Babakwal 259 Zafarwal 567 Iyya Nagar 1358 Labanwala 529 Kotli Manan 111 Adoo Mehta 102 Katar Band 29 Shadowali 253 Katar Band North 19 Total: 19160 7754
3. Gujrat Forest Pindi Tatar 303 Division Sama Mohla 152 Sadhoki 34 9 Sanatpura 392 Nat 244 Behlolpur 53 Mari Khokhran 22 Sayan 37 Kotli Goban 62 Long Saidullahpur 564 Mamoke 166 Mushterka 338 Dahorke 85 Narang, Khusar 198 Ranwal 53 Thatta Alia 639 Sahnpal 91 Gillan, Lange 355 Jakalian 738 Murid 68 Randiali 257 Bahri 50 Kala Shadian 703 Qadirabad 800 Farakhpur 62 Khadriala 10 Kharkha 15 Gura 15 Wera Balian 23 Mang 49 Mojhi 25 Nurpur Piran 52 Muradwal 10 Phyphra 103 Bhalwal 12 Sheikhpur 107 Chak Spare 157 Butter 79 Ghari Babu 122 Bhund Gran 238 Parsowal 59 Ranganwala 32 Jalalpur Sobtin 277 Handa 57 Karianwala 389 Sadwal Brahmana 366 Guliana 99 Chechian 12 Behlolpur 537 jalalpur Sobtarin 16 Mani 105 Total: 9474 3S34
10 4. Sialkot Forest Khokhar Forests 87 Division Pir Sabaz 90 Harnah 34 Dadu Chak 158 Kotli Araian 694 Dhalewali 31 Kokar 117 Abdal 421 Butohi Brehmanan 294 Nadalas 120 Chak Misri 223 Ballo Chak 154 Hail Jattan 575 Chhani Hinta 338 KhinduChak 430 Punjgrain 1282 Bela Beahiragh 528 Chhuni Khizarpur 255 Khider Mohal 1373 Saidpur 257 Chak Lazkan 162 Sidhra Kalan 60 Ahmalpur 96 Chak Umra 103 Ferozepur 610 Khanu Bahu 174 Sagherpur 92 Pattan Sain 156 Zinda 139 Mango Bheraz 89 Vario 32 Sikka 1746 Chhicharwaji 84 Gunna Kalan 74 Takka 90 Pindian 92 Chohar Chak 133 Rudial 35 Chhanwan 30 Copra 41 Nanoki 37 Kot Masta 27 Thaker Key 33 Sahianwala 35 Kishan Garh 50 Daburji Chanda Singh 15 Pir Kot 12 Ghulab Garh 173 Bela Tahlianwala 95
11 Ghazirpur 70 Kal Khana 96 Narang China 68 Bajapur 527 Chohali 84 Tehra 204 Pindi Dconian 226 Nangal Shahu 152 Hallowal 51 Dadora 219 Machhina 155 Nangal Machhiana 31 Chakri 39 Ucha Kalan 110 Lallial 154 Rakh Chinaki 467 Seowal 377 Talwandi Dialpur 200 Chatoki 641 Pindi Minhasan 229 Kakial 103 MunahikiBarian 68 Kotli Jhewa 85 Ferozepur Bhag 118 Pinjanke 126 Budha 113 Charwind 146 Paira 150 Dudo Kot 73 Kishanpur 53 Dorganwali 24 Tatarpur 137 Lalewali 312 Shahzada 13 Kang 224 Darya Nangal 190 Sukhu Chak 350 Nagroza 450 Hadnal 243 Chhamal 149 Badwal 164 Bara Pind 384 Barwal 123 Shahpur Bhangoo 406 Banhal 298 Sangran 314 Chak Amroo 90 Sarwal 101 Timber Chak 270 Kekial Khurd 142 Kakial Mangla 73
12 Chhohal 113 Dandar 180 Adwal Bechragh 141 Total: 52595 8861 Total Lahore Forest Circle: 21285
DERA GHAZI KHAN FOREST CIRCLE
D.G.Khan Bhatti Metla 3051 Forest Saban Machi 1181 Division Rind Sewra 528 Jampur Brahim 1083 Khai Meheran 631 Jhallar Latif 462 Patti Mir Mirani 670 Golewah 1025 Patti Imam Bakhsh 178 Haider Malans 1807 Bet Bagh Shah 2127 Kotla Sher Mohammad 2941 Khanwah 1827 Naushera 91 Thul Meghraj 3085 Kotla Hassan Jamra 1991 Murghai 779 Rakh Bangala 1127 Mud Maulvi 187 Rakh Taung 163 Bait Sauntra 468 Kacha Sher Maher 317 Noorpur West 296 Raqba Naseer 499 Noorpur East 83 Rakh Triman 4639 Total: 31236 12641
2. Muzaffargarh Khudai 2430 Jhallarian 1984 Sarwani 1510 Latti 716 Eastern Girri 690 Misson Kot 702 Sultan Kot 536 Khanani 720 Middle Girri 337 Western Girri 285 Sohni 697 Ghazi Ghat 2106 Issan Wala 7073 Ahmad Mohana 2370
13 Saban Machi 641 Bet Dewan 3165 Khan Waha 1695 Prara 588 Dhaka Part-I 1590 Dhaka Part-ll 712 Langerwah 866 Thul Meghraj 701 Kohar Piran 538 Chandia 168 Sarki 558 Kotli Lal 603 Baqir Shah 2341 Mohib Shah 628 Khairpur Para 1014 Tibba Noor Gopang 568 Kunal Sandila 368 Kotla Sodat 571 Qaim Shah 1278 Kulewali 477
Total: 41225 16684 Total Dera Ghazi Khan Forest Circle: 72461 29325
MULTAN FOREST CIRCLE
1. Multan Forest Ravi Beat 828 Division
2. Sahiwal RakhJamlera 489 Forest Division
Total Multan Forest Circle: 1317 532
SARGGODHA FOREST CIRCLE
1. Jhang Forest Chak Sarkar Maghini 484 Division Chak Sarkar Manharama 160 Chak Sarkar Chiniot 856 Bela Sajhewala 359 Chak Madrasa 933 Chak Said Behram 2100 Total: 4892
2. Shahpur Forest Bela Jhawarian 45 Division Bela Logharian 50 Total: 95
3. Bhakkar Forest Pakh Dhandla 489 Division Total Sarghodha Forest Circle: 5476 2216 14 RAWALPINDI FOREST CIRCLE
1. Jhelum Forest Bela Division Compt. No. 1 268 Compt. No. 2 395 Compt. No. 3 403 Sagarpur Bela 64
Total: 1130 457 Total Rawalpindi Forest Circle: 1130 457
Grand Total for Punjab 132979 53816
Source: Punjab Forest Department Data.
15 APPENDIX - 4 DISCUSSION WITH EXTERNAL AGENCIES Sindh Forest Department
- Mr. Bahauddin Sirhindi, Secretary to Government of Sindh, Forest and Fisheries Department, Karachi.
- Mr. Afzal Haq, Chief Conservator of Forests, Sindh, Hyderabad.
- Mr. MoharnmadTahir Qureshi, DivisionalForest Officer, Coastal Zone (Mangroves) Division, Karachi. University of Karachi
- Prof. N.M. Tirmizi, Institute of Marine Sciences, Marine Reference Collection Centre and Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology.
- Prof. Dr. Rafiq Ahmad, Head of the Departmentof Botany.
- Prof. Shoaib Ismail, Botany Department. Marine Fisheries Department, Karachi
- Mr. Mohammad Moazzm Khan, Dy. Director World Conservation Union (UCN).Karachi
- Mr. Peter John Meynell, Programme Coordinator, Coastal Ecosystem Unit. National Institute of Oceanography, GOP Karachi
- Mr. Niaz Rizvi, Director General. Sindh Wild Life Department Board, Karachi/ Sindh Wild Life ManagementBoard
- Mr. Abrar Hussain Mirza, Conservator ZoologicalSurvey Department. GOP, Karachi
- Mr. Mohammad Farooq Ahmed, Director WAPDA, LBOD, Hyderabad
- Mr. Muhammad Ashraf Awan, Project Director, Central Designing and Monitoring, Integrated Monitoring Organisation (IMO), Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD), Hyderabad.
16 - Mr. Khan Nadir Khan, Chief Engineer, IMO, LBOD, Hyderabad. Environmental PrQtectionAgency. Sindh, Karachi
- MS. Mehtab Akbar Rashdi, Director General
Punjab Forest Department
- Mr. Anwar Masroor, ChLiefConservator of Forests (Planning & Evaluation) Central Zone, Lahore.
- Mr. Shamim Ahmed, Conservatorof Forests, Headquarters, Lahore.
- Mr. Mohammad Hafeez, Director, Punjab Forestry Research Institute. Faisalabad.
- Mr. Muhammad Saleem, Conservatorof Forests, Lahore.
- Mr. Zakaullah Qureshi, DivisionalForest Officer, Lahore.
- Mr. Wiheed Sarwar, Sub-divisionalForest Officer, Lahore.
University of Agriculture. Faisalabad
- Dr. Riaz Hussain Qureshi, Head, Department of Soil Science.
Punjab University, Lahore
- Prof. Dr. S .H. Iqbal, Head of the Botany Department. Nuclear Institute for Agriculture & Biology, Faisalabad
- Dr. Islam-ul-Haq, Principal ScientificOfficer.
17 DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
FISHERIES SECTOR
LIST OF CONTENTS
Page Nr.
1. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY 1
1.1 Background I
1.2 Water Use 2 1.2.1 Surface Water 2 1.2.2 Groundwater 2 1.2.3 Rise of Groundwater Table 2
1.3 Water Pollution 3 1.3.1 Groundwater Pollution 3 1.3.2 Surface Water Pollution 3
1.4 Environment 4
2. FISHERIES OF INDUS PLAIN 5
2.1 Cold Water Fishery 5
2.2 Semi-cold Water Fishery 5
2.3 Flood Plain Fishery 6 2.3.1 Other Fish species of Indus Plain 6
2.4 Estuarine and Brackish Water Fishery 7 2.4.1 Environmental Degradation 8 2.4.2 Shrimp Culture 9
3. FISHERY ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION 10
3.1 Introduction 10
3.2 Pollution on Kabul River and Kheshki Lake 10
3.3 Pollution on River Ravi 11 3.3.1 River Ravi 11
i 3.3.2 Pollutantsand its Effect on Fish 1.1 3.3.3 Net PollutionalLoading Entering River Ravi 12 3.3.4 Water Quality 14 3.3.5 Biota of Water 14
3.4 Pollution on Indus Delta 16 3.4.1 Indus Discharge 17 3.4.2 Pollutantsof Indus Delta 17 1. Sewageand Liquid Wastes 2. Industrial Wastes 3. AgricultureWastes 3.4.3 CommercialProductivity 19 3.4.4 Salinity from IrrigationDrainage and the Sea 20
4. FISH WETLANDSAND DRAINAGEIMPACT 21
4.1 Surface Water Development 21
4.2 Inland Waters of Pakistan 21 4.2.1 Perennial RunningWaters 22 4.2.2 Intertidal BrackishWaters 22 4.2.3 Perennial Stell Waters 22 4.2.4 WaterloggedWetlands 24
Reference
Appendices
Appendix I Brief on NWFP Fishery Sector
Appendix If InlandWater Areas in Pakistan
Appendix III Discussionswith External Agencies
LIST OF TABLES
Table Nr.
I Discharge in River Ravi at Shadra during 1988 2 The Hydraulic& Pollutional Loading Entering River Ravi 3 Quality of River Ravi during November and December, 1988. 4 Fishes of Deg Nallah collected from three sampling stations during 1980.
.. SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT
FISIERIES SECTOR
BY
SYEDUDDIN KIIURSIUD 1. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY
1.1 Background
The worlds biggest and most intricate irrigation systemcomprising three huge dams, fourteen barrages, eight major interriver link canals, and dozens of weirs and syphons in a gigantic water delivery system controlling about 57,120 kms of canals to irrigate about 41 million acres (16.5 million hectares) of land from northern most parts of the country to the deltaic regions of Sindh.
The backbone of this system is River Indus and its tributaries - the main inland Fisheries resources of the country; mainly the Kabul, the Swat, and the Kurram from the west and the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej from the east. Before the advent of British rule, irrigation in the region was through inundationcanals. Diversion works started around the middle of 19thcentury, the Upper Bari Doab Canal on the Ravi being the first in 1859 followed by Sirhind Canals, the Lower Chenab Canal and the Lower Jhelum Canal during 1885-1901, Paharpur Canal and the Upper Swat Canal were opened in 1908 and 1914 respectively.
The Triple Canal Project commissioningthe Upper Jhelum, the Upper Chenab and the Lower Bari Doab Canals were commissionedin 1915 and marked the completion of the first phase of works on major tributaries.
The second phase marked the taming of Indus itself with the completion of the gigantic Sukkur Barrage in 1932 and the Sutlej Valley Project (11 canals and four headworks) the same year. Haveli Canal Project (Trimmu Headworks)on the Chenab was completedin 1939 and the Kalabagh Barrage in 1947. After the independencethree more barrages were built on the Indus - Kotri in 1955. Taunsa in 1958, and Guddu in 1962. Of the three reservoirs, Mangla Dam on the Jhelum was the first to come in 1967 cost Rs five billion and storage 6.8 MAF. This was followed by Chashma on the Indus in 1967 cost Rs 4 billion, storage of 1.8 MAF. Finally came the Turbela, also on Indus, in 1974 cost Rs 25 billion and a live storage of 11.9 MAF. The proposed Kalabagh Dam which has become the central figure in the water conservancy, is the next to come, again on the Indus. It will cost nearly Rs 200 billion and will have a live storage of 7.9 MAF.
As stated earlier, irrigation in the area was through inundationcanals before the British rule. Diversion works affected the operation of these inundationcanals and so the fishery of Indus Plain effecting the breeding, stock recruitment and migration of Fishes.
With the implementationof the Indus Water Treaty (1960) Pakistan was left with three rivers viz, the Indus. the Jhelum and the Chenab. All rivers rise in spring and early summer with snowmelt and monsoon rainfall and have a combinedpeak discharge in July or August, the period coinciding with the breeding of Major Carps. During the November- February period, flows are much lower being less than one-tenth of those in summer monsoon. The annual average flow in Rivers Indus, Jhelum, Chenab and Kabul is 172 billion i 3. Because rainfall is heavily concentrated during monsoon months, there is a notable fluctuation between maximum and minimum discharge rates for each river. The Indus, which is primarily supplied by glaciers, is subject to least seasonal variation through its maximum flow in more than 50 times its minimum.
I 1.2 Water Use
Major uses of water includehuman consumptionfor drinking and sanitation, agriculturaland industrialdevelopment. The most important use of water in the country is for agriculture. At present over.95% of water is used for irrigation purposes, whereas, only 3% is used for municipal purposes.
1.2.1 Surface Water
River Indus and its tributaries form the main source of surface water. Of the average annual inflow to the Indus System of 173 billion mn (140 MAF). This inflow fluctuates from year to year and on average, 84% of the inflow occurs in the kharif season. There are three primary storage reservoirs at Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma with an original live storage totalling 18.7 billion m3 (15.1 MAF). These regulate the natural inflows for irrigation purposes and hydel generation, and 77% of the stored water is used in :abi season. The remainder is shared almost equally between late kharif (September)and early kharif (April- June).
1.2.2 Groundwater
Groundwaterresources are exploitedby tubewells, open wells, Karezes (undergroundwater channels), etc: These resourceshave been extensivelyinvestigated during the last 25 years. As a result, the existence of a vast aquifer underlying the Indus Plains was identified, recharged from natural precipitation, river flows and more recently by seepage from canal systems. The soft alluvial layers of the aquifer are favourable for large scale tubewell development. Groundwater is exploitedby public and private sectors.
In 1958, to combat waterlogging and salinity, WAPDA adopted tubewell drainage in non- saline areas to augment canal irrigation suppliesin order to reclaim salt affectedsoils and to increase cropping intensity. The success of conjunctive use of surface and groundwater triggered the development of private tubewell in the country.
About 200,000 private tubewellshave been installedto extend irrigation and supplementcanal supplies.
There are two types of public tubewells, viz., the SCARPFresh GroundwaterTubewells and Irrigation tubewells. About 1600tubewells have been installedby provincialgovernments for irrigation purposes only. Considering the roles of both private and public tubewells, groundwater pumpage in the Indus Plains increased from 3.34 MAF in 1959-60 to 30.40 MAF in 1976-77. In 1987-88 the estimate for pumpage is 44.6 MAF.
With the development of cheap hydroelectricpower the use of traditionalwater system such as Persian wheels, karezes etc., has been neglectedresulting in a rise in watertable.
1.23 Rise of Groundwater Table
Initially, agriculture was limitedto barani (rainfed)and sailaba (torrent-watered)area through Persian wheel wells. The amount of recharge to and discharge from groundwater reservoirs was more less equal keeping the watertable in a state of dynamic equilibrium.As new ways and means devised to divert more water from rivers on to land resulting in an extensive irrigation system consistingof thousands of kilometer of unlined water channels (over 135.0
2 B m3 of surface water is diverted annually from the Indus river and tributaries for irrigation purposes), a new source of groundwater recharge was introduced. The absence of a contemporarydischarge source to balance the recharge disturbed the hydrological balance. As a result the groundwater table rose to the surface of the land. About 50 years the groundwater was at a depth of 10 to 20 m; however with the diversion of surface waters to the plain, the groundwater table has been rising, until today about 22% of the land area (about 3.0 M ha) is within 1.5 m and 42% (about 5.9 M ha) within 3.0 m. GOP defines area with a premonsoon groundwater level less than 1.5 m as "disaster area' and eligible for priority drainage treatment. This alarming stage of groundwatertable rise suggests to find a new source of discharge, i.e., evaporation. This in turn resulted in waterlogging, choking aeration of plants and increased salinity. At present 60% of the total CCA (Culturable CommandArea) is waterlogged (WAPDA Survey Report 1985). Approximately45% of the Indus groundwater is brackish and unsuitable for direct applicationto irrigate crops. On th'e other hand, nearly 40% of the area surveyed is salinity affected.
1.3 Water Pollution
1.3.1 Groundwater Pollution
Groundwater in the Indus Basin is of variable quality. It is non-saline near sources of recharge, i.e., rivers and major canals. It gradually becomes saline with depth and as the distance from the recharge source increase. Large scale withdrawlof groundwater is creating differentialzones resulting in lateral and vertical movementof saline water into fresh water zones. Hence if corrective measures are not taken. this situationis likely to pollute non saline aquifer zones.
1.3.2 Surface Water Pollution
Due to the inadequacy and inefficiencyof the water supply and sewage disposal systems in almost all industrial cities, i.e.. Karachi. Hyderabad, Lahore, Faisalabad, Peshawar etc., sewage in most cases is carried by surface flow into open drains, which ultimately discharge into steams. rivers or the sea.
Massive pollution over loading of rivers occurs at various points in our river system. Amongst is the discharge of around 389 cusecs of untreated raw sewage from Lahore into River Ravi which has a minimum flow of 400 cusecs, thus hardly 1:1 dilution is available during low flow and the river is merely a sewage carrier.
Sewage treatment plants are only to be found in Islamabadand Karachi. The two plants in Karachi, catering for only 15 to 20 percent, function intermittently. For practical purposes all urban sewage in Pakistan is discharged raw and untreated. The same applies to industrial waste water discharges. It is directed, untreated to the nearest water course. Limited areas of some cities are served with a sewerage system in which small industries discharge their effluents. Mixed with sewage, industrial waste discharged into natural streams, irrigation channels, seepage drains or adjoining agricultural land pollutes water and destroy fertile land. Surface water pollution adversely affects undergroundwater resources, fish and other aquatic animal life and the health of the people.
3 1.4 Environment
The construction, operation and maintenance (O&M) of Irrigation and drainage projects in Pakistan have the potential to cause a number of negative environmentalimpacts along with the environmentalbenefits associatedwith enhancing agriculturalproductivity and its effects on society. These impacts may affect significant environmental resources of Pakistan including: i) Wetland surrounding-freshwater and brackish lakes (permanent and temporary) includingthe Hamal Katchery and other wetlands of Sindh Province, ii) Mangroves and tidal creeks along the Indus Delta. iii) Forests, especially riverain forests. iv) Wildlife especiallywaterfowl and wadin, birds associated with wetlands. v) Endangered and threatened species includingthe Indus Dolphin and sea turtles, vi) Lakes rivers and steams e.g. Manchar lake. vii) Fisheries and Aquaculture projects including native and commercially important fisheries e.g. Palla and Shrimp. viii) Archaeologicaland historical sites.
No documentationexists regarding the ecological impactof irrigation and drainage on natural resources in Pakistan. Empiricalobservations indicate ecologicaleffects have and will occur from existing and future irrigation and drainage programs and projects. Concern has been expressed that the proposed drainage program will alter the water quality and quantity of wetlands in Pakistan includingthe adverse affects of the Right Bank Outfall Drain (RBOD) on the Hamal Katcheri wetlands of Sindh Province and adverse effects on Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) on the Mangroves and Tidal creeks along the Indus Delta. which has been considered for the developmentof shrimp aquaculture projects.
The mangroves (Avicenniamarina) abundantlygrown in the salt water creeks of Indus Delta are of vital importance. They form natural, self repairingcoastal barriers against tidal surges and as the shrimp and fin fish nursery beds for the most commercially important shrimp industryof Pakistan. Mangrovesrequire supply of freshwaterto maintain healthy condition. There are an estimated 260,000 hectares of Mangroves in the Indus Delta.
4 2. FISHERIES OF INDUS PLAIN
The lndus plain consisting of River Indus and its major tributaries, the Kabul on the right bank and the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlejon the left bank, covers about 70% of the country's geographicalarea (Pakistan Fact Sheet, 1989). It extends from the Salt Range and the Himalayan foot-billsin the north to the Arabian Sea in the south. On the west, it is surrounded by the Sulaimanand Kirthar ranges while it extends into the Indian territory on the east. It lies approximatelybetween 210 to 330 N latitude and 670 to 760 E longitude, at an elevation of about 300 m in the north but gradually falls to the sea level at its extreme south. The fishery of Indus plain has been divided into the followingcategories, according to their ecology and economicimportance.
1. Cold Water Fishery, inhabitingthe river, streams and wetlandsof mountain region, e.g. Trout.
2. Semi Cold Water or Sub-montane Fishery found irnshallow, fast moving, clear water with sandy beds of rivers and streams, joining the plain, e.g. Mahaseer, Barbus (Tor) Pititors.
3. Flood Plain Fishery comprisinga wide range of inland fishery, i.e. Riverain, tract, dams, reservoir, lakes, ponds, drains and fishery in waterloggedareas, including migratory and exotic species introduced in the country.
4. Estuarine & Brackish Water Fishery, inhabiting Indus Delta and Mangrove swamps.
2.1 Cold Water Fishery (Trout)
In northern districts of NWFP and in Murree hill area of Punjab, the availabilityof Brown Trout and Rainbow trout and the interest in sport fishing thereof in the northern mountain region of the country, has encouragedthe DOF, NWFP to establish trout hatcheries for stocking rivers, streams and lakes in cold northern areas and for supply seeds to the private farmers. At present, 10,000kg of trout is produced for sale to the local populationand to the tourists in NWFP. Owing to the increasein demand, the investmentinterest has increases and eight trout farms have been establishedin NWFP with a productive capacity of 30,000 kg of Rs 1.8 million value. There are six hatcheries of trout with a production capacity of 1.35 million juveniles, established in Dir, Swat, Kaghan, Chitral and Kohistandistricts of NWFP (Appendix 1).
2.2 Semi-Cold Water Fishery Mahaseer
Mahaseer, Barbus rTor)Pititors inhabitingsemi cold water river-system of NWFP has been endangered.The species which once used to thrive well in the semi-coldenvironment of fast- running shallow streams and rivers has lost its availabilityas its breeding has been adversely affected since the erection of Tarbela dam on river Indus and Warsak dam on river Kabul. In NWFP, it is now restricted at Totakan in river Swat in Malakand. A scheme for the rehabilitationof this species at Chak Darey has been prepared for implementationby NWFP DOF. 5 Prior to the construction of Hub dam on Hub river in Balochistan, Mahaseer was in abundance but it disappearedgradually after the change in ecology and it is hard to get any in the catches of Hub dam. A scheme is under considerationby WAPDA fisheries to restore Mahaseer in Hub river locality (Director. Fisheries, WAPDA).
2.3 Flood Plain Fishery
Flood plain fishery comprisesthe major crops, which are of particular commercialimportance in the Indus plain. The breeding stocks live in the main river channels during the dry season. although a small portion may be caught. At the commencementof the floods. the brood stock begins to move upstream and by following the uncontrolledflood water of the river over the banks, where force of the water is low. start laying their floating eggs. Followingthis, the spawners return to the main river to recover for the rest of the spawning season. In short pauses between flood peaks, the eggs hatch (in two to three days), and the frys develop. feeding on the abundant food available in the shallow waters. They remain free-floatingfor upto sevendays, before they are able to swim against moderateriver flows. At the next flood. many of them washed back into the river. The DOF Punjab as a measure of conservingthe fish stock help the frys to return to where manually through their staff.
Thus, an annual stock is provided for recruitment. This is essential for the maintenanceof the large size of populationsin the water and for distributioninto the river complexto canals. seasonally inundatedlakes. flood streams and wetlands which have been gettin, suptplyfrom the river. There is, therefore. a period extending from early May tO mid-June when free- floating frys are present in the water, distributed into shallow lakes and ponds on the flood plain, where thev can continue to grow but they never receive necessary environmental stimuli to breed. Others find their way into temporary wetlands, where they continue to grow until the water becomes too foul. when they die long before they reach their full size.
These flood plain species of commercial value are Laheo rohita. Catla catla and Cirrhina mrigula. They are being artificially hbed in hatcheries by DOF in NWFP. Punrjahand Sindh and also by WAPDA Fisheries for re-stocking the dams. reservoirs. lakes and ponds. The short natural supply of fingerlings. which has been so affected due to less frequent and be- lated floods in the Rivers and dammingupstreams. Unlikeother rivers of the Indus Basinviz Jhelum, Chenab. Ravi. Sutlej and even upper and middleIndus. the Lower Indus is embanked on both sides from Kashmoredown to the sea, which is causingsilting of and continuousrise in the bed level, coverino feeding and spawning grounds of fish. This has created some environmentalproblems.
2.3.1 Other Fish Species of Indus Flood Plain
(a) RiverainSpecies: These tend to remain in the river. and can spawn either in marginal reed beds and other vegetation or in flowing water. Since they are not of major economic importance and they are not consideredfurther in detail.
(b) Wetland Species: The economically important wetland species are the murrells ('snake heads'), Channa sp. and catfishes (Wallago attu), Mystus sp. and Heteropneustesfossilis and Mastacembelessp. (eel). These are equally able to line permanently in the river and well-adapted to survive in the main channels, the permanent wetlands and lakes, beside in occupying marshy and saline conditions.
6 (c) Migratory Species
The 'Palla' Tenualosa (H-ilsa)ilisha is a marine fish which, at the times of floods, moves upstream into the river to spawn and then drops back to the sea. It is a member of the shad or Herring family of fishes which produces enormous numbers of tiny pelagic (i.e. free - floating) eggs. The eggs drift back downstream, hatching and developing into almosthelpless larvae. Mortalityrates are extremely high. In the estuary, the survivors develop into small fish in the rich brackish shallow water, then move out to sea to grow to adult size. The Indus 'Palla' is a genetically isolated stock. The fish from this river system are isolated from those in rivers such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra. This means that if this stock dies out, it will not be replaced by wandering individuals from other genetic stocks. In the year 1950, the Palla catch accounted for 6,500 mt and the same is (Moinuddin Ahmad, 1952). By 1986, the catch declined to 1.000 mt on further decline, according to the DOF Sindh. No data are available.
(d) Exotic Species
i. Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) has been introduced in the country since long and hatcheries have been set up in Sindh, Punjab and NWFP DOF and WAPDA fisheries, raising frys on commercialscale for selling to the farmers and stocking in the public waters, dams and reservoirs.
ii. Silver Carp (Hypophthalmicthysmolitrix) and
iii. Grass C; r (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) have been introduced by setting hatchery in Punjab and NWFP and in a private farm in Sindh as a step for setting a polyculture stocking strategy for a significant increase in the yield.
iv. Tilapia Saratherodon mossambica and S. aurea were imported for initial stocking in Sindh waterlogged and salinity - affected wetlands. Later it was introduced in Punjab saline waters and said to be performing well. Punjab DOF has harvested 37 ton of this species in 1990. No data on catch harvest of Sindh is available.
The introductionof Tilapia on the wetlands so far is not profitable as it is not getting attractive price in the market because of both of its stunted growth and lack of development of the liking among the masses. Introductionof Tilania and Grass carp is also said to cause environmentalproblems as well.
2.4 Estuarine and Brackish water Fishery Indus Delta
The Indus River Delta covering almost 85% of the coastal belt is one of the largest deltas of the world. The area of the delta plain from the shoreline to the alluvial valley covers about 29.500 sq.km. The Indus River discharge to the delta is the main source of nutrients supply. It provides ample amount of nutrients (nitrates. nitrites, phosphates. silicates and some trace metals) and also help in maintainingthe estuarine conditionsin the area. The existence of the Indus estuary - the most productivepart of the coast is, therefore, dependenton a continuous input of a sizeable amount of freshwater and sediments from the Indus River to the delta every year and give rise to an ecosystem covering an area of 270.000 ha of dense and 7 mediummangrove vegetation. It consolidatesthe substrate on which it grows. The extensive roots of mangrove trees intertwine to form a mat below the mud surface. This helps to prevent coastal erosion, and even traps sediment and extend sealine seawards. Its most important function is to provide food, shelter and serve as nursery grounds for larvae and juvenile of marine organisms.
It is estimated that 90 percent of commercially important tropical marine fish species, especially the prawn, spend some part of their life in the estuarine part of the delta which constituted to 250,000 tonnes of fish caught off the Sindh coast will be at risk. In 1988, Pakistan earned Rs 2.24 billion from fish exports, over 70% of which came from prawns. The remainingfish caught is either used for human consumptionor converted into fish meal to support the thriving poultry industry.
Among the various species of fish and shellfish found in this system, the most economic valued one is Lates calcarifer locally called as Dangri, an important food fish, spawns in coastal waters near the mouth of rivers. Larvae and juveniles take refuse in mangrove areas before migrating streams to freshwater. Here they remain for 3 to 4 years before migrating downstreamsagain to breed, unlike Palla migrate into freshwater as adult to spawn. Dandgri is a an importantPerch of high economicvalue found abundantlyin creeks, canals and saline drains.
More than 15 species of shrimp have been reported some of the commercial value are Penaeus monodon, P. Japonicus, P. merguiensis, P. indicus, P. semisulcatus and P. penicillatus.
A species of Freshwater Prawn Macrobrachiummalcomsoni is abundant in Indus Delta and River Indus a potential source for culture alongwith carp.
2.4.1 Environmental Degradation
The once highly productive estuary system of the delta has shown marked degradation over the years as the waters of the Indus River has been increasinglyutilized for agriculture. The situation now is such that for at least 6 months each year, the Indus Delta does not even qualify as an estuary since, by definition, an estuary requires a measurable dilution of sea water by fresh water runoff from the land. It is this input of freshwater, nutrients and suspended matter from the land which contributesto the highly productive environment of an estuary.
Estuaries are generally consideredto be essential as nursery grounds for many commercially important shrimp and fish species and evidence suggests that shrimp and fish catches have declined as a result of the decreaseddischarges from the Indus River. Other negative effects that have occurred include: i) the loss of tens of thousands of hectares of mangroves forests; ii) a marked increase in the average salinities in the tidal creeks; iii) an erosion of the delta; and iv) a possible accumulationof pollutantsdue to a lack of flushing of the creeks. All of these conditions can be expected to worsen over timed because of continuing plans to eventually divert more of the water flow from the Indus River. Since all of the factors which constitutean environmentallysound estuary are also importantconditions for shrimp culture, the prospectsfor developing shrimp farming in the future are expectedto further deteriorate.
8 2.4.2 Shrimp Culture (infrastructure and Planning)
Although minor in comparisonto the constraintsmentioned above, the developmentof shrimp farming in the delta is also being inhibitingby a lack of good all-weather roads, electricity, fresh water for domestic use and communications,etc. The Sindh Governmenthas not yet developed a master plan for the 6,400 ha of land allocated for shrimp farming. This is primarily due to the lack of a detailed land survey of the area. The land allocationsthat have been made to date are based on a 40-year-old map of the area which no longer accurately depicts the course of tidal creeks, irrigation canals and other natural boundaries.Those parties who have been allocatedland leases are reluctantto start constructionof ponds until a master plan is developed showing the layout of roads, power grids, drainage canals, etc.
In addition, the delay in the operation of the DOF pilot farm has left private entrepreneurs with a lack of guidance. The purpose of the pilot farm was to develop appropriateproduction strategies for the site specific conditionsof the Indus Delta. Lever Brothers (Pakistan)Ltd. apparently has sufficientfinancial resources to importforeign technology to assist in project development but most private entrepreneurs lack these resources. Without the guidance or a demonstrationof a viable shrimp culture strategy, the private sector has wisely waited to see what works before investing.
Given the land, water and manpower resourcesof Pakistan it has generally been assumedthat a semi-intensive culture strategy would be the most cost effective. The ADB financed pilot shrimp farm was designed to be managed using semi-intensivepond managementwith wild- caught seed stock and feeds that were to be manufacturedwith locally availableingredients.
9 3. FISHERY ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION
3.1 Introduction
All the fishes vital functionsof feeding, digestion, assimilation,growth, response to stimuli and reproduction are dependenton water. For the fish the most important aspects of water are dissolved oxygen, dissolved salts, light penalization, temperature,. toxic substances. concentrationof disease organismsand opportunity to escape enemies. Fish depends mostly upon gills to extract oxygendissolved in water, light energy and dissolved carbon dioxide are utilized by phytoplanktonorganism to manufacture organic matter that eventually becomes food for fish. Such is an environmentrequired for healthy growth of fish and development of fishery.
Water in the Indus Basin is of variable quality. It is non saline. ton toxic and free from any kind of pollution near sources of recharge, i.e. rivers and major canals. It gradually becomes saline and polluted with depth and as the distance from the re-charge source increase.
Due to the inadequacyand inefficiencyof the water supplyand sewage and industrial waste disposal in almost all industrial cities i.e. Peshawar. Lahore. Faisalabad. Hyderahad and Karachi etc. the sewage and industrial wastes in most cases is carried by surface flow into open drains, which ultimatelydischarge into streams, rivers, canal or the sea an urban source of pollution. Where as in rural areas, the washings and runoffs from the agriculture fields with fertilizers and pesticides, insecticidesdischarging directly into lakes or through drains has been polluting aquatic environment.This has been causing detrimental effect on the fish and fishery resources of the country resulting not only in the reduced production but the fish produced under such environment is detrimental to human health.
The various factors causing pollutionto the fishery in environmentin the Indus Plans from Northern part of country to the Indus Deltaic region have been identified. These are industrial, and sewage due to haphazard and rapid industrializationand urbanization in the country polluting the lakes, rivers. and coastal and delta land. by direct disposal of wastes without any treatment. The cities of Pakistan are almost without any sewage treatment facilities except Islamabad and Karachi to a very limited stage (only 15 to 20% sewerage waste is treated in Karachi).
3.2 Pollution on Kabul River and Kheshki Lake
There are about 40 industrial units in Peshawar. Charsadda, Nowshera and Mardan area alone, out of which only two industriesare having waste water treatment facilities which are negligible. The dischargeof bio-degradableorganics has only minor impart on Kanor streams but at some places (like Mardan) such discharges by two sugar mills and distilleries have caused anaerobic conditions.Similarly, organics dischargesby a paper mill and a sugar mill to Nisata drains are the cause of anaerobic conditionsresulting in total extinction of aquatic life in Kheshki Reservoir. The discharge of milk of lime and pressed mud by sugar mill to Shah Alam River is adversely affecting the beneficial uses of the river's water. These were the findings together with others made by the Director/ convener, Directorate of Veterinary Research Institute, Peshawar, inviting the representatives of University of Agriculture, Peshawar, DOF Peshawar, P.C.S.I.R Agriculture Research Institute. Tarnab, Director of
10 Agriculture, Plant Protection Deptt. and Industries Department for action to check further degradation of surface water resources from the industrial wastes.
This problem has been existing since and various committeescomprising of the officials of the various concerned departments were formed to tackle this problems. Findings of other degradationsmentioned are: i) Localized adverse impactsdue to the discharge of chromium and sulphate by textile mills. ii) Presence of sulphide in Kabul River. iii) A more serious problem exist resultingfrom the discharge of D.D.T and Phenol from Nowshera D.D.T Factory.
These committees were formed prior to the establishment of provincial Environmental Protection Agency which is now to handle this issue authoritatively.
The damages to the fishery of the foresaid resources experienced are very alarming.
The Khashki lake an artificial reservoir of about 263 ha area, located 340 02' N, 720 01'E, 40 km east of Peshawar, NWFP at 300 m altitude, listed as a wetland of international importanceunder the Ramsar Conventionin July 1976and appeared in earlier list of wetlands of international importance in Pakistan. A minor importance for waterfowl and a major importance for fishery has been drained because of heavy and serious pollution from nearby paper mill and sugar refining industry.
3.3 Pollution on River Ravi
3.3.1 River Ravi, a monsoon type of river, is one of the five main rivers in the province of Punjab. It originates from India, entres Pakistan near village Tadyal, Kot Naina, Tehsil Sakargrah and flow down about 560 km to join River Chenab.
Flow in the River rises in the spring and early summer with snowmelt and monsoon rainfall and has the peak discharge in July or August. In winter during November- February period, flow is much less. Informationon the dischargesof this river for 1988collected from Punjab Irrigation Department shows as in Table-1.
3.3.2 Pollutants and its Errect on Fish
River Ravi is constantly getting polluted vis bulk discharges of untreated municipal and industrial effluent emanating from city of Lahore, Kala Shah Kaku (Industrial Estate), Shaikhupura, Jaranwala and Sammundri, through various tributaries and sewage disposal works. Institute of Public Health Engineering and Research (IPHER) estimated that the sewage flow from the city will increase to 348 cusecs in 1986 and 602 cusecs in the year 2000. According to Pakistan Fact sheet water (1989), ratio of raw effluent discharge to the minimum flow of River Ravi is almost 1:1 (389 cusecs to 400 cusecs respectively). IPHER, in collaborationwith Water and SanitationAgency (WASA) conducted river pollutionstudies during 1977-79, observed that discharge of city sewage to river. lowered the river dissolved oxygen to 2.9 mg/I, it f&rtherfalls below 1 mg/l after Deg and Hudiara carrying sewage and industrial efijuents joined the river. BOD5 and coliform count was also in excess of those considered satisfactoryfor fish and recreational purpose. 11 Table - 1 Discharges in Ravi at Shahdaraduring 1988
Month Minimum Maximum Average (Cusecs) (Cusecs) (Cusecs)
January 918 2538 1321 February 460 4544 1785 March 490 27963 7102 April 1500 13619 5354 May 1378 9958 5521 June 8014 10709 9052 July 6992 84940 23917 August 11620 58197 26810 September 7551 326100 43098 October 1390 50499 15043 November 750 7754 4736 December 450 13085 5161
Source: Punjab Irrigation Department
Similarityaccording to studies of Punjab DOF during winter and dry season 1984185,wastes from different industries and sewage from city of Lahore result into deterioration of water quality of the river. At some points DO goes below I mg/l and free carbon dioxide values increase very much (between 20 and 80 ppm). Both these values are detrimental for fish.
It has been estimated that Ravi River and its tributaries having potentials for producing 5000 matric tons of fish per year of Rs !50 million present value has been effected badly since. Deg NuIlah and Kala Shah Kaku prod!'ced about 200 mt of fish every year but after the establishmentof Ittehad ChemicalsLimited which discharges about 60-110 tons per day of surplus Hydrochloric acid, no life at all exists down stream in that nullah. Ravi river near Balloki Headworks has lost its fish production by 30% in last 10 years.
3.3.3 Net Pollutional Loadings Entering River Ravi
The hydraulic and pollutionalloadings entering River Ravi emanating from city of Lahore, Kala Shah Kaku, Sheikupura, Jiranwala and Sammendrihas been assessed to be as follows:
12 TABLE - 2 The Hydraulic and PollutionalLoading Entering River Ravi
S.Nr. Pollution Source Discharge Effluent BOD Load MGD BOD5 mg/l Tons/day
1. Municipal Sewage of 216 210 206 Lahore City
2. Deg Fall-I (Deg + Bhed + 2160 5.5 54 Choti Deg + UCC)
Hudiara Nullah 3. 67 330 100 Deg Fall-II 4. Barianwala + 11 410 21 Chichokimallian+ Jaranwala sewage drain)
Sammundri drain
5. 24.3 17 2
383.00
River Ravi is receivina effluents at the following points:
1. At 192 km distance from the river enters into the country. Three streams originating from Jammu and Kashmir viz: i) Choti Deg, ii) Deg Nullah and iii) Bhed Nullah collecting industrial and sewage effluents join each other betore they meet upper chenab canal (UCC) and ultimatelydischarge into River Ravi as First Deg.
2. At 280 km second Deg Nullah collectingeffluent through i) Chichukimalliandrain, ii) Barianwala Drain and iii) Jaranwala sewage Drain.
3. At 196 km, Hudiara Nullah (stream) originates from India, becomes polluted while collecting municipaland sewage effluent from Lahore city residential colonies falls into Ravi after it collects effluent from Sattokatla Drain.
4. Maduana Drain and Sammundri Drain join together to meet at 363 km in Ravi collectingmunicipal wastes from MohammadAbad and D. Type Colony Disposalfall into SammandriDrain which gathers saline effluent from Faisalabad area before it is discharged into Ravi River.
13 3.3.4 Water Quality
The analytical results indicatingwater quality in River Ravi at various points before and after the disposal of the effluents has been carried out by Punjab EPA (1988) Table-3. The River shows freshwater conditionas the DO saturation remains more than 80% and BOD5 less than 5 mg/I. The discharge of city sewage and industrial effluents through Deg and Hadiara Nullah, results into deteriorationof river water quality. The DO dips to 1. I mglI and BOD5 increases to 61 mg/I. Most of water pollution control agencies adopt a minimum of 6 mg/l DO level as an objective to maintain a maximumpotential warm water fish population. River stretch of about 59 kmn;from Shadbagh disposal station to downstream of Hudiara Nullah, is therefore badly polluted as BOD5 level in this stretch remains above 10 mgll. The river is replenishedwith the inflow of Qadirabad Balloki (Q.B) link canal near Balloki Headworks. The second Deg Nullah carries industrial effluents from Sheikhupura Industries and Sewage from Jaranwala. DO level downstream of second Deg fall again dips to 3.8 mg/I and it remains below 5 mg/I for about 7 km, where the river again recovers due to natural purification and the freshwater conditions persist upto its confluence with River Chenab. Although, the river receives the discharge of Sammundri Main drain near Kamalia, but it exerts no appreciable load on oxygen resources of river water. It may effect the salinity as the drain carried saline effluent from Faisalabad area. The Sammundri main drain carries sewage effluents from Maduana drain and Sammandri disposal drain. Coliform count as MPN/100 ml in the whole river stretch ranged from 3.11 x 10' to 7.2 x 107 which is in excess of recreational standard (5000/100 ml).
Discharge of untreated industrialeffluent lowered DO to 1.7, 2.1. 2.9. 4.4 and 8 mg/l in Dleg NuIlah, Bhed Nullah, ChhotiDeg, Chichokimalliandrain and Barian Wala Drain respectively. The DO contents in Hudiaran Nullah was already nil] at the point of its entrance into Pakistan and remained nil in the whole stretcfi upto its outfall into River Ravi.
3.3.5 Biota of Water
On the quality and Biota of fresh and polluted waters of Deg Nullah Shamsi et al (1988) have reported. On the samples collectedfrom upstream (FreshwaterZone) severely polluted water fro:n 'Heavily' polluted zone after the influx of industrial effluents and 'mderately' polluted water from downstreamrecovery zone at 18 km from Heavily pollutedzone, 18 algal species recorded from 'Fresh' water over the year, eight belonged to Chrysophyta seven to Chlorophyta, two to Cyanophyta and only one to Euglenophyta. While Chrysophyta, Cyanophyta and Euglenophytawere represented by only one family each, Chlorophyta was represented by five different families. Severely polluted water was dominated exclusivelyby three different species of diatoms (Chrysophyta) Oscillatoria sp (Blue-green algae; Cyanophyta) was most widespread alongwith some diatoms in 'moderately' polluted water. Green algae was conspicuouslyabsent in the polluted waters. It further revealed that 14 fish species, were recorded from Deg Nullah 'Fresh' water, over the year but non of these survived is severely polluted water. Only two fish species appeared rarely in 'moderately' polluted water. Table-4.
14 TABLE -3
Quality of River Ravi During November and December, 1988
Sr. DescriptionofSamples Distance mp. pH I D.O I D.O | BODS Total No. I Saturation Colitorms (KM) ( (mg/I) I (%) (mgOt) MPNAlOOml
1. AtentiypointotRaviintoPakilsan 0 I8 73 91 95.4 23 4.hxlO^ 4 from India near VDage Tayal. Kot Mnal Teisil ShakarGarb.
2. At BRB Ravi-Syphon 126.00 19 7.5 9 96.3 2.5 3.9x10^ 4
3. At 114kin U/S from New Shad Bagh DisposaL 136.00 19 7.5 8.8 94.1 2.1 45z1O4
4. At lkm D/Sfrom New Shad Bagh Disposal. 136.75 20 7.7 6.9 75.2 14.0 12xlO^S
5. Al 114kmbl from Main outfaU disposal(D/S trom Chhota Ravi Disposal) 145.00 17 7A 4.3 44.1 28.0 1.6xl0^6
6. At ia km DIS from Main outfall Disposal. 145.75 18 7.6 1.A 15.0 52.0 2.32xlO^7
7. At liZkm U/S from Gulshane Ravi + Babu Sabu Dsposal. 153.00 18 7.5 3.2 33.5 41.0 3.7x1O-6
8. At 11 km DIS ftom Gulshane Ravi + Babu SabuDisposal. l13.75 19 7.2 1.1 120 61.0 3Ax1O-7
9. At 1/4km U/S from Dcg Nullah outfall. 192.00 18 7.4 3.9 41.0 37.0 1.4xl0-6
10. At 1/2km U/S from DegNullah outfall. 192.73 18 7.6 6.7 703 12.0 5.6x10-5
11. At 12 km D/S from Hudiara Nullab outfial. 196.00 19 7.3 4.6 49.2 17.0 7.2x1O-7
12. At 1/4 km U/S from Q.B. Link outfaU 204.00 19 7.3 5.8 62.0 13.0 1.13x10^7
13. At BaUoki Head Works (downstrcam 0.B Link) 205.00 17 7.2 92 94.5 2.6 7.86x10^4
14. At 1/4km U/S from Deg Nullah (Barian wala drain) outfall near Nosa Making. Jranwala. 269.00 i8 7.3 9 943 2.2 5.73xl0-4
15. At 1/2km D/S from Deg Nullah outfall. 269.75 19 7.3 3.8 41.0 21.0 6.24xl0-5
16. AtlOkmD/SfromDcgNullahoutfaU 280.00 18 7.3 6.9 723 13.0 1.15x10-S
17. At 1/4 km U/S from Samundri drain outfall near village Nikko Thatha Kamalia. 363.00 16 7.2 9.4 95.0 3.0 3.21xlO^4
18. At m km DIS from Samundri drain outfalL 363.75 16 7.4 8.2 82.4 8.0 6.78xl0^5
19. AtS km DS from Samundri drain outrall. 368.00 17 7.4 9.1 93A 4.0 1.23x10-5
20. Rafi just before joining River Chonab. at village Sayycl Faqir. Tehsil Kabir wala. 560.00 16 7.3 9.5 95.5 2A 3.1lxl04
21. River Chenab.before mixing Ravi - 16 7.1 9.6 96.5 1.8 1.6x10^4
22. MixedRavi+ChenabwatcratMozal.Aa - 17 7.2 9.4 95.5 2.3 2.2x10 -4
15 TABLE-4
Fishes of Deg Nullah collectedfrom three samplingstations during 1980
Sr. PollutedWater Nr. Months Fresh Water Severely Moderately I II III
(All deed) 1. January 1,2,3 2,3 2. February 4,5,6 4,5,6 3. March 7,12 7 12 4. April 8,12 8 5. May 8,9 9 6. June 2,4 8 7. July 1,2,10 1 6 8. August 9,11 9 - 9. September 4,5,8,14 4,5 10. October 8,6,8 4 11. November 8,12,13 8,11,12 12. December 8,12 8,11
1.Mastacembelus sp. 2. Securiculagora 3. Channa sp. 4. Rita rita, 5. Chela cachius, 6. Chana punctata, 7. Ostebrama cotio, 8. Wallago attu. 9. Catla catla. 10. Botia lohacheta. 11. Barilius vagra, 12. Mystus vittatus, 13. Labeo rohita, 14. Heteropheustesfossilis.
Accordingto this fish are absent or sporadicallypresent in these streams, drains, downstream of industrial effluent discharges.
3.4 Pollution on Indus Delta
The coast of Sindh is 215 km long. The most prominent feature of Sindh coast - The Indus River Delta covering Almost85 percent of the coastal belt, is one of the largest deltas of the world (N.I.0). The rest of the coastline (15%) in the northwest constitutethe western coast of Karachi. The Sindh coastal belt has a populationof about 8.5 million. This area harbours more than 60% of the industries of the country. A number of industrial complexes, trade centres, two seaports, coastal agriculture, and country's main fishing centres with two fishing harbours are located in the coastal belt of Sindh.
The Indus River Delta has maintaineda relativelystiaight shoreline despite many changes in the river course over last 50,000 years. The present day active delta in restricted to a triangular zone of about 200 sq.km area in the vicinity of Keti Bunder. The present day tidal deltaic plain is characterised by numerous crisscrossing creeks/channels and swampy mud flats and small over bank splays that are lined with stunted mangroveson a sand/silt substrate. The total area of the mud flats in the Indus Delta is estimated to be about 385,000 hectares. Out of which about 270,000 hectares are estimated to be supporting mangrove vegetation.
16 3.4.1 Indus Discharge
The Indus River discharge to the delta is the main source of nutrients supply. It provides ample amounts of nutrients (Nitrate, Nitrites, Phosphates, Silicates and some trace metals) and also helps in maintainingthe estuarine conditionsin the area. The existence of the Indus estuary - the most productive part of the coast is, therefore, dependenton a continuous input of a sizeable amount of freshwater and sediments from the Indus River to the delta every year.
The Indu:-River discharge to the delta has decreased drastically over the last 34 decades. Some early estimates indicate that the Indus River apparently discharged more than 600 million tons of suspended sediments annually (Milliman et al, 1984). Out of which 250 million tons reached the Indus Delta annually. The sediment discharge recorded at the most oceanward gauge (at Sehwan) indicate that the suspended load decreased fronm220 million tons in 1968 to 80 million tons in 1974 and to less than 20 million tons in 1986. Similarly, the water discharge to Indus Delta decreasedfrom an average of about 100 cubic km per year during 1930-31 period to about 20 cubic km per year during 1985-86. The flow in the river is generally low in November to mid spring at which point snow melt (in the mountains) increases the discharge. Highest river dischargeoccurs in July and August, coincideswith the peak of rainy season in the area. The drastic reduction in the main source of nutrient supply has therefore lead to the nutrient impoverishmentwhich, is evident from the poor and stunded growth of vegetation in the area as well as from the rapidly declining fisheries resources and the catch per unit effort from sindh coast (Khaliluddin1986).
3.4.2 Pollutants of Indus Delta
There are many types of pollutants in the Indus Delta but the main categories of the pollutants reaching the coastal wzt^rs of Sindh, but the one effecting the Indus Delta are as under:
1. Sewage and municipalwastes 2, Industrial wastes 3. Agriculture wastes (Fertilizers, pesticides insecticides, etc.)
Others such as oil and oily wastes, thermal discharges and Radio-activewastes, not directly and closely related to Indus Delta are not necessarilybe mentionedhere.
1. Sewage and Liquid Wastes
The main pollutants in the sewage and liquid wastes from municipaland domesticsources are high BOD organic compounds,suspended solids, detergents, phenoliccompounds, pathogenic bacteria sulphur compounds, etc. The total amount of waste waters generated by the municipaland Industrial sources from Karachi city are estimatedto be 292 MGD. About 111 MGD is generated by the Industries in the area. Assuming 55-50 percent losses about 158 MGD reaches the coastal waters. About 42 MGD enters the coastal waters through Gizri/Karangi creeks via Malir River, and about 116 MGD enters the coastal area through Karachi Harbour via Lyari River. Despite having a sewerage system the sewage in the Karachi is not adequately treated. There are two sewage treatment plants in the city each having a capacity of 20 MGD. Moreover, both the treatment plants cannot treat more than 40 MGD or about 15-20 percent of the amount of raw sewage, the rest of the 80-85 percent of the sewage received at these plants are discharged untreated into the adjacent Lyari River and Malir river respectively which ultimately reaches the coastal waters. Besides some liquid
17 waste generated in the coastal areas other than Karachi through domesticusage are estimated to be about less than 3 MGD and about 5 MGD from Industrial sources in the coastal towns of Sindh except Karachi are therefore discharged untreated to the adjacent canals/creeks.
2. Industrial Wastes
More than 6000 units, about 60% of the country's industriesare located along the coastal belt of Karachi and Indus delta. Most of these industries are located in the four industrial complexes. The Sindh Industrial Trading Estate (SITE) is the largest complex, located in the north and north eastern part of city. In the southern part of the city three major industrial complexes i.e. KorangiIndustrial Area (KIA), Lapdhi Industrial Trading Estate (LITE), and Pakistan Steel Mills complex are situated along Gharo and Korangi creek. In addition, there are a number of major coastalIndustries such as four power plants of Karachi Electric Supply Company (KESC) and Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works (KSEW), Sindh Alkalies, two Oil refineries, Pakistan steel mills and two major sea-ports (Karachi Harbour and Port Qasim) and Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP) which discharge their waste water effluent directly to the adjacent body of coastal waters.
With the exception of only a few industrialunits almost all of the itidustries are discharging their effluents untreated into the sewersor directly into Lyari River, Malir River and adjacent creeks. It is estimatedthat about 158 MGD of effluents are discharged into the coastal waters of Karachi from the industrialand municipal sources. The total waste water effluents from KIA, LITE and adjacent areas has been estimated to be about 42 MGD. Out of which about 22 MGD are contributed by the industrial effluents. The liquid wastes entering the Indus Delta from Industrial and Municipal sources from the coastal areas of Sindh excluding Karachi is estimated to be less than 8 MGD. There are variety of po;lutants occurring in the industrialwastes, the pollutantsof more concern are heavy metals (Cr, Pb. Hg, Cu, Zn, As) and their compounds,Polychlorinated biphenyles (PCBs), Plasticisers, Phenolic compounds, lubricating oils, chlorine, and various organic and inorganictoxic compounds.
A large sugar mill recently established has started production. This is generating a large quantity of high BOD organic wastes which are being discharged untreated into the adjacent AAmbrohcreek, Deh GhorabariDistt Thatta of the Indus Delta. This area has been considered as apart of potential shrimp farming area, 9,375 acres of land has been allocated to some entrepreneurs. Some shrimp Farms established nearby are collecting water from Ambroh creek and its tributaries required for growing shrimps. The effluents from such industries is an area of considerableshrin.p culturepotential is likely to effect the growth and production in the shrimp farming in this area.
A report by one of the effectedshrimp Farming Companyhas been made against the pollution act of the sugar mill to the Sindh EPA. EPA Sindh has taken some action to the effect.
3. Agriculture NYastes
The Indus River System is being used as a dumping place for most of the urban, industrial, and agriculture wastes from the cities and sites located near the Indus River and its tributaries upcountry. Most of the organic wastes are believed to become degraded within the Indus River. However, the slow degrading organic wastes and some of the inorganic wastes find their way to the Indus Delta through the Indus River discharge. The most importantpollutants from this source appear to be the residues of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, and '?CBs. The varieties of fertilizers, pesticides,insecticides, etc., being used in Pakistan. It is evident 18 that almost all types of fertilizers and pesticidelinsecticidesare being used int he agriculture areas of Sindh and Punjab. The quantity of pesticides used in the Sindh Province alone is 2,750 tons during 1986-87. Similarly, the quantity of fertilizers used during this period is 425,000 tons in Sindh. It is estimated that about 0.5% of the pesticides used per year (e.g. 12,756 tons) are washed away and reach the delta through the Indus River, agriculture water seepage, and runoff during floods. The amount of fertilizers used in Punjab province is 1,234,500 tonslyear and about 6,000 tons? of pesticides and insecticidesper year are also being used in the agriculture sector in the province of Punjab. This source is estimated to contribute about 0.5% of the total amounts of fertilizers used each year (e.g 6,172 tons) and 0.05 % of the pesticides (e.g. 43 tons) which reach the Indus Delta each year. Therefore, the total annual input of the agriculture wastes reachingthe Indus Delta are about 18,928 tons of fertilizers, and about 125 tons of pesticidesand insecticides, and considerablequantities of other compoundsfrom this source.
3.4.3 Commercial Productivity
The most part of the coast of Sindh is covered by the Indus River Delta which is characterised by the presence of the 5th Largest single mangrove forest in the world. The area covered by the mangrove forest in the delta is about 270,000 hectares extending from the creeks near Karachi in the northwest upto the Indian border in the east.
The mangroves play a very important role in the overall productivity of the mangrove ecosystem. The mangrove leaf-fall therefore, constitutes a major source of nutrients and energy for the productivity of the system. The food-web dynamics of the mangrove habitat are such that they ensure high turnover rates and minimumloss of energy between the trophic levels resulting in high overall production rates.
The Indus Deltaic area is considered to have a very good potential for aquacultureparticularly for shrimp farming. The vast areas of the delta (about 385,000 hectares) are intertidal. The muddy cum sandy flat topography, vegetation (mangrove and grasses) and soil type provide good conditionsfor shrimp farming. The networkof numerouscreeks provide naturalflushing and water exchangesystem between seawater and freshwaterfor maintainingdesired salinities for the growth of shrimps, etc.
The mangrove ecosystem also serves as feeding grounds for fish and shrimp and other marine organisms. The larvae of commercialspecies of shrimpsand fishes spend early stages of their life cycle. Alarge shrimp industry in Pakistan is based or. the shrimp catch of Indus Delta. The shrimps are caught both from creek waters, shallow coastal waters, and shelf area of the offshore Indus Delta. The annual catchof shrimp from the Sindh coast is 25,955 metric tons, and the annual export of shrimps in different forms amounts to about 15,000 tons. The corresponding figure for the fish catch from the Sindh coast is 258,000 mt in 1987 (Daily Dawn December 20, 1991).
The almost flat and muddy bottom of the continental shelf off the Indus Delta provides a conducive habitat for demersal fish and suitable conditionsfor trawling for shrimp catch. The upsloping of the dissolved oxygen deficient seawater along the offshore Indus Delta near about shelf-break during southwest monsoon period forces the demersal fishes to migrate towards the broad and nearly flat shelf are towards the coast. A large variety and quantity of demersal fishes are caught from this area. In addition, a large quantityof small pelagic fishes (sardines, anchovies, herrings, travellies and large pelagic fishes (mackerels,tunas) are also caught from this area. The anadromousfish "Palla" (Indian shad or Hilsa) fishery has been 19 a traditional fishery of the Indus River and its Details area. The catch has declined steadily from 6,500 tons during 1950s' to merely about 928 tons in 1985 due to the damming of the Indus River upcountry.
3.4.4 Salinity from Irrigation Drainage and the Sea
The seawater salinities in greater part of the intertidal delta of Delta remain between 37-41 ppt (parts per thousand) during most part of the year. It drops to about 1-10 ppt in certain parts of the delta during August to October due to rains and influx of flood water from the Indus River. The seawater salinities higher than 41 ppt are also common in certain parts of the delta. The slight lowering of the seawater salinitiesresults in the areas of the delta located near the discharge points of the irrigation drainage system. Therefore the influx of irrigation drainage water is noticeableonly in the areas of the delta adjacent of excessive evaporation over precipitation are more pronounced in the central areas of the delta where the seawater salinities higher than 36 prevail. The influx of open seawater is prominent in maintainingthe seawater salinities close to that of coastal waters in the areas of the Delta located adjacent to the sea. The seawater salinities in the Indus Delta are very much influenced by the following factors:
. Variations in the Indus River discharges, flood waters, and runoff from the land to the delta.
2. Variations in the influx of open seawater, tidal flushing, water exchange, mixing and water circulationpatterns.
3. Variations in the rates of evaporation and precipitation in the area.
4. Variations in the freshwater discharges quantitiesof irrigation drainage water to the delta.
S. Variations in the quantities of freshwater reaching the delta through seepage from adjacent agriculture lands.
The estuarine conditions (seawater salinities 2-20 ppt) existingonly in a limited area around the Indus River discharge in the upper parts of Khobar creek, Keti Bunder, and adjacent creeks. The salinities of 20-30 ppt exist in parts of Dabbo and Hajamro Creeks. The lower salinities only occur during the periods of Indus discharge (August-September).During the mor- part of the year the freshwaterdischarges from the Indus river are almost negligibleand the .rrigation drainage therefore has become the major source of maintaining the lower salinities in limited areas of the delta adjacent to the irrigation lands. Therefore, the Indus estuary (seawater salinities 2-20 ppt) exist only in a very limited area and that too during the peak periods of Indus River discharges and during the periods of significant discharges through the irrigation water drainage (July-August).There is almost no estuary for the most part of the year (about 6-9 months). There is practically no other source of freshwater input to the delta. The average rainfall of about 1500 mm per year is also restricted mostly to the short spell of rainy season during July-August. The Indus estuary is therefore limited to the surroundings of single channel river discharge during SW monsoonperiod.
20 4. FISH WETLANDS AND DRAINAGE IMPACT
4.1 Surface Water Development
Prior to the independence, the irrigation system in Pakistan consisted mainly of old established canal systems, with the exception of Thal Canal system being developed for perennial irrigation. All these systems were dependent on the run-of-river flows of the Indus and its tributaries and there were no dams to store surplus supplies for future use.
However after independence,extensive water development programmes were undertaken to ensure regular and ample supply of water. The present world's liggest and most intricate irrigation system consists of three storage reservoirs at Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma, 16 barrages; 12 interlink canals, two syphons and 43 main canals, and dozens of weirs and syphons in a gigantic water delivery systems controlling about 64,000 kms of canals to irrigate about 41 million acres of land from northern most parts of the country to the deltaic regions of Sindh
By diverting more waters from rivers on to land through this extensive irrigation system consisting of thousands of miles of unlined water channels, a new source of groundwater recharge was introduced resulting in extensive waterlogging and salinity. On the plains of Punjab and Sindh inundationand seepage, from the unlined canals and poor drainage system has given rise to a large number of wetlands, permanent as well as artiticial with freshwater. saline and brackish environment.
4.2 Inland Waters of Pakistan
There is no reliable data on the total inland waters in Pakistan and their area. The Directory of Asian Wetlands (1986) estimates over 7.8 m hectares, whereas the data source from the DOF of NWFP, Punjab and Sindhshows a slightly higher figure, including rivers, irrigation canals drainage canals, dams reservoirs, lakes and waterloggedareas during summer season when all these water are fully swollen. These figure also include the intertidal delta land. Actually it is difficult to reach a reliable estimate of these inland water areas when there is a remarkable fluctuations in areas between summer and winter season. The total command areaxfor irrigation in the country is 16.4 m ha (41m acres). There are areas of overlap in irrigated and outside irrigation where the Land in the waters is cultivated after it is exposed during dry month period.
These water areas are further classified as below:
1. Rivers and major tributaries 3,109,000 ha 2. Canals 54,400 ha 3. Waterlogged area 4,046,460 ha 4. Natural lakes 111,700ha 5. Water storage reservoirs 95,800 ha 6. Pond, Dhands, Abondonedcanals 114,680 ha 7. Intertidal Delta 385,000 ha Total: 7,917,040 ha
21 4.2.1 Perennial Running Waters
The water areas under items 1, 2 and 5, covering 41% of the total are connected to the fishery of the river system which has been traditional except that there are some environmental effects on its breeding, migration and recruitment of stocks due to the damming on the rivers. The move of establishingcarp reservoirs and dams is an attenpt to replenish the stock and increase production yield in this respect. National Drainage programme would not be imparting any effect on these waters.
4.2.2 Intertidal Brackish Waters
The water areas listed under item 7 comprising of about 5% of the total has been discussed in details in the previous chapter No. 3. It has been regarded potential mangrove swamp estuarine potential for growth and culture of shrimp. This area has been threatened against pollution and rise of salinity. This would not show any negative effect on the drainage programme rather the saline effluent discharge from the LBOD would have positive effects on the mangrove and the productivity of the estuarine fauna provided the saline effluent is checked to carry any untreated and hazardous pollutants. The salinity of the LBOD effluent would be lower than the sea.
4.2.3 Perennial Still Waters
The water areas under item 4 and 6, comprisingof about 3 percent of the total area is based on the fishery of natural lakes, old river beds (DHoras) Abondoned canals and ponds under fish farms are also a combined source of traditional and modern system of fishery by management.These are either natural perennial water bodies or connectedwith one or more than one source of water supply includingrain e.g Manchar lake, Kinjhar lake, Haleji lake, SindhoDhoro, and private fish farms with artificial water supply source. These waters would not have any negative effect of the National drainage programme except they might need a little more supply of water to compensatethe loss which may increase due to the fall of watertable owing to the drainage.
There are some lakes e.g. Hadero Lake in Thatta District undergone some environmental changes (Sindh); of 1,321 ha area between Kinjhar and Haleje lakes once used to be a very productive for fish has lost its productivity since it is turned to brackish (DOF). It is quite poor in the littoral as well as limnetic fauna. The physio-chemicalstudy performed and reported by Siddiqi (1987) show dissolvedoxygen from 6.23 ppl at minimum temperature (December) decreased to 3.1 ppl in June. Salinity of the water showed fluctuation from a minimumof 4,200 ppm to a maximumof 6,600 ppm. Total alkalinity was low ranging from 4.05 m eq/l to 6.75 m eqIl. Poor productivity(0.09 ppl - 2.2 ppl) in this lake indicatethe low concentrationof phytoplankton. All such parameters are not conducive for the growth and production of fish especially that of Indus Plain. Likewise there are many water areas who used to be high yielding fish potential have become unproductive hence they either lost replenishmentfrom canal supply and turned to saline.
Sindhodhoro a former minor river channel, running roughly NE to SW for at least 60 km, near Kandkot. It can be reached from a number of points along the Ghouspur-KandkotRoad, Distt Shikarpur, Sindh. A preliminary biological survey was carried out in March 1991. It is a major wetland in Right Bank Master Plan (RBMP) area, it is a characteristicsof four categories of wetland, category 1 a characteristicof complex ecologicalcommunity structure including fish population, Category 2 wetland, support moderate fisheries, whilst the Dhoro 22 itself contains little category 3 wetland consistingof two saline areas on the vergz of drying donot support for any fisheries. Category 4 wetland occurs in the Dhoro at Kandkot, where a large area is severely pollutedby untreated seweragefrom the town. Fish which swim from the category 1 wetland into the Ghouspur/Kandkotsection of the Dhoro are reported to die very quicldy other areas close to the Dhoro which also cause concern are the poolsbeside the rice mills at Ghouspurand Kandhkot.
Mammal Dhoro
Located in Balochistan, adjacent to the Sindh/Balochistanboarder, to the north east of lacobabad and south of Allahyar. This water area is physically divided into an eastern part and a western part near village Mammalby a bund holding back the torrents from the Kachhi plains. The western part is highly saline 16,576 ppm recorded in March 1990 with little or no fishery potential. The western part is smaller than the eastern part. The Hairdin Carrier Drain passes through the eastern part of the lake before it meets the Kirthar Branch where the water is pumped into the Kirthar Branch. The eastern part is a large open water area with heavy vegetationof typha and phragmates grow on the mashy edge of the area in the Hairdin Drain. The Hairdin Drain show some fishery potential and exploitedbefore it reaches above the salinity of 4,288 ppm and 5,568 ppm recorded at the points before and after the drain enter in the Dhoro in March 1991.
Such wetland whether converted into evaporation pond or dried out because of drainage would be leaving some socio-economicimpact on the little fishermen population dependent on the fishery of Mammal Dhoro, a point to ponder for sociologist.
Ucchali Lake
A brackish to saline lake, second largest in the salt range, with little marsh vegetation and almost entirely surrounded by Agriculture land. Located in Punjab Province, 13 km west of Nowshera and 42 km northwest of Khushab spread over an area of 943 ha. The lake is fed by a small spring, seepage from adjacent irrigated land,and runoff from the surroundinghills of the salt ranige. The water level and salinity fluctuate according to local rainfall. Depth varies from 0.2 m to 6 m, the water is usually hypersaline(4,150 ppm in April 1987), and had a pH of 8.0 in October 1986. This lake has been owned by Punjab state governmentand there was a proposal to developedthe lake for commercialfisheries by stocking with salinity tolerance exotic fish species but due to fear of the fishing hunting and recreational activities causing disturbanceto the water fowl some hunting is allowed under permit after this lake has been declared a Game Reserve in May 1985. This lake is of importance to wildlife and recreational rather than of fishery.
Kharal (Kharrar) Lake
A shallowbrackish to saline lake and associatedbrackish marshes with some densereed-beds, on the plains to the south of the Ravi River. This lake is located 20 km northeast of Okara, Okara District, Punjab; Area 235 ha. This lake came into existence in 1945 as a result of waterloggingand is fed by local runoff and seepage from adjacent irrigated agricultural land. During the flood season, excess water on adjacent land is diverted to the lake, causing a reduction in salinity. The depth of the water varies from 0.2-3.0 m according to the water supply. A pH value of 8.0 was recorded in October 1986. This lake has been designatedas a wildlife sanctuary. In 1984, the DOF initiated a three year project to develop fishery resources and Exotic Fish Tilapia was introduced. A harvest of 10 ton of Tilapia was made
23 in 1990 by the DOF.
This lake is one of the three wetlands in Pakistan where the endangeredwhite headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala winters in significantnumbers.
4.2.4 Waterlogged Wetlands
The water areas under this item as waterlogged areas comprisingof over 50% of the total area, the bulk of it fall in the Province of Sindh. For provincial wise distribution of these water areas see Appendix I.
These waterlogged wetlands created either by seepage from the dams, reservoirs, canals or over flooding, escapes of water from river and canals and water spreading over the ground from the faulty drains. The Neekar and Golimar, two shallow widely spread bodies near Mehar a town on Nasirabad-Meharroad in Dadu District in Sindh, highly saline of over 6000 ppm recorded in the March and April 1990. Such wetlandsare of no value for fisheries point of view are the examnpleof the latter type of waterloggedarea.
Below are some of the characteristicwaterlogged area in the country.
Beroon Kirthar
A huge wetland formed by seepage from the Kirthar Branch and water collected along the northern bank of the Kirthar Branch from Outwash Fan Area (OFA) during monsoon rain. The main wetland is formed between RD 182 to RD 213. During sufficient rain, the water collected upto 5 km north of the Kirthar Branch. The water collected is fairly sweet with salinities of 704 ppm and 768 ppm and pH of 8.36 and 8.25 recorded from two separate places of the wetland. This water area has no significantresource of fish. The water has been seen re-used for irrigation by emptyingthe wetland into the Kirthar Branch through the sluice valves provided on the northern bank of the Kirthar Branch. This could be possible in dry season when the Ki.rhar Branch run empty in non monsoonseason.
A vast area has been covered from seepage and runoff watersfrom rain, canal and fields from Panjnad and Abassia canal in Rahimyar Khan, Punjab. This has developed a waterlogged water area around old Khagra river bed where DOF Punjabhas stocked Tilapia and planning for a rehabilitation scheme for these wetlands. This area is under Salinity Control and Reclamation as ongoing project.
Budh Mahiwala another waterloggedwetland in Dist Bhawalnagar,Mauza Lakka about 27 km from Bhawalnagarcity. The area of this wetland is about 48 ha and stocked with Tilapia. In the year 1990 5 ton of Tilapia was harvested which is again of no commercialvalue except as trash fish used for animal and poultry feed.
Nara Canal A: ea
The largest and most widely spread area of group and series of lakes formed due to seepage and outflow of water from the escapes along the Nara Canal. This has given rise to numerous big and small lakes, Dhands includingKalankar Dhand Area, Kakaho Dhand Area, Bakar Dhand Area, Makhi Dhand Area and Ranto and Wadki Escape Dhand Area. All these above mentioned Dhand area comprises of large number of small freshwater brackish, and saline lakes spread over in miles area. 24 Theselakes are spread over right and left banks of Eastern Nara canal and altogethercovering an area of 300,000 ha in Khairpur and SangharDistricts of Sindh Province.
The Eastern Nara eminates from the Indus at the Sukkur Barrage. It flows upto Farash near Dhoro Noro, District Tharparkar as a controlled channel. When available, surplus water is let into Dhoro Puran or Hakra, downstreamof Farash through which it falls into sea near Korangi creek. From its origin to the sea, the canal covers a distance of about 480 km.
Parts of the Nara and its connected waters were, therefore surveyed to study the fisheries potentialand to understand its problems by M.Y Khan (1962) and since then there is w study has been done in such a details. One remarkable feature of the drainage of Nara from Jamrao Head to Farmrash, a distance of about 100 miles is the formation of numerous Dhands at short intervals, on its left Bank. The Dhandas formed by accumulationof excess flood water, being let out from the escapes, in extensivedepressions, in between Sand dunes.
Fisheries potentials: The total number of dhands in this area is reported to be nearly 400 (Pithawala, 1959). But the official record of the Irrigation and Revenue Department of Sindh Province show that although there many dhands, but 74 have some definite names and are of a permanentnature. Forty seven dhands are under the control of Revenue Department while the rest i.e. 28 dhands are under the control of DOF. The thirty year old record shows some progressive fishing activities, fishermen settlementswith boats and villages with inhabitants earning their livelihood from other business viz sale of oil extracted from the viscera of fishes, sale of crocodile Hides and sale of lotus seed collected from the dhands growing there on considerablequantity.
Since then there is no such detailed informationas the fate of fishery resources of the Dhands. Presuming if most of the fishery resources are turned to saline and those saline turned to Brackish, then at least some have to think on the fate of the villagers settled there depending on other trade like crocodile hide sale and lotus fruit harvest. Ihis might be a sociological issue as these dhands and wetlands becomes dry with the implementation drainage programme.
25 References
1. Moinuddin Ahmad 1952 Hilsa Fisheries in Sindh, Agriculture Pakistan Vol. III pp 54-57.
2. M. Y. Khan 1962 Fisheries Potentials of the Eastern Nara and its connected Dhands.
3. I.U. Naik 1973 Studies on Tilapia mossambica in Pakistan, Agriculture Pakistan Vol. XXIV No. 1 pp 47-73.
4. Siddiqui, Baqai 1973 Fisheries of Kinjhar Lake, and Iqbal Agriculture Pakistan Vol. XXIV No. 2 pp 201-220.
5. M. Farooq Ahmed 1976 A check list of Freshwater S.A Khan and Fishes of the Indus Plain, M.R. Mirza Pakistan, Biologia Vol. 22 No. 2.
6. I. U. Baqai and 1978 Problem of Eutrophication Perwaiz A. Siddiqi and control of weeds in S.R.A. Shamsi lakes of Sindh.
7. I. Hussain, 1983 On the Quality and Bicta of S. Naheed and Fresh ad Polluted Waters on N. Ariz Deg Nullah (stream). Pakistan Journal of Scientific Research Vol. 35, No. 1-2.
8. Islamic Republic 1986 Pakistan Fisheries Sector of Pakistan and the Study Draft Final Report. Asian Development Bank
9. Perwaiz A. Siddiqi 1987 Natural Ecological Environment of Sindh. Pakistan J. Ent. Kar supplement6: 59-81.
10. Mohammad Sharif 1987 A preliminary study on the Bhutta Ashraf Ali Effects of City sewage on and Riaz AhmedJanjua Water Quality of River Ravi with Referenceto Fish and Fisheries. Bulleton of the Fisheries Department, Government of Punjab.
11. Fisheries Deptt. 1987 Annual Report, Fisheries Govt. of Punjab -88 Department of Punjab.
12. Mohd Ashiq Saleemi 1989 Polluton position of River Mohd Shahid Hassan Ravi and its Tributaries and Mian Mohd Ashraf Durig Novemberand December, 1988. EPA Punjab.
26 13. Islamic Republic 1989 Left Bank outfall Drain of Pakistan, Water Stage I Project and Power Dev. EnvironmentalImpact Authority Assessment of the Outfall Drains M.M and Partners Ltd. NESPAK and ACE (Private) Ltd.
14. Environmentand 1989 Coastal Environmental Urban Affairs ManagementPlan for Division Govt. of Pakistan. Chapter 2 and UNESCARP Marine Pollution. National Institute of Occanography.
15. International 1989 A Directory of Asian Wetlands Research Wetlands Bureau (IWRB)
16. Islamic Republic 1991 Lower Indus Region Study of Pakistan, for Right Bank Master Water and Power Plan, Fisheries Sector. Dev. Authority Mott MacDonald Int. Ltd. Huting Tech. Ltd. UK and NESPAK.
17. Proceeding of the 1991 EnvironmentalProtection World Environment Agency, Lahore Day.
18. I.U.C.N, Worlds 1991 Possible Effects of the Conservation Union Indus Water Accord on the Indus Delta Ecosystem. Korangi Ecosystem Project Issues Paper No. I
19. Isalmic Republic 1991 Pakistan Sectoral of Pakistan, Water EnvironmentalAssessment and Power Dev. (National Drainage Authority Programme) Working Paper International Bank No. 2 - Preliminary for Reconstruction Environmental Assessment and Development NESPAK and MMI.
27 APPENDICES
I Appendix - I
BRIEF ON FISHERY SECTOR (N.W.F.P) 1. INTRODUCTION
The fishery of NWFP is based on River Indus, River Kabul and dams, reservoirs, village ponds, fish farms, waterloggedareas and abandoned canals. The fishery of Tarbela dam and Chashma barrage on river Indus and Warsak dam on river Kabul is managed WAPDA Fisheries. All other water areas including150 km long portion of river Indus in D.I.Khan are being leased out for fishing. The rest of the river Indus in the province, Kabul river and other main streams are open for fishermen inhabitingaround. A nominal fee is charged from them (Rs 100 per fisherman per year). The fish production and income from lease of waters on NWFP is in the table below:
Table Appendix I Fish Production and Income from Lease Waters in NWFP in Year 1990-91
Name of Water body Amount Fish Area/ Production Length Rs,000 in m tons
River Indus (D.I.Khan) 955 577 144 km. Baran Dam (Bannu) 77.3 10 } Tanda Dam (Kohat) 41 26 } Darwazi Dam (Kohat) 91 } 30,000 ha Kander Dam (Kohat) 50 } Kahl Dam (A.Abad) 19.5 1.502 }
Fisheries Department in NWFP since its establishment has been trying to achieve this objective to the best of its efforts and facilities available. Upto the recent time, the fisheries activities were confined to capture fishery in natural waters. For the last few years efforts were made to create awareness for culture fisheries through establishment of demonstration farms in cold and warm waters as a result of which fish culture of trout and carp has emerged significantly but there is still a large potential to explore.
2. ROLE OF FISHERIES IN NATIONAL ECONOMY
The facilities created under various programmes from time to time have gradually become functional and productive. Inspite of inadequacies of organisational and infrastructural facilities, there has been rapid vrogress in various segmentsof departmentalactivities and the sector has contributed a lot to the economic progress by contributing its share towards the GNP. 3. RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL
NWFP has considerable resources of cold and warm waters with immense potential for the developmentof trout and carp fish. These resources includes rivers, streams, lakes, dams and reservoirs. In addition, there are number of low lying depressions, water logged areas, I abandoned irrigation canals and villages ponds which can be gainfully developed through adequate conservational measures, improved management and regular fish replenishment programme. Other provinces too have such resources but NWFP has an edge by having trout in its northern district.
The extent of these waters is detailed as under:
Category of Water Length/Area
A. Trout Waters
I. Rivers & streams 3,500 Kms 2. Lakes 4,200 Acres
B. Others Waters
1. Rivers & streams 9,000 Kms 2. Dams and Reservoirs 75,000 Acres 3. Abandoned canals 600 Acres 4. Waterlogged areas 14,400 Acres 5. Village ponds 9,900 Acres
There is also a good potentialfor fish farming on commercialscale both in trout and carp in public as well as private sector. So far 115 fish farms having an area of 244 acres have been establishedwhile 300 acres are being brought under fish culture under the current schemes.
The current production from these waters is estimated as 8,210 tonnes per annum while the potential is far more then that which can be achievedthrough appropriate management.Most of the current production is from capture fisheries i.e. 8,000 tonnes per annual while the aquacultureproduce comes to 210 tonnes. Main fish species found in nature are trout, major carp, Chinese carp and Cat fish.
4. PRESENT POSITION
Major potentialfor increasingfish productionlies in fish farming both on farm level and also in man made lakes/reservoirs.The developmentof these potential require consistencestocking of suitablefish species. To produce fish seed artificiallythe following fish hatcheries both for trout and carp were constructed: a. Trout (Cold Water)
Name of Hatchery Production capacity Shinu (Kaghan) 300,000 Juvenils Madyan (Swat) 600,000' Kalkot (Dir) 100,000"' Jaghoor (Chitral) 120,000' Bumbrait (Chitral) 130,000" Dubair (Kohistan) 100,000"
1,350.000 " 2 b. Car (Warm Water)
Ratta Kulachi, DI Khan 1,000,000 Juvenils Tanda dam, Kohat 350,000 Charbanda, Mardan 1,000,000 Ichrian, Mansshra 150,000
2,500,000 U
5. FISH CULTURE
5.1 Trout Culture
NWFP have an edge by having trout in its northern districts. The water resources of these areas are extensive. In order to utilize these water bodies, the work on artificial propagation of trout is conducted in all above mentioned trout hatcheries and 1.35 million juvenile are produced annually for rearing and further stocking in suitable water bodies. Trout has naturalized in all waters of northern districts and has become an important source of recreational values of these areas. Trout fishery as a sport is contributing a lot in the economics of local community of northern districts both direct and indirect through the anglers/tourist trade. About Rs 2.5 million are earned annually in the following direction:
Direct Benefit
i) Licence fee received by department. ii) Sale of seedlings to farmers.
Indirect Benefit
i) Hiring of transport. ii) Boarding and lodging. iii) Fishing guides hired by anglers. iv) Hiring of fishing equipments. v) Local purchases.
Trout culture was confined to only restocking of rivers, streams and lake for sport fishing. Although such an approach has its own merits, yet there are much productive potential for trout culture on commercial basis both in public and private sectors. In view of this, the department initiated trout farming in Swat through a pilot project assisted by Asian Development Bank.
At present 10,000 kg of trout is produced which is sold at farms to the locals and vacationers. Trout demand has encouragedthe investors to take up farming and as a result 8 farms have been establishment. The production capacity of these farms is about 30,000 kg valued of Rs 1.8 million. This all shows that there is bright prospects for investors to invest over trout farming.
3 5.2 Carp Culture
Fish farming has proved that it is a profitablebusiness producingmore net income than most of the agriculture crops. In view of its productive potential in ponds, it was felt essential to induct fish farming on commercialbasis in private sector. In the beginning one farm having an area of 2 Kanals was establishedin the Province (DI Khan) during 1985-86which has now reached to 1250 Kanals.
Fish farming has now been picked up by private sector and as a result 107 farms have been establishedhaving an area of 244 Acres. The estimated fish production from these farms is about 170,000 Kg.
In order to fully utilize all the water bodies in public sector and to increase social fish farming in privatesector a specialdevelopment project entitled "SecondPak-Aquaculture Development Project in NWFP' approved at a total cost of Rs 84.339 million assisted by Asian DevelopmentBank is under implementation.The project objective is to carry out a number of key development activities to help the Governmentand utilize inland water resources and facilitate technology transfer which wi!' support private sector initiative in fish production activities, creating rural employmentand raise farm, income.
6. RESEARCH
Research study for rehabilitationof Mahaseer Berbus (Tor) Pititors is in hand in order to restore the production level of this valuable game species which had been badly damaged in the past due to construction of dams and barrages. However, the facilities provided are not adequate and need strengthening.
7. REVIEW OF 7TH FIVE YEAR PLAN
During the 7th Five Years Plan period much emphasis was laid on raising of trout and carp fish commercially with a view to avail of cold water bodies and introduce fish farming in private sector. Also efforts were made to establish fish hatcheries and modernization of existing hatcheries to produce large quantity of quality, disease free fish seed to meet extended fish culture requirements. A programme for promotion of farm fisheries was also launched wherein free of cost fish seed was supplied to persuade progressive farmers to take up fish farming on commercialscale.
Under the 7th Plan a special multidimensionaldevelopment project "2nd Pakistan Aquaculture Development Project, NWFP" is under implementationthrough the financial assistance of Asian Development Bank for boosting up the fish production in the province. This scheme embodies on integrated facilities to overcome various constraintsand problems in the major departmental activities faced during the 6th Plan period as per detail below:
i) Upgradation and improvement of aquaculture activities and extension services.
ii) Establishment of model demonstration farms in private sector for the diversificationof technologyto increase per unit production.
4 iii) Improvementof facilitiesfor production and rearing of fry/fingerlingsof fish species of economic value distribution facilities and improvement/enhancementof trout culture facilities in the northern districts.
iv) Open water survey and managementplans.
v) Establishmentof two training centres one each for trout and carp.
vi) Procurementof essential machineryand equipments.
vii) Foreign Training fellowships.
viii) Consultancyservices and other allied technical inputs for the improvement and upgradation of facilities in various spheres.
The development programme launched under the 7th plan is becoming functional and productivegradually. The fisheries sector has started playing a better role in the improvement of country's economy and the aquaculturepractices in public and private sector has increased manifolds during the implementation of 7th plan. However, the institutional and infrastructural facilities could not be improved due to administrative and financial implication/limitations.
The facilities of the hatcheries are planned to be improved and upgraded by the end of 7th plan (uptoJune 1993). These would attahi annual fish seed production upto 2.45 million and 17.5 million capacity of trout and carp fish respectively by the end of 7th plan.
Concerted efforts have been made for the management of works launched under the aforementioneddevelopment programme. There has been a gradual progress in the different spheres of fisheries sector.
8. PROBLEMS AND BOTTLENECKS
The major problems and bottlenecksexperienced in developmentof aquaculture in public and private sector include: i. In-adequacyof institutionalset-up and infrastructural facilities; ii. hn-adequacyof properly trained man-power; iii. Lack of essential machinery and equipments; iv. In-adequatesupply of fish seed for growing demand; v. Lack of transport facilities for distributionof seeds: vi. In-adequate funding; vii. Lack of research and training facilities; viii. Lack of proper incentives for aquaculture development in the private sector. 5 9. RECOMMENDATION
For better and proper aquaculturalpractices, it is felt essential to: i. strengthen and improve the institutional, infrastructural, training and research facilities; ii. make provision of modem scientific equipment and machinery; iii. strengthen and improve hatcheries and nurseries and transport facilities; iv. provide loan facilities, bulldozer and electricity an subsidized rates to encourage aquaculture in the private sector; v. lease out state land for fish farming; vi. provide adequate funds.
6 Appendix-Il INLAND WATER AREAS IN PAKISTAN
Sindh Area (ha?
a) Rivers (Indus and Hub) 160,000 b) Canals and Drains 32,000 c) Lakes 101,000 d) Abandoned canals, Ponds, Old Lakes (Dhands and Dhoras) 98,000 e) Waterlogged Areas b 3,000,000 f) Depressions along Roads and River Flood Areas I 1.000,000 g) Indus Delta (brackish intertidal) 385,000 h) Fish Culture Ponds 5.000
Punjab
a) Rivers and major tributaries (Summer) 2,940.000 (Winter) 713,000 b) Reservoirs attached to barrages 40,840 c) Reservoirs/dams 24.960 d) Major perennial canals 22.400 e) Natural lakes 6.700 f) Waterlogged areas 40.700 g) Abandoned irrigation canals 1.440 h) Private Fish Farms 10.000
NWFP
a) Rivers and Streams 9.000 b) Dams and Reservoir 30.000 c) AbandonedCanals 240 d) Natural and Artificial Lakes/Ponds 4.000 e) Waterlogged Areas 5.760
a) Based on several sources includingprovincial DOF's. b) Area during wet season. Some of these water bodies can shrink considerablyduring the dry season. AppendixIIm
DISCUSSIONS WITH EXTERNALJAGENCIES
In preparing this report, discussions were held with the following organisations and personalities:
N.W.F.P. Departmentof Fisneries Mr. Shan Ahmed Naveed
Irrigation Department Mr. Qayyum Khan
Punjab Departmentof Fisheries
Mr. Iqbal Qureshi Mr. Abdul Basit Mr. I.U. Naik
WAPDA Fisheries
Dr. William George
Sindh Wildlife ManagementBoard Mr. Ibrar Hussain Mirza
Karachi InternationalUnion for the Conversation of Nature Mr. Peter John Meynell.
8 SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT
BIDS OF TEE WETLANDS OF PAKISTAN
BY
DR. ALEEM CH. DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT -NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
BIRDS OF THE WETLANDS OF PAKISTAN
LIST OF CONTENTS
Page Nr.
1.1 General I
1.2 Habitats for Birds 2 1.2.1 Effects on the Habitat 2
1.3 Bird Species 3 1.3.1 Seasonalityand Migration 3
1.4 The Ecological Significanceof the Pakistan Wetlandsfor Birds 7
1.5 Wetland Protection 7
1.6 The Wetlands 9
L.7 The Impact of Drainage and Drainage Disposal 12 1.7.1 Drainage Disposal 12 1.7.2 Lowered Watertablefollowing the Introductionof More Efficient Drainage, Whether Surface or Sub-surface 15
1.8 The Impact of Drainage Programmes in Indus Plains on Wild Mammals and Reptiles 23
1.9 Impact of Drainage on Wild Animals 26
Reference
Appendix I
Table 1 Changing Status of Bird Species in Indus Plains as a Result of Developmentof Canal Irrigation and AncillaryTree Plantation 4
i BIRDS OF THE WETLANDSOF PAKISTAN
1.1 GENERAL
Pakistan is a country of diverse habitats, ranging from littoral and mangrove forests to the Himalayan moist alpine zone, all of which support a variety of fauna. Flat alluvial flood plains form the drainage basin of the river Indus and its tributaries. The Indus basin covering an area of about 25.9 m hectares, starts in the north east to the Indus delta south and south east of Pakistan. The watersheds of the Indus basin are located in the north including the massive mountain chains and foothills. Elevations in Indus drainage basin range from sea level in the south to over 8800 m in the northern mountainous region of the Himalayas. About 70% area of the country is arid to semi-arid: Summersare extremely hot while winters are cold.
Rainfall over the Indus plains is low, averaging less than 250 mm, mainly received during the monsoon season, while in the NWF mountains, there is a distinctly Mediterranean character, with up to 60 percent of the rainfall occurring in winter months. Further north in Chitral and Dir, up to 90% of the annual precipitation(rain and snow) falls during the winter. In the northern foothills region, rainfall is more evenly distributed but with a pronounced monsooninfluence.
As a consequenceof geographical and climatic factors, a high percentage of Pakistan's bird fauna is migratory. Over 30 percent of the total bird fauna (210 out of 688 species) are palaearctic winter visitors which come to exploit the temporary swamplandhabitat formed after the monsoon rains. This habitat, however, gradually declines from a peak in early October to the end of December. There is also a high percentage of locally migrant bird species moving in erratic patterns accordingto available food resources.
A host of Palaearctic species occur in the mountain regions; these migrate northwards to breed during the Pakistan alpine summers.Truly Himalayanspecies may also adopt different strategiesof altitudinal migration or latitudinaldrifts. A large number of Himalayanor Sub- tropical and 4frican-wintering Palaearctic species may also enter Balochistan province to breed during the summer.
The Indus basin has been settled by people since the earliest known civilizations.The region has however, become relatively denselypopulated within the past century. The central Punjab plains being the most densely populatedareas support more than 230 persons per sq.km. Man therefore, had a significant impact upon the vegetation. The Indus flood plains supportingthe tropical thorn forests were the most accessibleand the easiest to irrigate, as a consequence of which this ecologicalplant climax has now largely disappeared from the plains. Similarly, the dry temperate semi-evergreen scrub forest covering the outer foothill regions has also been greatly depleted. The habitat depletion has not been confined to these two vegetation complexesonly, but these can be considered to be the worst affected.
Dr. Abdul Aleem Chaudhry, PunjabWildlife Research Centre Gatwala, Faisalabad. 1.2 HABITATS FOR BIRDS
Roberts (1991) has classifiedthe habitat types into differentzones, combiningthem in relation to fairly distinct bird communitiesas follows:
1. Indus plains region i. Littoral and mangrove ii. Riverain iii. Swamps and seasonal inundations iv. Tropical thorn forests v. Sand dune desert
2. Foothill zone - Hilly tracts - Potohar and upland plateaux
vi. Dry sub-tropicalsemi-evergreen scrub forest vii. Dry temperate semi-evergreenscrub forest viii. Sub tropical pine forest ix. Tropical dry mixed deciduous forest
3. Montane regions includingupland valleys within major mountain ranges
x. Balochistan hill ranges in southern latitudes, and lower slopes of some northern ranges xi. Balochistan higher ranges xii. Himalayan moist temperate forest xiii. Himalayan dry coniferous forest xiv. Cold desert and dry alpine zone xv. Himalayan moist alpine zone.
Due to human impacts two new habitat types can also be added to the list as follows:
4. Changed habitats
xvi. Agrarian habitat xvii. Metropolitan habitat.
1.2.1 Effects on the Habitat
Of the climatic factors affecting the habitat of birds and subsequently their distribution, rainfall pattern is the most important. Monsoons, heavy rains during July and August, affect the distribution of birds mainly in two regions: a) CoastalAreas
The Coastal region is continuously being replenished with the inflow of mineral nutrients brought down through the Indus delta. The primary producers, i.e., the phyto/zoo plankton get a boost in their reproduction and in return support large populations of molluscs, crustaceans and fish. A large population of sea birds of considerable specific diversity exploits this rich food source. Lately human exploitationof these fish resources has been extremely heavy, but the bird fauna has 2 not been much affected, largely because it often exploits food resources of no economic importance such as mudskippers (Periophthalmusspp.) and squids (Sepia spp.) (Robertsop.cit). The greatly reduced river flows into the delta now, however, threaten the stability of the mangrove ecosystem, which is showing signs of serious deterioration, enhancedby over-exploitationby humans. b) Alluvial Plains
An estimated 14 millionhectares of alluvial plains have been brought under canal and well irrigation (Pakistan year book 1991) by clearing and subsequently cultivating huge tracts of tropical thorn forests. This has been made possible only by controlling the annual flooding of the river through the successionof barrages built across the Indus and its tributaries, thus creating large storage reservoirs upstream of these barrages.
Negative impactshave been obviouson the specialisedwildlife species occupying the tropical thorn forests and riverine (bela) forests which have been cut down/removedor gradually dried out. The wetland habitat in the form of oxbow lakes and seasonal swamps along the margins of formnerriver channels has largely been destroyed. thus affecting the wetland species.
The largely unlined irrigation channels or canals, helped create new swamps and wetlands, particularly in the form of seepage zones around storage reservoirs and canals. Extensive areas having become waterlogged in such areas as the northern Thal and the borders of the Thar desert, adjacent to Sanghar and Nawabshah districts, have been over grown with extensive reed beds. The increase in cereal cultivation has also created a new habitat equivalentto grasslandsteppe. This habitat, however, is too unstable to attract a large number of breeding bird species. Because of better access to irrigation water, extensive irrigated forest plantationsand canal and roadside tree belt plantationshave come into existence. These provide suitablehabitats for arboreal bird species, especially those which formerly depended upon riverine forests.
Roberts (1991) has given a list of birds whose status has been changed substantiallyas a result of developmentof canal irrigation and ancillary tree plantation. The observations have been confirmedby my personal observations (Table 1).
1.3 BIRD SPECIES
Of the 660 recorded bird species of Pakistan 63.4% are Palaearctic whilst 36.6% of the species are considered as Oriental, and only less than 0.5% are truly cosmopolitan. About 19.5% of all species are apparently endemic. Sino-Himalayanspecies and purely Palaearctic species total to about 44%.
1.3.1 Seasonality and Migration
Consideringthe total number of individualsrather than the bird species, Palaearctic species are present in much higher proportions in the plains regions in winter time, whereas during summersthe bird fauna in certain habitat types would be mainlyOriental. In a typical wetland in winter (January) Palaearctic (species) would amount to approximately 88 percent and Oriental(species) to 12 percent; in a tropical thorn forest in winter these would be about 65 % and 35% respectively. During the summer monsoon season, the proportion of Oriental (species)contributing to total bird populationin the Indus plains rises to just over 50 percent 3 TABLE 1
Changing Status of Bird Sccses in Indus Plains as a Result of Development of Canal Irriation and Ancillary Trcc Pl;atation Speies Former Status l9Ws Status basedu Autho Observation
Nettap coromandelianus Very rare and local in Sindh (rocehum. 1917).IL Loaly comnmn in summermonths in Punjah&Now Cotton Teal or Cotton Fatesoly 2 sihtins during 30 yeare olricial widesprad in wetlands oflower Sndh est Narm PyMs oose touringall over Sindh(MS notes 1940k)
Hierocorccsvaious Common Unbk n Jhangdistrict(Whistler. 1917-1920) Verycommon Rawalpindillslamabad.Commas in. Hawk Ccoo and Rawalpindidistrict (Whiler. 1910-1926) Punjab irrpted forecstplantation.
EudynamyscolomcaKoel Common Rawalpindiditrict 1926but rare in Now wespread throughoutSind and Punjab Jhang(Whistler. 1917-1920)uncommon Salt particularlyaround towns. Range (Waite. 1918-474 In Sidh confined to Kachi cnvirons(Tiechurst. 1917-20)
Haycyonsmyrnensas Scarceresident in ihang (Whistler.1922) but Now verycommon and widesprcad throughot White-breasted Kingisher widesprcadSindh and western parts of Punjab canal colonies. (Tacehurst.1917-20 ad Waitc. 1930s).
Megalaimnhaemacephala Uncommon in northern Punjabbut believed to be Common rcsident tbroughoutirigated canal Crimson-breasted Barbet extending its range - not recoded in Jhang colonies of Punjab. (Whistler.1917-22).
Dendrocopocassimilis Sindh Formerlyconfined tosemi-evergrecn dry Quite common in irrigatedforest plantationsof Pied Woodpecker sub-tropical and dry temperate scrub-forest Punjab. bitope.
Pe.icrocotuscianamomeus More or less confined to riverain forest or Vcrycommon in irrigated forest plantations. WanderingMinivet semi-evergreeen dry sub-tropical scrub forcsL
Saxicolamacrorhyncha Very rare and locaLIn Sindhconfined tolhar Apparently disappeared from all parnsof Punjab. Stoliezka'sBush Chat desenr (Tcehurst). In Punjabonly recorded near Status in Tharparkar unknownbut occurs regularly ihang(Whistcer)- further ast inRajasthan.
Saxicolaleucura White-tailed Fairlycomumonbut local in distributionand Rare and localand confined to rivcrain swamps and Bush Chat or Stonc Chat confined to rivcrainswanps (Tcehurst and scepagc around barrage hcadworks. Whistler).
Priniaflaviventris Ycllow- Not encountcred Bahw alpur (Salm AU. 1939). Common and widespreadPuntb including bellied LangLailWarbler rare and ocal in Sindh (Tacehurst.1917). not Bahawalpur.Sindh and Rawalpindi along major recorded Rawalpindi(Whister. 1917-26) nor in canals and lakes whereverecxtensive recd beds Jhang(Whislter. 1922). occur.
Chrysommasinensc Yellow- Seen once onlyin Jhang(Whistler. 1917-20) nor Common throughoutPunjab in irrigated eyed Babbler recorded Rawalpindi(Whistler. 1926).Widespread cultivation. and fLarlycommon in Sindh around seasonal swanps (K. Eases.1940s).
Chrysommaaltirostris Very rare or localand confined to reed beds but Even rarer and more ocalized. Jerdon's or S;ndh Babbler absent in some equallysuitable areas.
Sturnsu vulgaris minor Rare and localin Sindh (Tacehurst.1917-20). Occurs in frequent smallcolonies northern Sindh. SindhStarling unknown Punjab (Whistler.1917-20). Kandhkot. also Ballokiheadworks. and Rcnala Khurd aso Faisalabadalong major canals.
Acridothercrginginianus Bahawalpuroccurring locally and sparely (Sarim Extremelyabundant in major rice growingtracts in BatnkMyna Ari. 1939). unknownSalt Range (Waitc. 1918-47). Sindh and Punjab.common even in Salt Range. Fairlycommon Jhang(Whistler. 1917-20). ocally and around 8ahsawalpur common in Sindh but confined wctter areas such as rice growingtracts (TcehursL 1917-20).
Corvuscorax laurcnci Widesprcad Punjab espedialycommon Gurajt Now almost never seen. A fcw pairs still haunt the Punjab Raven district.Rawalpindi (Whislkr. 1917-26). also more hilly parts of the Salt Range platea but thcy Jhang. Mulsan etc have totallydisappeared from irriated canal colonies. Roberts. TI. 1991.The Birds of Pakistan.Volume- I Non PasseriformesOxford. Note: The years in brackets followingcarly authors refer to the known periods when they actuallyhad made ficid obscrvations. not to dates of pubication.
4 of the total bird populations, and on a species basis, irrespective of numbers may rise upto 72 percent of the total (Roberts op.cit).
Palaearctic birds are largely attracted to the post-monsoonabundance of insect life and vegetative shelter provided by seasonal inundations. Small wetlands created in roadside borrow pits and small depressions persisting after the rains end, and large wetlands like lIamal and Mancher in Sindh, all provide excellent habitats for waterfowl. The visitors to Pakistan and India come from Central Asia, and as far away as western Europe and eastern Siberianenroute Pakistan to India and Sir Lanka. Many Siberian and Trans-Caspian breeding birds may migrate each autumn through Pakistan on their way to highland regions in the north and south of the equatorial Africa, to utilize the lush feeding conditionsprevailing in many parts of Africa during the northern hemispherewinter.
A majority of winter visitors to the sub-continententer via the Indus plains, coming down the valleys of the Indus and its tributaries from the north and north west. A fair proportion of these autumn migrants diverge eastwards into northern India, avoiding the Rajasthandesert to the south. Others followthe Indus river down to its delta, then followthe Indian sea coast, ending up in Sri Lanka. Most central Asian and western Siberian Palaearctic migrants wintering in East Africa travel in the autumn across the Balochistanplateaue and the Indus basin to the Rann of Kutch in India.
The Indus valley is rated as the fourth major bird migration flyway (out of six recognised) in order of world importance.The Indus wetlands are consideredto be critical for a large part of the entire waterfowl population visiting Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and a part of Sri Lanka, and presumably also for their breeding populatins in Siberia.
A vast majority of Palaearcticpasserine migrants spend the whole winter in Pakistan. Roberts (1991) has classified the bird species in Pakistanon the basis of migratory patterns as follows:
% of species(number) 1. Bird species composition in summer 1-. Resident species 2 2. Summer Himalayan breeding 4 3. Summer breeding in Steppic montane and inner Himalayas 5 4. Summer breeding Indus plains 9 5. Summer breeding in dry sub tropical deciduous forest 20 6. Summer visitors to coastal areas 60 II. Bird species composition in winter 1. Resident species 5 2. Resident in mountain areas 5 3. Winter visitors to mountainsteppe and dry hill areas 7 4. Altitudinalmigrants from Himalayas 8 5.* Winter visitor to Coastal areas 9 6.* Passage migrants 24 7.* Indus basin winter visitors 42
Tne migrating species directly or indirectly dependenton the wetlands have been * marked. Of 660 species recorded in Pakistan, 30% visit the country for a significant period of the year as long distance migrants, whereas 43% are either Palaearctic or Oriental species coming to Pakistan only to breed, and 28% are regular winter visitors which breed extra-limitally and mainly in trans-Himalayan northern regions.
During summer, 60% of the species are visitors to coastal areas and 9% are the summer breeding birds in the Indus plains. During winter, 9% are the visitors to the coastal areas and 42% are the visitors to the Indus plains. If the 24% of passage migrants are added to the list of wintering bird species, wetlands emerge as the single most important habitat for birds in Pakistan.
Roberts (1991) has classified Pakistan's birds into eleven broad migration categories:
Palaearctic winter visitors i. Non breeders
Palaearctic transit migrants ii. Species wintering in East Africa and breeding outside of Pakistan. iii. Species wintering in East Africa and partly breeding in Pakistan. iv. Species wintering in India - and passing through Pakistan in spring and autumn.
V. Summer breeding visitors to the northern mountains of Pakistan, including both Oriental or Himalayanspecies and Palaearcticspecies wintering in India and Pakistan. vi. Monsoonor summer season breeding visitors from India or the Oriental region which remain in lowland areas.
Vii. Summer breeding visitors of Oriental affinity. viii. Oceanic or littoral migrants which do not breed in Pakistan. ix. Altitudinalor inter-montanelocal migrants. x. Palaearctic winter visitors (breeding extra limitally), which visit only montane steppe and western border foothill regions. xi. Summer visitors of Palaearcticor Oriental affinities which breed in Pakistan and are known to winter in East Africa.
Most long distance migrants congregate in staging grounds before performing the main part of their southward migration, to recuperate their energies before they start migration. Some such staging areas occur in Northern Pakistan.
6 1.4 THE ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PAKISTAN WETLANDS FOR BIRDS
Wetlands of Pakistan are a vital part of the Indus Flyway used by millions of waterfowl includingducks, coots, herons, egrets, storks, spoonbills, cranes, waders, birds of prey and small birds includinghirundines and passerines. The Flyway extends from the Indian Ocean to Siberia, and migratory birds are the main users of the wetlands along the Flyway.
Wetlands are used by a large number of waterfowl during certain parts of the year, winter being.main period for visits. Ahmad et. al., (1991) have reported that 'out of a total of 638 species/subspecies of birds, belonging to 267 genera,.65 families and 17 orders, which occur in Pakistan, approximately365 species/sub species (nearly 57%) occur in Sindh. They are placed in 186 genera and 57 famnilies.Amongst these 52 species occur predominantlyin fresh water lakes, streams and dhands, and 79 species occur both in fresh water as well as saline marine waters. The total number of 131 species of freshwater aquatic birds includes species which are migratory (72), resident (49) and 10 which are partly migratory and partly resident". A total of 1,350,000 waterfowl belongingto 109 species were counted on selected Pakistani wetlands in 1991. A list of wetlands counts for the waterfowl population is given in Appendix I. The wetlands are not only the host to wintering waterfowl, but also home to a variety of breeding birds during summer. 43 species of breeding birds were counted within four hours on a day in May 1990 at Chashma Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary.
Wetlands are important not only for the waterfowl but also for the people who extract their living from these wetlands, in the form of fisheries activities, cottage industry, grazing for the livestock; and most often wetlands provide water for various uses. Wetlandsof Pakistan vary greatly in origin, character and size, from the mangroves and tidal flats of the Indus delta proper, the brackish ponds and dhands on the fringe of the delta, ancient lakes and other wetlands dried from the abandonedriver courses of the Indus and its tributaries, to large and small storage reservoirs used for irrigation.
1.5 WETLAND PROTECTION
Government of Pakistan is aware of the importance of waterfowl and the wildlife in the environmentalcontext. At the Federal level, a NationalCouncil for Conservationof Wildlife has been established which acts in an advisory capacity. The Council is a part of the Forest Department. The Inspector General of Forests is the member/Secretary of the Council. Wildlife is a provincial subject. In NWFP and Balochistan, Forest Departments are the custodians. A separate Wildlife Department exists in the Punjab Province. Sindh Wildlife ManagementBoard looks after the interestof wildlifein the province of Sindh. Each province has promulgated its own Wildlife.
7 Wetlands of Pakistan
S.No. Wetland Province
1. Deosai Plateau Northern Areas
2. Tarbela Reservoir NWFP 3. Tanda Dam Reservoir 4. Tbanedar Wala Game Reserve 5. Kurrum River Valley
6. Chashma Barrage Punjab 7. NanmnalLake 8. Ucchali Lake 9. Jahlar Lake 10. Khabbeki Lake
11. Mangla Dam Azad Kashmir
12. Rasul Barrage Punjab 13. Marala Head Works 14. Qadirabad Head Works 15. GhamagarLake 16. Kharal Lake 17. Taunsa Barrage 18. Islam Head Works 19. Patisar Lake, Lal Suhanra
20. Indus Dolphin Reserve Slndh 21. Ghauspur (Rup) and Sindhi Dhoro Lake 22. Beroon Kirthar 23. Drigh Lake Wildlife Sanctuary 24. Hamal Katchri Lake 25. Pugri Lake - 26. Manchar Lake 27. Nara Canal Area a. Sanhari Lake b. Sadhori Lake c. Sanghriaro Lake 28. Khipro Lakes 29. Tando Bago Lakes 30. Badin and KhadanLagoons 31. Shah Bunder Salt Waste and Jafri Lake 32. Mahboob Shah Lake 33. Kinjhar (Kalri) Lake 34. Hadero Lake 35. Haleji Lake 36. Hub Dam 37. Siranda Lake 38. Miani Hor 39. Hawkes Bay/SandspitBeaches 8 40. Clifton Beach 41. Korangi Creeks 42. Outer Indus Delta
43. Jakohari Sutiari Dhand Sindh 44. Birwari Lake 45. Mamal Dhoro 46. Lungh Lake 47. Soonhari Dhand 48. Dhoung Block
49. Kap (Salt Swamp) Balochistan 50. Pat Feeder 51. Bund Khushdil Khan 52. Zangi Nawar Lake 53. Akara Dam 54. Dasht Khur 55. Pasni Bay
56. Istola Island Arabian Sea
Laws which essentially are protection oriented. On the basis of species populationestimates, even though these are empirical, the wildlife species are either allowed to be hudted or protected. Schedule I specifies the bag limits and regulations imposed on shooting or hunting of animals, whereas Schedule III specifies those species which are protected and not allowed to be hunted. A network of refuge areas - NationalParks (10), Wildlife Sanctuaries (94) and Game Reserves (73) has been establishedthroughout the country. Hunting in refuge areas is not allowed except for Game Reserves, where shooting is allowed on a special permit (normally only 2 permits can be issued in one season). The legislation establishes strict penaltiesfor the offenders. Wildlife Staff are responsiblefor implementationof the legislation but enforcementof legislationis lax in many parts of the country. As has been suggested for Sindh 'neither hunting (shooting) nor trapping of waterfowl seems to be in practice controlled' Roberston (1990). Enforcement of legislation in other parts of the country is, however, much better.
1.6 THE WETLANDS
Wetlands are the most productive ecosystemsin any land use system. On the basis of their characteristicswetlands in Pakistan can be classified (Rao 1988) as follows:
1. Water storage reservoirs on large rivers in the northern Punjab, Azad Kashmir and NWFP, constructed mainiy for irrigation purposes and the generationof electricity, and now supporting large numbers of wintering waterfowl. Examples include Chashma Barrage, Taunsa Barrage and the Marala, Rasul and Qadirabad Headworks in Punjab Province, ManglaDam in Azad Kashmir, and Tarbela Reservoir in NWFP.
2. Brackishlakes with small water catchmentareas in semi-arid hill ranges in the north- central part of the country, e.g. Nammal, Khabbaki, Ucchali, Jahlar, and Kallar Kahar lakes in Punjab Province.
9 3. Small water storage dams in the sub-montane tracts, e.g. Kandar, Tanda, Baran, Warsak and DarwazaiDams in NWFP, NammalLake in Punjab Province, and Akara Dam and Band Khushdil Khan in BalochistanProvince.
4.* Brackish lakes fed by seepage, e.g. Malugul Dhand and Thanedar Wala in NWFP, Gamaghar and Renala Lakes in Punjab Province, and Phoosna and a number of other lakes in Sindh Province.
5. Fresh to slightly brackish lakes, dhands and ponds obtainingtheir water supply from canals, springs and streams, and managed for specific purposes. Examples include: Patisar Lake in Lal Suhanra National Park, Punjab Province, which was originally maintained as a stop-gap source of water for irrigation; Kinjhar Lake, Sindh Province, and Hub Dam, SindhlBalochistan,which are maintained as a supply of drinking water for Karachi and irrigation water to agricultural lands in Sindh and Balochistan; and Haleji Lake, Sindh Province, which is maintained as a stop-gap supply of water for Karachi in the event of closure of the Kinjhar pipeline for cleaning.
6.* Saline marshes which receive their water supply from irrigation canals and have become saline because of the presence of salts in the soil and high rates of evaporation. e.g. Kharal in Punjab, Kur and Kharki wetlands in Sindh Province.
7.* Freshwater marshes maintainedby seepage from irrigation canals, e.g. Nara Canal in Sindh and Kund Lake in BalochistanProvince.
8.* Deltas and estuaries with extensive intertidal mudflats along the coast of Sindh and Balochistan.
9.* Estuarine mangrove forest and mangroveswamps, particularly in the Indus Delta and in creeks near Karachi.
10. Small offshore islands with nesting sea-birds and marine turtles, e.g. Astola Island in Balochistan.
11.* Areas of rice paddies, flooded agricultural land and seasonally flooded grassland scattered throughout the Indus Flood Plains.
Waterfowl on the wetlands have been studiedlsurveyedby Ornithologists, and the Wildlife Departments of the country since the late 1960's. Estimates of populationshave mainly been made during winter times when most of migrating waterfowl visit w,tlands. Savage (1968) and Koning and Koning - Raat (1975) have been the early visitors. Carp (1980), Karpowics (1985), Ghalib et. al., (1987) respectively reported waterfowl population estimates from 27, 51 and 119 wetlands. Rao (1988) in his accountof the wetlandsof Pakistan for the Directory of Asian Wetlands described 52 important wetlands. Mid-winter Waterfowl Counts are collectedfor the InternationalWetlands and WaterfowlResearch Bureau, England, which has compiled a list of 313 wetlands for which waterfowl counts are available for the years 1987- 1991. Most of these wetlands are located in Sindh Province. Such wetlands differ in their extent, ranging from a few hectares of seepage lagoonsto 39,106 ha of Chashma Barrage to
* Wetland types mainly affected by the fluctuationsin the water regime in Indus plains. I0 64,370 ha of Gharo Creek along the coast line to Indus delta, covering an area of 300,000 ha in all.
Many of Pakistan's natural wetlands have disappeared as a result of irrigation and drainage projects in order to provide more land for food productionand housing. This loss of wetlands has, however been more than compensatedfor as several new lakes and marshes have been created upstream of dams, and barrages on most of the big rivers. Other wetlands have been created as a result of faulty drainage systems and seepage or overspill from irrigation canals, and several of these now provide excellenthabitat for waterfowl. This category of wetlands would be the one most affected as a result of drainage programmes being undertaken in the country.
Agriculture in Pakistan is the largest commodity producing sector, providing 26% of GDP, employing56% of the labour force, and the most importantsource of exports and principal markets for non-agricultural sector. Agrarian economy in Pakistan depends mainly on irrigation water (irrigated lands providing 80% of agricultural production) which has been provided through the system. Indus Plain is irrigated through the largest single irrigation system network, which at present includes three storage reservoirs, 19 barrages/headworks, 9 link canals, 43 canal commandswith 57,120 km of canals, and 88,600 water courses with a length of over 1.61 M km, and an extensiveconveyance system consistingof main canals, branches, distributories and minors measuring nearly 65,000 km. Total cultural command area in the northern Indus Plain is approximately7.85 million hectares and in the lower Indus Plains 5.34 million hectares. *
A large network of unlined canals was established throughout the Indus Plains to facilitate irrigation. Over time a sizable proportion of cultivable lands has become waterlogged and same has developed into saline areas. The unlined channels added an additional source of groundwater recharge. In the absence of drainage facilities, this caused the sub soil water level to rise close to the land surface, which coupled with the preponderanceof evaporation over drainage cnoked the root respiration of crop plants and salinized a large part of the fertile land.
The groundwater level about 50 years ago was at a depth of 10 to 20 m. With the expansion of irrigation facilities, the watertable was raised and presently in about 22% of the land area (about 3.0 m ha) it is within 1.5 m of the surface, in 42% (about 5.9 m ha) it is within 3.0m. Areas with groundwater level less than 1.5 m are consideredby WAPDA as 'disaster area' and are the primary candidate for drainage treatments, to help retrieve the agricultural land from being rendered uncultivable. However, this generalization is unrealistic, especially where it is applied to rice culture areas.
Reducing ground water table through drainage would have some impact on scattered areas of wetland within the irrigated zone, drying up many of the shallower areas.
Source: * Water Sector Investment Planning Study, WAPDA
II 1.7 THE IMPACT OF DRAINAGE AND DRAINAGE DISPOSAL
Drainage affects the wetlands in two ways: i. Addition of drainage water disposal into the wetland. ii. Lowered water tables following the introductionof more efficient drainage, whether surface or sub surface.
1.7.1 Drainaee Disposal
Within the province of the Punjab drainage water is mainly disposed of into the rivers. In some cases drainage water has been added to the lakes in Sindh, on the Right Bank of the river Indus. The impact in such cases has been assessed by Robertson et. al., (1991). Drainage effluent from saline ground water zones may be disposedof in the sea (as it cannot safely be disposed of in the rivers or fresh water wetlands) or in the evaporationponds where sea is at longer distances. Such evaporationponds have been provided/plannedin three canal conmmandareas including Hairdin Project in Pat Feeder canal command, Panjnad - Abbasia canal command and Fordwah - Eastern Sadiqia canal command. The first two projects have been in operation whereas the third project is still in the planning stage.
Project in Pat Feeder Canal Command
The pond in the Hairdin Project has been made in a natural depression at Mammal Dhoro where the effluent besides being evaporated is pumped into Kirthar Branch canal with a pumping capacity 12.6 m3/sec.
Two wetland areas could be affected if drainage proposals including evaporation ponds are implemented.These were both listed as importantfor wildlife in the Right Bank Master Plan report. hnichof these two wetlands would be affected depends on the alternative proposals finally accepted. There are two locations proposed in separate reports.
Proposalsfor drainage in the Pat Feeder Rehabilitationand Improvement Project (ADB 1985) include a large evaporation pond covering 3,600 ha and extending all the way north of the main Hairdin carrier drain between the National Railway crossing and the outfall (pump station) on the Kirthar Canal. At present the drain passes through the Mammal Dhoro, a natural depression about 4 km from the Railway crossing. By doing so the drain effectively divides MammalDhoro into two sections.The northern section is backed up against the drain bund and is highly saline (46.0 mS/cm in late February 1991) and largely devoid of vegetation. The larger southern section receiveswater directly from the drain through an open section of the bund. It includes a large area of open water, with extensive fringing beds of reeds, many water birds and a fish populationwhich is locally exploited. Water salinities at the same date ranged between 2.3 and 4.0 mS/cm.
Salinity of the drainage water is estimated to be about EC 2.4 mS/cm, which seems optimistic. In any case this appears to be an average figure: considerableseasonal variations would be expected. The enlarged pond would include not only the present highly saline northern section of Mammal Dhoro but would also cover a considerablearea of very saline land between MammalDhoro and the Khirthar canal. This proposal would be likely to create a large probably quite saline lake which might provide a suitable habitat for water birds. The
12 Southern Section could remain unchanged, unless the drain - which now feeds some water directly into it and has in this way effectively created the present quite productive wetland - is closed off. If this happens, the southern section would be likely to revert to its former status - a seasonally flooded saline depression.
1991 proposals, in the Halcrow - ULG report, are quite different in respect of evaporation ponds. These are now sited north of the Khirthar Canal with one pond covering the Beroon Kirthar 'nucleus' wetlands, a secondcreating a new large pondbetween trees and the Khirthar Canal pump station to the east. This area includes a number of smaller areas of permanent or semi-permanent wetlands. Conversion of these freshwater wetlands, which can extend dramatically in years when there is much surface run off from the Kacchi plains backing up against the Khirthar Canal, could substantiallychange their nature. The enviromnental-impact in respect of wildlife seems likely to be negative, at least so far as the nucleus wetland is concerned. There is a third pond proposed, south west of Beroon Kirthar - an area which is mainly at present used for cattle grazing, on grasses and sedges adapted to a fairly high water table. This area also floods exteisively in wet years. A large evaporation pond here would certainly disrupt present livestock activities. The 1991 scheme leaves Mammal Dhoro unchanged, though it is listed as an evaporation pond.
Panjnad Abbasia Canal
Panjnad Abbasia Canal command ponds are low lying interdunal flat valleys surrounded by sand dunes forming a natural boundary. Valley floors with highly sodic clayey soils have low permeability and do not support any vegetation. Valleys having loamy soils have moderate permeability and support shrub vegetation.
The effluent from the saline groundwater areas is planned in two Evaporation Pond complexes.Pond 1 works by gravity while pond 2 is pumped by upto 14 feet. The actual area of the two ponds is 12,000 acres. The water table in parts of ponds prior to filling was at ground surface probably due to extensive flooding in 1973.
The ponds have affected the environment as follows:
1. The ponds have caused the water table to rise locally thus damaging the agricultural land particularly that adjacent to pond 1.
2. Against expectations,the rise in the water table has been faster and more widespread.
3. The weeds have started to grow in drains/evaporationpond but these have not yet caused a problem.
4. Fish are present within the pond area, and the people catch them, even though it is not on a commercial scale.
5. The area has a history of rough grazing. The grazing now is not availablein the pond area but some grazing is still practiced on the dunes where vegetation is present.
6. Successionof vegetation and the wildlife associatedwith this vegetationchange could be a usefal study.
13 7. Migratory waterfowl including ducks visit the newly created wetlands. A complete waterfowl survey has not yet been undertaken. The influx of waterfowl may increase with further rises in the water level, especially in fresh groundwater zones. Manthar drainage system has submergedvegetation and can provide feed for the diving ducks and coots. However, this may also inhibit drainage, and consequentlydamage local agriculture.
Fordwah and Eastern Sadiqia Canal System
Sadiqia canal originates from Head Sulemanki at the junction of District Okara and Bahawalnagar, on its way upto Hasilpur Tehsil of Bahawalpur District. It irrigates thousands of acres of agricultural land. The soils of the area range from sandy loam to hard clay, having very hard clay pan in the substratum, which prevents downward seepage. The underground water is hard, having salts of carbonates, sodium, calcium, and magnesium.
Problern of waterlogging arose due to seepage of water from Sadiqia and Fordwah canals. Due to the impermeablesoils downwardseepage was very low, hence the water accumulated in the 'Dhands' (ponds). The watertable rose up to 5-10 feet at places. Salts also began to diffuse into stagnant water, and were concentrated by evaporation, leading to salinity problems.
The Drainage programme was started in the area to overcome the twin problems of salinity and waterlogging. Upstream from Head Jalwala i.e. in Tehsil Minchanabad, there are two waterlogged zones; a saline groundwaterzone on the western side of the Sadiqia, and a fresh groundwater zone on the eastern side. The saline zone water which is injurious to the agricultural crops is being pumpedout by the installationof 30 tubewells discharging into the river Sutlej.
In the fresh groundwater zone, some 130 tubewells were installed which pumped water into Sadiqia canal for use in agriculture. The habitat for Hog deer, Wildboar and even for Nilgai and ducks still exists. But with the passage of time when the groundwater level is lowered, existing habitat may be tJestroyed and ultimately the wildlife species composition would change in this area.
The permanent and temporary water ponds of seepage origin have been shown on the maps annexed as 'A". The gross area of the project is 618,577 acres, lying in Bahawalnagar, Chishtian, Donga Bonga, Haroonabad, Dahranwala and Hasilpur. The area is boundedby the Bahawalnagar - Hasilpur road upto Chishtian Mandi and Azim Distributary in the north, command of Jalwala Distributary in the north-east, Hakra branch of Sadiqia in the south-east. In the west and south-west it covers the complete commandof 3-R and 4-R distributaries and partial command of Murad and Fateh distributaries.
In phase-I of the project, the water collected from the nurthern side of Malik Branch and along the Bahawalnagar- Hasilpur Road will be drained out into river Sutlej, downstreamof Head Islam through Main drain, in the northern zone of the project. The southern side of the Malik Branch in the southern zone has many drains collectinginto the outfall drain, about 7 km from Dahranwala on the Dahranwala - Fort Abbas Road. This water discharges into the evaporation pond in the Cholistan Desert on the eastern side near Chak No. 200 (Pattloo Wala).
14 Under the proposed scheme of 'Saline Drainage' the water from this evaporationpond will be allowed to flow into Arabian Sea through Tehsil Sadiqabad or Rahim Yar Khan District (This scheme has not yet been sanctioned).
The present position is that except for the pond of "Lakhmeer Dhudi" (about ten kan on Bahawalnagar- Donga Bonga Road shown on the map (Annexure A) between Yarwah and Mahmude Distributary) all the rest of the ponds had dried up, due to failure of the rains in the 1991 monsoons. Excessive drainage also contributedto it. Consequentlyvery few ducks or waterfowlhave been reported, which are the usual winter visitors if water is available. Due to the loss of water, the original vegetation is also bcing replaced by Salt-tolerantgrasses.
The ultimate impact of these drains may be complete drying up of seepage water possibly leaving a temporary salt crust. Thus the existing habitat may be destroyed and land may be used for agricultural purposes, after leaching of the salts by flood irrigation.
After the constructionof drains, the water in Dhands and depressions (ponds) will ultimately dry up, and the change in habitat will deprive the waterfowl (and to some extent the hog deer) of their habitat.
Water quality and the salinity levels would, however, determine the subsequentcolonisation. It is possible that the areas around the evaporation ponds could develop into habitats for waterfowl. It is recommendedthat the areas be regularly monitored for the water quality and for vegetation and faunal changes but it seems unlikelythat a situationhere could develop on the pattern of the pond at Hairdin (Sukkur Right Bank) where the pond is filled by relatively fresh surface drainage effluent and an exceelent habitat has resulted.
1.7.2 Lowered water table following the introduction of more efMcient drainage, whether surface or sub- surface
The effect of lowering water tables is relativelyspecific and predictable. Lowering of water tables results from drainage either through surface drains or by installing tubewells to draw water from the ground to be used for irrigation purposes if water is of reasonably good quality; and if saline its disposal into drains for non-irrigation disposal.
A series of surface drains has been constructedin the province of the Punjab which flow into four major rivers viz.. Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum. Two major outfall drains have been proposed in the province of Sindh viz, Right-bank Outfall Drain and the Left Bank Outfall Drain. Enviromnental Impact assessmenton the Right Bank Outfall Drain has been made during the Right Bank Master Plan Study (1991), and on the Left Bank Outfall Drain (MMPIHTS 1988).
Both these assessments more or less take care of the drainage impacts in the Indus delta region and the RBMP Project area in the province of Sindh, which is the part of Pakistan most affectedby waterloggingand salinity. Someimportant wetland areas such as Kinjhar and Haleji have been ignored, which are otherwise very important for wintering waterfowl.
No such detailed assessmenthas been made for the province of Punjab where major drainage works have been undertaken, and as many as 26 major drains have been constructed.
Pumped wellshave been instilled throughoutthe province of the Punjab, initially by WAPDA and presently by the public with strong subsidies by WAPDA.
15 Both the surface drains and pumped wells have reduced the waterloggedarea by causing the watertable to deepen more than 10 feet. During the process most of the natural wetlandssuch as dhands and swamps, and ponds have also been drained.
IWRB counts in the Punjabhave been made rather in an irregularmanner since 1979. Regular counts have however been made since 1987 on 13 sites, 6 of which are large storage dams viz., Chashma, Rasul, Qadirabad, Marala, Taunsa, Head Islam. Four of these sites are brackish lakes with small catchmentareas which are natural wetlands in the sub mountanous tracts Nanunal, Ucchali, Khabbeki and Jahlar; two are brackish lakes fed by seepage (Gamaghar and Kharal) and one is a fresh water reservoir used for irrigation purposes for some part of the year (Lal Suhanra lake).
Of these wetlands, only the two brackish lakes fed by seepage may be affected by the Drainage programmes. Gamaghar dhand is a natural wetland, situated close to the old Beas river bed. A drain is passing in close vicinity of the dhand which has adversely affectedthe wetland mndits extent has been reduced. Waterfowl estimates made during the previous six years a' e given below. The importanceof wetland naturally dependson the amount of rainfall received. 1987 70 1988 961 1989 3116 1990 2075 1991 1163 1992 640
Kharal is one of the most important wetlands of the Punjab. Due to its importance as a waterfowl habitat, especially for white-headedduck (Oxyura leucocephala)and marbledteal (Marmaronetta angustirostrata),the wetland has been declared a Wildlife Sanctuary. But due to drainage, water level of the lake is decreasing. There are some other pressures on the Wetlands as well, most importantof which is the commercial fisheries. Carp fish introduced into this wetland had to face a serious competitionfrom the introduced Oxeocluoruisnilotica which dominated the other fish and being commercially unimportant, rendered the wetland a poor habitat.
Waterfowl Counts made on the lake during the six previous years are given below:
1987 24944 1988 21605 1989 15500 1990 2344 1991 5307 1992 2644
Besides these two wetlandsthere were present scores of areas which previously were a good habitat for the waterfowl but have lost their importance after being drained off. Examplesof such areas are; Salarwala, Kala Pahar in Faisalabad, Buddin Sargodha, Rangpur in Khushab. These areas are however resilient enough in that they would again be developedinto wetlands if rainwater flows to them after heavy rains were restored, and they could be recharged by flood waters, as is the case of wetlands in district Sialkot.
16 The RBMP report (1991) discussedthe case of Lungh lake on the Right Bank of Indus in Sindh. Water level of the lake had been reduced due to cessation of surplus irrigation water (drainagewas not the cause), Bottomrooted plants had encroachedon the lake and the open water had completelybeen outgrown.The lake scarcely attractedany waterfowl. The scheme has now been rehabilitated, witha new water supply and now attracts many water birds.
Due to reduced canal water suppliesand excessive water spill by the Fisheries contractors at Patisar lake, Lal Suhanra, much of the open water has been overgrown with species like Phragmites karka, Typha angustata,Tamarix dioica and Nelumbiumlotus. This lake, which formerly attracted waterfowl in tens of thousands, now attracts only a few thousand. Waterfowl counts over the last eix years (1987-91) are given below:
1987 12306 1988 1795 1989 8675 1990 3571 1991 3730 1992 1839
The species compositionhas changedin favour of species like coots.
Haleji lake in Sindh also suffersfrom the same problem. Excessive growth of vegetation is favoured by coots, but unattractiveto many other scarce species.
The RBMP report (1991) also pointed out that, even if the watertable were to be lowered through drainage, deeper water wetlandswould persist. However, deeper waters, which may be important for fish, would not be a favourite habitat for the surface feeding ducks, even though diving ducks and coots may prefer this habitat. Each individualwetland, therefore, has its own set of ecologicalcharacteristics favouring one or the other type. For a productive wetland habitat, a balance betweendeep and shallow water areas is the basic requirement.
The knowledge about most wetlandsof relativelysmaller sizes is scanty. Such wetlands, may be formed after good monsoons,and may dry up by the start of summer season. They would however, provide good habitat for over-wintering waterfowl. In dry years, when the monsoonshave failed or there have been less rains, these wetlandsmay not even be formed or the water may stay only for a shiortperiod, hence the habitat would be unavailable to the wintering waterfowl. Head Islamcould be quoted as an example,where the water would dry up upstream of the Head Worksby the time migrating ducks arrive, but in wetter years, the duration of the stay of waterfowlwould be extended.
In the absence of data about such wetlands throughout the country, especially monsoon affected areas, the range of wetland ecosystems cannot be fully described. RBMP report (1991) discussed the effects of drain water disposal on the wetlands. Extensive reed beds in many lakes may be helpful in cleaning polluted water but not in removal of dissolved salts. Such mechanismsare being used as a method of removing harmful elements in effluent from dairy farms, silage clamps and abbatoirs in both Europe -andUSA. Water hyacinth is being used in South India to clean water in the effluents from Industrial areas.
Australian research (reportedby RBMP 1991) suggests that shallowwetlands, both fresh and saline are more productive,and supported a wider variety of species than deeper wetlands.
17 partly because the latter were too deep for waders and non-divingspecies and partly because deeper wetlandssupported permanentfish populationswhich tend to pre-emptfood resources.
As for the RBMP area, the wetlands in Pakistan are very variable in origin, size, salinity and depth of water. Mostly salinity levels and water depth varies considerablyat different times of the year. Some wetlands may dry up completelyin some years and in others may become highlv productive sites. Zangi Nawar in Balochistan is one good example of such effects, where no waterfowl were recorded during 1987-89but there were 3,772 waterfowl in 1990 when the water supply position improved.
Water management of canals may also have its impact on the distribution of waterfowl. During January each year the canals are closed for maintenanceworks in the Punjab, and the Barrage/Head Works gates are opened to allow the river water to pass through on its way to the main channel. Large storage reservoirs, like Marala, Qadirabad, Rasool, and Taunsa in the Punjab, are affected by such practices. Water is not stored in such cases, so these reservoirs lose their wetland character and take the form of a river bed, and the waterfowl do not concentrate there. But once the canals are reopened, these 'wetlands' revert to their old glory within a matter of days.
Similarly raising the water levels affects waterfowl populations. Chashma reservoir has assumed a significance in recent years. Five year counts (1987-91) would show that the highest number of waterfowl have been counted there:
1987 73804 1988 69829 1989 212830 1990 190070 1991 217917
But the count in January 1992 was a mere 9774, when the water level of the reservoir was increasedfor managementpurposes, as against 153,000counted on December10, 1991. This was probably due to the submergenceof aquatic vegetaticn as a result of rising water levels, thus depriving the surface feeding ducks of their food.
These wetlands are likely to stabilise when water levels become less variable.
Based on the concept of resilience, 'a measure of the flexibility with which the system can respond to any of a wide range of changes", a classificationsystem for RBMP wetlands was developed (MMPIHTS 1991), as follows: i. Low resilience wetlands: Such systems are easily altered even by relatively minor changes in one or more variables, and even if the changes are corrected, their return to their formal status may be slow or even impossible. ii. Moderate resilience systems: These are relatively recently formed sites fed from water sources having very low species diversity. Hamal lake is the most important example. There are also some scatteredpermanent borrow pits alongsidesome major works. iii. High resiEience wetlands: A wedand which is able to maintain its status even when internal conditions change radically, returning to a characteristic structure and Is function very rapidly, on the return of conditions, to former state. iv. Very high resilience waters: Such systems are no longer able to support even the impoverishedflora and fauna of the temporary wetlands. Ecologically these are termed as dystrophic, and only a complete change in their inputs following drainage will disrupt them. Dhuong Block is halfwaytowards this extreme whereassaline lakes such as Chungro near Qambar are dystrophic.
The drainage options for the RBMP area includedboth surface and deep drains (tubewells), and disposal options using Lakes Hamal and Manchar, evaporation basins and discharge into the river basin. The Consultants finally proposed to restrict drainage to surface drains only throughout RBMP area, with discharge into river Indus. It is supposed that salinity of rain water from surface drains would be much less as compared with that from deep drains, and would progressivelydecrease. Low salinity discharge could be beneficial for Hamal. Short term seasonal discharges could be made into Manchar, which would contribute less salt than passed at the present time.
The Consultantsfinally made the following recommendationsfor RBMP areas:
(a) In the case of Manchar Lake, variable saline drainwater now entering the lake via the existingNara Valley Drain will be largely diverted and passed into the River Indus. Drainwater may enter Manchar via the Right Bank Outfall Drain System, but only for short periods and probably not on a regular basis. Less salt is therefore expected to enter Manchar Lake than does so at present. Any further negative impact on Manchar, at least so far as waterbirds are concerned, would come from fisheries developmentrather than drainage or drainage disposal.
(b) At Hamal Lake, where drainwater at present passes into the wetlands system at Miro Khan - some of it very saline - the Master Plan proposals allow for diversion of all drainwater now entering the system into the Right Bank Outfall Drain. There are however provisions for passing some low salinity drainwater into Hamal, which should be beneficial.
(c) Smallerwetlands, especially high-resiliencesystems such as Pugri and NeekarLakes, could be affected if drainage lowers the watertable substantially. Longer periods of dried out conditions could affect their capacity for recovering, and mitigatory measures to ensure effective re-supplywith low salinity water have been allowed for in the Master Plan. Some of these smaller wetlands are particularly important for waterbirds.
The LBOD Environmental study (1989) stated that the wetlands of the Indus delta were a crucial winter feeding grounds particularly for waterfowl and waders. The four dhands - Sanhro, Mehro, Chotri and Pateji, carried large populations of wintering waterfowl, comparableto Haleji lake in significance, but no record/ census of birds has been done either in winter (for migratory birds) or during summer (for breeding birds).
It was visualized that with drainage, the size of the dhands would be reduced, and the total loss may be as high as 70% of the dhand area. This is bound to affect the waterfowl habitat and the numbers supported may be reduced alarmingly. Detailed surveys of waterfowl and the wetland system are needed to assess the impact.
19 It is obvious that much more detailed information is required to make a proper assessment of the impacts of drainage on wetland systems. A start has been mnadeand hopefully this would lead to some specific studies to find out the effects of drainage on the waterfowland wetland systems.
So far, it has only been possible to assess potential impact of drainage on selected and identical wetlands in the RBMP area, using the resilience classificationdescribed above. The drainage Master Plan adopted indicates negative environmentalimpact only on certain low resilient wetlands (such as Drigh lake) and high resilience wetlands (such as Pugri lake) were lowered water tables could result from introduction of surface drainage. Mitigatorymeasures to offset such negative impact have been included in the Plan. Apart -from these the only important wetland affected by drainage proposals is Hamal lake, where the environmental impact is assessed as marginally positive.
Outside the RBMP area in Sindh, data are not availableto assess the environmentalimpact of drainage on wetlands on a case by case basis. It is recommended that, for future environmental impact studiesthe resilience classificationis adopted as a basis for assessment.
Wetlands in Right Bank Master Plan Area
Right Bank of lower Indus area consistsa number of wetlands.The potential or actual impact of the drainage plan in these individual wetlands is discussed below:
Ghauspur/Rup
No actual or potential impact. Rup is an "artificial' wetland wholly enclosed by Indus loop bunds and supplied annually by water from the river. Reduced inputs from the river would seriously affect or eliminateit as a wetland and waterbird habitat.
Beroon-Kirthar
Thbiswetland owes its existence to surface flood water over the Kacchi Plains backing up against the Kirthar Canal bund. There may be minimal contributionfrom seepage from the canal. The wetland varies in extent greatly from year to year but there is a nucleus area which seems to be permanent. It could be affected by drainage proposals for Pat Feeder Rehabilitation (1991) which propose three large evaporationponds, one covering the whole Beroon Kirthar "nucleus' area, the others to the east and south-west. The impact seems likely to be negative, at least in the case of the nucleus permanentwetland.
Drigh Lake
This is one of the two GazettedWildlife Sanctuarieson the Lower Indus Right Bank. It is part of an ancient dhoro system. It could be affected by drainage if water tables are substantially lowered or present inputs from surplus rice irrigation water curtailed. Its ecological complexity and importance to wildlife would require mitigatorymeasures - additionalinputs of fresh water - in the event of lowered water tables due to drainage.
20 Hamal Katdwl Lake
Tbis is the second largest wedand in lower Indus Right Bank, lying outside the Flood Protection Bund, it receives water from surface run off from the Kirthar Hills, and at present drainage effluent via the Miro Khan outfall/pumpingstation. This drainage includes some highly saline effluent from the Shahdad Kot Drain, but this is mixed with much less saline effluent from Miro Khan which mainly eliminates the environmental impact. Right Bank Master Plan proposals would eliminatethe most saline effluent, but could raise the overall water level in the lake.
Environment impact is expected to be neutral, possiblymarginally positive.
Pugri
This fairly small lake owes its present productivityand value to wildlife to annual filling from surplus rice water. Some negative impact has been recorded due to the Wagan drain which passes south of the lake through part of its associatedwetland. Improvementin the operation of the Larkana - Shikarpur surface drainage system, of which Wagan is a part, could have a negative impact by further lowering of water tables. Mitigatory measures to increase the supply of fresh water may be necessary and are included in the Right Bank Master Plan.
Manchar Lake
This is largest wetland area in the Lower Indus Right Bank. Present inflows come from surface flooding and Indus river (low salinity) and from the main Nara Valley Drain (moderate salinity). This has had so far only a marginally negative impact, if any. Master Plan proposals will largely eliminatedrainage effluentinput, except perhaps for short periods. Impact should be neutral or marginally positive.
Lungh Lake
This is a very small lake, but is the second of the two gazetted Sanctuariesin the Lower Indus Right Bank Area. Curtailment of irrigation water input in recent years had resulted in eliminationof its open water area by expanded reed growth in the shallower water. Lungh has now been rehabilitated, surface water inputs restored and its own tubewell installed. Improved surface drainage in the area could have a negative impact. Mitigatory measures are included in Right Bank Master Plan proposals.
Neekar Lake
This is a recently formed wetland (about 30 years) as a result of irrigation surplus/rising water tables in a natural depression. As in the Pugri Lake and others, it owes its productivity and importance to wildlife to annual refilling with fresh water. Improved surface drainage could have a direct negative impact: necessary mitigatorymeasures are included in the Right Bank Master Plan proposals.
Mamal Dhoro
The impact of drainage on Mamal Dhoro depends on whether 1985or 1991 proposals for Pat Feeder Rehabilitation are accepted. The 1985 proposals propose creation of a 3600 ha
21 evaporationpond extending along the north side of the present main Hairdin drain from the Railway crossing to the Khirthar Canal. This would embrace the whole of the present saline section of the Mamal Dhoro. It is not clear what would then happen to the southern section, which currently receives water from the drain and has considerablepopulations of birds and fish. The large pond north of the drain could possiblycreate a new wetland attractiveto birds.
Dhuong Block
This, like Rup, is an artificial wetland wholly enclosed by Indus loop bunds. It has two sections, the northern having substantial open water areas and the southern section having comparatively little. Dhuong will not be affectedby drainage proposals.
Sindh Dhoro
Sindh Dhoro is an extensive wetland area formed in an old Indus river channel. One section, near Kand Khot, is seriously polluted by urban waste discharge. It should not be affected by drainage proposals.
Wetlands in Indus Left Bank Area Sindh
The main wetlands listed in the Inventory of Asian Wetlands are:
1. Nara Canal Area 2. Soonhari Lake These three could all be 3. Sadhori Lake considered as part of 4. Sanghiaro Lake Nara Canal Area. S. Khipro Lake ] 6. Tando Bago Lakes l 7. Phoosna Lakes I Tando Bago area 8. Charwo Lake 9. Badin Kadhan Lagoons (Ther, are other brackish 10. Mahboob Shah Lake dhands on the edge of Indus delta in this category)
In addition, there are some wetland areas not listed which could be important. These include
11. Large sections of old Indus channel meander scars, forming dhoro wetlands 12. Makhi Dhand 13. Chotiari Nara Canal Area 14: Many small wetlands in the dune area, east of Khairpur.
Nara Canal Area, the most extensive and probably most important wetland area in Sindh (Indus Left Bank), except perhaps for the Indus Delta dhands. They form part of an old channel distributary system - the Nara was an old river before being used as a canal. The wetlands comprise a very large number of open water lakes and reed beds; some large, some very small, some fresh, some saline. Their importance for water birds is great but their
_22 fishingpotential is not known. Other wildlife interestare crocodiles, and possiblyother water loving reptiles. Some of these waters are very old, others are effectivelyleakage ponds (e.g. Samras). Makhi Dhand is a large lake in this area, sometimescalled the MakhiTriangle (apex at Nara (Samras)stretching down to Sanghar).Resilience classification probably includeslow, moderate and high categories, Chotiari is also located in this general area. All these wetlands seem to be outside the limits of LBOD drainage area. Some might be affected by surface drainage.
Khipro Lakes(SE of Sanghar)appear to fall within the Mirpur Khas drainage area of LBOD - tubewell drainage, mainly saline groundwater.The lake may dry out as a result of lowering of the water table subsequentto drainage.
Tando Bago or Badin consists Tando Bago, Phoosna, Charwo. They fall into a planned drainage area for LBOD, no action has yet been taken. This area seems likely to be drained by surface drains.
Mahboob Shah Lake, south-west of Sujawal is nearer the Indus River, and is also within planned drainage area for LBOD.
In general, wetlands in areas drained by tubewells are likely to be affected to the greatest extent, because water tables are drawn down to a greater extent than in the case of surface drains. Only Khipro Lakes appear to fall into this category. The dhands west of Nawab Shah could possiblybe affected. (See LBODEnvironmental Report (1989) for effect on Indus Delta dhands)
Reference to Kalri, Haleji Lakes - See RBMP Supporting Volume 10 (Environmental Assessment)pp 16-17. No impact from drainage likely.
1.8 THE IMPACT OF DRAINAGE PROGRAMMES IN INDUS PLAINS ON WILD MAMMALS AND REPTILES
Besides birds Indus plains support a variety of wild mammals and reptiles, related to water bodies, wetlands and irrigated areas.
Aquatic Mammals
The Indus river dolphin (Platanista minor) is an important and unique mammal which is endemic to Pakistan, and once occurred widely in the Indus rivei system. Due to the constructionof barrages on the Indus river, the populationhas been fragmented.Conservation efforts started in 1972, the populationof this blind dolphin has greatly improved, from 150 in 1972 to more than 600 to date.
The smooth coated otter Lutra perspicillata is distributed throughout the Indus riverine domain, even entering into canal systems and inundationstorage reservoirs, swamps and lakes. The population has been greatly reduced in recent years mainly due to habitat destruction. No regular surveys have been conductedof the habitat and population of otters in these parts of the country.
23 Riverine, Welland Mammals
The fishing cat (Felis viverrina) is confined to riverine or swamp areas, wherever there is permanent water in conjunctionwith extensive reed beds and tall grasses, it also occurres in coastal areas where mangroves and tamarisks intermingle(Roberts 1975). The populationis reported to be very low and restricted only to swamps and dhands and some lakes in lower Sindh. Some reports of its occurrence have also been made from the central Punjab plains. Thnespecies is never found away from water. The exact status of the species is, however, not known.
Terrestrial Mammals
The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) is distributed in wooded areas, particularly in southern Sindh, and more sparsely in southern and central Punjab. They make use of man-madedrains, culverts and crevices, associatedmainly with human dwellings. The Indian grey mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) is distributed throughout the Indus plains and parts of the coastal belt in Balochistan.It is, however, widely spread especiallyin arid tracts, keeping away from large towns. The populationsof both species are relatively common in this range.
Riverine Mammals
The Hog deer (Axis porcinus) is mainly associatedwith riverine areas where the vegetation is thick and is in close vicinity to water. Due to the restriction of the flood plain and to reduction in flooding the populations of the deer have been seriously reduced as a consequence of habitat deterioration. Occasional heavy floods also take their toll and some deer are drowned or washed away thus affectingthe population.
These deer may also be associated with swampy areas. In the Punjab province they are associated mainly in the riverine areas along Pak-Indiaborder in Sialkot, Sheikupura,Lahore and Kasur districts and along the River Indus in Dera Ghazi Khan Division. It is relatively common in riverine systems in Sindh, confined now to isolatedpockets of jungle in the less accessible regions of the Indus. It is also reported to survive in the swamps around Sandori lake. No proper population estimates have been made to determine the exact status of the species.
Aquatic Reptiles
Amongstthe reptiles, two species were the most prominent.The Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) once occurred in the Indus river system but is now considered to have been totally exterminated. The Marsh crocodile or muggar (Crocodylus palustris) was the more widespread crocodilian, occurring not only in the river systems but also in swamps and dhands and lakes all over the Indus plains and parts of Balochistan. Due to habitat destruction, and cultural beliefs that require this reptile to be killed,-its population has dramaticallydeclined to such a level that it is consideredto be greatly endangered.It has been exterminatedfrom the Punjab.
Isolated small populations exist in swampy areas in Nawab Shah district, in seepage areas along Nara canal in Sindh, in swamp areas around Uthal, in Hangul river, and in the river systems in Sibi Civil Division in Balochistan. Exact population estimates, however, are not available.
24 Amongst the turtles (Kachugasmithil) is widely distributed in the river systems, swamps, lakes and dhands. Kachugaitectais restricted to still waters and is mainly distributed around Manchar lake. Chitra indica, Trionyx hurum, Geoclemyshamiltonii and Hardelli thurjii are distributed in ponds, swamps and rivers in lower Sindh.
All these species are associatedwith swampy areas.
Terrestrial Mammals
1. The wolf Canis lupus is distributed throughout, in almost any type of habitat, generally avoiding naturally forested regions as well as densely populated or well cultivated areas (Roberts 1975). It is confined mainly to the remoter areas of extensive desert or barren hilly regions. The population is at an endangered level within the Indus plains.
2. The jackal Canis aureus is a very adaptable species occurring in mountanous areas, fbrest plantations and riverine thickets. It is extremely numerous in irrigated forest plantations and riverine forested areas. Due to increased human disturbances, their numbers seem to have decreasedbut they are still quite common. The jackal may be considered harmful as carrier of diseases like rabies, as well as raiders of sugarcane and orchard crops. But they are extremely beneficialto human beings as they control rodent populationsparticularly in crop areas.
3. The desert fox (Vulpes vulpes nusilla) is found in open country prefering extensive uncultivated tracts with sand dunes throughout Indus plains. The Indian fox (Vulpes bengalensis) is distributee in open country in the southernhalf of Sindh and the north eastern corner of the Punjab. The status of these species is fair. No exact estimates of population have been made.
4. Striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) was formerly relativelycommon in southern Sindh but is now comparativelyrare in the areas east of the river Indus. It occurs relatively widely west of the Indus in Dadu and Larkana districts of Sindh and D.G.Khan in Punjab. Presently hyaena is consideredto be almost extinct from the Indus Plains and very rare even in the remote and barren foothill region west of the Indus (Roberts 1975). It is still of some value as a scavanger in such regions.
5. Wild boar (Sus scrofa cristatus) is widely distributed throughout the Indus plains in cultivated areas, irrigated forest plantations and riverine forest areas. They are considered to be pests on agricultural crops and on forest nurseries, especially in a Muslim country where they are not hunted for meat. Due to loss of flooding in Sindh, increaseddisturbance in irrigated forest plantations,clearing of riverine forests or conversely drying up of such forests as a result of flood controls and campaigns to control wild boar populations,their populationhas largely declined. Now it rarely attains a pest status in irrigated areas except those in close vicinity to irrigated forest plantations.
6. Nilgai (Boselaphustragocamelus) occurs only along the Pak-Indiaborder in north-east corner of the Punjab and further south around Bahawalnagarand Thar desert. Some individuals also exist in Changa Manga and Lal Suhanra irrigated forest plantations of the Punjab. They may sometimesraid agricultural crops where they may be shot at in Pakistan. 25 7. Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica) is found in the riverine areas and in the irrigated forest plantations in the Indus plains but they are absent from well settled and intensively cultivated areas. It is considered to be a serious economic pest of forest trees in irrigated plantations, and may also inflict considerabledamage to trees in orchards.
8. The Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis) does not find permanent shelter in cropland, but prefers wildlands along the borders of cultivation. It however, prefers to inhabit the uncultivatedtracts of the riverine zone where extensive reed and grass beds occur. It is common throughout irrigated forest plantations. It occurs throughout the Indus plains areas in Sindh and the Punjab. The population of the hare is considered to be on the decline throughout its range, especially the uncultivatedriverine tracts, mainly due to the loss of habitat.
1.9 IMPACT OF DRAINAGE ON WILD ANIMALS
Of the species mentioned in the previousparagraphs, the species that might be affected as a result of drainage programmes include, the fishing cat, the hog deer (to a small extent), the jackal, the wild boar and the marsh crocodile. Of significance amongst these would be the fishing cat, which is on the western limit of its distribution. and the crocodile which still survives in the swamps and seepage areas. But the causes of the decline of crocodile population include both the loss of habitat and traditional beliefs of obligatory eliminationof crocodiles from the waters, perhaps for fear of its being harmful. To save the species it is important to run public awareness campaigns emphasing upon the ecological role of the species in natural waters.
26 REFERENCE
Ahmad, M., Robertson, V.C., Western, S. 1991. Potential impact of drainage and saline effluent disposal on wetlands on the right bank of the Indus between Guddu Barrage and Lake Manchar. IInd IWRB symp. Karachi. Dec. 14-21, 1991 (Proceedingsunder print.
- Carp, E. 1980. Directory of Wetlands of InternationalImportance in the Western Palaearctic. Gland, Switzerland. IUCN
- 3Ghalib,S.A., Parveen, S. and Hasnain, S.A. 1988. Synopsis of the waterfowl of Pakistan. Records Zoological Survey of Pakistan: Vol XII, Karachi, Zoological Survey Department.
- Karpowics, Z. 1985. Wetlands in East Asia - A preliminary review and inventory. ICBP Study Report No. 6 Cambridge, ICBP
- Koning, F.J. & Koning Raat, M.J. 1975, 1976. IWRB Missions 1974/1975/1976to Pakistan. Unpublishedreports to IWRB.
- Mott MacDonald (1989). Left Bank Outfall Drain, Stage 1, Envirommental assessment, Unpublished.
- MottMacDonald International Limited in associationwith Hunting TechnicalServices Limited, 1991. Right Bank Master Plan, Draft Final Report, SupplementS 10-1, Wetlandsand Wildlife Studies, May 1991.
- National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Islamabad. Results of Waterfowl Counts 1987-1991.
- Rao, A.L. 1989. Wetlands of Pakistan. In A Directory of Asian Wetlands. IUCN: 295-365.
- Savage, D.W. 1972. Wetlands of Asia. The Outdoorman. Vol 2 (No. 9 and 10): 57- 63
- Roberts, T.J. 1977. The Mammals of Pakistan. Earnest Benn.
- Roberts, T.J. 1991. The Birds of Pakistan. Vol I. Oxford. 598 pp.
- Robertson, V.C., M. Ahmad and S. Western. 1991. Right Bank Master Plan, Draft Final Report, SupplementS 10-1, wetlandsand wildlife studies, by Mott MacDonald InternationalLimited in associationwith Hunting TechnicalServices Ltd. May 1991.
27 ANNEXURE A OAHAWAL NAGAR
CHISHTIAN /
0 ~~~~~~~~LEGEND PERMANENT POND TEMPORARY POND CANAL/ DY. CITY HARUNABAD
TEMPORARYAND PERMANENT PONDSIN FORDWAH EASTERNSADIQIA (SCARP Vill) PROJECT APPENDIX - I WATERFOWL NUMBERS RECORDED ON THE W.ETLANDS OF PAWSTAN
S. ScientiricName CommonName 1987 | 1988 1 1989 | 1990 1991 No. II Crebex
1. Tachybaptusruflcollis Little grebe 3,398 .,236 3,569 2602 1,359 2. Podiccpsgriscigena Red-necked grebe 141 - 22 0 96 3. P. cristatus Great crested grebe 26 60 129 121 377 4. P. auritus Slavonian grebe - - 2 - - 5. P. nigricollis Black-necked grebe 1,420 629 140 1,840 620
Pelicans
6. Pclecanus onocrotalus Great white pelican 280 17,631 25,838 3,914 8,662 7. P. Philippensis Spot-billed pelican - - - 0 0 8. P. crispus Dalmatian pelican 296 2,921 529 374 664
Cormorants and Darter
9. Phalacocoraxcarbo Great cormorant 1.349 1,528 3,249 4.697 2,457 10. P. fuscico0is Indian shang Z14 64 15 18,879 560 11. P. niger Little cormorant 3,478 4210 24,05.3 9.193 5.054 12. Anhinga rufa Dartcr 3 23 - - - 13. Phalacrocaraxpygmeus Pygmy cormorant - - - I 14. Anhinga mclanogaster Oriental darter - - 7 - -
Bitterns, IHcrons and Egrcts
15. Botaurus stclbris Great bittern - - - I 0 16. Ixobrychus cinnamomcus Cimnamon bittcrn - - I 0 0 17. I. flavicollis Blackbittern 9 1 - I 0 18. Nycticoraxnycticorax lBalck-crownednightt heron 51 2,839 2,659 6,578 5,500 19. Adreola cinerea Grey heron 916 1,173 2,557 1,217 755 20. Ardealo goliath Goliath heron 776 0 0 0 0 21. Ardeoh grayii Indian pond heron 347 600 625 462 190 22. Bubulcusibis Cattle egret 214 669 1,529 1,902 607 23. Egretta gularis Westem reef egert 104 244 264 546 269 2-t E. garzetta Little egret 3,496 3,176 3,760 4,699 2,424 25. E. intermedia Intermediate egret - 671 1,402 2,224 265 26. E.alba Great egret 996 2,540 1,517 1,071 208 27. Ardea imperialis Imperial heron - - - 0 - 28. Ardea purpurca Purple heron 94 128 171 36 74 Unidentified herons and egrets - - 244 - -
Storks
29. Mycterialeucocephala Painted stork 4 122 1 4 18 30. Ciconianigra Blackstork - 126 72 28 45 31. C epiccopus WooUy-neckedstork - - - 0 2 32. C. ciconia White stork 51 235 6 13 12 33. Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus Black-necked stork - 2 - 0 1
Ibiscs and Spoonbiils
34. Threskiornis melanocephala Black hcaded ibis - - - I 0 35. Pseudibis papillosa Black ibis 5 - - 0 0 36. Plegadis falcineUus Glossy ibis 407 474 844 1,410 744 37. Platalea leucorodia White spoonbl0 787 3,003 615 1.038 2,543
1 S. Scentiffc Name Common Namc 1987 | 1988 | 1989 | 1990 | 1991 No. III
Flamingos
38. Phocnicopterus roscus Greater flamingo 6,440 33,465 48,211 30,422 50,159 39. Phoeniconaiasminor Lesserflamingo - 5,200 2,300 3,150 4,500
Geese and Ducks
40. Dendrocygna bicolor Fulvouswhistling duck - - - 0 0 41. D.javanica Lesser whistling duck - - - 0 0 42. Anser albifrons White-fronted goose - - - 0 - 43. A. anscr Grey lag goose 109 106 267 172 91 44. A. indicus Bar- headed goose - J 8 20 44 45. Anser spp. 0 46. Tadornafcrruginca Ruddyshclduck 62 4,779 151 3,982 693 47. T. tadorna Commonshelduck 732 538 310 416 4,027 48. Sarkidiornis melanotos Combduck - I - 0 0 49. Ncttapus coromandclianus Indian cotton teal 1,295 328 255 311 314 50. Anas penclopc Eurasian wigeon 72,137 75.409 82,950 113.334 131,725 51. A. falcata Falcated tcal - - - - - 52. A. strepera Gadw211 6,194 19.662 37,212 38,340 28,849 53. A. crecca C(ommonteal 106,949 136.009 123,768 107,935 109,170 54. A. Platyrhynchos Mallard 34,438 26.093 21,299 24,705 2_2922 55. A. poecilorhyncha Spot-billcd duck 317 1.360 455 703 1,097 56. A. acuta Northern pintail 70,561 86,868 105,118 67,805 67,831 57. A. querquedula Garganey 2,031 2.364 395 2,141 1,405 58. A. clypeata Nothern shovelcr 21.473 56.916 50,298 76,820 56,057 59. Marmaronctta angustirostris Marbled teal 34 49 106 1,042 2,143 60. Netta rufina Red-crested pochard 3.846 3.329 3.090 1,158 5,211 61. Aythya f&rina Commonpochard 62,775 179,848 66,038 47,425 124,694 62. Aythya nyroca Ferruginousduck 268 231 100 32 27 63. A. fuligula Tufted duck 14,648 65,235 7,345 5,557 7.836 64. Aythya marila Greater scaup - 5 - 0 0 65. Oxyura Ieucocephala White-headed duck 607 286 187 76 42
Cranes
66. Grus grus Commoncrane - 1,018 396 400 529 67. G. leucogeranus Siberian cranc - - - 0 0 68. Anthropoidesvirgo Dcmoiselle crane - - - 0 0
Rails, Crakes, Moorhens and Coot
69. Ra1lusaquaticus Water rail - - 42 8 0 70. Porzana parva Little crake 1 - 1 0 - 71. Amauronis phocnicurus White- breastedwatcrhen - 23 4 3 0 72. Galticrex cinerea Watercock - - - 22 2 73. Gallinula chlompus Moorhen 476 88 985 458 246 74. Porphyrio porphyrio Purpleswamphen 1,468 1.110 435 139 90 75. Fulica atra Commoncoot 287.621 477,857 554,677 382,415 496,080
Jac:nas
76. Hydrophasianuschirurgs Pheasant-tailedjacana 1.627 1.178 492 675 156 77. Metopidius indicus Bronze-wingedjacana - 3 - 6 4
2 APPENDIX S. j Scientifc Name CommonName 1987 | 1988 | 1989 1990 1 1991
Shorebirds (Waders)
78. Rostratula benghalcnsis Paintcdsnipe 1 22 - 0 0 79. Ilacmatopus ostralegus Oystcrcatcher 6 420 70 2,179 1,446 80. Ilimantopus himantopus Black-winged stilt 4.030 5,121 S,225 8,876 4,118 81. Recurvirostraavosetla Avocet 779 914 S,087 9;277 7,139 82. Burhinus oedicncmus Stone curlew - - - 0 4 83. Esacus rccurvirostris Great stone plover - - - 0 4 84. Glarcola maldivarum Oriental pratincole - - 46 0 62 8S. G. lactca Little pratincole 350 315 40S 2660 12 86. Vencllusvanellus Northern lapwing 575 598 688 1,227 476 87. V. malabaricus YcIlow-wattled lapwing 49 - 9 111 0 88. V. leucurus White-tailed plover 103 112 135 224 60 89. V. indicus Rcd wattled lapwing 458 334 SS6 485 324 90. Pluvialis fulva Asiatic goldcn plover - 32 - 40 1 91. P.squatarola Grcyplover 6,072 789 1,311 410 1,243 92. P. dominica 12 - - - - 93. Charadrius hiaticula Ringed plover 20 510 3 90 2,777 94. C. dubius Little ringed plover 2,840 4,081 1,665 2,863 3,824 95. C. alexandrinus Kcntish plover 450 1,118 4,552 10,817 5,373 96. C. mongolus Mongolian plover 271 1,000 1,700 276 35 97. C. leschenaultii Greater sand plover - 5 - 0 0 98. Limosa limosa Black tailed godwith 1.513 2,086 1,192 19,675 36,727 99. L. Iapponica Bar-tailed godwith - 1,774 - 26 865 100. Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel - 13 - -75 71 101. N. arquata Erusian curlew - 318 321 564 375 102. Tringa erythropus Spotted redshank 32 50 69 198 0 103. T. toranus Itedshank 180 2,037 856 1,810 1,056 104. T. stagnatiis Marsh sandpiper 233 4,062 148 758 1,655 105. T. nebularia Greenshank 31 118 131 376 233 106. T. ochropus Green sandpiper 80 22 43 90 93 107. T. glareola %Voodsandpiper 98 524 82 121 54 108. T. terek Terek sandpiper 24 - - - - 109. Xenus cinercus Tcrck sandpiper - 26 2 76 178 110. Actitis hypoleucos Commonsandpiper 4,730 549 748 547 301 111. Arenaria interpres Ruddy turnstone - - - 4 0 112. Gallinago stenura Pintail snipe 4 - - 0 0 113. G. gallinago Common snipe 162 3 61 84 9,132 114. Gallinago minimas Jack snipe - - - I 0 115. Calidris canutus Red knot -4 - - - 116. C. tenuirostris Grcat knot - - 20 0 0 117. C. alba Sanderling 2,507 5,066 7,650 525 16 118. C. minuta Little stint 12,345 12,287 18,386 38,263 5,775 119. C. temminckii Temminck'sstint 213 104 35 426 1 120. C.alpina Dunlin 9,093 13,074 5,896 2,880 4,027 121. C. ferruginca Curlew sandpiper - 51 - 5 78 122. Limicola falcineilus Broad-billed sandpiper - - 4 0 0 123. Philomachuspugnax Ruff 18 12 456 4,494 3,045 124. Charadrii spp. - - - - 13,400 Unidentified shorebirds - - 1,525 - Unidentiried waders 5,000 2,550 -
3 S. Sci;Ctific Name Common Namc 1987 1988 1989 1990 | 1991
Gulls, Terns and Skimmer
125. Larus hcmprichii Sooty gun - - 2 2 400 126. L. argentatus Ilcrring guU 414 547 1,490 1,528 802 127. Larus canus Common gul - - - 15 - 128. L. fuscus Lcsser black- backed guUl 4 623 1,357 1343 857 129. Larus genci Spiendcr-billcd gull - - - 6,730 2.521 130. L. ichthyactus Great black-beaded gull 170 480 206 867 934 131. L. brunicephalus Black-headed guU 141 64 18 121 12 132. L. ridibundus Black-headed gull 3,148 4,304 8,582 8,988 8.028 133. Larus spp. Unidcntified gulls - - - 298 2.500 134. Chlidonias hybrida Whiskcrcd tern 700 1.012 3.199 4,456 205 135. Gelochelidon niotica Gull-billed 1crn 165 232 590 2150 207 136. 1lydroprogne caspia Caspiantcrn 7 28 537 640 - 137. Sterna acuticauda Blackbcllicd tcrn 21 10 - - 138. Sterna anacthctus Bridled tcrn 53 - - 0 - 139. Sterna aurantia Indian river tern - 10 189 1.195 443 140. Sterna caspia Carpian tern - - - - 521 141. S. hirundo Common tern 30 1.148 1.058 11 233 142. S. melanogastcr Black-bellied tern - - 5 9 91 143. S. albifrons Little tern 33 250 42 60 71 144. S. bergii Great crested tern - - 5 2 0 145. S. bengalensis Lesser crested tern - - 3 0 25 146. S. Sandvicensis Sandwich tern - - 15 235 1,407 147. Sterninac spp. - 5,500 - - 1,000 148. Unidentiried terns - - - 0 - 149. Rychops albicollis Indian skimmer - - 3 0 0 Unidentiried pulls and terns - - 12.859 0 -
4 WATERFOWL IN PAIaSTAN - AVERAGE OF FIVE YEARS' SIGHTINGS
S. EoglishName ScientificName Numtber No. I I
1. Little grebe Tachyboptusruficollis 3700 . Red-necked grebe Podicepsgrisegena 40 3. Great crested grebe P. cristatus 160 4. Black-necked grebe P. nigricollis 960 S. Great white pelican Peciecanusonocrotalus 18200 6. Dalmnatianpelican P. crispus 610 7. Great cormorant PhalaarooDraxcarbo 2900 8. Indian shag P. fusdicoUls 1300 9. Little cormnorant P. niger 1400 10. Indian darter Ankinga rufa 7 11. Greyheron Ardeola cinerea 10o0 12. Purpl heron Ardea purpurea 130 13. Great white egret Egretta alba 1500 14. Intermnediateegret E. intermedia 880 15. Western reef egret E. gubris 380 16. Little egret E. garzctta 4200 17. Cattl egret Bubulcusibis 1100 18. Indian pond heron Ardeola grayui 620 19. Black-crowned night heron Nycticoraxnycticorax 3900 20. Painted stork Mycteria leucocephala 40 21. Black stork Cioonia nigra 14 22. White stork C ciconia 13 23. Black ibis Pseudibispapillosa 1 24. Glossyibis Plegadis falcincllus 730 25. White spoonbiUl Platalea leucorodia 1800 26. Greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus 49000 27. Lesser flamningo Phoeniconaisminor 3500 28. Greylaggoose Anser anser 140 29. Bar-headed goose A. indicus 20 30. Ruddyshelduck Tadorna (erruginea 2400 31. Shelduck T. tadorna 1300 32. Cotton teal Nettapus coromandeianus 610 33. Wigeon Anas penelope 114000 34. Gadwall A. strepera 32000 35. Green-winged teal A. crecca 173000 36. Malard A. platyrhynchos 32000 37. Spot-biled duck A. poecilorhyncha 930 38. Northrn pintail A. acuta 100000 39. Garganey A. querqucdula 1300 40. Northern shoveler A. clypeata 69000 41. Marbled teal Marmaronetta angustirostris 730 42. Red-crested pochard Netta rufina 3500 43. Pochard Aythya ferina 155000 44. Ferruginous duck A. marila 100 45. Tufted duck A. fuligula 28000 46. White-headed duck Oxyura leucocephala 270 47. Unidentified ducks 41000 48. Common crane Grus grus 570 49. Water rail Rallus aquaticus 7 50. little crake Porzana parva 1 51. White-breasted waterhen Amauronisphocnicurcus 7 52. Watercock Gallicrexcinerca 7 53. Moorhen Gallinula chloropus 510 54. Purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio 760 55. Common coot Fulica atra 550000 56. Pbeasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianuschirurgus 950 57. Bronze-wingedjacana Metopidius indicus 1 58. Paintedsnipe Rostratula benghalensis 6 59. Eurasian oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus 730 5 S. 1 English Name ScientiricName Number No. Tl 60. Black-wingedstilt Himantopus himantopus 7500 61. Avocet Recurvirostraavocetta 6500 62. Littlc pratincole Glarcola lactea 700 63. Northern lapwing VaneDusvancDus 800 64. YeUow-wattled lapwing V. malabaricus 40 6S. White-tailed pover V. leucurus 150 66. Red-wattled lapwing V. indicus 670 67. Pacifw goldenplover PluviaGis[ulva 11 68. Greyplover P. squalarola 1600 69. Ringed plover Charadrius hiaticula 940 70. Little ringed plover C. dubius 3300 71. Kentish plover C. alexandrinus 6700 72. Lesser sandplover C. mongolus 590 73. Black-tailed godwit Limisoalimosa 20000 74. Bar-tailed godwit L. Lapponica 230 7S. Whimbrel Numeniusphaeopus 10 76. Eurasian curlew N. arquata 560 77. Spotted redshank Tringa crythropus 30 78. Redshank T. toranus 2700 79. Marsh sandpiper T. stagnatilis 860 80. Grenashank T. nebularia 180 81. Green sandpiper T. ochropus 50 82. Wood sandpiper T. glareala 60 83. Terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus 30 84. Comunonsandpiper Actitis hypoleucos 1470 85. Commonsnipe Gallinagogallinago 550 86. Sanderling Calidrisalba 2900 87. Little stint C. minuta 29000 o8. Temminck'sstint C temminckii 140 89. Dunlin C. alpina 5600 90. Curlewsandpiper C. ferruginca 20 91. Ruff Philomachuspugnax 1500 92. Unidentifiedwaders 8600 93. Commongull Larus canus 5 94. Herring gull L argentatus 720 95. Lesser black-backed gull L fuscus 1600 96. Great black-headed gull L ichthyactus 850 97. Brown-headed guil L. brunnicephalus 80 98. Black-headed guU L ridibundus 11000 99. Slender-billed gull L genci 3500 100. Unidentiriedgulls 3100 101. Whiskeredtern Chlidoniashybrida 1800 102. Gull-billed tern Geolochelidonnilotica 510 103. Caspiantern Hydroprognecaspia 230 104. Indian river tern Sterna aurantia 520 105. Commontern S. hirundo 260 106. Black-bellied tern S. melanogaster 40 107. Little tern S. albifrons 90 108. Sandwichtern S. sandvicensis 780 109. Unidentifiedterns 650
6 WATERFOWL NUMBERS RECORDED ON THE WEILANDS OF PAKISTAN
S. 1987 1 1988 1 1989 1 1990 1991
Punjab
Lake
1. Ledamsar Lake Lal Sohanra National Park 12,306 1,795 8,675 3,571 3,730 2. Taunsa Barrage, District Muzaffargarh 23,025 15,147 14,118 4,119 1,196 3. Head Islam, District Vehari 444 404 8 15 - 4. Kharal Lake, District Okara 24,944 21,605 15,500 2,344 5,307 5. Gamaghar, District Kasur 70 961 3,116 2,015 1,163 6. Ilead Qadirabad, District Gujranwala 45,376 4,722 5,152 4,250 3,427 7. Ilead Marala, Distsict Sialkot 66,542 520 18,860 6,817 4,586 8. Ilead Rasool, District Gujrat 49,372 39,427 16,614 13,963 18,329 9. Ucchali Lake, District Khushab 6,965 4,914 18,022 7,775 2,102 10. Khabbaki Lake, District Khushab 1,784 2,270 1,737 206 3,164 11. Nammal Lake, District Mianwali 1,358 181 137 1,220 245 12. Chashma Barrage, District Khushab 73,804 69,829 212,830 190,070 217,917 13. Jhallar Lake, District Khushab 535 427 196 652 32 14. Khallar Kahar, District Chakwal 197 - 3,493 460 4,885
7 WATERFOWL ON THE WETLANDS OF PAKISTAN
No. I 1 19871 19881 19891 1991
Sindh
1. Gharo Creek - 243 2. IHubReservoir 13,506 4,309 22,8B8 3. Mauri Pur 1,831 2,581 - 4. Clifton Beach 19,070 17,409 6,844 5. Cape Monze 1,841 1,349 1,444 6. Hawaks Bay 6,833 8,501 2,200 7. Bakran Creek 1,650 - - 8. Ginzri Creek 177 9. Buleoi 5,015- - - 10. Hudero - 83,027 - 11. Haleji Lake - 76,377 12. Keenjar - 107,466 - 13. Rehri Creek - 2,199 2,172 14. Korangi Creek - 2,356 15. Moey Khudro - - 99 16. Sonmiani Damb - - 6,112
8 WATERFOWL NUMBERS RECORDED ON THE WELWANDSOF PAKISTAN S. Name of Wetland Ditrict 19671 1988 1989 1990 1991
Sindh
1. Manchar Dadu, Sehwan - 26792 642 1127 45306 2. Golimar Dadu, Mebar - - 624 545 176 3. Neckar - 4789 760 642 748 4. Arrar - 8500 422 1993 733 5. Hamal Katchary Larkana, Warah - 48744 46746 39535 61773 6. See-I Larkana, Shahdad - 6949 6069 - 852 Shahdad Kot 7. See-11 h - - 53 - - 8. DrighLake Larkana, Kamber 879 17431 15389 - 60086 9. Bair Wari - -- 944 - 476 10. Chungro Thatta, Jati - 3501 13334 - - 11. Lungb Lake N 398 196 44 - 23296 12. Pugri Lake Larkana, Wagon 20213 37679 46837 - 8358 13. Haleii Thatta 53717 104694 105565 101139 79379 14. Hudero 48917 55233 64835 37895 71179 15. Keenjar 14716 207539 128080 89077 98466 16. Kalan Kot - - 166 102 - 17. Moey Khudro "Ghorabori - - - 8575 695 18. Mohio/Mocii - - 8285 21 73 19. Jam Dari - - 8885 2432 3563 20. Sumro 712 - 277 217 100 21. Lakar Wari - - 317 57 185
22. Khahu - - 328 60 105 23. Tallo - - 105 - 50 24. Chilko "Sakro - 73 41 - 60 25. HaIjiGarana - - 53 - 88 26. YousafPerozani Lake "Garho - 1202 3632 3014 1608 27. Bolel " - - 220 - 429 28. MahboobSbah Thatta,Sujawala 611 33386 4823 77 7285 29. Laduin ' JatiChuhar - - - - 6765 30. Katchach " - - 406 - 438 31. Lakha Rann + Darya "Jati - - - 3700 2676 32. Chatch " 356 344 700 31 157 33. bhimLake - - - 1356 2051 34. Kalan Wari Chand " - - - 23270 28313 35. Sukkur Barrage Sukkur Bakchistan - - - - 4000 36. Baroon Kirthar Naseerabad Osta Mohammad - - - 379 3826 37. Guddo Barrage Jacobabad, Guddu - 9497 2704 - 4592 38. Khubhar - Near Guddu Barrage - 1530 5153 - 2552 39. Cross bunds " - - - - 1907 40. Mazari Dhand " - - - - 2988 41. Mukh Wari Dhand "Kandh Kot - - - - 1715 42. Rup Lake I 'Ghouspur 10427 29159 15636 - 7354 43. Rup Lake 11 - - - - 31718 44. Sindh Dhoro " 599 8769 3237 - 60 45. Dung Bkock Shikarpur - 191 697 - 341 46. Qadri Dhand - - - 1135 47. Jaskani Khairpur - - - - 546 48. Suigas Chodugi Nawashab - - - - 284 49. Waso Sanghar, Khipro - - - - 14054 50. Morakho - - - - 1223 51. Loon Khan * - - 1602 - 488 52. Soonhari - - - 12233 - 531 53. Soonran I + 11 - - - - 607 54. Khar-Ro Sanghar. Khipro - 732 19 - 1478 55. Chugri " - - - - 227 56. Akan Wari - - - - 30 57. Shori-Ji "- - - 1310 58. Walan - - - - - 115 9 S. 1Na o[WctlandDi1987 | 198 9 19 No. I- L I _ - - 59. TakkarlI + 11 37 60. Bolahi - 9- 61. Murkhi - - - - 1371 62. Karud - Wah - - - - 914 63. Manak - - - - 2280 64. Jam-Sar - - - - 2428 65. Chunb 0 - - - - 862 66. Karang - - - - 391 67. Bandan - Waro - - - - 215 68. Akro I + 11 - - - - 630 69. Murid Waro - - - - 304 70. Mascet Waro - - - - 334 71. Kinro - - - - 51 72. Barro - - - - 145 73. Basant - - - - - 56 74. Soonhari/Dogrion 198 223 - - 5125 75. Ithpar Sanghar - 17591 7833 - - 76. Sangrario Kipro 4859 10885 18427 - 2316 77. Khani Dhand - - - - 457 78. Kangal Dhand - - - - 2425 79. Dhand Dahsori - - - - 7063 80. llaji IlasamJhok Dhan - - - - - 4840 81. Bakaar Lake - 56 601 - 137 82. Sheian l arkana. Nascerabad - - - - 320 83. Mian Kalkoro " - - - 348 84. Fa7al Kahoro ' - - - - 2324 85. Kalhoro - - - - 974 86. RS. Zxroo Scepage "Kambcr - - - 459 - 87. Z-croo - - - 32 1000 88. Miani Lake - - - 643 2744 89. IlubDam l-asbula/Karachi - - 46391 8319 100418 90. Bhambcrlo RadinlTandosago - - - - 193 91. Dhurliano " - - - - 76 92. Balcedi Dhand Nindo - - - - 49 93. Pccpcr Dhand - - - - 3834 94. Angri - - 2816 - 69 95. Bhumbki - - 1155 437 138 96. Angro - - 256 123 288 97. Doomhar - - 540 - 649 98. JarWar ' - - 298 - 585
99. Aban Shah Dhand n _ - - 7500 100. Samoice - - 47 - 336 101. Soonar "TandoBago - 1028 1114 - 927 102. Sumro - 1102 617 - 89 103. Wan - - - - 794 104. Khawaja " - 6742 37781 - 5019
105.Nira 0 87 151 20 - 58 106.Jafar Ali - 367 7962 - 308 107. Char - Wo 3438 2290 1233 - 5627 IO8. Kot Dhand - - - - 2076 109. Jari Dhand BadiniTando Bago - 12009 4546 - 1035 110. Phoosna "Talhar 20301 - 11690 - 9321 111. Warharo " Badin - 6100 3 - 5510 112. TitrAli "JandoBago - - 7 - 790 113. Dabo I3adin/Tando Bago - - - - 72 114. Baraji - - 150 - 155 115. Dahe' - 17925 8305 6 6667 116. Matchiarv/Djaflcrli 769 2800 316 14042 11761 117. Daffary - - 31 - 317 118.Sandho + Kariopecr - 1165 - 8704 18262 119. I,oonh - - - 250 902 120. Nimott Dhand - - - 785 54s 10 S. Name of Wetland District 1987 19881 1989 19901 1991
121. Lakhi Dhand "Golarchi - - - 3M 31085 122. Nurr - Ri "YBadin - 29842 113924 69515 21096 123. Jubho Thatta Jati" - 51120 81563 93832 50869 124. Korangi Creek Karachi 803 - - 6450 2522 125. llawkslBay+Sandspilt " 2131 - 4400 - 4041 126. Clifton Beach 13495 - 12892 17097 14070 127. Mouth of llub rivcr - - - - - 201 12S. Lake near Musafir Khan Thatta Chuch/iati - - - 283 225 Coastal Zone 129. D)110 Jati - - 905 3 310 130. Suliari " - 3737 51 475 690 131. Makar Wari "Shah Bunder - - 1902 5033 40.35 132. Monthi "Chuher Jamali - - - 234 3181 133. Sanbhar 'Chach/Jati - - - 5876 11104 134. ShafiWari - 366 188 - - 135. Mahmood Wari - - 12 - - 136. )ino Jakhro l,ake - 640 78 - - 137. Wanahero - 2717 1005 - - 13S. Sadahao - 216 90 - - 139. Charo Daho - 74 121 - - 140. Kharkhi Lakc 2251 372 917 - - 141. Muorhudi Sanghar, Khipro - - 150 - - 142. )abri " - - 163 - 143. Ibulhari - 198 41 - - 144. Shvvtar - - 101 - - 145. llhungrio Sanghar - - 22 - - 146. Darsan Wain - - 4 - - 147. Bhataro " - - 45 - - 148. Kahan Wari 1851 - 58 - - 149. BInthaar 63 1194 199 - - 15. Iandhi - 208 73 - - 151. Kako Wari - 49 - - 152. llakro - 164 218 - - 153. Gageri - 7928 215 - - 154. Kniri - 6036 918 - 155. Mathoon - 115 16102 - - 156. Palarn - 1255 304 - - 157. Sucrohcc - 15 7846 - - 158. Kalan-gcr - 30143 4007 - - 159 l.oonhar - -604+273 - - INtl 'Pntyllull - 91 162 - - 161. (;huli Wari - - 41 - - Ih2. D)abhko 540 1813 65 - - Ih3. 1)hurmano - - 33 - - 164. Khilan l)hIad - - 22703 21495 - 165. Shakoor - 1648 1786 5574 - 166. Shah Bandar 23 - - 167. Mullah Abbassi - 12514 229 - - 16. Karo - - 5 - - 169. (rungrio Karachi 26 - 199 - - 170. Karajo 48 12142 6 - - 171. Ghulam BhttiLakc - - 89 - - 172. Maachari Dhand - 1971 - - 173. Wingo lk - 2243- - 174. Dhoo - 3686 - - - 175. Ihoosna I - 13445 - - - 176. Ihoosna 11 - 8959 - - - 177. Ioonarch - 5891 - - - 178. Shalkh Kano - 9946 - - - 179. Maripur& Sandspit - - 22719 - - 180. Chatteji - - 634 - -
11 S. No. I Name of Wetland 1 19871 19881 19891 19901 1991
N.W.F.P.
1. Khan Pur Rcservoir - - 531 208 124 2. Tarbela Rcscrvoir - - 3414 2721 1908 3. Baran Rcservoir - - 583 63 - 4. Malugal Dhand - - 276 289 - 5. Dhancdar Wala - - 1276 6325 - 6. Tanda Rcscrvoir - - 1419 867 631 7. Darwazai Resecrvoir - - 104 80 43 8. Kandar Reservoir - - 123 166 34 ° Marghur Jaba - - 493 428 290 10. Khcshki - - 998 3369 - ! 1. Kabul River - - 3997 2379 2122 12. Warsak Reservoir - - 248 239 150 13. Chashma Spur No. I - - - 21968 - 14. Dcra Ismail Khan Bridgc - - - 10908 -
Balochistan
1. Baroon Kirthar Canal - 1246 - - - 2. Spin Keraz - 37 - - 206 3. Zangi Nawar Lake - 548 - - 2634 4. Pasni I lor - 926 - 2772 965 5. Sur Bander - 1425 - 5219 1540 6. Akara Dam - 562 - 263 216 7. Saadi I[lour Pasi - 176 - - - 8. Siranda Lakc 9. Kharrial - - 6 9 5 10. Khanki River - - 55 5 6277 11. KhundLake - - 119 30 31 12. Sonmiani/Damb - - 5103 1605 - 13. Purati River - - 70 9 - 14. Ilanna Lakc - - - 12 6 15. Spin Karez - - - 73 - 16. Zanginawar - - - 3772 - 17. Bund Khushdil Khan - - - 6837 935 18. Khanozai Dam 19. Ras Juddi Pasni - - - 714 20. Merani Dam 21. ShaodiKour - - - - 58 22. Shaadi Ilour Pasna - - - 34 - 23. Khingol llor - - - - 4928
Islamabad
1. Rawal Dam - - - 8296 4584
Azad Jammu & Kashmir
1. Manyla Rescrvoir - - 36539 5420 21549
12 PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMMEUV
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ASPECTS
LIST OF CONTENTS
Page Nr.
List of Contents ; List of Tables iv List of Figures v
Abbreviations vi
I - INTRODUCTION I
1.1 General I
1.2 Objectives 1
1.3 Scope of Work I
2 - SAMPLING PROCEDURE 3
2.1 Selection of Drains and Random Wastewater Samples 3
2.2 Selection of Sampling Points 4
2.3 Reconnaissance of Drains 5 2.3.1 Raiwind Main Drain, Raiwind 5 2.3.2 SummandriMai:n Drain, Faisalabad 5 2.3.3 Shikarpur Bratich Drain. Shikarpur 5
2.4 Timing of Sampling 5
2.5 Sampling, Fixation and Transportation 6 2.5.1 Collectionand Fixation 6 2.5.2 Transportation 6 3 - PRESENTATION AND EVALUATIONOF WASTEWATER RESULTS 7
3.1 General 7
3.2 Presentation of Results 7
3.3 Evaluation of Results 7 3.3.1 Physical Test 7 3.3.2 Chemical Analysis Test 8 3.3.1 Toxic Elements AnaiysisTest 8 3.3.2 BacteriologicalAnalysis Test 8
3.4 Raiwind Main Drain, Raiwind 8
3.5 Summandri Main Drain, Faisalahad 7
3.6 Shikarpur Branch Drain, Shikarpur 11
3.7 One Time Random Sampling I1
4 - PESTICIDES 16
4.1 General 16
4.2 Presentation of Results 16
4.3 Discussion on Results 17
5 - ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY OF DRAINS 18
5.1 Assimilation of Contaminants 18
5.2 Types of Contaminant 18
5.3 Methodology 19
5.4 Null Hypothesis 19
5.5 Calculating the AC value ror a Contaminant 19
5.6 Basic Mass Balance for the Summandri Main Drain 19
5.7 Choice or Analytical Section 20 (i) Raiwind Main Drain 20 (ii) SummandriMain Drain 21 (iii) Shikarpur Branch Drain 23
ii SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT
ENVIRONMIENTAL ENGINEERING ASPECTS (ASSPIILATIVE CAPACITY OF DRAINS)
BY
S. A. ZADI 5.8 Discussion 25 (i) Raiwind Main Drain 25 (ii) SummandriMain Drain 25 (iii) Shikarpur Branch Drain 25
5.9 Sampling Procedure 33 (i) Raiwind Main Drain 33 (ii) SummandriMain Drain 33 (iii) Shikarpur Branch Drain 33
5.10 Additional Source(s) of Contamination 33
5.11 Implications 34
5.12 Dilution Technique 35
5.13 D.O. Model 36
6 - ANALYSIS AND EVALUATIONOF SUBSURFACE WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE 38
6.1 General 38
".2 Groundwater Quality 38 6.2.1 Raiwind,Lahore 38 6.2.2 Summandri.Faisalabad 38 6.2.3 Shikarpur,Sindh 38
References
Appendices
A. I Terms of Reference(Sec: 4.10) A.2 EPA Standards A.3 Field SamplingProforma A.4 PARC - Test Report of Pesticides
Hii LIST OF TABLES
Table Nr.
3.1 Groundwaterand WastewaterQuality Raiwind Main Drain 3.2 WastewaterQuality - SummandriMain Drain 3.3 Groundwaterand WastewaterQuality Shikarpur Branch Drain 3.4 One Time Samples - Punjab 3.5 One Time Samples - NWFP 3.6 One Time Samples - Balochistan
4.1 Wastewater Samples for PesticidesResidues
5.1 AssimilativeCapacity of Raiwind Main Drain (First Trip) 5.2 AssimilativeCapacity of Raiwind Main Drain (SecondTrip) 5.3 AssimilativeCapacity of Raiwind Main Drain 5.4 AssimilativeCapacity of SummandriMain Drain (First Trip) 5.5 AssimilativeCapacity of Summandri Main Drain (SecondTrip) 5.6 AssimilativeCapacity of Summandri Main Drain (Single Section) 5.7 Assimilative Capacityof Shikarpur Branch Drain (First Trip) 5.8 AssimilativeCapacity of Shikarpur Branch Drain (SecondTrip) 5.9 AssimilativeCapacity of Shikarpur Branch Drain
iv LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Nr.
2.1 Raiwind Main Drain (Punjab) 2.2 Summandri Main Drain (Faisalabad-Punjab) 2.3 Shikarpur Branch Drain (Sindh) 2.4 Drainage System Punjab - One Time Random Samples 2.5 Kafur Dheri (Phase-Il) - (Peshawar SCARP-NWFP) 2.6 Peshawar Drainage Map (NWFP) 2.7 Mardan SCARP - One Time Random Sample (NWFP) 2.8 Hairdin Surface Drain (Balochistan)
5.1 Raiwind Main Drain (Schematic) 5.2 SummandriMain Drain (Schematic) 5.3 Shikarpur Branch Drain (Schematic)
v ABBREVIATIONS
BOD BiochemicalOxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand Cfs Cubic Feet per second
DO Dissolved Oxygen DS Downstream
EPA EnvironmentalProtection Agency EC Electrical Conductivity E&PHED Enviromnental& Public Health Engineering
FD SummandriMain Drain, Faisalabad
Lab Laboratory
MS Municipal Sewerage MWW Municipal Waste Water mgJL milligrain per litre
NESPAK National Engineering Services Pakistan (Pvt) Limited N.T.U. NephelometricTurbidity Units
OH Overhead
PEPA Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Agency
RD Raiwind Main Drain
SK Shikarpur Branch Drain, Sindh
TDS Total Dissolved Solids T.O.N Threshold Odour Numbers TOR Terms of References T.S.S Total Suspended Solids
UP Upstream u mhos Micromhos
WHO World Health Organisation
vi PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ASPECTS
1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
This report is prepared to fulfil partial requirementof Section 4.10 of the Terms of Reference (TOR) which deals with environmentalhealth and engineering. The report specificallydeals with the study of assimilativecapacity of various selected drains in the country primarily built to drain out the seepage " ater of waterloggedarea from the agricultural farms.
[n addition, to seepage water, these drains also receive municipal and industrial effluents thus pollutingthe main water bodies with adverse effects on aquatic life and on ecology in general.
The report also assesses the qualityof surface drainage of whole Pakistan which is also being polluted due to uncontrolled and untreated discharge to land and natural streams.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
The main purpose of this report is to study the assimilative capacity of selected irrigation/seepagedrains in order to establish the carrying capacity of pollution load due to injection of municipal and industrial waste-water as well as other pollutant carried by this drain from surface drainage.
In addition to this, also included is the assessmentand evaluation of the groundwater quality as well as the quality of surface drainage water from the selected areas of the country.
1.3 SCOPE OF WORK
The scope of wark is defined in Section 4.10 of the TOR and includes item Nos IV thru IX except item no. VIII and is reproduced as Appendix A.I.
The Consultantunderstanding of the scope of work is elaborated as follows:
1. Collectionof wastewatersamples from the mixingpoints of the selected three drains.
2. Collectionof groundwater samples in the vicinity of drains.
3. Field measurement of D.O. pH and temperature.
I 4. Fixation of samples for analysis of various parameters of which concentrationmay change during travelling time from samplingsites to laboratories.
5. Analysis of water and wastewater samples for physical, chemical, toxic, and bacteriologicalparameters and evaluationsof laboratory results based on WHO and PEPA standards for suitability for domesticand irrigation use.
6. Determinationof the assimilativecapacity of selected three number drains.
7. Collectionand analysis of random samplesfrom surface drains from various drainage basin of the country.
2 2 - SAMPLING PROCEDURE
2.1 SELECTION OF DRAINS AND RANDOM WASTE-WATER SAMPLES
Seven (7) Nos drains were listed as a potentialchoice for sampling/evaluationof assimilative capacitiesin the Working Paper No. 3 of the InceptionReport already submittedin November 1991. The Terms of References (TOR) required the assimilative capacity of two drains. However the consultant have selected the following three drains for broad review and study of assimilativecapacities:
i) Raiwind Main Drain, Raiwind ii) Summandri Main Drain, Faisalabad iii) Shikarpur Branch Drain. Shikarpur a) Raiwind Main Drain
Lahore is the 2nd largest city in Pakistan. There are four industrial areas around Lahore. The most recently developed industrial estate is in Chunian, which is 43 km from Lahore, 85 industriesare presently operating and about 40 are under construction. The Punjab Industries Department has so far registered about 158 industries to be eventually established in this Estate. Among the industries in operation, forty eight (48) are textile mills, seven food processing units one paper mill, one chemical industry and twenty-two units which produce miscellaneous products.
Presently in Chunian there is no proper arrangementfor industrial waste disposal in the form of treated effltertq. The untreated effluents are either spread on to the ground or disposed off into the Raiwine ni Drain which carries the untreated effluent. into the SulemankiBalloki Canal. a highly 6.1 csirable practice prohibited by the irrigation laws. In the light of these facts, it was necessaryto study the Raiwind Main Drain for assimilativecapacity to make this report comprehensive. b) Summandri Main Drain, Faisalabad
Faisalahad is a main industrial city in Pakistan. The 80% of textile industriesof Pakistan are working in this city and the land around Faisalabad is very fertile. The waste from these industries are disposed into the SummandriMain Drain which ultimately falls into the river Ravi so the Summandri Main Drain was selected for the study. c) Shikarpur Branch Drain, Shikarpur
Shikarpur is one of the largest city in Sindh. The estimated population is 105.974.
The present municipal'water supply to Shikarpur is 15 MGD. Some of the city sewage is passed through the aeration lagoons. The major portion of sewage is discharged to the Shikarpur branch drain. This drain also receives the sewage from towns near the drain and industrial waste from a ghee and beverage unit.
Villagers living in the vicinity of this drain have installedhandpumps to abstract groundwater tor drinking purpose. The tubewells installed by SCARP, WAPDA are also working in this 3 zone to lower the watertable. The water from these tubewells is being used for irrigation and drinking purpose. Therefore, it-was considered to study this drain. d) Random Sampling
In order to fulfill the requirement of the TOR, Random samples from various drains in Pakistan which represent the qualityof the surface drainagewater receiving the municipaland industrial effluents were collected in one time sampling.
The drains selected for random sampling in Punjab, NWFP and Balochistan provinces are given as follows: i) Random Samples, Punjab
Seven numbers of wastewater samples were collected from Lower Budhi Part 1, Faqirian Sillanwali Drain, Mona Drain, Chiniot Drain, Chak Bandi Main Drain, Paharang Surface Drain and Jaranwala Surface Drain. These samples are collected in different places for general wastewater study in the Province of Punjab. ii) Random Samples, NWFP
Four numbers of wastewater samples were collected from Murdara Drain, Dallas Drain, Budni Nullah and Hisara Drain. These samplesare collectedfrom different places for general wastewater study in Province of NWFP. iii) Random Samples, Balochistan
Three wastewater samples were collected from Hairdin Pump Station, Hairdin Drain and Kirthar Canal. The samples are collected for general wastewater study in the Province of Balochistan.
2.2 SELECTION OF SAMPLING POINTS
A sampling programme was carried out by the Consultantteam for the study pf assimilative capacities of the three selected drains.
The sample were taken along the entire reach of the drain from the start to the tail end at outfall. The sampling points were fixed downstreamof the confluence point and after the mixing zone. The numbers of samples taken from each point has"been kept the same at low flow (Second Trip) and medium flow (First Trip) for Punjab and medium flow (First Trip) and high flow (Second Trip) for Sindh.
The location of the sampling points of three drains are as shown in Figure 2.1, 2.2 & 2.3 respectively.
Similarly one time random samples were also collected to determine chemical and biological characteristicsof the drains located in the drainagesystem of Punjab, NWFP and Balochistan. The location of the sampling points are shown in Figure 2.4 thru 2.8.
4 2.3 RECONNAISANCE OF DRAINS
23.1 Raiwind Main Drain, Raiwind
The Consultantvisited the Raiwind Main Drain near the Raiwindand followedits course upto Balloki-Sulemankilink. The colour of flowing water was found to be blackish grey near the Raiwind and upto Multan road, from where it changed to dark brown due to the inclusionof waste water from Century Paper Mill. It receives the sewage from towns near the drain and industrial waste. The industry around the drain is mainly of textile, one unit of surgical cotton, one sulphuric acid plant, one paper and board mill and one dairy.
During both trips eight (8) nos. of wastewatersamples were collectedand analyzed from the Raiwind Main Drain starting from upstream and upto the outfall in Balloki-Sulemankilink canal. The location has been marked as given in Figure 2.1.
23.2 Summandri Main Drain, Faisalabad
The team visited the SummandriMain Drain from Faisalabadand followed its course upto the bridge near Mamunkanjanand further on upto its outfall into the Ravi river.
The flow as recorded during the first trip varies from 1.29 cusecs at Maduana Branch Drain to 63 cusecs at SummandriMain Drain at the downstreamof confluencesof Awagat Branch Drain and Maduana Branch Drain. The colour of flowing water was found grey near Faisalabadand gradually changedto black. It also receivessewage from towns near the drain. The major industryin Faisalabadis of Textile and all these industriesdispose their wastewater into this drain.
The team collected a total of 16 Nos. wastewater samples in both the trips which were analysed in the laboratory. The locationsof samplingpoints is shown in Figure 2.2.
2.3.3 Shikarpur Branch Drain, Shikarpur
The flow of Shikarpur Branch Drain consists of domestic wastewater and the industrial effluent of beverage and ghee Mill situated in Shikarpur. The discharges of the drain at upstream and downstreamreach was observed to be 9.89 cusecs and 52 cusecs respectively.
The team collected and analyzedtotal 8 Nos. of wastewatersamp!es in both the trips from various points of this drain, as shown in Figure 23. Two samples SK4 & SK-8 of drinking water were also collectedfrom a handpumpand a tubewellof ShikarpurTown, respectively, to determine the quality of drinking water.
2.4 TIMING OF SAMPLING
In order to meet the TOR requirement, sample collection interval was thoroughly planned according to the flow variation in the said drains. The samples collectedfor Raiwind Main Drain and SummandriMain Drain were of low & mediumflow whereas for ShikarpurBranch Drain the samples were collectedduring medium and high flow.
5 2.5 SAMPLING, FIXATION AND TRANSPORTATION
The reliability of result depends on many factors such as collection of the representative water sample, its fixation and transportationto the lab. for analysis.
2.5.1 Collection and Fixation
Each sample was collected and fixed as follows:
Aliguot Container Volume Preservation HoldingTime
A Plastic/ 2 L* Ice/Refrigerate 24 hours Glass in Dark
B Plastic/ 2 L Ice/Refrigerate 48 hours Glass in Dark
C Plastic/ 2 L Sulfuric Acid to 7 days Glass pH <2 Ice/Refrigerate
D Plastic I L Nitric Acid to 6 months Rinsed w/ pH <2. in Dark 1:1 HN03
- Sample bottles were completely filled to prevent loss of dissolvedgases or introductionof air.
Aliquot Analyses
A pH. Coliform. Pesticides. BOD. Conductivity B COD. TDS C COD. Ammonia Nitrogen D Heavy Metals
2.5.2 Transportation
Mainly a four wheel drive vehicle was used in the field. Sampies collectedfrom three drain were carefully stored in the ice boxes and delivered to the lab. within the holding time as described above.
6 Fig: 2.1
D0LbHORE
RD-5 RE-4
LEGEND/ ABBREVIATION LOCATION OF FIELD SAMPLES U RIVER LINK CANAL
DRAIN
RD: RAiWIND MAIN DRAIN SAMPLE POINT
RAIWIND MAIN DRAIN (PUNJAB)
SOURCE;LAHORE GRAINAGE CIRCLE, PB Fig: 2.2
FAISALABAD
U 7Af~~~~~~~~Q
0 Q7~~~~~
LEGEND/ABBREVIATION
LOCATION OF FIELD SAMPLES _ RIVER DRAIN CITY 4',l FDOFAISALABAD MAIN DRAIN
SUMMANDRIMAIN DRAIN (FAISALABAD- PUNJAB) I - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N F ig: 2.3 l
SHARI YASINPUMP STATION N F
o_S, s-2K- o_tx
E s SHI Ql*_SHIKARPUR
SH~~~~4~~~BR *~~~0SKU3 >1-
Ft ~ ~ s
LEGEND/ ABBREVIATION LOCATIONOF FIELD SAMPLES PUMP STATION 0 DRAIN CANAL C ITY SK: SHIKARPUR BRANCH ORAIN SAMPLE POINT
SHIKARPUR BRANCHDRAIN (SINDH)
SOURCE:DRAINAGE DMSION.SHIKARPUR (SINDH) \~~~Fig: 2.4
SARGODHA F
B FAISLABADj
l_ l
LEGEND/ABBREVIATIONL
LOCATION OF \ FILED SAMPLES \ RIVER DRAIN CITY
DRAINAGESYSTEM PUNJAB ONE TIME RANDOM SAMPLES
SOURCE: WAPDA- DRAINAGE SYSTEM (1978) Fig: 2.5
KAFUR DHERI
LEGEND/ABBREVIATION
LOCATION OF FILED SAMPLES RIVER
DRAIN CITY V7-z
KAFUR DHERI(PHASE-I) (PESHAWAR SCARP- NWFP) Fig: 2.6
IVE
FE3SHAWAR
LEGEND/ABBREVIATION LOCATION OF 3 FILED SAMPLES RIVER DRAIN CiTY U
PESHAWARDRAINAGE MAP (N WFP) N Fig. 2.7
: {~~~/\
'K
CHARSADDA
RISALPUR
LEGEND/ABBREVIATION LOCATION OF FIELD SAMPLES U
DRAIN
RIVER
CITY
MARDAN SCARP ONE TIME RANDOM SAMPLE (NWFP)' Fig. 2.8
N
DER/ IAURAD JANALI
DER^ " a0NDRl ALLAUAR H4AIROIM DRAIN
KHIRTHAR CttANAL ru PUMP STAYION ItH~~~~~~KIRTHARt/
LEGEND/ABBREVIATION LOCATION OF FILED SAMPLES DRAIN CANAL CITY PROVINCEBOUNDARY
-iAIRDINSURFACE DRAIN (BALOCHISTAN) 3 - PRESENTATION AND EVALUATION OF WASTE-WATER RESULTS
3.1 GENERAL
The reliability of results depend on many factors like collectionof representativesamnples, its fixation and the method used for analysis. The latest edition of standard method for the examination of water and wastewater was followed. All the tests are performed in the Consultant's laboratory and some parallel tests were performed at PCSIR, and EPA laboratory for the quality assurance. The test for pesticides were conducted in PARC, laboratory of Karachi University.
3.2 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
The results of total 50 Nos of samples (46 waste-water and 4 of groundwater)were collected from Raiwind Main Drain. Summandri Main Drain, Shikarpur Branch Drain and 14 nos of one time random sampling (from various drains in Pakistan)are given in Section 3.4 thru 3.7 herein.
The detail of samples collected and analyzedfor chemicaland biological characteristicsof the wastewater for the above three drains including one time random sampling are listed as below. The results of the analysis is given in the Table numbers indicated in the chart below:
Total Nos. of Name of Drain Sample Collected & Analysed LaboratoryAnalysis Waste-water Groundwater Reslts TableNumber
Raiwind Main Drain 8 2 1 Summandri Main Drain 16 0 2 Shikarpur Branch Drain 8 2 3 One Time Random Punjab 7 0 4 NWFP 4 0 5 Balochistan 3 0 6
Total: 46 4
3.3 EVALUATION OF RESULTS
The results presented in the said Tables have been evaluated on physical, chemical. toxicity and bacteriologicalpoint of view whereas the pesticide results are given in Section 4 herein.
3.3.1 Physical Tests
The physical testing includes various parameters as, colour, turbidity, odour, TDS. Most of
7 the physical parameter were analysed with digital meters. Bef6re testing, the meter were calibrated according to USEPA methods.
3.3.2 Chemical Analysis Test
Chemical analysis such as pH, total hardness iron, copper, sulphate and D.O have been analyzed according to the standard methods. Copper, sulphate, iron were analysed on spectrophotometer,pH and DO with digital meters.
3.3.3 Toxic Elements Analysis Test
The toxic elementsare generally, fluoride, Cyanide, Arsenic, Chromium (Hexavelant),Lead and Mercury, they were analyzed on spectrophotometerand gas chrometograph.
3.3.4 Bacteriological Analysis Test
The samples were separately incubatedfor total coliform, fecal coliform and faecal strepto cocci for which multiple tube method was adopted according to the standard methods.
3.4 RAIWIND MAIN DRAIN, RAIWIND
Wastewater Results
Four selected samples were delivered to the PCSIR laboratories for the bacteriological examination of coliform, fecal coliform and streptococci. The coliform found in different samples were 45 to 300 per ml, faecal coliform 6 to 208 per ml and there was no faecal streptococci in the wastewaters. The chemical analysis for the elements and radicals were analyzed in the E&PHED Laboratory of NESPAK. These results are shown in Table No. 3.1.
The BOD values of Raiwind Main Drain far exceedsthe permissiblelimits of PEPA emission standard of 80 ppm. The drain is polluted and acts as an untreated sewage waters. The DO level in low flows is below the acceptable level as such it is environmentallyhazardous for fish and wildlife. The presence of faecal coliforms can cause adverse impact on human beings who come in contact with water. The level of presence of Grease and oil indicate adverse effect on environments.
3.5 SUMMANDRI MAIN DRAIN, FAISALABAD
Wastewater Results
Eight selected samples were delivered to the PCSIR laboratories for the bacteriological examination of coliform. faccal coliforms and taecal streptococci. The coliform found in different samples were 30 per ml to 190 per ml, faecal coliforms 2 per ml to 60 per ml and no faecal streptococci were found. The chemicalanalysis for the elements and radicals were analyzed in the E&PHED Laboratory of NESPAK. These results are shown in Table No. 3.2.
8 TABLE 3.1 PAICSTAN DRAINAGE SEIR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME) WASTE-WATER QUAJTY
fD _S~ 3Sb_ , e______
HF Trp(lrauury 1 19.1992) SOCOdTrdp(I7 17 8I.1992) G n_d_a SWHOd 'Dn I Sn bidr NO.Sr. PAr m tSm IorIolbele Q_WOkaUtrJ MukapIMUq.M N. n _ Wt_w Smaddd Euml S b39 RD-2 RD-3 RD-6 RDf 7 RD-i RD-3 fD.6 RD-7 Di R6 Wa1 S u 1Snd990 _ I 1191 _ _ _ mdL
1. TemptC 10.6 17.9 241 23.6 24 95 26 31 27.4 15 40 40 2. pH IO5 9.90 7.57 7.13 7.91 7.20 7J0 650 711 7.01 72-5.5 9.5 6.9 3. UOD-S@20C(myJLJ 93 107 370 530 110 215 390 520 200 a 4. TDS (mR'L) 1020 1177 1063 979 1618 1766 1512 155S 536 605 5C0 5000 3500
5. TSS(mfuIL) 320 IaO 280 450 Ito 260 120 330 15O 160 - 400 2W0
6. DO (mpjL) 10.4 9.1 10.4 10.3 1. &I 6.7 6.1 711 7. - - -
7. Ekct.Cunduct(uSIan) 1505 1758 15S3 1471 24.7 2652 2219 2338 809 910 - - -
S. CooerUnii(pH) 5 5 20 20 5 5 20 20 I 1 5 - - 9. Turbidiry(N.T.U) 2 2 5 5 530 660 550 695 0.1 0.1 5 - - 10. Tat ---- Oblecouinable, -uubpcule. - - - It. Odour(T.O.N) 1.4 A 1.7 1.7 IIA A 1.7 1.7 1.0 30 - - 12. COD(mnuL) 112 210 640 920 1S3 240 620 913 400 205
13. Collifomperm l 45 Ss 300 147 50 IOS 250 150 10 9 - .4. Facd3Cotllrinuperml 6 11 208 60 10 15 150 55 No Nl 15. FaemSltrepuciperuml N1d Nil Nil Nd1 NN1 Nil bra N11 11d Nil - - 16. GrQeeOil(pull) OOIS 0.03 0.47 0.212 a78 266 70 322 20 10 17. PtenariCompaet(uQ L) Na NO 12 0.32 Nil N1 1.50 055 Nil N 1.5 0.3 I. Dfterpent(mnqL) 1.2 1.5 4.1 4 1.5 2.0 4.5 4.3 30 20 19. N13 (muglL) 3.5 3A 02S 0.27 4 4.2 oS 0.2 75 40 '0. C (mpJL) 40 39 75 21. C12 (mgL) 1N Ni Nd NM Nil Nil No 3d 1i1 Nil I 1 22. Cr (uWL) NIl I 0.3 0.3 NIl Nil 05 0.5 2 1 23. Cu (uJL) Nil NIld Nl Nil IQ1 WNt NO WNd Nil Nil 4 1 24. Fl l(UL) Wl Nil Nil Nl Nil Nl NIl id 10 23. Fe Toud (ugiL) Nil Nil 0.1 26. Hg(upJL) Nil N1 NO Nil No NN3 N1 Nil 01 0.01 27. Mg(mPL) 15 10 50 28. Ni (uujL) N NilN11 1111 NU 1a N113 Ni Nl 2 1 29. Ca -- I (mgL) 187 243 N11 NI 254 282 232 Nld 1000 1000 30. Harduess(mjL) 102 120 116 132 1U4 196 166 176 152 350 100 - - 31. S04 -2(mugL) IS 52 2J0 250 45 96 286 2Sf 140 130 20 1000 1O00 31 Chloride 70 65 2QO 33. Al NI Nil 34. Pericde ------0.75 0.15 35. Dsdarpe (Cume) 0.514 0.714 .o0 1i029 OAS7 0.571 057 0.943 Notes Ablbiations 'Un Thviramenl PWoleedon Apuq RD - Rind Dain Sample l.mdo.u .U ind.
9 TABLE 3.2 PAKISTAN DRAINAGE SEP.CR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (NAMlONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME) WASTE-WATER OUALITY
NDnmi *?Aa PFruTrip(Fdwny2 m 4.I 992) SeuamdTdfp(IJue 29* 30.1992) Dri S o r Sr. Ourlity Mumicipal Lquid NO. PAmaMersM SAd w UEfle SlnaSw& FD-I FD-3 FD-4 FD-5 FD-6 FD-7 FD-a FD-10 PD-I D-3 FD-4 FD-5 PD-6 FD-7 PD-6 FD-tO an" 19N0
1. Tamp.T 212 19.3 22Z7 163 21.2 20A 23 173 319 37.3 34. 3511 34.7 36.0 353 34.9 40 40 2. pit 8.49 8,40 7.90 &OS 7.97 8.45 5.12 5.16 8.74 8.29 &8.0 .78 6m .33 7.97 7.76 9.5 6.9 3. IOD^5 @2OCCmuIL) 230 120 320 31 99.3 51A 154.1 58 260 230 I40 85 225 60 160 225 200 s0 4. TIS (ampL) 1380 220 2570 712 1980 1237 2091 14. 2350 4140 3280 2151 3330 1739 2920 2560 500 3500 5. TSS(mgIL) 230 440 ebS 6C0 1160 3540 1720 1440 610 1130 830 640 820 520 750 1180 400 200 o. DO(mfL) 9.4 86 9.7 9.4 10.3 10.6 10.4 9.3 3.9 0 0 35 0 5.3 0 0 - -
7. Elea. Condud.(uSIcm) 2360 3350 3360 1070 3010 1861 3135 2791 3642 6350 4910 3225 5070 2690 4380 3840 - -
6. Color Unit(pli) 30 130 140 70 130 sO 120 120 90 150 150 70 140 s0 140 140 - -
9. Turbidity(N.T.U) 1 2 2 16 2 16 2 2 430 30JSO 203W 7400 3019 15430 1372 145 - -
10. Tmte _.: . Objc __on- _ _ I1. Odour(T.O1N I 1 4 1.4 2.A 1 2 3.A 1.0 2.0 40 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.4 - - 12. COD(mpit 430 231 690 100 210 110 310 130 6eo 520 392 176 4C0 120 372 404 400 150
13. Collifm per ml 190 47 160 90 67 30 78 87 210 60 170 95 7tl 30 so 90 - -
14. FaxoJ Coliform perml 4 45 I3 25 2 20 60 30 8 50 12 25 18 15 30 25 - -
35. Faeal Sreptoi perml Nl NllNl ir l Nil NlW Nil Nil Ni Nil Nil Nil Ni Ni Nil Nil - - 16. GreaseOil(pndL) 0.012 OM 0.J52 042 .051 009 0.043 0.037 100 I31 182 174 130 80 172 145 20 10 37. Thcnuaic-npact(uaL) Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Ni Nil Nil Ni Nild Ni Nil Nil Nil Nit Nil 1.5 0.3 38. Dergcnt((mpjL) 05 2 25 0.1 2 5 2 0.2 0.5 25 25 0.2 2.5 5.0 2.5 2.0 30 20 19. N113 (mpJL) 03 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.5 0(5 0.3 0.5 0.3 OA 0.4 75 40 20. C02(mgL) Nil NI Nil Ni Nil Nil N NNi i Ni Ni Ni Nil Nil Nil Nl NU I I 21. Cr(up7L2 Nil 350 350 Niil 330 Nl 3C0 250 Nil 380 370 Nil 320 Nl 310 250 2 1 22. Cu (ug1.) Nil 230 20 NIl 320 NIl 290 290 Nl 240 295 Nl 210 Nd 295 230 4 1
23. Fl upt) Nl 83 Nil Nl Ni Nil Nil N.l Nil Nil Nil Ni Nil Nil Nid Nl Nil 10 24. 13g(ugfI) Nl Nl Ni Nl NilNi Ni NIl Ni Nil Nil Nil Ni Nil Nil Nil Ni 0.1 0.01 '5. NiIug}.) Nil 51 54 Nl 52 Nil 52 50 Ni 55 60 Nil 55 Nil 53 50 2 1 26. Cl--I (mpL) 533 640 765 77.5 525 130 570 525 312 484 375 475 414 197 347 257 3000 1000
27. llardncss(mnJL) 132 172 256 64 202 74 214 2.64 142 306 214 86 302 96 226 204 - - 28. S04 -- 2(mpfL 110 250 :30 170 250 110 270 275 125 Z25 352 32 152 75 166 15J 3000 1000
29. Pestidde - - - 0.75 0.15 30. Difsxdre(aamcs) 037 1.589 0.57 O.3 1.800 1.303 I06 1543 O.2 1.330 1Sa01 OD4 0.971 0.429 0.701 0.691 Notes: Ahfrviatious Ilakia EFnviroeumcat Peosecdo. Apncy
FD - Sumuwad,i fiSMnDmuin Saul, Lotions. FPisalad
10 The BOD values of Summandri Main Drain far exceeds the permissible limits of PEPA emission standrd of S0 ppm. The drain is polluted and acts as an untreated sewage waters. The DO level in low flows is below the acceptable level as such it is environmentally hazardous for fish and wildlife. The presence of fecal coliform.scan cause adverse impact on human beings who come in contact with water. The level of presence of Grease and oil indicate adverse effect on environments.
3.6 SHIKARPUR BRANCH DRAIN, SINDH
Wastewater Results
Four selected samples were delivered to the PCSIR laboratories for the bacteriological examination of coliform, fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci. The coliform found in different wastewater samples are 120 per ml to 300 per ml, for drinking water 9 per ml to 10 per ml, fecal coliform in wastewater samples are 60 per ml to 140 per ml, for drinking water 3 per ml to 4 per ml and no fecal streptococci were found in wastewater as well as in ground water. The chemical anlaysis for the elements and radicals were analyzed in the E&PHED Laboratory of NESPAK. These results are shown in Table 3.3.
The BOD values of Shikarpur Branch Drain far exceeds the permissible limits of PEPA emission-standrdof 80 ppm. The drain is polluted and acts as an untreated sewage waters. The DO level in low flows is below the acceptable level as such it is enviromnentally hazardous for fish and wildlife. The presence of fecal coliforms can cause adverse impact on human beings who come in contact with water. The level of presence of Grease and oil indicate adverse effect on env.-onments.
3.7 ONE TEIE RANDOM SAMPLING
Wastewater Results
Fourteen (14) selected sampleswere deliveredto the PCSIR laboratory for the bacteriological examination of coliformn,fecal coliform and fecal strepto cocci. The coliform found in different wastewater samples were 75 per ml to 160 per ml in Punjab, 85 to 150 in NWFP and from 10 to 25 in Balochistan.The fecal coliform found were 10 per ml to 30 per mllin Punjab, 10 to 20 in NWFP and none in Balechistan samples. No fecal strepto cocci were found in any of the Drainage Basin. The chemicalanlaysis for the elements and radicals were analyzed in the E&PHED Laboratoryof NESPAK. These results are shown in Table 3.4, 3.5 & 3.6 respectively.
11 TABLE 3.3 PAKISTAN DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAAME) WASTE-WATER OUALITY
WHO N-rmd *MAEHmhino Sr. FlnrtTdIp(Fdery 16 *r 18.t992) S_a:dTrip(JJu1y2D dk 22.b1992) Gundumw S _da Drali Sandlws6fr No. ftaamu _ rWPOM O. tI Hpo11e thtliid wauvrW Omu S t _11unSt_ SK-2 SK-3 St-5 Sli-6 SR-2 FSK-3 SK.-S SK-6 SIC- 5K-I 1991 afir 1990
I . Temp. C 20.9 21.2 Z25 17.1 373 34.5 36.7 363 27A 185 - 40 40 2. pH 7.57 6.96 7.29 7.5 7.55 657 6.75 7.15 711 7.0 75-45 95 69 3. 3OD320C(ap/L) 115 210 350 145 110 230 370 10 200 U 4. TDS(uajL) 1058 1178 1082 967 1392 993 1025 714 536 605 W 5s0o 3500 5. 155 (mjL) 50 1320 1040 260 450 700 520 570 10 160 - 400 2C0 6. DO(atyL) 7.9 35 0.1 8.6 8.3 6 5.7 8.5 7.11 7J - - - 7. Elam C=dm:L(uSk) 1506 1766 1603 1432 2090 1430 1330 1120 09 910 - - - 8. ColorUnit(pH) S 5 5 3 I I S - - 9. TurwidiaN.T.U) 4 7 9 4 130 2335 1875 1530 0.1 0.1 5 - - 10. Tute - O%jedonlce- - Umabjeciiaae - - - 11. Omr(T.O.) 1 2 12 1.4 1.0 2.0 2.5 1.0 I I - - - 12. COD(mpfL) 230 590 730 290 190 420 510 210 400 105 13. Cadiomperml 120 180 300 122 100 200 300 130 10 9 - - - 14. FPaaDCofli6m perml 60 140 130 so 70 160 150 30 3 4 - - - 15. Fle StrepomipcrnD NDl Nd Nil Nit No Nil Nil Nil Nil il - - - 16. Graae aOal(PaJL) 0.013 0.31 o06 0OS4 7 20 40 30 - - - 20 10 17. helii CompactuiL) Nil Nil ND NilN NilN Nild Nil Ni Nil Ni - 1.5 03 18. Daempu (mXL) 3 5.3 5.5 3 2.0 4.2 4.0 31. 30 20 19. N113(mL) 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 O.0 75 40 20. Ci2(m.IL) Ni Nif NitN ND Ni Nil Ni Nl Ni Nd - I 1 21. Cr (uMOL) Nid ND Ni N - li Nl Nil N 2 1 2'. Cu (qfL) Ni Nd Nil Ni Nil Ni Nil N Nil Nd - 4 I 23. Fi (urjL) N Nd Ni NlD Nil N Nil Nit 10 24. HRg(uINdL) Ni Nil Nil Nil Nil Ni Nil Ni 0. O1 23. Nu (gjL) Nil Nd NiD Nid Nil Ni Nil Ni * 1 26. Ca -1 (miL) 330 365 310 23Z 337 145 121 III 1000 1000 27. Hfrdncu(mpjL) 176 196 206 194 170 96 113 90 132 10 100 -I 28. S04--2(mgL) 70 130 328 90 12S 70 90 65 140 130 200 1000 1000 :9. CNorme(mu#L) 70 63 200 30. Al (ugjLj Nil Nil - 31. FeTotd(uldL) Nid Nil 0.1 32. Co (aagL) 40 39 73 33. Mg(upJL) IS 10 50 34. Ptsicide ------0.75 0.1 35. Dih,b-pwe: ) 0.543 006 0.281 1.486 0.55 0.006 1.68 4.743 _ _ Noum: Abeviatkon I Paiso. Enavirom imldPnroacm AV=7 SI - Shikrzar Bnndh D1n>Saope lAoaon. Sikwpur.
12 TABLE 3.4 PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME) WASTE WATER QUALITY (PUNJAB)
OPEPAEmicsion One Time Sanples (May 03 thru 09.1992) Nomd Standards for Sr. Chak Drain Municipal liquid No. Parameters Lower Faqirian Bandi Paharang Jaranwala Quality EMfluent Budhi Sillanwa;i Mona Chiniot Main Surface Surface Standards Standard after Part I Drain Drain Drain Drain Drain Drain j11 1990m -
1. *Temp.C 23 28 22 20 25 24 18 40 40 2. pH 7.60 820 8.70 8.10 8.01 8.10 7.39 9.5 69 3. BOD^5@20C mg/L 99 107 70 112 86.0 245.0 105.0 200 80 4. TDS mg/L 360 8120 3420 872 2820 3100 4160 5000 3500 5. TSS mg/L 320 1020 1030 440 1070 860 610 400 200 6. DO mg/L 6.5 9.8 5.6 2.9 0 0 1 7. Elect. Conduct. uSkm 534 12200 5280 1314 4269 4650 6300 S. Color Unit pH 7.6 80 70 120 80 130 70 80 9. Turbidity N.T.U 130 480 230 530 1530 2230 440 10. Taste --- Objectionable--- 11. Odour T.O.N 2.0 1.4 4.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 12. COD mglL 234 266 198 362 227 451 150 400 I50 13. Colliform per ml 160 115 90 78 95 90 75 14. Fecal Collirorm per ml 25 15 20 30 IS 20 10 15. Faccal Streptococci per ml Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 16. Grease&Oil mg/l_ 15 20 120 80 195 75 25 20 10 17. Phenoli Compact ug/L Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 1.5 0.3 18. Dctergcnt mg/L 0.5 1 3.0 5.0 3.0 2.5 2.0 30 20 19. NH3 mg/Q 0.3 0.2 03 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.3 75 40 20. C12 mg/L Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil I 1 21. Cr ug/L Nil Nil Nil 200 Nil 250 Nil 2 1 22. Cu ug/L Nil Nil Nil 115 Nil 180 Nil 4 1 23. Fl ug/L Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 10 24. Hg ug/L Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 0.1 0.01 25. Ni ugyL Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 2 1 26. Ca^-I mg/L 24 167 180 92 103 155 66 1000 1000 27. Ilardness mg/L 30 390 450 50 310 290 370 28. S04--2 mglL 155 310 215 114 190 205 290 1000 1000 29. Discharge Cumecs 1.98 6.25 7.7 4.1 3.7 3.6 1.96 Note: Abbreviation "Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency
13 TABLE 35 PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME) WASTE WATER QUALITY (NWFP)
*PEPAFtision OncTime Sampks (May 09.1992 Normal Standardsfor Sr. Drain Municipalliquid No. Paramcters Murdara Dallas Budni Hisara Ouality EflMuent Drain Drain Nullah Drain Standards Standardsafter _ ~~~~~~~~~~~mR41990Mrn4
1. Temp.-C 26.0 27.0 25.0 24.0 40 40 2. p1l 7.59 7.5 7.27 7.62 9.5 6.9 3. BOD^5 @ 20C mg/L 76 52 84 125 200 80 4. TDS mg/L 434 312 345 384 5000 3500 5. 1i5 mg/L 990 1100 1380 450 400 200 6. DO mgl/L 4.4 4.7 4.3 4.7 7. Qlct. Conduct. uSkm 650 471 522 575 8. Color Unit pH 7,.6 80 130 130 70 9. Turbidity N.T.U 1080 1350 1240 570 10. Taste --- Objcctionable--- 11. Odour T.O.N 2.0 1.4 2A 2.0 12. C.OD mg/Q 160 88 115 160 400 150 13. Colliform perml 85 135 ISO 145 14. Fecal Colliform per ml 15 10 20 10 15. Faccal Streptococci per ml Nil Nil Nil Nil 16. Greasc& Oil mg/L 44 222 38 64 20 10 17. PhenoliCompact uglL Nil 130 Nil Nil 15 03 18. Dctergent mg/L 5 0.5 3.0 2.5 30 20 19. N113 mg/I 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.5 75 40 20. a2 mgIL Nil Nil Nil Nil 1 1 21. Cr ug/L Nil Nil Nil Nil 2 1 22. Cu ug*L Nil Nil Nil Nil 4 1 23. Fl ug/L Nil Nil Nil Nil 10 24. Hg ugjL Nil Nil Nil Nid 0.1 0.01 25. Ni ugtL 54 Nil Nil Nil 2 1 26. Cl-1 mg/L 31 17 16 9 1000 1000 27. flardncss mg/L 20 15 12 8 28. S04--2 mg/L 155 135 165 180 1000 1000 29. Discharge Cumnccs 5.0 4.25 5.9 12.0 Note: Abbreviations *PakistanEnvironmcntal Protection Agency.
14 TABLE 3.6 PAIUSTAN-DRAINAGE SECrOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME) WASTE WATER QUALrIY (BALOCHISTAN)
*PEPA Emission One Tue Samples(luly 0LS1992) Normal Standards for Sr. Drain Municipal liquid No. Parameter Hairdin Hairdin Kirthar Quality Emuent Pump Drain Canal Standards Standards after Station mn/I 1990mwl
1. Temp. C 352 37.0 351 40 40 2. pH 7.10 7.30 720 9.5 6.9 3. BOD - 5 @ 20C mg/L 90 120 70 200 80 4. IDS mg/L 2980 2444 427 5000 3500 5. 'fS mg/iL 780 900 1000 400 200 6. DO mg/L 2.9 3.2 3.1 7. ElecL Conduct. uSkcm 4540 4160 638 . Color Unit pH 7.6 1 1 5 9. Turbidity N.T.U 200.0 240.0 730.0 10. Taste -- - Objectionable --- It. Odour T.O.N 1.0 1.0 IA 12. COD mg/L 128 168 144 400 150 13. Colliform per ml 10 13 25 14. Fecal Colliform per ml Nil Nil Nil IS. Faecal Streptococci per ml Nil Nil Nil 16. Grease & Oil mgL Nil Nil Nil 20 10 17. Phenoli Compact ug/L Ni; Nil Nil 1.5 0.3 18. Detergent mg/IL Nil Nil 0.2 30 20 19. NH3 mg/I Nil Nil Nil 75 40 20. C12 mg/L Nil Nil Nil 1 1 21. Cr ugri Nil Nil Nil 2 1 22 Cu ug/L Nil Nil Nil 4 1 23. Fl ug/L Nil Nil Nil 10 24. Hg ugI. Nil Nil Nil 0.1 0.01 25. Ni ug/L Nil Nil Nil 2 1 26. C1^-1 mg/L 88 83 86 1000 1000 27. Hardness mg/L 396 400 98 28. S04--2 mg/L 420 385 170 1000 1000 29. Discharge Cumecs 5.8 11.2 Note: Abbreviations Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency
15 4 - PESTICIDES 4.1 GENERAL
In an agricultural-basedcountry such as Pakistan where thousands of tons of pesticides are importedannually for spraying over the vegetable, fruit and agricultural plants such as cotton, sugarcane, wheat, maize etc, the environment is badly contaminatedby the effect of highly toxic pesticides. Latest research in U.K has revealed that agricultural products which during nourishment have been subjectedto chemical spraying are harmful to human use.
The pesticides used at present are mostly synthetic organic compounds. The principal processes that disperse pesticidesfrom soil to groundwaterare volatilization,decomposition, and transport by water.
Synthetic organic pesticides may be decomposed in different ways. Those applied to plant foliage or the soil surface may be broken down rapidly by sunlight. Decomposition by sunlight may be one reasor. for the fact that most of the pesticidesthat have been detected in groundwater were found in soils which travelled to groundwater.
The principal mechanism by which pesticides are transported from soil to groundwater is downward percolation of water containing dissolved pesticides. The relative potentials for movement of different pesticides to groundwater in different soil may be estimated by applying known quantities of the pesticides to the soil, adding equal quantities of water and measuring the content of the various ppsticides in the drainage water or the distance to which the pesticides move in the soil.
Some organic pesticides such as chlordane, DDT and dieldrin, decompose very slowly and may persist for years. The residues of these pesticides contaminate the surface water. groundwater and soils and remain there for decades. They are highly Toxic elements that cause cancer. Use of such pesticides has a:lre-adybeen restricted and/or prohibited in western countries and should be discouraged for use. 4.2 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
In the study area of Raiwind, Faisalabad and Shika-pur, three major crops receive pesticides which are sugar can, wheat and cotton. Cotton receivesthe bulk of insecticides. Nearly 90% farmers in the area use insecticidespray to control insect pests. The main insecticidesin use are
I. Monocrotophos 2. Cypermethrin 3. Cyhalothrin 4. Dimethoate
The top three parameter were analysed and the results are presented in the following Table 4.1
16 TABLE 4.1 WastewaterSamples for Pesticide Residues
Sample Results Allowable No.(*) Pesticide to be tested (ppm) (mg/L)
101 Cypermethrin Nil 0.15 102 Monocrotophos 0.022 0.15 103 Cyhalothrin 0.0008 0.15
(*) Note: 101 - This pesticide is used in Raiwind 102 - This pesticide is used in Faisalabad 103 - This pesticide is used in Shikarpur.
4.3 DISCUSSION ON RESULTS
A. Raiwind Drain
The downstreamsample from Raiwinddrain was analysed and the result is Nil. The drain is not contaminatedby the pesticides used in the vicinity.
B. SummandriDrain
The results shows that monochrotophosis present as .022 ppm wnich is very low from the PEPA limit.
C. Shikarpur
Results indicates the slight presence i.e. .0008 ppm of cyhalothrin, which is insecticidesused on cotton. The .0008 ppm is well below from the PEPA stand.
17 5 - ASSIMILATIVECAPACITY OF DRAINS
5.1 ASSIMILATION OF CONTAMIANTS
When some pollutants are mnxedwith water, chemical and biological changes may occur which result in their gradual breakdown to less complex and generally less dangerous ones. The rates at which differentchemicals and biologicalpollutants are detoxifiedor broken down depends on many different factors, particularly the temperature, dilution and amount of oxygen available, but many detoxificationprocesses can proceed under anaerobic conditions.
However, whilst some pollutants - for example, simple ionic salts of metals such as copper or chromium - may be detoxified by absorption by active soil particles or by plankton, others are not degraded by any chemical or biochemicalprocesses. In this Assessment, the most significant contaminantof water in the latter class is salt - sodium chloride. Salt can only be diluted with freshwater if its effects on the envirommentare to be reduced.
The ability of the water in drains to provide the conditionswhich allow these processes to occur determines the assimilativecapacity (AC) of a drain. The process is one in which the concentration of a pollutant is reduced by natural processes to a level which is below that which would have occurred due to simple dilution alone. The dimensions appropriate to this property are therefore mass/unitvolume of water/time- for example, grammesof biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) per cubic metre per day, gBOD/cumec, or some such unit. Since the water is moving, there is clearly also a relationshipbetween the absolute rate of degradation and the distance downstream that the water mass travels, and this can also be incorporated to provide a practically useful dimensionas, for example, g/cumec/lkm.
5.2 TYPES OF CONTAMINANT
Not all contaminants are broken down by the same processes. Therefore, the assimilative capacity of any waterzourse must be expressed according to the values which refer to each of the individual contaminants. If chemical toxins reduce or eliminatethe bacteria which are responsible for reducing BOD, for example, then the AC for the toxins may be high whilst that for BOD may be very low. So the existing quality of the water before an effluent is discharged to it, and the actual mixture of contaminants in the effluent itself, determine the residual AC available for detoxifying any new effluent.
Since the AC also depends on living organisms - bacteria, algae, etc - for the detoxification of the contaminants, factors such as temperature and light intensity are also important, and these are of course variable both diurnally and seasonally. This means that AC is site-specific and conditional - it is.not possible to derive a single value which will be appropriate for all pollutants at all times. And since detoxificationproceeds at different rates, each individualAC value will change at a different rate as the water flows down the drain.
18 53 METHODOLOGY
In the present study, the concentrationsof pollutantsin a number of water samplestaken from three drains on at least two different occasions have been determined. Additionalrelevant site data for the determinationof AC values are the amount of water passing through the system, the distance apart of the samplingsites, and the temperatureof the water. Tbe samples were taken, preserved, stored and analysed according to standard procedures.
5.4 NULL HYPOTHESIS
In order to calculate the AC for any chemicalcontaminant, a mldlhypothesis is first adopted, then tested to discover whether or not the predictionsmade are borne out by the analysis. In the present case, the null hypothesis is that the same mass of the contaminant which enters the system at one point in the drain will leave it at a lower point. So regardless of dilution, if the appropriate quantity of the contaminant is detected at both the upstream and the downstream sites, then no degradation has occurred, and the AC value for that contaminant is zero.
If, however, there is an unaccountableloss as revealed by analysis of the downstream water sample, then some form of degradation has occurred, and the drain has a positive AC value for that contaminantand under the ambient conditions. An increase, denoting a negative AC value, is only possible if there is no breakdownand a reduction in dilution - this would occur for salt in an evaporationpond, for example.
5.5 CALCULATINGTHE AC VALUE FOR A CONTAMINANT
In order to detect whether there is a positive AC value for any contaminant, it is necessary to construct a mass balance equation. This treats whatever is happening upstream of the initial sampling site as a 'black box' - as long as we know the parameters for the sampling site itself, what happens upstream is considered to be unrelated to downstream processes. All inputs and outputs between the upstream and the downstream sites must be measured, including such mass transfers as seepage into or out of the drain itself. The difference (if any) between the input and output sides of the equation represents the AC for that contaminant.
5.6 BASIC MASS BALANCE FOR THE RAIWIND MAIN DRAIN, SUMMANDRI MAIN DRAIN AND SHDKARPUR BRANCH DRAIN
The schematic layout of the Raiwind Main Drain, Summandri Main Drain and Shikarpur Branch Drain are shown in Figures 5.1, 5.2 & 53. In this, the course of the drain is represented by the horizontal line. All known sources of water flowing into or out of the drain are represented by arrows above and towards the drain (gains) or arrows below and away from it Oosses). Sampling points are marked as points, whilst measured flows in the drain and feeders are shown in cumecs. The distances between sampling points are shown in kilometres.
19 FIG.5.1 Raiwind Main Drain (Schematic)
Secioin III Scction If Sccion I
/- w -- 2112- - Km - 101.1 Kni- WA9XfKm RD-7 RD-6 RD.5 RD4 RD-.3 RD-2 RD. I ,4 Flow SeepageIn 'r
Sr. No. Sampling Poinus Flow (First Trip) Flow (SccondTrip) (Cumcxs) (CumeXs) 1. RD-1 0.457 RD-2 d.514 Q457 3, RD-3 11714 (1571 4 RD.4 11.857 ... 5. RD.5 0.914 . RD-6 ll)U(X11 057 7 RD-7 1.021 0.9.1 FIG. 5.2 Summandri Main Drain (Schematic)
.7~~ ~ ~~~:~
IKm $m 2
18Km 15Km 7Krn 7Km 22Knm .AKm 6Km FD.IO, FD.9 FD.8. FD-6 FD4 FD.3 FD-2 FD-1 Scctlion I J# 4 Flow SccPpagOutl IF Sccpagc 4IF
Sr. No. SampilngPoint. Flow(Flrt Trip) Flow(Second Trip) (Cumcz) (Cumez) 1. FD1 Q037 QI)29 2. FD-2 (179 ... 3. FD.3 1.589 I J 4. FD4 (Li71 0..i I 5. FD5 WU)46 6 FD-6 0.971 7. FD-7 0.'13.429 N. FD48 1.064 0.701 9. FD-9 1.620 ... 1(L PD. 10 1.943 (JI FIG.5.3
Shikarpur Branch Drain (-Schematic )
SK-7 SK-0 SK-2 SK.I
10Km5 III - 2.5Km Flow
\11Km * SK-3
Pnmary 'Seweragc TrcatedScwerage Water fromLagoon
SeepageOut SK.5 ScepagcIn /
Sr. No. SampilngPaints Flow(Flrst Trip) Flow(Sccond Trip) (cumas) (Cumec) 1. SK1 Q886 X. SK-2 O.543 0.5SO .3. SK.3 d(o6 QW6 4. SK!5 Q281 L.fi 5. SK.6 1.4586 4743 h. SK.7 5.7 CHOICE OF ANALYTICALSECTION
-li) Raiwind Main Drain
A number of effluents are discharged to the drain at its different ends inluding those fm textile mill, at the sampling point (RD-2), ROCCO Ice Factory at the samplingpoint (RD-3) and effluent from centery boards, textile mill and sulfuric acid fctory at the samplingpoint (UD-6).
The points RD-2, RD-3, RD-6 and Rd-7 provides the best conditionsfor calculatingthe AC values. The points RD-2 and RD-3 are sufficientlyclose to each other, the points RD-3 and RD-6 are not so close to each and the points RD-6 and RD-7 are very close to each other.
Calculating the mass balance for section RD2-RD3, RD3-RD6 and RD6-RD7
Under the null hypothesis the mass values at RD-2, RD-3, RD-6 and RD}7 respectively should be identical, after making allowances for other gains and losses. So to express the masses in appropriate dimension,
(RD. x flow) = M x V. g/sec
First Tnog
At RD-2, for BOD:
(M. x V-) = 93 x 0.514 = 47.83 glcumec
At Rd-3, for BOD
(M3 x V3) = 107 x 0.714 = 76.43g/cumec
At Rd-6, for BOD
M6 x V6) = 370 x 1 = 370 g/cumec
At Rd-7, for BOD
(M7 x V7 ) = 530x 1.029 - 545.14 g/cumec
Therefore the rate of degradation of BOD in RD2-RD3, RD3-RtD6and RD6-Rd7 are 47.83- 76.43 = -28.6 g/cumec, 76.43-370 = -293.57 glcumec and 370-545.14 = -174.14 glcumec respectively.
Since RD-2, RD-3 are 10.3 km apart, the AC for BOD is -2.78 g/cumec/km, RD-3, RD-6 ~are20.2 km apart, the AC for BOD is -14.53 g/cumec/km, and RD-6, RD)7 are 0.969 km apart, the AC for BOD is -179.7 g/cumec/ln.
20 Seoond Tripg
At RD-2, for BOD:
(M2 x V2) = l x 0.457 = 50.29 g/cumec
At Rd-3, for BOD
7 (M 3 X V3) = 115 x 0.5 1 = 65.71 g/cumec At Rd-6, for BOD
(MxV, = 390 x 0.857 = 334.29 glcumnec
At Rd-7, for BOD
(M7 x V) = 520 x 0.943 = 490.29 glcumec
Therefore the rate of degradation of BOD in RD2-RD3, RD3-RD6 and RD6-Rd7 are 50.29- 65.71 = -15.42 g/cumec, 65.71-334.29 = -268.58 g/cumec and 334.29-490.29 = -156 g/cumec respectively.
Since RD-2, RD-3 are 10.3 km apart, the AC for BOD is -1.50 g/cumec/km, RD-3, RD-6 are 20.2 km apart, the AC for BOD is -13.30 g1cumec/km,and RD-6, RD-7 are 0.969 km apart, the AC for BOD is -160.99 glcumec/km.
Values for other chemical and biological contaminants:
Using this methodology, the following AC values are obtained for the three sections of the drain in the two visits.
fii) Sunnuandri Main Drain
A number of effluents are discharged to the Drain at its upper end, including those from at least three mills discharging water presumed to originate from tubewells in the area. These discharge above the uppermost samplingpoints (ED 1). In addition, a substantialamount of sewerage effluent runs to the drain from Faisalabadimmediately upstream of sample sites FD 3 and FD 4. There is marked seepage into the Drain between Fl) I and FD 2, which can be deduced at around 5 cusecs by simple subtraction. The volume of the first Faisalabad discharge is deduced to be in the region of 49.3 cusecs, but the volume of the second cannot be deduced. This is because there is a very substantialloss of dcainwaterbetween FD 3 and FD 4, despite the contributionfrom this second effluent.
It is clear therefore that it is not appropriateto attempt to calculate the AC value above FD 4, since the data on mass flows are incomplete.
Between FD 4 and FD 6 the only surface water source is a small lii! drain running from the vicinity of the Chenab Canal, for which both the discharge and the compositionare known.
21 Below FD 6, seepage and surface rainfall runoff is known to enter the Drain above FD 8, but tde dischargesat FD 6 and FD 8 indicate a very substantialmass loss from the Drain channel between the two samplingpoints. This shows that seepage out of the Drain exceeds seepage and run-off into it. The magnitude of neither of these flows is known, and it must be appreciated that the quality of water flowing from the ground into the drain is certainly different from that flowing out by seepage. Tberefore, the mass transport of contaminants through the system cannot be determined, and the section between FD 6 and FD 8 is unsuitable for analysis of the AC values.
Below FD 8, seepage losses and gains are inferred rather than measured directly. Initially, at least, therefore, the section between FD 4 and FD 6 appears to provide the best conditions for calculating the AC values. The discharge of the Chenab drain is small comparedwith the main Drain flow, and contaminantsare low in concentration.In addition, the samplingpoint FD 6 is sufficientlyclose to the discharge for the points to be treated as one, in the sense that any seepage gains or losses in the immediate vicinity are unlikely to be significant.
Calculating the mass balance for section FD 4 - FD 6.
The masses of the contaminants in FD 5 contribute to those in FD 6. But since these sampling points are so close together, deductingthe masses of FD 5 from those in FD 6 will provide a good approximationof the residual concentrationsof the contaminants from FD 4 at that point in the drain. The difference between the two points, expressed for each contaminant as
(FD 4 * flow) - ((FD 6 * flow) - (FD 5 * flow))
represents the change in mass of each over the 7kn section of the Drain.
Under the null hypothesisthe mass values at FD 4 and FD 6 respectivelyshould be identical, after making allowancesfor other gains and losses. So to express the masses in an appropriate dimension,
(FDn * flow) = Mn * Vn g/sec where M is the mass of the contaminantin g/1000l/sec and V is the volume in thousand litres/sec
(Note:- mgfl = glcubic metre)
First Trip
So at FD 4, for BOD:
(M4 * V4) = 320 x 0.57 = 182.4 g/cumec
At FD 6, for BOD:
(M4 * V4) = (M6 * V6) - (M5 * V5) = (99.3 x 1.8) - (31 x 0.046) = 177.31 gJcumec
22 Therefbre the rate of degradation of BOD is 182.4 - 177.31 = 5.09 glcumec
Since FD 4 and FD 6 are 7km apart, the AC for BOD is 0.73 glcumec/km
Seond TriR
So at FD 4, for BOD:
(M4 * V4) 140 x 0.50 = 70.2 glcumec
At FD)6, for BOD:
(M4 * V4) = (M6 * V6) - (MSV5)
- (225 x0.971) -(85x 0.034) = 218.57-2.89 = 215.68 g/cumec
Therefore the rate of degradation of BOD is 70.2 - 215.68 = -145.48 g/cumec.
Since FD 4 and FD 6 are 7 km apart, the AC for BOD is -20.783 glcumec/lan.
Values for other chemical and biological contaminants.
Using this methodology, the following AC values are obtained for this section of the Drain on the two visits:
(iii) Shikarpur Branch Drain
A number of effluents are dischargedto the drain at its different ends includingthe sewerage pumped at sampling point SK-3 and at sampling point SK-5.
The points SK-3. SK-2. SK-5 and SK-6 provides the best conditions for calculating the AC values. The points SK-3, SK-2 are very close, SK-2, SK-6 and SK-5, SK-6 are close to some extent respectively.
Calculating the mass balance for section SK3-SK2, SK2-SK6 and SK5-SK6
IJnder the null hypothesis the mass values at SK-3, SK-2, SK-5 and SK-6 respectively should be identical, after making allowancesfor other gains and losses. So to express the masses in appropriate dimension,
(SK. x flow) = M. x V, g/sec Fir.t TriR
At SK-3, for BOD:
(M3 X V3 ) = 280x0.006 = 1.68 glcumec At SK-2, for BOD (M2 xV 2) = 115x0.543 = 62.45 g/cumec 23 At SK-5.for BOD (MSXVS) 350x0.281 = 98.4 glcumec At SK-6. for BOD (M6 x XI = 145x1.49 = 215.43 g/cumec
Therefbre the rate of degradation of BOD in SK3-SK-2, SK2-SK6 and SK5-SK-6are 1.68- 62.45 = -60.77 g/cumec, 62.45-215.43 = -152.98 g/cnuec and 98.4-215.43 = -117.03 gJcumec respectively.
Since SK-3, SK-2 are 2.5 km apar the AC for BOD is -24.32 glcumeclkn, SK-2, SK-6 are 12.0 km apart, the AC for BOD is -12.75 g/cumec/lkm,and SK-5, SK-6 are 11.0 km apart, the AC for BOD is -10.64 glcumec/km.
Second Tri2
At SK-3, for BOD: 3 x Vj) = 280x0.006 = 1.68 glcumec
At SK-2, for BOD (M12X V.) = lO X 0.55 - 60.5 glcumec
At SK-5, for BOD
(M3 X V5 ) 70 x 1.668 = 617.16 g/cumec At SK-6, for BOD (M6 Vx = 130x4.743 = 616.59 a/cuinec
Therefore, the rate of degrmdationof BOD in SK3-SK-2, SK2-SK6 and SK5-SK-6 are 1.68- 60.5 = -58.82 g/cumec, 60.5-616.59 = -556.09 g/cunec and 617.16-616.59 = 0.57 g/cumec respectively.
Since SK-3, SK-2 are 2.5 km apart, the AC for BOD is -23.53 g/cumec/km, SK-2, SK-6 are 12.0 km apart, the AC for BOD is -46.34 gfcumeclkm, and SK-5, SK-6 are 11.0 km apart, the AC for BOD is 0.052 glcumeclkm.
Values for other chenical and biological contaminants:
Using this methodology,the following AC values are obtained for the three sections of the drain in the two visits.
24 5.8 DISCUSSION
O,) Raiwind Main Drain
The results of the analysis of the Raiwind Main Drain in the Tables 5.1, 52 & 5.3 are ambiguous.Whilst the expectedpositive values for AC are obtainedfor in AmmoniaNitrogen in the 11, III Sections of both the trips. All other values in the both trips are negative. This indicate that the Drain has an apparent negative AC for all other contaminants, indicatingthat their masses are higher at the lower sampling point (RD-3) than at the higher (RD-2) in section 1, point (RD-6) than at the higher (RD-3), point (RD-7) than at the higher (RD-6). Whilst the relativelylow values for grease and oil, detergentsand ammonia nitrogen may be considered to be inconclusive,for the first trip and secondtrip. Those for chromium, copper and nickel suggest that there is only in chromium, a major addition metal which is causing invisible pollution of the water. BOD. COD and Coliform counts can be expected to reduce quite quickly under normal conditions.
(ii) Summandri Main Drain
The results of the analysis of the Summandri Main Drain in the Tables 5.4, 5.5 & 5.6 are ambiguous. Whilst the expected positive values for AC are obtained for BOD, COD and Coliforms. in the first trip and expectedpositive values for AC are obtained for coliforms in the second trip, all other values in the both trips are negative. The latter indicate that the Drain has an apparentnegative AC for all other contaminants,indicating that their masses are higher at the lower sampling point (FD 6) than at the higher (FD 4). even after taking into account any potential additionsfrom the side drain (samplepoint FD 5). Whilst the relatively low values for grease and oil, detergents and ammonia nitrogen may be considered to be inconclusivefor the first trip and detergents and ammonia nitrogen may be consideredto be inconclusivefor the second trip, those for chromium, copper and nickel suggest that there is a major additional source of these metals which is causing invisible pollution of the water. BOD, COD and Coliform counts can be expected to reduce quite quickly under normal conditions.
(iii) Shikarpur Branch Drain
The results of the analysis of the Shikarpur Branch Drain in the Tables 5.7, 5.8 & 5.9 are ambiguous. All the values in the both trips are negative in three sections. Tlis indicate that the Drain has an apparent negative AC for all contaminants,indicating that their masses are higher at the lower samplingpoint (SK-2)than at the higher (SK-3) in section ', point (SK-6) than at the higher (SK-2) Section 111,point (SK-6 than t the higher than at the higher (SK-5) Section II. Whilst the relatively low values for grease and oil, detergents and ammonia nitrogen may be consideredto be inconclusivefor the both trip of three sections. BOD, COD and Coliforrn counts can be expected to reduce quite quickly under normal conditions.
Since we are not dealing with an evaporation pond here, two possible explanations are available to suggest the source of this anomaly. Either the effect is an artefact of the sampling procedure, or the effect is real.
25 TABLE 5.1 Assimilative Capacity of 12aiwind Main Drain-January 1992 A. Section I (RD-2 to RD-3) MtTri) Contaminants IRD-2 RD-3__ _ _ mglL | ~mzasgsece I mg& mass Sse gkunme,lkm Biochen.=al Oxygen Demand 93.00 47.83 107.00 76.43 -Z78 Total Suspended Soids 320.00 164.57 18Q00 128.57 3.50 Total Dissolved Solids 1020.00 524.57 1177.00 840.71 -3069 (lhemical Oxygen Demand 112.00 57.60 210.00 150.00 -8.97 Coliforms 45.00 23.14 88.00 62.86 -3.86 Feeid Coliforms 6.00 3D9 11.00 7.S6 -0.46 Grease and Oil 18.00 9.25 30.Q 21.43 -1.18 Detergents 1.20 0.62 1.50 1.07 -0.04 Ammonia 3.50 1.80 3.40 2.43 -0.06 Chromium O.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Copper 0.00 0.00 0.00 o.Ao 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 O.uO 0.00 Chboride 187.00 96.17 243.00 173.57 -751 ltardness 102.00 52.46 120.00 85.71 -3.i' Sulphate __ __ _ 180 _ 9.26_____82.00 D58.57 _-4.79 Sr.No. Namncorpoints Flow Distane (RD-2to RD-3) (cusees) (Kim) 1. RD-2 18.00 I0-30 2. RD-3 16.00
B. Section 2 (D-3 to RD-6j______Contaminants i _ _ RD-3 RD-6 I AC ______I m.a/L __ m mass L g i Biochemical OrAen Demand 107.00 76.43 370.00 370.00 -14.53 Total Suspended Solids 180.00 128.57 280.00 280.00 -7.50 Toal De olved Solids 1177.00 7.06 1063.00 1063.00 -52.27 Chemical Oxygen Demand 210.00 840.71 640.00 640.00 9.94 Coliforms 88.00 1SQO. OO 3. -00O -7.43 Fecal Coliforms 11.00 62.86 206.0D 206.00 -7.19 Grease and Oil 30.00 7.86 470.00 470.00 -. 2.88 Dctergents I 5D 21.43 4.10 4.10 0.86 Ammonia 3.40 1.07 028 0.28 0.04 Chromium 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Copper 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chloride 243no 173s57 0.00 0.0°° .59 Hardness 120.0 8,5.71 116.00 116.00 -. _IO Sulphate __ 82.00so__ 5857 280.00 280.00 -10.96 Sr.No. Name or Points Flow Distane (RD-3toRD-6) (cusecs) (}Cm) 1. RD-3 25.00 20.20 2. RD-6 35.00
C Scction 3 (RD-6 to RD-7) ______Contaminants RD-6 _ RD-7 AC | mass _isccsc L i ics ftumedkm Biochemical Oxyscn Dcmand 370.OD 370.00 530.00 545.14 -180.74 Total Sspended Solids 280.00 280.00 480.00 493.71 -'2055 Total Dissolved Solids 1063.00 1063.00 979.00 1006.97 57.82 Chemical Oxggen Demand 640.00 640.00 920.00 946.29 -316.09 Coliforns 300.00 3W0. 147.00 151.20 153.56 Fccal Coriforms 2080 208.00 60.00 61.71 150.97 Grease and Oil 470.00 470.00 212.00 218.06 260.00 Detergents 4.10 4.10 4.00 4.11 -0.01 Ammonia 0.2S 0.28 0.27 028 0.00 Chromium 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.00 Copper 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nrikel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chloride 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Hardness 16.00 16.00 132.00 135.77 -123.60 Sulphate 28.00 280.00 280.00 288.00 -8.26 Sr.No. Name of Points Flow Distance (RD-6 to RD-7) (cusers) (Kim) 1. RD-6 35.00 0.97 2. RD-7 36.00
26 TABLE S.2 Assimilative Capacity of Raiwind Main Drain-May 1992 A. Section I (RD-2 to RD-3) (Sceoud Trip) Con.a,niarts RD-2 RD-3 AC mglL | nIass mg/L I mass I zcumxilt Biochemical dOxygenDemand 110. 5029 115.00 65.71 -1.50 Tota SuspendedSolids 110.0 50.29 260.00 14857 -9.54 Total Dissolved Solids 161S00 739.66 1766.00 t009.14 -26.16 Chemical Oxgen Demand 183.00 83.66 240.00 137.14 -S.19 Californis 50.00 22.86 10500 60.00 -3.61 Fecal Coliforsn 10.00 4.57 15.00 8.57 -0.39 Grease and Oil 17800 81.3? 266.00 1;2O -6.86 Detergcnts 1.50 0.69 2.00 1.14 -0.04 Ammonia 4.00 1.83 4.20 2.40 -0.06 Chromiumn 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.W 0.W Copper 0.00 0D0 o.0o 0.00 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chloride 254.00 116.11 28200 161.14 -4.37 Hardness 184.00 84.11 196.00 112.W -2.71 Sulphate___ 45.00 20.57 96.W 54.86 -3.33 Sr.No. Name of Points Flow Distance (RD-2 to RD-3) (Cusecs) (1Cm) 1. RD-2 16.00 10.30 2. RD-3 2000
B. Section 2 (RD-3 to RD-6) ___ _ Contaminants RD-3 RD-6 AC mE!L! mass Isec mgl massge umecckm Biochemical Oxyen Demand 115.00 65.71 390DD 334.29 -13.30 Total SuspendedSolids 260.00 14857 120.00 102.86 ' 26 Total Dissolved Solids 1766.00 1009.14 1512.00 1296.00 -14.10 Chemical OxygenDemand 240.00 137.14 620.o 531.43 -19s2 Coliforms 10.5.00 60.00 105.00 90.00 -1.49 Fecal CAliforns 15.00 8.57 15.00 12.86 -0.21 Greasc and Oil 2tuo.00 152.0W 70.03 60.00 4.55 Detergents 2.00 1.14 4.50 3.86 -0.13 Ammonia 4.20 2.40 0.50 0.43 010 Chromium .OB o.0 0.00 0.00 -0.00 Copper 0.00 0.00 o0 0.00 000 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0m0 o0 Clloride 282.00 161.14 232.00 198.86 -1.87 Hardness 196.00 112.00 166.W 142.29 -150 Sulphate 96.00 54.86 286.0 245.14 -9.42 Sr.No. Name of Points Fkw Distance (RD-3 to RD-6) (cusecs) (CKm) 1. RD-3 20.00 20.20 2. RD-6 30.00
C Section 3 (RI-6 to RD-7) Contminants RD-6 RD-7 AC ImglL | massgec mgL nmaungmckm
Bichemical Oxygen Demand 390.00 334.29 520.00 490.29 -160.99 Total Suspnded Solids 120.00 102.86 330.00 311.14 -214.95 Total Dissolved Soids 1512.00 1296.W 153800 1450.11 -159.04 Chemical Oygen Demand 620.00 531.43 918.00 86554 -344.80 CoClormos 105.00 90.00 150.00 141.43 -53.07 Fccal Coriforms 15.00 12.86 55.00 51.86 -4025 Greasc and Oil 70.00 60.00 30.00 301.71 -249.45 Dctergnts 4.50 3.86 4.30 4.05 -0.20 Ammonia - 0.50 0.43 0.20 0.19 0.25 Chromium 0.00 0.000W0o 0.00 -0o. Copper 0.00 Or 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 000 0.00 Cloride 23200 198.86 0.00 o0w 205.22 Hardneu 166.00 14229 176.00 165.4 -24.41 Sulphate 286.00 245.14 286.00 269.66 -25.30 Sr.No. Name of Points Fklw Distanec (RD-6 to RD-7) (cusees) (Km) 1. RD-6 30.00 0.97 2. RD-7 33.0
2 7 TABLE 5.3 Assimilative Ctpacity of Raiwind Main Drain
Scetion 1 Section ' Section 3 Contaminants January 1992 May 1992 January 1992 May 1992 January 1992 May1992 (gcumecgkm)| (g e[( auinecAc)l t A gAumcc/m)k (gmcuznec,)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand -2.78 -1.50 -14.53 -13.30 -180.74 -16099 Total Suspended Solids 3.50 -9.54 -7.50 2.26 -220.55 -214.95 Total Dissolved Solids -30.69 -26.16 -52.27 -14.20 57.82 -159.04 Chcnical Oxygcn Demand -8.97 -5.19 9.94 -19.52 -316.09 -344.80 Coliforms -3.86 -3.61 -7.43 -1.49 153.56 -53.07 Fecal Coliforms -0.46 -0.39 -7.19 -0.21 150.97 -40.25 Grcase and Oil -1.18 -6.86 -22.88 4.55 260.00 -249.45 Dctergcnts -0.04 -0.04 0.86 -0.13 -0.01 -0.20 Ammonia -Q06 -0.06 0.04 0.10 0.00 0.25 Chromium 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.00 -0.00 -0.00 Coppcr .00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chloride -7.51 -4.37 8.59 - 1.87 0.00 205.22 Hardness -323 -2.71 -1.50 -1.50 -12.3.60 -24.41 Sulphate -4.79 -3.33 -10.96 -9.42 -8.26 -25.30
28 TABLE S.4 Assimilative Capacity of Sumendri Main Draia (Firt Trip) Contaminants r FD-4 FD-S FD-6 AC I mSLimass Jkc mnL I mass &&c maL i mass swc e410n Biocbemical OxygenDemand 320.00 182.40 31.00 1.43 9930 178.74 0.73 Total SuspendedSolids 860.00 300732 71200 32.75 198.00 3564.00 -74.85 Total Dissolved Solids 2570.00 0.49 0.60 0.03 L86 335 -040 Cbemical OxygenDemand 690.00 39330 100.00 4.60 210.00 37800 2.84 Colifoims 160.00 91.20 90.00 4.14 67.00 120.60 -3.61 Fecal Coliforms 10.00 5.70 25.00 1.S 2.00 3.60 0.46 Greaseand 01i 0.05 om 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.09 -os0o Detergents 2.50 1.43 0.10 0.00 2.00 3.60 -0.31 Ammonia 0.50 0.29 0.20 0.01 0.50 0.90 -0.09 Chromium 0.00 182.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 558.00 -53.66 Copper 0.03 159.60 0.00 0.00 03 576.00 -59.49 Nickel 0.05 30.78 0.00 0.00 0.05 93.60 -8.97 Chloride 765.00 436.05 77.50 3.57 525.00 945.00 -72.20 Hardness 256.00 145.92 64.00 2.94 202.00 363.60 -3068 Sulphate 280.00 159.60 170.00 7.82 250.00 450.00 -40.37 Sr.No. Nameof Points Flow Distance (cuscs) (1Cm)(FD-4 to FD-6) 1. FD-4 20.00 7.00 2. FD-5 1.60 3. FD-6 63.00 TABLE 55 Assimilative Capacity of Summundri Main Drain (tSecod TripD Contaminants I FD-4 I FD-5 I FD-6 AC I m LJmass mp I massgft4 m#L I mass gkec gSaumcdkm BiocbemicalOxygen Demand 140.00 70.20 85.00 2.91 225.00 218.57 -20.78 Total Suspended Solids 880.00 441.26 640.00 21.94 820.00 796.57 -47.62 Total Dissolvd Solids 3280.00 16i4.69 2150.00 73.71 3380.0 328843 -22429 ChemicalOxygen Demand 392.00 196.56 176.00 6.03 4011.00 388.57 -26.57 Coliforms 170.00 85.24 95.00 3.26 70.00 68.00 2.93 Fecal Coliforms 12.00 6.02 25.00 0.86 18.00 17.49 -1.52 Greaseand Oil 182.00 91.26 174.00 5.97 18Q0. 174.86 -11.09 Detergents 2.50 1.25 0.20 0.01 5.00 4.86 -051 Ammonia 0.50 0.25 0.30 0.01 0.50 0.49 -. 03 Cbromium 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.00 03 Copper 0.03 0.15 .O 0.00 0.21 0.02 0.02 Nickel 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.01 0.00 Chloride 375.00 188.04 475.00 16.29 414.00 402.17 -28.26 Hardness 214.00 10731 86.00 2.95 302.00 29337 -26.16 Sulphate 182.00 91.26 32.00 1.10 152.00 147.66 -7.90 Sr.No. Name of Points Flow Distance (FD-4 to FD-6) (CUScs3) (1Im) 1. FD-4 20.00 7.00 2. FD-5 1.60 3. FD-6 63.00
TABLE 5.6 Assimilative Capacity of Summaudri Main Drain (Slaic Section) Contaminants Februaty1992 June1992 (f/cumecAm) I (Cumecm) Biochemical Oxygen Demand 0.73 -20.78 Total Suspended Solids -74.85 -47.62 Total Dissolved Solids -Q40 -224.29 ChemicalOxygen Demand 2.84 -26.57 Coliforms -3.61 2.93 Fecal Coliforms 0.46 -1.52 Greaseand Oil -0.01 -11.09 Dctergents -031 -0.51 Armonia -0.09 -0.03 Chromium -53.66 0.03 Copper -59.49 0.02 Nickel -897 o.00 Chloride -72.20 -28.26 Hardness -30.68 -26.16 Sulphate -40.37 -7.90
2 9 TABLE 5.7 Assimilative Capacity of Shikarpur Branch Drain-February 1992 A- Section I (SK-3 to SK-2) (Fint Tripi Coeatinmants SK-3 SK-2 AC u mass g| l e mmnSc| Bxchemical Oxyn Demand 280.00 1.68 115.00 62.43 -2430 Total Suspended sorids 1320.00 7.92 580.00 314B6 -122.77 Total Dissolved Solids 1178.00 707 105.00 574.34 -22691 Chemical Oygen Demand 590.00 3.54 230.00 124.86 -48.53 colifarms 180.00 1.08 12Q.00 65.14 -25.63 Fecal Coiforns 140.00 0.84 60.00 3257 -12.69 Grease and Oil 31.00 0.19 13.00 7.06 -2.75 Detergmts 5.30 0.03 3.00 1.63 -0.64 Ammonia 0.30 00 0.20 0ll -0.04 Chromium 0.W 0.W 0.00 0.00 0.00 Copper 0.00 0.00 0.D0 0.00 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 .00 Chloride 365.00 2.19 33Q0.0 179.14 -70.78 Hardness 196.00 1.18 170 96.63 -3.18 Sulphate 130.W 0.78 70.00 38O -1489 Sr.No. Name of Points Flow Distance (SK-2to SK-3) (Cus) (Km) 1. SK-2 19.00 2.50 2. SK-3 021
B. Section 2 (SK-5 to SK-6) Contaminants SK-5 i SK-6 AC mgL | gasskoI mglL WM gf= | uwmec Biochemical Oxygen Demand 350.W 9840 145.00 215A3 -10.64 Total Suspended Solids 1040.00 292.39 26QOO 386.29 -8.54 Total Dissolved Soris 1082.00 304.20 967a.o 1436.69 -10.95 Chemical Oxen Demand 730.00 205.23 290.00 430.86 -2051 Coliforns 300.00 84.34 122.00 181.26 -8.81 Fecal Cofiforr s 130.00 36.55 80.00 11B8.6 -7.48 Grease and Oil 68.0 19.12 54.00 80.23 -5.56 Detergents 580 1.63 5.00 7.43 -0.3 Ammonia 0.30 0.08 0.10 0.15 -0.01 Chromium 0.00 m0 0QOO o0.0 0.00 Copper 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 O.O Nickel 0.00 noo 0.oo 0.00 0.00 Chloride 510.00 143.38 252.00 374.40 -21.00 Hardness 194.00 54.54 194.OD 288.23 -2124 Sulphate 128.00 35.99 90._0 133.71 -8.88 Sr.No. Name of Points Flow Distance (SK-S to SK-6) (cusecs) (m) 1. SK-S 9.84 11.00 2. SK-6 52.00
C. Section 3 (SK-2 to SK-C) Conta_nants SK-2 SKI-6 AC ImnL I mass IkmL I m g&cc I >cdkCufsc Biochemical Oxyge Demand 115.00 62.43 145.00 215.43 -12.75 Total Suspended Solids 580.00 314.86 260.00 38629 -5.95 Total Dissolved Solids 0o580 57434 967.00 1436.69 -71.86 Chemical Oygen Demand 2330.00 1264J6 290.00 430.86 69.50 Coliforms 120.00 65.14 122.W 181-26 -9.68 Fecal Coliforms 60.00 32.57 80.00 118.86 -7.19 Grese and Oil 13.00 7.06 54.00 80.23 -6.10 Detergents 3.00 1.63 5.0 7.43 -Q48 Ammonia 0.20 0.11 0.10 0.15 -0.00 Chromium OW0.00 0.00 0.0 O0O 0.00 Copper O.00 0.00 0.00 Q0oo 0.0 Nckewl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chloride 330.00 179.14 252.00 374.40 -1627 Hardneu 178.00 96.63 194.00 289 -15.97 Sulphate 70.00 38.00 90.00 133.71 -79B Sr.No. Name of Points Flow Distance (SE-2 to SK-6) (cuseCs) (Cm) 1. SK-2 19.W 12.00 2. SK-6 52.W 30 TABLE 5.8 Assimilative Capacity of Shikarpur Branch Drain-July 1992 A. Section 1 (SK-3 to SK-2) (Seead Tirip) Cantamimots -SK-3 SK-2 AC ~WJLLmass g I mpj Imass m Isumneejkm n Biochemiical Oxyge Demand 280.0 1.68 110.00 60.47 -23352 Total Suspended Solids 700.0 420 45.0 24737 -9727 Total Dissolved Solid. 995.00 5.97 1392.00 765.20 -303.69 Chemica Oxygen Demand 420.00 2.52 190.00 104.45 -40.77 Colifarm 200.00 1.20 100.00 54.97 -21351 Feed Collform 160.00 0.96 70.0 3848 -15.01 Gas andOi 20.0W 0.12 7.00 3.85 -1L49 Detergents 4.20 0.03 2.00 1.10 -0.43 Ammonia 0.20 0.00 0.10 0.05 _0.02 Carnmium 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Capper 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chloride 145.00 0.87 337.00 185.25 -73.75 Hardness 96.00 0358 170.00 93.45 -37.15 Sulphate -70.00 0.42 125.00 68.71 -27.32 Sr.No. Manicof Points Flow Distance (SK-2 to SK-3) (cinees) (Kin) 1. SK-2 19.24 -2.50 2. SK-3 0.21
B. Scction 2(SK-5Sto SK-6 ______
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 370.00 617.16 130.00 616-57 0.05 Total Suspended Solids 520.00 86736 570.00 2703.43 - 166.922 Total Dissolved Solkids 1025.00 1709.70 714.00 3386.40 -152.43 Chemical Oxygen Demand 510.00 85068M 210.00 996.00 -13.21 California 300.00 50.40 130.00 616.57 -10.56 Feedl Coliformis 150.00 25020 80.00 379.43 -1IL75 Grease and Oil 40.00 66.727 30.00 142.29 -6.87 Detergents 4.00 6.67 3.80 1&02 -1i.03 Ammonia 0.20 0.33 0.015 0.24 0.01 Chroamium 0.00 000 0.00 0.0 0.00 Copper 0.00 0.00 0.00 .00 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chloride 121.00 201.83 111.00 526.46 - 29.51 Hardnes 1M.M 191.82 90.00 426.86 -21.37 Sulphate 90.00 15.I2 65.00 308.29 -14.38 Sr.No. Name of Points Flow Distance (SKC-5 t SK-6)
1. SIC-5 58.38 i .00 2. SKC-6 166.00
C. Scction 3 (SK-2 to SK-6) SKC AC Contaminants I K- ~mVIL~~~~i I massatee I ma/L I mas a/sec gkumeelkm BiochemicalOxygen Demand 110.00 6047 130.00 616.57 -46.34 Total SuispendedSolids 450.00 247.37 570.00 2703143 -204.67 Total DissolvedSolids 1392.00 76520 714.00 3386.40 -218.43 ChclOygenDemand 190.00 104 210.W0 996.00 -74.30 collfonna 100.0 54.97 130.00 61657 -46.80 Feedl Coliformis 70.00 38.48 80.00 379.43 -28.41 Grease and Oil 7.00 3.85 30.00 142129 -11354 Dctergents 2.00 1.10 3.80 1502 -1.41 Ammonia 0.10 0.05 am.0 0.24 -0om Chromiuim 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Copper 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chloride 337.00 185.25 111.00 526.46 -28.43 Hardness 170.00 93.45 90.00 426.86 -27.78 Sulphat 125.00 68371 65.00 305.29 -19396 Sr.No. Name of Points Flow Distance (SIC-2 to SKC-6) (eusec) (Kin) 1. SK-2 19.24 12.00 2. SK-6 166.00
31 TABLE 5.9 Assimilative Capacity of Shikarpur Branch Drain
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Contaminants February 199 July 1992 February 19 July 1992 Febnry 199I July 1992 (glcumec km)I(glcumec/kkm) (gcumeckm) (gkcumec/km)_WgtumecAar) (cunecm)
Biochemical Oxygen Dcmand -24.30 -23.52 -10.64 0.05 -12.75 -46.34 Total Suspended Solids -122.77 -97.27 -8.54 -166.92 -595 -204.67 Total Dissolved Solids -226.91 -303.69 -102.95 -152.43 -71.86 -218.43 Chemical Oxygen Demand -48.53 -40.77 -20.51 -13.21 69.50 -74.30 Coliforms -25.63 -2151 -8.81 -1056 -9.68 -46.80 Fccal Colifonns -12.69 -15.01 -7.48 -11.75 -7.19 -28.41 Grcase and Oil -2.75 -1.49 -5.56 -6.87 -6.10 -11.54 Detergents -0.64 -0.43 -0.53 -1.03 -0.48 -1.41 Ammonia -0.04 -0.02 -0.01 0.01 -0.00 -0.02 Chromium 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Copper 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chloride -70.78 -73.75 -21.00 -2951 -16.27 -28.43 I lardncss -38.18 -37.15 -2124 -2137 -15.97 -27.78 Sulphate -14.89 -2732 -8.88 -14.38 -7.98 -19.96
32 5.9 SAMPLINGPROCEDURE
Ci) Raiwind Main Drain
If the analyses of the contaminantsat RD-2 to RD-3 Section1, RD-3 to RD-6 of Section H and RD-6 to RD-7 of Section m are biassed, then the calculations of the AC values are invalid. At point (RD-6) the industrial waste was mixed and chromium is added.
However, examinationof the data of three sections indicates a substantial similarity in the levels of contaminants except addition of chromium in Sectionm there and below. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the anomalyis due to a major sampling error.
Gii) S_ndri Main Drain
If the analyses of the contaminantsat FD 4 are biassed towards lower values than the true concentrations, then the calculationsof the AC values are invalid. No detailed analysesof the contents of the two major Faisalabad drains were carried out, so it is not possible to determine whether either, and especiallythe one discharging into the Main Drain above FD 4, was heavily contaminated with metals. So if the sampling point FD 4 was located inappropriately, so that full mixing of the incoming drainage with the existing water in the Main Drain was incomplete, and if the bias resulted in taking a sample which was mainly relativelyuncontaminated effluent from the main Drain upstream of the site, then FD 4 could have much lower values than would have resulted from samplingat a fully mixed site.
However, examinationof the data for sample FD 3 indicates a substantial similarity in the levels of contaminants there and below the second Faisalabad outfall, at FD 4. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the anomaly is due to a major sampling error.
Ciii) Shikarpur Branch Drain
If the analyses of the contaminantsat SK-3 to SK-2, Section 1, SK-2 to SK-6 of Section III and SK-5 to SK-6 of SectionII are biassed, then the calculationsof the AC values are invalid. At point (SK-6) the sampling was after mixing of the two drains and no individual of the branch drain, so it is not possible to determine whether either, which one is more polluted at the mixing point.
However, examination of Lhedata of three sections indicates a substantial similarity in the levels of contaminants. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the anomaly is due to a major sainpling error.
S.10 ADDMONAL SOURCE(S)OF CONTAMINATION
If the anomaly cannot be ascribed to samplingerror, then the change in contaminantmasses is real, and an additionalsource or sources of contaminationmust exist between FD 4 and FD 6. Since the levels of contaminants in FD 5 are known, and cannot account for the additional masses, some other undetectedsource of contaminationis implied.
If the anomaly cannot be ascribed to samplingerror, then the change in contaminantmasses is real, and an additional source or sources of contaminationmust exist between different
33 samplingpoints of three section of Raiwind and Shikarpur. Some other undetected source of contaminationis implied.
The anomalous AC values for the other contaminants indicate that there is some relatively major source of additional pollution which is not evident on the ground. The increases in chloride, hardness and sulphate are suggestive of groundwater seepage into the Drain, and the most likely origin for the apparent additionalcontaminant masses must be considered to be groundwater seepage into the Drain.
The flow data for each samplingstation show very clearly that seepage both into and out of the Drain is substantial, and that it is neither predictable nor directly measurable. Indeed, it appears perfectly possible that seepage in both directions could occur at very closely spaced points - even to the extent that the directionsmight be in opposite directions on opposite sides of the same section of the Drain. The abstraction of water from the near-surface aquifer on one side of the Drain, for agricultural use. but not on the other side could produce lateral flows within the aquifer.
The presence if seepage both into and from the Drain impliesthat it may well not be possible to assign any meaningful AC values to any Drain which is not completelywatertight. Where seepage outwards occurs. then water containingunspecified quantities of contaminants would be capable of entering the aquifers close to the Drain. leading to an apparent substantial mass loss, and therefore suggestinga high positive AC value.
If this flow is subsequentlyreversed. for examplewhen irrigation abstractionis reduced, then this contaminated aquifer would then start to drain back to the Drain. returning any unchanged contaminantto the Drain. This would then result in a reversal of the AC value to negative, as the Drain becomes loaded with contaminantsstored temporarily in the adjacent aquifers.
Under this scenario, the apparent positive values for the AC of BOD. COD and Coliforms become intelligibleon the first samplingof SummandriMain Drain. Two of these variables - BOD and COD -are subject to rapid degradationby oxidation, and analysis reveals that the dissolvedoxygen conditionsin the Drain were extremely favourable at the time of sampling. Coliforms are rapidly removed by biological agents which feed on bacteria, and again the conditions in the Drain were suitable for this to occur. So despite the complications caused by seepage into and from the Drain, the concentrations of these factors are unlikely to be affected in the same way as relativelymore recalcitrant dissolvedcontaminants, especially the toxic metals.
Unfortunately, no data on the concentrations of relevant contaminants in the adjacent groundwater exceptShikarpur, some samplingwas done in which some coliforms were found. But even if they were, the difficulty in actually measuring the movement of water into and out of the drain, as well as the lack of any informationabout its previous history, would still not make it possible to construct a viable mass balance equationfor any single contaminant.
5.11 IMPLICATIONS
This process has very important implicationsfor environmental management and pollution throughout the irrigated areas of Pakistan. Instead of regarding drains as passive systems in which effluents undergo (relatively) predictable dilution and degradation as they pass
34 downstream, they must now be viewed as a highly dynamicsystem in which the active lateral mass transport of contaminantsinto and out of the adjacent aquifers is a major factor.
Therefore, to the more traditionally accepteddetoxification mechanisms operating on soluble contaminantsof freshwater systems -oxidation, glycolysis,adsorption, etc - we must now add those processes, generally chemical rather than biochemical, which may affect the stability and translocationof contaminantsin the groundwater-soilsystem. Since in many cases oxygen availability may be very low, anaerobic chemical (and probably to a much reduced degree, biochemical)processes must be presumedto exert a significantimpact on the overall transport of pollutantsthrough the irrigation-drainage-riverinesystem. From this point on, the dynamic linkages between the groundwater aquifers and the surface channels of the Pakistan irrigation and drainage system will have to be considered in any developmentplanning which involves the disposal of any type of contaminatedeffluent.
The concept of Assimilative Capacity as a practical measure of the potential value of drains for pollution loading. under the field conditionsprevailing in the Indus Valley, must therefore be abandoned.
5.12 DILUTION TECHIQUE
The dilution capacity of a stream can be calculatedusing the principles of mass balance. If the volumetric flow rate and the concentrationof a given material are known in both the stream and waste discharge, the concentrationafter mixing can be calculated as follows:
C. Q. + C_ Q. = Q. C. Wbere C represents the concentrationof oxygen of the selected material, Q is the volumetric flow rate (volume/ time). and the subscripts s. w and m designate stream, dilution and mixture conditions. DilutionTechnique CQ. C. Q.
Point "A"
Where C, C. Conc. of 02 > 8.1 mg/L Q & Q. = Shows volumetric flow rate
A B
C. Q. C. Q.
C. Q.
Where C. = Conc. of °2 < 8.1 mg/L Cs, Conc. of °2 < S.1ImglL C. = Conc. of 0° > 8.1 mglL Q. = Shows volumetric flow rate at point "A". Q. = Shows volumetric flow rate at point "B". Q,,, = Shows volumetric flow rate for dilution. 35 5.13 D. 0. MODEL
Sr.- Sampling Field D.O. Dilution No. Points D.O. Required Required (mgIL) (mgIL) (m3ISec)
A. laiwind Main Drain
(First Trip)
1. 1 11.35 8.1 2. 2 10.85 8.1 3. 3 9.90 8.1 4. 4 8.40 8.1 5. 5 8.45 8.1 6. 6 7.87 8.1 0.023 7. 7 7.13 8.1 0.122
(Second Trip)
1. 2 7.8 8.1 0.43 2. 3 8.1 8.1 - 3. 6 6.70 8.1 0.703 4. 7 6.1 8.1 0.80
B. Summandri Main Drain
(First Trip)
1. 1 8.49 8.1 - 2. 2 8.09 8.1 0.001 3. 3 8.4 8.1 - 4. 4 7.9 8.1 0.016 5. 5 8.05 8.1 0.001 6. 6 7.97 8.1 0.03 7. 7 8.45 8.1 - 8. 8 8.12 8.1 - 9. 9 8.03 8.1 0.014 10. 10 8.16 8.1
(Second Trip)
1. 1 5.6 8.1 0.0196 2. 3 0.1 8.1 0.0163 3. 4 0.1 8.1 0.006 4. 5 7.8 8.1 0.0013 5. 6 0.9 8.1 0.096 6. 7 6.0 8.1 0.110 7. 8 2.3 8.1 0.497 8. 10 5.0 8.1 0.262 36 Sr. Sampling Field D.O. Dilution No. Points D.O. Required Required (mg/L) (mgAL) (m3 /Sec)
C. Shikarpur Branch Drain
(First Trip)
1. 1 8.31 8.1 2. 2 8.1 8.1 3. 3 8.5 8.1 4. 5 1.29 8.1 0.044 5. 6 7.50 8.1 0.109
(SecondTrip)
1. 2 8.1 8.1 2. 3 7.6 8.1 0.0056 3. 5 5.0 8.1 0.633 4. 6 8.5 8.1
37 6- ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF SUBSURFACE WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE
6.1 GENERAL
Groundwateris an important source of water for irrigation and domestic use. Its purity and drinkabilitymatters in all water supply schemes.Three fourth cf earth's crust is covered with water, however, out of this vast source very litle of the World's water is drinkable. 97.2% of world water is saline ocean water, 2.14% is in ice caps and glaciers, .61% is ground water, .009% is surface water and .005% is soil moisture only a small percentage of the World's total water supply is available to humans as a supply of fresh water. Of the total amount of fresh water that is available, over 48% is groundwater (Fetter, 1988). In any assessmentof groundwater sources the quality is of prime importance for safety of public health. But unfortunately, this water on which the structure of life is based, is becoming pollutedby our own artificial means. The extent of groundwater contaminationpotential is just beginning to be realized.
6.2 GROUNDWATER QUALITY
A fresh water supply is constant in quality and does not contain more than the designated amounts of the following.
Suspendedsolids, 20 mg/L total organic Carbon or chemicaloxygen demand (TOC or COD), 10 mglL un-ionized NH3, 20 Ug/L total residual chlorine, 0.01 mg/L total organophosphoruspesticides, 50 Ug/L total organochlorinepesticides plus PCBs 50 UgAL
6.2.1 Raiwind, Lahore
Environmentalpollution due to the industrial areas near Lahore is severe. Untreated waste from various industries in Chunian industrialEstate discharge into the Raiwind main drain which ultimatelyfalls into the SulemankiBalloki canal. This has resulted in deterioration in the enviromnent.
Table 3.1 given in Section 3.4 shows the quality of groundwater delivered by a handpump near Multan road. Two samples of drinkins water were taken from two different handpumps near RD-2 and RD-6.
Presence of coliform shows the contaminationin water which may be due to Raiwind drain. Hardness is slightly high but with in standard limits of EPA. Water is good for irrigation but not for drinking purposes.
38 6.2.2 Summandri, Faisalabad
Faisalabad is an industrial city. Major part of the textile industry in Pakistan is working in this city. The highly pollutedwastewater from these industriesis disposed into the Summandri drain which falls into river Ravi.
The results of groundwater sample analysis from Chak No. 452/5.B near SummandriMain Drain are taken from the record of EPA.
Coliform contamination and salinity is present chromium is high then the EPA standard, which is harmful to public health. The higher concentrationof chromium clearly shows that the wontaminationis due to Summandri Main Drain.
6.2.3 Shikarpur, Sindh
For the study of shallow groundwater contanination by the Shikarpur branch drain and pesticides, one drinking water sample was taken from the handpump drawing water from a depth of 70-80 feet. One sample was taken from tubewell drawingwater from a depth of 30- 40 feet.
The results of 2 Nos. of groundwater samples from Shikarpur are given in Table 3.3 of .Section3.6. The WHO internationalstandards for drinking water ar.d maximumpermissible values are also given in the table.
The parameters given in the said Table were analysedin NESPAKenvironmental laboratory. The results clearly show that the polluted water of Shikarpurbranch drain has contaminated the shallow groundwater in the vicinity. The use of contaminatedgroundwater for drinking should be discouraged to avoid adverse effects on health.
A. Physical and Chemical Analysis
a) Colour
Field: As shown in Figure 2.3, two numbers of samples of drinking water were collected, one from a handpump a: 50 ft down from the ground level in the city and the other from a tubewellat 70 ft down from the ground level. The colour of the two samples were normal. Individualsample analysisresult is shown in Table 3.3.
Laboratory: In the Laboratory, colour of tma groundwater were tested by adjusting the pH values 7.6 and the ADMI are I which is excellent for drinking purposes. The results are shown in Table No. 3.3.
b) pH
Fieid: Tne pH values of two samples are 7.11 and 7.07 which is excellentfor drinking.
39 c) Turbidity
No turbidity was observed in both the samples.
Laboratory: In the Laboratory, turbidity of two groundwater samples were tested by the turbidity meter and the value for each sample was 1.0 NTU (Nephelometricturbidity units) which is good for drinking water.
B. Bacteriological Analysis
Coliform contaminationis present. This was due to contaminationfrom waste water soaking into the permeable ground from Shikarpur branch drain or from pits of latrines in the houses. Nitrates are in the range of 10 mg/L.
The test analysisof groundwaterof Shikarpurshows that all the parameters which are discussed above are in the range of the standards described, so groundwater is normal.
40 REI;EENC13S
* Howard S. Peavy, EnvironmentalEngineering.
* The Institution of Engineer, Pakistan 33rd Annual Convention. Seminar on EnvirommentalPollution, January 1992, Lahore.
* Public Healtb Service, USA. Aquatic Biology for Engineers.
* R.J. Martin, A training Manual for water and wastewater laboratory technicians.
* EPA Washington, DC DevelopmentDocument for effluent limitationsguidelines and standard for the textile mills.
* U.S. Enviromnental Protection Agency technology transfer (1976) - Methods for chemical analysis of water and waste Environmental Monitoring and support laboratory Environmentalresearch centre, Cincinnato, Ohio 45268.
* Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 - Methods for chemical analysis of water and wastes Envirnamental Monitoring and SupportLaboratory., March 1983.
* World Health OrganizationCBS Publishersand Distributors, Guidelinesfor Drinking water Quality Volumes 1, 2, 3, Authorisedreprint 1991.
* D. M. Foster, Joumal of the Institutionof Water and Environmental Management.
* Chemical Process industriesby Shereves, 5th Edition.
* Engr. Ahmed Nawaz Cheema S.K; B.Sc. Engg; F.I.W.E.M; F.A SCE; F.N.S.E; F.I.E.P., Vice President NESPAK - Papers on:
- Avoidance of Industrial Pollutionby sffluent treatment, March, 1991.
- Enviromnentalproblems in Pakistan, March 1991.
- Urban Civic Amenities and Environment.
- Factors Polluting Environmentin Pakistan.
- Drinking Paper on Water for Rural Masses, April, 1985 'times'.
- Site Selectionand EnvironmentalHazard Control Requirement.
- A Cause of Bad Urban Environment.
* AmericanPublic Health Association.Standard Method for Examinationof Water and Wastewater (18th edii). APPENDIX A.1
TERMS OF REFERENCES (SEC: 4.10) APPENDICES APPENDIX A.I
TERMS OF REFERENCE
4.10 Environmental Health and Engineering*
To carry out the environmentalhealth and engineering components of this assessment will require a high level interdisciplinarycadre of specialiststo undertakethe followingactivities:
iv) take appropriate samples of drainage water at representative locations, including in mixing zones where municipal wastewater is discharged to drains, analyze for coliforms. fecal coliforms. and fecal streptococci. and provide interpretation;
v) obtain samples as in (iv) above, but for physical-chemicalanalyses including the standard sanitary engineering parameters, pesticides, and relevant heavy metals and provide interpretation.
vi) select two drains for study for their assimilativecapacities and calculate the end of the pipe requirementsof wastewaterdischarge to the drains (the emphasis in this task is on the developmentof the process of engineering analysis);
vii) evaluate the potential for using subsurfacedrainage water for domestic water supply in the four Provinces;
ix) assemble information, existing and proposed, on rules and regulations on environmental protection as they apply to the waters of the Nation from the EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance, 1983. forward.
Note: * Only those items (No. IV, V. VI, VII & IX of Section 4.10) of this section of the TOR which are related environmentalengineering are reproduced herein. I APPENDIX A.2
EPA STANDARDS Punihb Public Health Engineering Department Enviroamental Emistion Standards for Municipal and Liquid Industrial Effluents (mg/l unless othcrwise spccifLcd)
Sr. Relaxed Ultimac No. Parmeter Standard Stard (upto 1990) (after 1990)
1. TemperaturceC 40 40 2. pH 55-95 6.0-9.0 3. 5 day biochemical oxyen demand- (BOD) at 20 C 200 80 4. Chemical OxygenDemand' (COD) 400 ISO 5. Total Suspended Solids 400 200 6. Total dissolvedSolids 5000 3500 7. Grease and Oil 20 10 8. Phenolic Compounds (as phenol) 13 03 9. Chloride(as C^-) 1000 1000 10. Flouride (as F^ -) 20 10 11. Cyanide(asN -) 2 1 12. Anionic detergents' (as MBAS) 30 20 13. Sulphate (S04 -2) 1000 1000 14. Sulphide (S- -2) 2 1 15. Amonia 75 40 16. Pesticidcs.herbicides, fungiides and insecticides. 0.75 0.15 17. Cadmium # 2 0.1 18 Chromium# (trivalent andhaxavalent) 2 1 19. Copper 4 1 20. Lcad # 2 05 21. Mercury 0.1 0.01
-" Selenium#1 0I5 23. Nickel # 2 1 24. Silvcr # 2 1 25. Total Toxic Metals # 10 2 26. Zinc 10 5 27. Arsenic 2 1 28. Barium 4 1.5 29. Iron 10 2 30. Manganese 10 1.5 31. Boron 10 6 32. Chlorine I I * Assumcs minimumdilution 10.1on discharge. if not more stringent local standard necessary. Assumingbiodegradable. stringent standards required for nonionic surfactants. # Subject to total toxic metal discharge.
2 Punjab PubUc Health Engincering Department Environmental Enmssion Standards for Industrial Gaseous Emissions (mg/cuM unless defined)
Sr. Relxed Ultimate No. Parameter Source of Stadard Standard Emission (nub 1990 (after 1990)
1. Smoke Smokecapacity not to ececed 40 40 (Ringieman Scale) (RinngemanScale) 2. Particulatc -matter. boiler and furnace using oil using coal 600 300 conuent-kilns grindling.crushing. 750 S00 clinker coders and related processes 600 300 metallurgicalprocesses converters blast furnaces and cupoloc 700 500 3. Hydrogen chloride any 500 400 4. Chlorine any 200 IS0 5. Hydrogen flouride any 200 150 6. Hydrogen sulphide any 10 10 7. Sulphur oxides sulphuric acid R000 6000 plants other 500 400 8. Carbon monoxide any 1000 800 9. Lcad any 100 50 10. Mcrcury any 30 10 il. Cadmium any 30 20 12. Arsenic any 50 20 13. Copper any 100 50 14. Antimony any 50 20 15. Zinc any 300 200 16. Cxidesof Nitogcn (Nox) any nitric acid 4000 3000 manufacture other sources 1000 400 Source: Punjab PHED In defining morestringent standards attention should be paid to particle size of < 10u. Aunts should also be gien to the ttal Mass Emissionper unit time for large emitters.
3 NATIONAL ENGINEERING SERVICES PAISTAN (WI) LIMITED ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS REPORT OF WATER
SOURCE &DEPTH: PLACE LOCATION DISIT: & TEHSIL DATE OF ANALYSIS: DATE OF RECEIPTIN LAB: DATE OF COLLECTION: COLLECrED BY:
SL Parameter WH.O Diserable W.H.0 Max Results No. Levels Permissible mg/I Level (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1. Temperature CC 2. pH 7.0-8.5 6.5-92 3. Odour Unobjectionable Unobjectionable 4. Colour 5 Units 50 Units 5. Taste Unobjectionable Unobjectionab;e 6. Turbidity ppm Silica 5 Units 25 Units Units or N.T.U. 7. Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 500.00 1500.00 8. Calcium mg/L 75.00 200.00 9. Magnesium mg/L 50.00 150.00 10. Total Hardness 100.00 500.00 mg&as CaCO3 11. Total Alkalinity mg/as CaCO3 12. Sulate mg/L 200.00 400.00 13. Chloride mg/I. 200.00 600.00 14. Iron Total mg/I 0.1 1.00 15. Conductivity 16._ uS/cm or mS/m_
16 . ______17. .
4 APPENDIX A.3
FIELD SAMPLING PROFORMA APPENDIX A3
NESPAK ENVIRONMENTALLABORATORY FIELD REPORT PROFORMA FOR SAMPLE COLLECTION AND VISUAL EXAMINATION OF WATER
o Name of project Pakistan-Drainage Sector Environmental Assessment-NationalDrainageProgramme
*o Sample Collection
Name of Channel/Drain/Canal Nature of Sample Date & Time of Collection Date & Time of Arrival at Laboratory: Sample Location
Town/City Province o Field Examination
Drain Appearance (X-sec.) Odour Colour Turbidity Taste DO (Field Measured) pll (Field Measured) Temp. at collection time Discharge (Cusecs) Remarks
Collected by:
5 APPENDIX A.4
PARC - TEST REPORT OF PESTICIDES (El§IS-3E:D)
F.11o.56-PRL/91-92 Form> PLTRJliMISC. p&ZX5 FEDERAL PESTICIDE LABORATORY TROPICALAGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE PAKISTANAGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
KarachiUtvwsiy Caraus. Md Skck Nos 9S la Kxacui-3 Oated2O. 04-.1992 MMPTFETCRT
S mplDscriptioul WASTEP.WATERSAMPLES MR PESTICDE;E MESIMl;ES.
RBnehNo. (S) & No.Sample (S) Tbree samples N,mojSogga, Letr NC.MMSAKf3 &cP~/L~ab/08 dated 30.03.1992. Sample~~ Parameter to be Res ult EAK Sam_ple No. | tested REMARKS
X=9Wv 1101 Cypermethrii* j
102 Monocrotopbos 0.022
103 cyhalotbrin 00.oo8
- I
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EU czs. Anaysed>bv b -hSym
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}ReceiLved 9. draft of Rs.;15 000/_ (I3Q.S._'. -1!mm IUOre it NO.DRAS396757 dt-30.03.9lf. snc r rX .W eOWe R 0c"irt No.575. t^.-'-.: -- SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT
ROLE FRAMEWORK FOR INSTiTUTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR ACTION (INCLUDING REFERENCE TO SOCIAL ASPECTS
BY
P. M. OATES PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME)
ROLE FRAMEWORK FOR INSTITUTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR ACTION (including reference to social aspects)
Page No.
I. Introduction 1
2 Analysis of Basic Requirements 2
2.1 Integrated Systems Management 2 2.2 Towards A Role Framework 2 2.3 Policy, Standards and Legislation 3 2.4 Planning 4 2.4.1 EnvironmentalStrategy 4 2.4.2 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment 5 2.4.3 EIA Field Services 5 2.4.4 EnvironmentalEconomics 5 2.4.5 Provincial Contributions 6 2.4.6 Veto Powers in Project Screening 6 2.5 Monitoring and Evaluation 6 2.6 Recurrent Physical Monitoring and Analysis 6 2.7 !mplementation 8
3 Existing Situation 8
3.1 General Constraints 8 3.1.1 Overview 8 3.1.2 Planning and the Environment 9 3.1.3 Organisation and Management 9 3.1.4 Recurrent Finance 11 3.1.5 Expertise 12 3.2 Deficiencies and Gaps in Responsibilities 12 3.2.1 Design and Construction 12 3.2.2 Monitoring and Evaluation 13 3.2.3 Recurrent Physical Monitoring 13 3.3 Drainage Operation and Maintenance 14
4 Social Aspects 16
4.1 Consultirg the People 16 4.2 Farmer and Community Groups 16 4.3 Women in Farming Commnunities 17
i 4.4 The Impact of Drainage 18
5 Guidelines for Action 19
5.1 Derining a Role Framework 19 5.1.1 Outline 19 5.1.2 Interface between WAPDA and the IPDs 21 5.1.3 Other Concerned Institutions 22 5.2 Environmental Assessment 24 5.3 Monitoring and Evaluation 24 5.4 Physical Monitoring and Analysis 25 5.5 Drainage Managemnentand Finance 26 5.5.1 Organisationof Operation and 5.5.2 Maintenance 26 5.5.3 Career and Training Initiatives 26 5.5.4 Cost Recovery and Drainage Cess 27
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Discussion Paper No. I Appendix B: Record of Institution Consultant's Meetings Appendix C: Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance, 1983 Appendix D: Existing Planning and Project Approval Process Appendix E: Potential Study of Provincial Public Sector Managementand Finance
ii PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME)
ROLE FRAMEWORK FOR INSTITUTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR ACTION (includingreference to social aspects)
1. Introduction
The requirements for the Drainage Sector EnvironmentalAssessment (DSEA), as defined in the "Scope of Work' of the Terms of Reference for consultancyservices. are considerably broader than the title of the study implies, so that there are in effect several additional and discrete study components. In particular, the institutionalanalysis requested is not relevant to "e environmentalassessment undertaken during this study but relates to future objectives:
- enabling or facilitating future environmentalassessment and impact analysis - improving planning, design and operation with special reference to environmentalconsiderations - preparing a concept framework for a drainage programme - improving irrigation and drainage systems management, operation and maintenancegenerally.
Terms of reference applicableto institutionsare presented, and their implicationsdiscussed, in-Appendix-A ("Discussion Paper No.1").
TMepurpose of this report is to present the consultant's findings as a self-containedWorking Paper at the same time as providingdirect contributions(namely Chapters 2 to 5) for relevant sections of the DSEA Interim and Final Reports.
In the absence of either a sociologistor anthropologiston the team, the institutionsspecialist was requested to also briefly review social aspects.
The approach to the study of institutions was one of "process" consultancy, requiring as a minimum frequent and detailed discussions to evolve ideas and strategies with members of concerned institutions. To facilitate this, the discussionpaper reproduced in Appendix-A was distributed several days prior to most meetings.
The number of consultationsheld was restricted by Ramadhanworking hours and their effect on organising meetings and travel between the four Provinces. However, the consultant was also able to draw on relevant information obtained by him from GoP officials in 1991. Appendix-B provides a record of meetings and the principal persons with whom discussions were held.
l 2. Analysis of Basic Requirements
2.1 Integrated Systems Management
The Scope of Work given in the Terms of Reference for consultancy services states that, among other things, the overview will "...study institutionalarrangements with the view that [such] drainage operation should become an integral conponent of a comprehensive water managementstrategy fr the Nation". This view is supported by the consultants.
Historically, the major concern of both Irrigation Departments and farmers themselves has been on delivery of irrigation water and, by comparison, relatively little attention paid to disposal of either saline effluent or surplus fresh water. This in part explains the declining impact of several SCARPoperations, which have been implemnentedas discrete projects and not properly integrated into irrigation systems managementand operation.
Environmental considerationsfor drainage should not be separated from those for irrigated agriculture as a whole since the mitigativeneed for drainage arises, in most affected areas of Pakistan, as a direct consequenceof irrigation.
From the institutional viewpoint, coordination and integration of recurrent irrigation and drainage activities is essential for efficient operation because of intimate managerial, economic, hydraulicand environmentalrelationships. This applies both to the general context of overall systemsmanagement and to local operation, maintenanceand monitoringof specific canals and drains and associated channels.
In planning a future National Drainage Programme, alternative strategies will need to be evaluated in terms of optimisingwater delivery and disposal relationshipsfrom an engineering viewpoint, assessing their environmentalconsequences and, at the same time. by analysing the operational capability and needs of concerned institutionsto fulfil specified objectives.
2.2 Towards A Role Framework
The first step in establishinga role framework for institutions is to determine an appropriate allocation of responsibilities. One way of doing this is to categorise key activities which should be undertakento enhance developmentplanning and implementation. With reference to the environment, four such categories are proposed and a list of key activities suggested in Table 2.1.
2 TABLE 2.1
Categories for Key EnviromnentalActivities in Development Planning and Implementation
Category Key Activity
Policy and Legal: - policy formulation - macro enviromental assessment - setting of quality standards - derive legislation - ensure enforcement mechanisms
Planning: - establish environmentalstrategies - environmental impact assessment - economic (environmental) appraisal - modify programme and project design - incorporatemonitoring and evaluation(environmental and socio-economic)
Implementation: - activate enhancementmeasures - implement preventative measures - implement mitigative measures - invoke legal action
Monitoring and - environmentalimpact monitoring Evaluation: and evaluation - socio-economicmonitoring and evaluation - recurrent monitoringof key variables.
Throughout the planning and implementationprocess, socio-economic aspects should be acknowledgedas intimatelyrelated to the environment,especially at local level. Analysisof sociological and economic responses of affected communities can reveal environmental circumstancesjust as changes in environmentalsurroundings may cause discernablenegative or positive changes in social relationships and economic actions.
Various recurrent tasks, such as operation and maintenance,are omitted from the key activity list as not in themselvesbeing directly "environmental"activities, although the consequences of. for example, poor maintenance, might create a need for implementationof preventative or mitigative measures.
2.3 Policy, Standards and Legislation
The key activities listed in Table I are closely related: meaningful environmentalpolicies at Federal and Provincial levels would be influenced by the knowledge gained from environmentalassessment and such assessment would assist in the establishment of quality standards.
3 In the context of irrigation and drainage, there is an urgent need to establish ambient water quality standards. These should embrace a comprehensiverange of variables, not only those related to industrial effluent. The presence of salinity, sodicity, tQxic metals, bacteria and other organisms will also be significant, particularly in the context of crops and human and animal health.
Since different standards would apply for different uses of water, for example for crops, for fisheries, for human consumptionor for sanitary purposes, it would not be appropriate to set legally rigid universal standards. While national ambient standards would provide a yardstick, there would need to be clear definition of how and where different local quality standards would be applied.
Even where irrigation or drainage water is not directly consumedby humans, there is a need to ensure that pollutantsor harmful organismsare prevented from enteringthe food chain and standards need to cater for this aspect.
At the Federal level, the Federal EPA together with the Ministry of Water and Power, supported by WAPDA, the Ministry of Health and other concerned bodies. should evaluate Provincialproposals and set Nationalquality standards,especially for water. Local variations in specific quality standards should be permitted and Provincial legislationshould be drawn up to cater for these.
At Provificial level this would require, as a minimum, the participation of the following key institutions:
- EnvironmentalProtection Agencies (EPA) - Planning and DevelopmentDepartments (P&D) - Irrigation Departments (IPD) - Public Health EngineeringDepartments (PHED) - Agricultural and Fisheries Departments.
Detailed legislation and suitable delegation of enforcement powers to Provincial EPAs are essential if quality standards are to be met.
2.4 Planning
2.4.1 Environmental Strategy
Environmentalstrategies are required at National. Provincialand local levels. The National Conservation Strategy (IUCN, 1992) provides a major contribution towards this goal and Provincial Conservation Strategies are under preparation. However, these are pan-sectoral and there may be a need for an additional specific focus on preparation of local or sectoral strategies.
The ProvincialPlanning and DevelopmentDepartments (P&D) would be suitable agencies to be responsible for this task, with assistance from the EPAs. Local and sectoral strategies would assist in determining when environmental impact assessment is required and in indicatingits technical scope. Such strategies could be adapted from those currently used by, for example, the World Bank (OperationalDirective No. 4) or the Asian DevelopmentBank.
4 2.4.2 Environmental inpact Assessment
Line Departments would be expected to ensure enviromnental impact assessment (EIA) is undertaken where policy guidelines and environmentalstrategy dictate a need. There is a basic requirement for a minimal but adequate in-house expertise to appreciate the technical and disciplinary scope applicable to each EIA and to ensure that EIA field activities are undertaken to an adequate standard.
The specialismsrequired will vary from project to project, depending on associated impacts and number of sectors affected. It wouldbe appropriatefor EiAs to be contracted out, since it would be cosdy and wasteful of scarce manpower resources for any single Department to maintain a suitable range of resident EIA specialists. This could be either to a centralised governmentagency or to the private sector.
In the short term, due to expertise shortages, the EPAs will have a major role to play in offering technical advice and support even if they are not direcdy responsible for EIA field services. It would not, of course, be appropriatefor EPAs to themselvesconduct such EiAs as they could then be placed in the unacceptableposition of having to appraise their own assessments.
2.43 EIA Field Services
If Governmentwere to provide EIA field services, then these shouldbe centralised, probably under a specialised wing of the Federal EPA. It must be stressed however that at the present time very little appropriate expertiseexists in the whole of Pakistan and therefore in the short to medium term, there will be a requirement to bring in external specialists, especially for major programmes or projects. In many cases donor assistance will be required.
Nonetheless, even if donors and external specialists were to be regularly involved in the foreseeable future, this does not necessarily imply a need for Government to provide centralisedEIA services. It would be consistentwith GoP policy for the capabilityto provide such services to be promoted in the private sector. Government's own direct role in EIA would then be regulatory and supervisory.
However, Federal and Provincialline Departmentswill need the capabilityto be involved in requisite data collection, monitoringand analysis, to feed into EIAs and the planning process generally.
2.4.4 Environmental Economics
Although methodology is still evolving, economics may be applied to many environmental parameters. This can be especially valuable when:
- the results of EIA are ambiguous and trade-offs occur - economicanalysis lends weight to the environmentalists'conclusions, whether positive or negative.
The latter is especially important in helping to influence senior decision makers. As with environment, economic expertise is generally in short supply in Pakistan and an indication of this is the relatively small proportion of economistsemployed in P&Ds. Where such staff do exist, specific training in the applicationof economicsto environmentalissues is needed. 5 As a prerequisite to this such staff would need to obtain, through training, an appreciationof EnvironmentalImpact Assessment methodology.
2.4.5 Provincial Contributions
In the short term, recognising the shortage of manpower, Provincial EPAs might assist at local level for smaller projects or components by participating on a collaborative basis with line Departments in supervising selected ElAs and they might thereby offer on-the-job training. However, as essentially watch dog agencies, it would not be appropriate for them to be officially responsible for provision of EIA field services.
P&Ds would be expected to screen project proposals to ensure adequate consideration of environmental aspects, as they do for technical and economic aspects at present. Particular attention would need to be paid to inter-sectoralimpacts or effects which straddle the purview of several Departments. The P&Ds therefore require environmentaldivisions.
Where complex issues are concerned, such as ensuringthat project componentsare not likely to cause, directly or indirectly, infringement of environmentalquality standards or specific laws, the EPAs will also have a screening role to play. For project screening to be carried out effectively, EPAs will require analysed data obtained largely from the line Departments who will have main responsibilityfor regular physical monitoring (see below).
2.4.6 Veto Powers in Project Screening
Following EIA and economic (ncluding environmental)appraisal, it is essentialthat there is a veto mechanism to ensure that programmes or projects can be either cancelledor rejected subject to modification, as necessary. P&Ds are mainly responsible for screening project proposals at Provincial level, the Federal Planning Commission(FPC) for Federal Ministry or Agency projects and ultimatelythe Executive Committeeof the NationalEconomic Council (ECNEC) for all major high cost projects.
Powers of veto are exercised by Provincial DevelopmentWorking Parties (PDWPs) which are chaired by the AdditionalChief Secretaries of P&Ds, and at Federal level by the Central DevelopmentWorking Party (CDWP) and also by ECNEC, which is chaired by the Finance Minister, under whom lies the FPC.
Federal and Provincial EPAs, with their responsibilityfor standards and legal requirements, should as a minimum be involved on an advisory basis in the screening process undertaken by the P&Ds and the FPC. To exercise powers of veto, they should also be adequately represented on the PDWPs, the CDWP and ECNEC.
The planning and project approval process is described in more detail in Appendix-D.
2.5 Monitoring and Evaluation
Just as with agro-economic and socio-economic monitoring and evaluation (M&E), environmentalM&E should be seen as having several objectives:
indicating required adjustments to projects under implementation revealing needs for implementing mitigative, preventative or enhancement 6 measures - verifying the pre-project environmentalassessment in order to improve the quality of future assessments - feeding informationback into the planning process - ensuring that inter-institutionalcollaborative arrangements are maintainedand not simply terminated on completion of the itnplementation phase of a project.
In this report, a distinction is made between M&E of programmnes,projects and environmentalimpacts as a cross-sectoraland relativelycomprehensive exercise, which often requires specific funding and additional manpower, and recurrent physical monitoring and analysis of key variables. Individualimplementing line institutionsshould not necessarilybe expected to undertake comprehensiveM&E although they should be required to perform regular sampling and analysis of selected variables.
Within the water sector, WAPDA is likely to be the appropriateoverseeing agency for M&E at Federal level, while P&Ds should in future have main responsibilityat Provincial level. Field services are likely to be contracted out. The EPAs at Federal and Provincial levels would have an important role assisting in the design of M&E exercises and in evaluating the results of enviromnental M&E for technical quality, objectivity and for compatibilitywith standards. The M&E requirementswould also normally be stipulated as part of the EIA preparation process as well as indicating which entity should be responsible for the M&E activity.
Conventionalthinking suggests that when M&E is undertakenby the implementingagencies, including by Federal authorities such as WAPDA, there are real risks that self interest in exaggerating benefits, or under-emphasisingenvironmental damage, may result in loss of objectivity. The EPAs must thereforehave sufficient expertiseand fundingto undertake spot checks in the field to collect and analyse their own sample data to "evaluate the evaluators".
2.6 Recurrent Physical Monitoring and Analysis
Regular monitoring and analysis of key variables, such as water quality, should normally be the responsibility of the implementing or operating institutions. It would also be their responsibility to take remedial action or, if outside their operational scope, to lodge a complaint with the EPA against the concerned institution. The EPAs' role, as watch dogs, would be to carry out spot checks on a sample basis to ensure that monitoringto a required standard is being carried out and also that corrective measures are being implemented. For this the EPAs need a field capacity and adequate laboratory ftcilities.
Comprehensive monitoring and analysis of surface water quality in rivers, canals, drains, lakes, ponds and affected coastalzones, as well as monitoringof groundwater. is seen as an essential activity. A network of key monitoring points needs to be established, involving close coordination between several concerned Departmentsand agencies.
The key coordinating institutions are likely to be the EPAs and the P&Ds, while those collectingand analysing water samnpleswould include IPDs, WAPDA, PHEDs, Agriculture and Fisheries Departments.
7 Water quality monitoring should cover industrial effluent and related chemicals, salinity and sodicity, agricultural chemicals, silt, harmful organisms and water born disease agents generally. Evaluation of the results of analysis would be needed in terms of direct effects on agricultural production, human and livestock health, fisheries, wildlife and vegetation generally. The scope of monitoring and evaluation would need to be sufficient to assess related aspects such as re-use of drainageeffluent and risks of pollutantsprogressing through the food chain, etc.
Monitoring and analysis of soils on farms for chemical content, salinity and sodicity, and for erosion, shouldbe carried out by the Agricultural Departnents since they are responsible for irrigation matters below the mogha, and for on farm water management.
Clarificationof proposed institutionalresponsibilities and recommended actions are given in Section 5 (Guidelines for Action).
2.7 Implementation
While implementation of corrective measures would be the responsibility of each line Department, in this case particularly the IPDs, there is a basic requirement for all relevant institutionsto be aware of legislation which might be invoked. It is also essentialfor legal powers of enforcementto be delegated to the Provincial EPAs.
8 3. Eisting Situation
3.1 General Constraints
3.1.1 Overview
Many apparent technical, financial and managerial constraints on effective and sustained development of irrigation and drainage systems, and agriculture generally, are in fact inextricably related to broader (pan-sectoral) issues of poor public sector managementand budgetary and financial deficiencies. This is especially critical at Provincial level since line Departments are the main executing agencies for development and are also responsible for recurrent activities such as operation and maintenanceand provision of services.
Evaluation reports of programnmesand projects have tended to emphasise short term physical benefits whilst, in many cases, under-emphasisingor completely omitting discussionof:
the short lived nature of physical and economicbenefits
the failure to actually recover financial contributionsfrom beneficiaries (for example under OFWM)
*theincreased strain on establishment overheads, recurrent finance and manpower, often due to creation of new sections/wingsunder development programme auspices
the tendencyfor Departmentsto propose development projects to get around recurrent finance constraints.
Examples are given in the Water Sector Investment Plan (WSIP) documentation (Vol 3: Gates. 1990) and in the Public Institutionsvolume of the Right Bank Master Plan (RBMP 9. 1991). In the case of canals and drains, rehabilitationprojects funded from the development budget are often necessary because of previous inadequate or deferred maintenance which should be funded from the recurrent budget.
Although relevant, such aspects cannot be adequatelyaddressed in individualsectoral studies such as the DSEA. However, it is important to recognise that these wider problems need to be overcome as a pre-requisite to the planning and achievernent of effective and environmentallysustainable development.
The recotmmendtationsarising out of the seminarsconducted in Lahore and Karachi (Chapter 12) underlined the issue of poor internal management,lack of incentives etc in the public sector departments. The need to conduct a form of internal managementand procedures audit was recognised. The implementationof such an auditingprocedure is clearly an essentialpre- requisite towards improvinginternal efficiency and morale.
Appendix-E outlines a potential study of Provincial public sector managementand finance. Such procedures could be extendedto cover all procedures within an organisation.
9 3.1.2 Plnning and the Environment
The Pakistan Enviromnental Protection Ordinance (PEPO) of 1983 states that one of the functions of the Environmental Protection Council (EPC) shall be to 'ensure at environmentalconsiderations are interweaved uno NationalDevelopment Plans and policies'. To support this, it also stipulates that the (Federal) EPA, the executing agency, shall 'coordinoteenviromnental policies and programmnesnationally and internationaly". The PEPO is reproduced in Appendix-C.
Although four Provincial EPAs have been estabiished, as yet no Provincial Environmental Protection Ordinances have been issued. The Sindh EPA is commissioning studies to establish envirommentalquality standards and also to specifythe necessarylaws to enable such standards to be incorporated into an Ordinance which, it is hoped, would be ready for approv31in 1993. The Punjab EPA has proposed draft amendments to the 1983 PEPO intended to strengthen the ProvincialEPAs' role and to grant legal powers to them. These are still under scrutiny at Federal level.
As yet however, there is no coordinationof environmentalpolicies or programmes Federally or Provincially. Developmentstrategy is influenced mainly by Federal economic objectives and development plans which are emulated, with some modification, at Provincial level. There are no specific environmentalstrategies and little allowance for environmentalaspects generally, although this situation is likely to change with increased official emphasis on the enviroment. the planned strengthening of EPAs and the preparation of National and Provincial Conservation Strategies.
A fundamentalproblern is that planningat Federal and Provinciallevels, and by agenciessuch as WAPDA, is generally undertaken on a project by project basis, such that apparent strategiesor plans often do no more than reflect the balance of projects proposed, rather than the other way arourd.
An integrated approach to planning programmes or projects has rarely been implemented. This is unsatisfactoryfrom both environmentaland economicviewpoints where cross sectoral effects and linkages exist.
Provincial planning activities are geared mainly to prioritising Five-year and Annual Developmentbudget allocationson the basis of project submissionsdetermined autonomously by the respective line institutions. Thus, while P&Ds are involved in approval procedures, they can only play a limited role in determining the scope and range of projects put forward. Hence, they only pardy influence strategies and the balance between subsectors.
Of the four Provinces, only one, North-West Frontier Province, has so far established any kind of environmental division within P&D. Such division are proposed within the other provincial P&D departments. These are perceived as having two main functions:
- prioritising enviromnentalproblems and preparing strategiesto combat them
- screening project proposals for adequate consideration of enviromnental aspects.
10 The existingproject planning and approval process is described in Appendix-D.
3.1.3 Organisation and Management
Almost all government institutionsare managedon rigidlyhierarchical and autonomouslines of command,such that horizontal linkage below Secretariator equivalentlevel is often weak and even discouraged. "Coordination"is therefore normallyonly enacted via the appropriate executive officer, such as Chief Engineer or Director General at the apex of relevant lines of authority, even where more junior officers are members of committees, etc. In general this inhibits effective coordination or integration of activities between lines of command at any level.
Partly due to donor influence, there is a tendency to create new institutions, or divisions within, rather than to strengthen or restructure existingones. This has the effect of creating new senior establishment posts, and hence improves promotion prospects, but it can cause confusion over institutional responsibilities, sometimes weakens pre-existing bodies and creates new but separate lines of command. It also places additional strain on the recurrent budget and, once development funds are exhausted, such institutions and their programmes are liable to go into decline.
This has particular implications for the organisation and management of irrigation and drainage systems. There is a strong need for well defined roles and responsibilitiesfor planning and constructing new drainage systems. It will also be essential for organisational arrangementsfor operation and maintenanceto be compatible with managementstructures.
This will only be achieved through actual integration of irrigation and drainage systems managementat all levels within the establishmenthierarchy, with particular regard to utilising and delegating responsibilitiesbetween existinglines of command.
3.1A Recurrent Finance
Many constraints on the success of development and on efficient organisation and managementresult, directly or indirectly, from problems of recurrent finance. Development institutionssuch as P&Ds have relatively little influenceover the recurrent (non development) budget allocations, despite playing a role in advising on institutionaldevelopment.
The IPDs, suffer from recurrent budget constraintswhich are perceived to particularlyaffect:
- operation, maintenance and repair of existing equipment, canals, drains, buildings, etc
purchase of replacement equipment, machinery, etc
- staff quality and motivation.
Many senior officials in the Irrigation Departments complain of lack of motivationor poor quality of manpower, particularly at middle and junior levels. In general, quantity does not appear to be a constraint. Typical problems cited include:
II inabilityto attract bright young new technicalstaff at existing salaries which do not compete with the private sector
lower standards of academic and technical education generally
lack of relevant practical training in colleges and training institutes
lack of funds for on-the-job or in-servicetraining programmes
demoralisation due to inadequate allowances, lack of transport and equipment, and other reasons inhibitingfulfilment of duties.
The potential benefits of increased expenditure where appropriate, for example to improve canal operation and maintenance, are increasingly recognised as economically justifiable. This is supportedby an IIMI study (Chaudhry& Ali, 1989), by evaluations of ISRP, by the Right Bank Master Plan and by the study for Improving Procedures for Assessment and Collection of Water Charges and Drainage Cess (ACE, 1990).
However, in the absence of sufficientrecurrent budget allocations. one motive for submitting development project proposals is actually to secure funds for the sustainment of ongoing activities through obtaining essential equipment, transport and special staff allowance allocations which should more correctly be financedthrough the recurrent budget.
Another problem is that funding of the DevelopmentBudget is seen as largely a Federal or international concern for which Provincial Government is only partly accountable. Hence there is little interest in evaluatingthe benefit impactof developmentprogrammes or projects, let alone recouping even a small proportion of the costs from the beneficiaries.
Budget examplesfor Sindh Province, given in the Right Bank Master Plan (RBMP9. 1991), suggest that in real terms the overall recurrent budget allocation remained more or less constant between 1986-87 and 1990-91, although establishmentstaffing increased and new institutions were created. Tle effect was proportionately reduced funding of replacement equipment and repairs and maintenancegenerally.
The recurrent budget share for irrigation and drainage in Sindh declined from 6.3% in 1986- 87 to 4.8% in 1990-91 despite an injection of grant funds for DRIP research. This has obvious negative implications for operation and maintenance of irrigation and drainage systems.
Recurrent budget deficiencies are due largely to poor revenue structures, relatively high Provincial debt repaymentcommitments, and weak political and legal control which inhibits both raising of taxes and actual revenue collection. A well known example is water charges. These have not been increasedsince 1981 and, as the ACE study (1990) confirmed, charges due are in any case under assessed.
Canal related revenue-expendituregaps for 1988-89are illustrated in Figure 3.1. Operation and maintenancecosts are more than double the water charge revenues.
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1 :! 3.1.5 Expertise
Environmental expertise is virtually non-existent in both public and private sectors in Pakistan. The majority of the few so-called environmentalists, such as in EPAs and in WAPDA, are by training engineers. Although engineering based expertise is relevant to selected urban and industrial environmentalproblems, it is insufficient to cope with a pan- sectoral range of envirommental issues, particularly those which pertain to irrigated agriculture, drainage and rural areas generally.
Since it will take time to build up an environmental cadre in Pakistan, it would be inappropriate in the foreseeable future to expect line Departments to each employ environmentalspecialists. Short term proposals for environmentalinstitutional strengthening should therefore be limited to EPAs, P&Ds and key Federal agencies such as WAPDA.
3.2 Deficiendes and Gaps in Responsibilities
3.2.1 Design and Construction
WAPDA is involvedwith the planning, designand implementationof new works in the water and power sectors, which it contracts out to the private sector. While WAPDA retains operational control of power facilities (includingdams), irrigation and drainage facilities are handed over to the IPDs one year after constructionis completed. WAPDA has made heavy investments in Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs). It also supplies subsidisedelectricity for tubewells.
While much of WAPDA's investment expenditure has been on civil works, its mandate includes greater operational emphasis on planning, design, and monitoring and evaluation, than is characteristicof the IPDs.
The Irrigation and Power Departmentsare not normally responsible for 'new' construction works, which have been generally undertakenby WAPDA, but this is not always the case. For example, Sindh IPD is involved in several of the LBOD projects and it has also undertaken preparation of feasibility studies for the Sehwan barrage.
Inevitably, the process of handing over facilities from WAPDA to IPDs is not always satisfactory. IPDs may face shortages of the relevant manpower skills, for example for tubewell and for tile drainageoperation, and also may experienceextra stress on the recurrent budget. Further, they may complain of inappropriatedesign or lack of compatibilitywith existing systems. In the particular case of drainage, physical (hydraulic) and managerial problems of integration with existing irrigation and drainage systems operation are likely to arise.
3.2.2 Monitoring and Evaluation
The WAPDA Directorate of Watercourse Monitoringand Evaluation, based in Lahore, can undertake agro-economic evaluation of major projects for WAPDA and, on a contractual basis, has evaluated donor aided projects like Irrigation Systems Rehabilitation(ISRP) and On Farm Water Management(OFWM). It is currently involved in M&E of the Drainage IV programme. Nonetheless the technical scope of its capabilities is limited and it has been
13 criticised for the qualityof some of its past work. It is particularly weak in socio-economics and has no environmentalcapability.
It would be necessary to clearly define the future scope of any WAPDA monitoring and evaluation responsibilitiesas compared those of the Provincial P&D Departments, the EPAs and other institutions.
The Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) cells of Provincial P&D Departmentshave no field capacity and therefore do not undertake either economic benefit or environmental impact evaluation. Their role is limited to assisting in pre-project appraisal of the quality of PC-I proposals and then to monitoring physical implementationprogress and actual expenditures on the basis of data received from the executing institution.
This approach is inadequate from an economic viewpoint and is of no relevance to M&E of cross-sectoral enviromnentalimpact. Since other Departments do not undertake economic M&E and have no expertise in environmental impact evaluation, there is no Provincial capability to provide the necessary feedback to improve either future economic planning or pre-project environmnentalimpact assessment.
Thc PC-I (and subsequentPCs) do not currently embody any specific environmentalaspects. Modification of the PC documents to include environmental considerations would be a relatively straightforward procedure and could be readily carried out.
3.2.3 Recurrent Physical Monitoring
Although not the only variable requiring recurrent monitoring, water quality should be seen as a major focus for attention for several institutions. There is no monitoringof water quality in canals generally and only rarely in rivers, ponds or lakes.
EPAs have so far had little involvementin water quality monitoringalthough Punjab EPA has done a little in the Ravi River in the context of industrial pollution.
IPDs monitor water quantity and canal entry points but do no monitoring of water quality. The activities of WAPDA's SCARPs Monitoring Organisation (SMO) are limited to measurementsof water and soil salinity and depth to water table in selected areas.
PHEDs undertake some monitoring of water but only to check on treatment in their own water supply schemes, although it is well known that people in rural areas often take their water from canals or other sources. They do no monitoring of water borne diseases. Laboratory facilities are extremely limited and Sindh PHED has none.
Soils on farms have rarely been analysed for anything other than fertility. It would be desirable to regularly monitor soils for changes in salinity and sodicity and for agricultural chemicals.
To fill the gaps, a coordinated approach involving several institutions will be required, sufficient not only to ensure comprehensive monitoring and analysis but also to enable evaluation of matters such as critical linkages in the food chain.
14 3.3 Drainage Operation and Maintenance
A major cause of poor drain operation and maintenance (O&M) is lack of integration of control into the overall irrigation system's management and organisational structure. A related cause is lack of priority accorded to drainage by both farmers and IPDs alike. Farmers are unlikely to bribe IPD officialsto improve drainage whereas substantial sums of money, usually exceeding official water charges payments, change hands in respect of irrigation water supply. Evidence in the Right Bank Master Plan Documentation (RBMP,1991) supports these statements.
However, both farmers' and IPDs' concern with drainage varies with circumstances and it is important to distinguish between drainage priorities in different locations in different Provinces and the relationship between organisation of O&M and farmers' own interest. Farmers' interest is understandably highest where they are aware of land going out of production due to waterloggingor salinity and perceive that appropriate drainage can enable reclamation.
Since many drains do not operate properly due to poor design or due to blockages, farmers are often less than enthusiastic. They are least likely to appreciate benefits of drainage designed for disposal of infrequent flood waters.
In all Provinces except Sindh, drainage O&M officially comes under the respective IPD divisional field officers (Executive Engineers) so that the potential for improved integration and coordination exists. Figure 3.2 illustrates where responsibility for drainage lies in Balochistan.
Where constraints on budget, equipment or manpower exist, maintenance of canals is invariably given priority over surface drains, even when under the auspices of the same Executive Engineer (XEN) and when similar staff and equipment might sometimesbe used. Recurrent budget constraints limit the availabilityof mechanical spare parts and replacement of equipment.
Anotherproblem is that many man-madesurface drains, especiallythose designedfor disposal of flood waters, do not have associated access roads to enable machinery and equipmentto be transported to the right location at the right time. A number of practical problems result from the history of SCARP projects which were implemented and initially operated by WAPDA. Some were handed over to IPDs who had not been involved in design or layout and who did not originally have appropriately skilled manpower for tubewell O&M.
In Sindh, largely due to the history of SCARP project implementation,the organisationaland management structure for drainage O&M is not integrated and there is little coordination. Figure 3.3 illustrates organisation of drainage O&M in Sindh.
Main executive responsibility for irrigation rests with the Chief Engineer of each barrage, including all its canals within the Provincial borders. There are three barrages in Sindh: Guddu, Sukkur and Kotri. Flood control is also under the auspices of each barrage Chief Engineer. Only for Kotri barrage is drainage includedunder the Chief Engineer but even in this case responsibility is divided at SuperintendentEngineer level.
15 Balochistan Irrigation and Power Department: Key Elements Highlighting Drainage O&M
| ~Secretary
DirectorPower C.E. C.E. S.E.Project Dev.and Planning Irrigation Design Planning
S.E.Sibi SE. Pat Feeder S.E.Loralal S.E.Mechnical S.E.Quetta S.E. Kalat Irrigation Irrigation Irrigation and Electrical Irrigation and Khuzdar
XEN Khirthar XENPat XEN Dera | Canal| | Feeder Bughti
I l ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 2SDDs & I') Irrbation BD/X ~~~Drainagae O&MN Sindh Irrigation and Power Department: Key Elements Highlighting Drainage O&M
Secretary
Adtional Secretary|
| .E. Sukkur | C.E.Guddu || C.E. Kotri d|C.E. Irrigation7 C.E. LBOD Barrage ll Barrage ll Barrage |Dev., Hyderabad || Hyderabad
XENs XENs Sukku XEN. XENsWENs XENLand MechanicalGate Rehab. ReWlatio t,,
DrainageO&M l The Chief Engineer for Irrigation Development,based in Hyderabad, oversees research and design activities and also all operational drainage, except for Kotri command. Drainage systems relevant to Guddu and Sukkur barrage commands, most of which are includedunder SCARPs, are therefore operated and maintainedseparately from the irrigation system.
Under the auspices of the Chief Engineerfor Irrigation Development,Hyderabad, a Project Director of SCARP, Sukkur (a Superintendent Engineer) is responsible for most local drainage and tubewells. Meanwhile, the Director of Land Reclamation,based in Hyderabad, independentlycontrols, via an XEN, some non-SCARPdrainage operationand also collection of depth-to-watertabledata within the same vicinity of Sukkurbarrage command. Neither the Chief Engineer of Sukkur barrage nor his subordinateshave any control over these drainage activities and they are not even coordinatedbetween themselves.
Another limitation in Sindh is that there is only one Mechanical Circle controlled by the SuperintendentEngineer (Mechanical)under the auspicesof Chief Engineer, Sukkur Barrage. Equipment is hired out to other divisions includingto SCARPdrainage divisions. However, there tends to be competition for access and often equipment is not available at the right moment. It is not possible to substitutemanual labour for machinery because maintenance to both canals and drains has to be undertaken during the relative short period of canal closure outside the two cropping seasons.
Fragmentation of responsibilities within geographic areas reduces efficiency and inhibits realisation of economies of scale.
IPDs have mechanical and electrical engineers responsiblefor operation and maintenanceof canal and drainage pumping stations, tubewell pumps and equipment used for repairs and maintenance to the canal and drainage systems. Mechanical and electrical engineers have poor career prospects in IPDs and do not benefit from the unofficial payments made to canal operators.
Considering the range of difficulties cited above, it is understandable that incentives and enthusiasm for -drainage operation and mairtenance are generally low.
16 4. Socal Aspects
4.1 Consulting the People
Engineers in Pakistan are notoriously reluctant to consult with people of lower status in farming communities (see for example Merrey, 1986). Yet there are clear advantages in involving farmers at the planning and design stages, and also when undertaking monitoring and evaluation. Local residents, who are the potential beneficiaries, have a perception of their needs which can be articulated when they are made aware of technical and economic options open to them.
People are knowledgableabout their enviromment,observe and feel changes and may have to make economic adjustmentsto cope with its modification. Officials and technicians often assume that only a sociologist or anthropologist can elicit such knowledge. All that is required is -for these same technicians and officials to be prepared to adopt a consultative approach, ask appropriate questionsand listen to the answers.
The role of Government officials in this context should therefore be to explain technical options and obtain the opinionsof the farming communities. This might be achieved through open forum workshops. It would provide the opportunityfor potential beneficiariesto assist in defining priorities. Relevant informationto be obtained could include, for example:
- knowledge of changes in the local environment. with particular reference to both irrigated agriculture and health
- perceptions of the need for drainage
- willingnessto participate in or contribute to construction
- willingnessto pay for services, O&M, etc.
Willingnessto participate, provide labour or contribute financially is often a good indicator of perceived and real benefits. Despite the well known failings of Water User Associations (WUAs) as supposed farmer groups, their very formationunder the auspices of the On Farm Water Management(OFWM) programme, and the farmers' willingness to provide labour, is indicativeof their perceptionof benefits of improved watercourses.
Likewise, farmers willingness to pay more overall to irrigation staff for improved water supply than they pay officiallyfor water charges is also indicativeof benefit perception. By contrast, in most areas, farmers are unwillingto pay for drainageservices and the percentage success of actual revenue collectionis much lower for drainage cess than for water charges (see RBMP, 1991).
4.2 Farmer and Community Groups
The themes of community mobilisationor formation of self-help groups h3ve been often repeated in many a proposal document. Yet in Pakistanthere have been almost no successes in implementation, and possibly only one: the Agha Khan Rural Support Programme in North-West Frontier Province. This success is explainedlargely by the social structure and religious base of the local communitiesinvolved, which are not typical of much of Pakistan.
17 Anthropologists claim that in most of Pakistan people are by nature uncooperative, individualisticand status seeking at the expense of others. For example, credit cooperatives proved disastrous with loans going only to the most influential and in any case a high level of defaulting on repayments occurred.
Under OFWM, WUAs were formed in theory for several purposes but in practice they were formed by leading farmers with the sole objective of obtaining the material benefits of watercourselining. In many cases in Punjab and Sindh it was found that smaller farmers and share croppers did not even know that they were members of WUAs (see for example Nayman, 1988).
Large landlords (Zamindar) dominatein many areas. They may coerce their sharecroppers (Haris) into "participation' or providingfree labour if this is seen as advantageousbut clearly this is not the same as voluntary cooperation.
The Right Bank Master Plan (RBMP8, 1991) argues that the single most significant binding link in rural communities is debt obligation, especially between sharecroppers and their landlord.
Social cohesion and the potential for voluntary cooperation in farming communitiesis only likely to arise in the rare situationwhere there are several similar sized owner-operatorsfrom one tribe, living in the same village and farming adjacent land.
It is therefore concluded that, althoughfarmers should be consulted and involved in planning and design of drainage, these are likely to be leading members of the community such as large land owners and not necessarily representative of the majority. Nonetheless, their perception of benefits, willingnessto pay or provide sharecroppers as labour, etc, will be indicativeof local farmer attitudes generally.
Greatest potential for forming effective local groups might well exist amongst women, but only for off-farm productive purposes.
4.3 Women in Farming Communities
The RBMP (Vol 8, 1991) found that in the sample of watercourses studied, women constituted 43% of all family workers in agriculture and 76% of those working part time. Many spent up to 4 hours per day specificallydealing with livestock, cutting and preparing fodder. These tasks are of course additional to domestic or householdwork which includes collecting water. Overall, women in poorer households spend substantially more time working than men.
The Left Bank Outfall Drain Sociological Studies (LBOD Vol 3, 1991) noted that women working in agriculture is generally perceived as an indicationof poverty and hence low social status of the household. Money earned as wage labour in agriculture was not considered to belong to the women who earned it but to the male head of the household. Women in richer farming households do not normally undertakeagricultural work.
However, women may gain status through employment in non-farm activities. Where land is scarce and holdings have become smaller, such as due to waterloggingand salinity, there is less agricultural work availableand women are more likely to seek non-farm employment. A potential consequence of improveddrainage is that although more land may be cultivated
18 and hence household incomes may rise, women are likely to work more rather than less in agriculture. In poorer households they would work harder overall but would not benefit direcdlyfrom the income and their status would decline.
It is because of this that potential may exist for forming effective women's groups aimed ultimately at enablingthem to produce saleable commoditiesoff the farm.
It is conduded that women are likely to benefit most from education. Appropriate education and technical training would enable them to seek non-farmjobs which would improve both their incomes and their status. Health educationwould also be of great benefit, especially in the context of understanding the importance of using clean, unpolluted water. The LBOD studies indicatethat many poor familiesspend a high proportion of their incomeon medicine. Meanwhilericher households are less prone to illness due to better sanitation, education and access to suitable potable water sources.
The existence of local educational facilities depends to a large extent on the interest and generosity of the rich landlords.
4.4 The Impact of Drainage
One of the main conclusionsof the LBODSociological Studies is that improved drainage will have no impact on human behaviour, social structure or on the relationships between landlords and share-croppers.
With regard to incomes, landlords are likely to benefit most as either more land is brought into production or the productivity of existingland improves. Although sharecroppers will benefit to a limited extent, differentialsbetween landlordsand sharecroppers are, if anything, likely to increase.
Social impacts of improved drainage may be summarised as follows:
- substantial benefit to landlords
- limited incomrebenefit to share-croppers whose holding size increases
- negative impact on women's work load and status in poorer households
- reduced out-migration where new holdings are established on reclaimed land: most likely that previous wage labourers or share-croppers sons become new share- croppers
- indirect benefits through promotingnon-farm employment in related agro-industries.
The LBOD study further concludes that there will be few health benefits as a result of improved drainage. Health improvementsare related largely to better education, reinforced by household income levels. Richer families can afford to install appropriate sanitary facilities, etc.
19 5. Guidelines for Action
5.1 Defining a Role Framework
5.1.1 Outline
Environmentalimpacts and effects of any physical developmentintervention, like economic linkages, tend to cross several sectors, such that concerned institutions inevitably will have broad interests. Althoughthe DSEA study must considerall impacted sectors and institutions relevant to them, recommendationscannot be made in isolationor without recognitionof yet wider responsibilitiesof environmentaland developmentplanning institutionsgenerally.
In view of the above, and considering the environmentalexpertise shortages and financial constraints in Pakistan, it is particularly importantto establishpriorities in the DSEA and for the NationalDrainage Programme concept. There would be substantialbenefits in exploiting existing institutional structures as far as possible, avoiding duplication and ensuring that institutionalrecommendations blend with proposals emanatingftrom other sources.
There are several environmentaland related institutionalstudies in progress in Pakistan and a number of initiatives have been put forward. These include the National Conservation Strategy (NCS)which, at the Federal pinnacle of economicpolicy and developmentplanning, recommends broadening the National Economic Council (NEC) to become the National Economic and EnvironmentalCouncil (NEEC). Its Executive Committee (ECNEC) would then be expanded to become the ECNEEC. The implication is the Federal Planning Commission should be strengthenedto tackle environmentalissues in the planning process.
The Asian Development Bank has been supporting a study on the 'Strengthening of Environmental Management". which, amongst other things, is likely to propose the creation of an Indus Basin Water Authority (IBWA), or similar, perhaps attached to the Federal EPA. If established, it might oversee, monitor and manage environmentalinitiatives in the Indus and its associated irrigated areas. It might also be responsiblefor water use legislation, for example for industries, or to control exploitationof groundwater. Other proposals in the study relate to the strengtheningof the EPAs generally.
Various donors are supportingor are about to support institutionalstrengthening of WAPDA, Provincial P&Ds and EPAs. The BalochistanP&D has two expatriate advisers working on institutionalstrengthening, funded by the NetherlandsGovernment. The Punjab EPA already has two expatriate technical advisers. A PC-. proposal exists for institutionalstrengthening of North-West Frontier Province's EPA. includingfor initiating and reviewing ElAs.
GoP has meanwhilerecently created an Indus River Authority (IRA), although it is still under establishmentand its function will be limited to ensuring that water allocations, as agreed under the Water Accord, are correctly implemented.
Table 5.1 outlines a suggested framework for institutionalresponsibilities, with particular reference to drainage developmentand the environment. I.n addition to filling responsibility gaps by indicating the range of institutionswhich shouldbe concerned with each activity, the Table implies that action may be required to re-allocate certain responsibilities between WAPDA, the IPDs and other key institutions. These implications are discussed in the sections below.
20 TABLE 5.1 Irrigation, Drainagc and the Enviroumcat Proposed Institutional RcstPonsibilito AdWify or ftsponixibiti-ty, J1Irncia lOvcrsccing or IOther Concerned with rcfcrcncc to the watcr sector ICoordinatint Institutions I Institutions Polic3r ind LcjxIMAipccts National Environmental Policy formubtion EPC FPC Federal EPA Macro Environmental Assessment WAPDA Federal EPA National Water Quality Standards Federal EPA WAPDA. Mins. of (Proposed IBWA?) Water, Health, Agric. Fisheries Provincial and Local Water Provincial EPAs P&Ds: IPDs; PHEDs- Quality Standards Agric & Fisheries Legislation Federal and Provincial Ministry of Law EPAs (Proposed IBWA?) Law Departments Ordinances and Enforcement Powers Federal and Provincial Ministry of Law Cabinets Law Dcpartments Programmc and Project Planning National l:nvironmental Strategy Federal EPA WAPDA FPC P'rovincial E,nvironmental Strategy P&Ds Provincial EPAs National Drainage Progra .me WAPDA IPDs; P&Ds Environmental Impact Asscssment WAPDA EPAs; P&Ds IPDs Project Appraisal/Review WAPDA EPAs P&Ds FPC 'Design and Construction National and Inter-Provincial WAPDA IPDs Drainage Network Design EPAs Provincialand Local Design IPDs WAPDA: EPAs Construction IPDs WAPDA Monitoring and EIvalation (M&E) Environmental Impact M&E WAPDA Federal EPA P&Ds ProvincialEPAs Socio-cconomic M&E WAPDA IPDs P&Ds Physical Monitoring and Analysis Water Quality Monitoring Masterplan WAPDA FPC Federal EPA (Proposed IBWAI) Provincial Water Quality Monitoring P&Ds IPDs: PHEDs; Agric. EPAs Fisheries Soil Quality Monitoring Depts Agriculture WAPDA: EPAs Groundwater Monitoring on Farm Depts Agriculture IPDs: EPAs Imptementation of Corrective Measures Operating or implementing EPAs institutions
2 1 5.1.2 Interface Between WAPDA and the IPDs
It is recommendedthat action be taken to ensure that the interface between WAPDA and the IPDs will lie between:
- system planning and design activitiesfor major programmes or projects, whichshould be within WAPDA's purview, and
- detailed design, implementationand construction activities, which should be the responsibilityof the IPDs.
Thus, for example, WAPDA might plan and design the basic elementsof an inter-Provincial drainage network, taking into account overall upstream and downstream hydraulic and chemicalrelationships, as well as environmentaleffects. WAPDA would also be responsible for planning a programme framework for developmentof drainage systems but would not undertake any construction. The IPDs would then design local networks. construct the drains, either by themselves or through contractors.
IPDs have historically been responsible for operation and maintenance of surface water delivery and effluent disposal systems. It would be appropriate for them to construct and operate new systems from the outset, rather than to take over facilities constructed and initiallyoperated by WAPDA.
In the medium to long term an environmentalcapability should be introduced in each IPD to enable consideration of environmental aspects and, where applicable, overseeing environmentalimpact assessment. It would be appropriate for this to be incorporated into existingPlanning and Monitoring Cells. Such a capabilitymust be sufficient for specifying the range of disciplines required for ElAs in different circumstances but it would not be appropriateor necessary for individualline institutionsto have their own EIA field capacity. This work would be contracted out.
In the short term, the main environmentalcapability with regard to the water sector should lie with WAPDA, which should be strengthenedaccordingly.
WAPDA should assumegreater responsibilityfor programmeand system planning, economic appraisal, environmentalassessment and monitoringand evaluationof both environmentaland socio-economicimpact. However, its former role in detaileddesign, constructionand project implementationwould be curtailed.
It is therefore recommendedthat WAPDAshould be strengthenedto undertakethe following:
- strategic drainage network planning
- macro environmentalassessment and identifyingkey effects and impacts - proposing strategies for the water sector which take these into account - overseeing environmentalimpact assessmentof major undertakings - appraisal of programmesand projectsfrom both social cost-benefitand environmental viewpoints - socio-economic M&E - overseeing environmental impact M&E - drafting legislationconcerning groundwaterabstraction and tubewell development coordinating a National master plan for irrigationwiteit and drainage effluent quality monitoring and analysis.
It is strongly recommended that WAPDA should be strengthened to undertake the above tasks. This should include promoting the powers and status of both environmental and economic planning divisions. It is therefore recommended that there should be a Chief Environmentalist who should be the same grade and status as the Chief Engineer for Water Resources Planning, as should the Chief Economist.
These three Chiefs and their constituentdivisions would make up the core for all WAPDA's planning and evaluation activities and so might be called the 'Planning and Evaluation Group". All three should expect to liaise closely and to report directly to the GM Planning. This proposed set up is illustratedin Figure 5.1.
If IBWA or a similar authority is established,then it mightundertake some of these tasks but otherwise WAPDA is considered to be the most suitableagency at Federal level.
S.1.3 Other Concerned Institutions
Environmental Protection Agencies
The Federal and Provincial EPAs will have essentiallycoordinating, advisory and watchdog roles. They will be responsiblefor overseeing preparationof quality standards (both ambient and site specific), drafting legislation, preparing guidelinesfor EIAs and for spot checking or sample monitoringof pollution, etc.
They should have sufficientexpertise to play a major role in ensuring monitoringand analysis of key variables, such as water quality, where several sectors or institutions are involved. For this they would also need adequate laboratory facilities and some field capacity.
The EPAs should not be expected to undertake ElAs but they should have the capacity to provide technical advice for them and appraise their quality. Fieldwork for EIAs would be the responsibility of the line institutions. Likewise, most monitoring activities aimed at checking that standards are being met would be undertaken by the implementing agencies, including self-monitoring by private industries. The EPAs' role will be to spot or sample check to ensure that the various institutions are fulfilling legal requirements.
It is clearly essential for the necessary legislation to be drawn up at both Federal and Provincial levels and for EPAs to be granted powers to take legal action and ensure enforcement.
The EPAs' interface with WAPDA and the IPDs will be similar to that with other institutions and the private sector. However. since water is a major focus of interest in Pakistan as a whole, close links and coordination will be required with these particular institutions.
Planning!and Development Institutions
At Federal level this is the Federal Planning Commission(FPC)) and in the Provinces, the Planning and Development Departments (P&Ds). In the water sector, WAPDA itself plays an important role in planning. However. even if WAPDA is responsible for sectoral environmentalassessment and for strategic planning within the water sector, there will also
23 [77._. DrainageO&M WAPDA: Key Elementsof Proposed Organisation to strengthen Planningand Environment
Member/M.D.Waterf
G.M Planning
ChiefErwlroomertai CNSfEconomiist ChlfEngineer (WRP) OtherChiefs + Directors
EnvirnmenalDjiSin Evluann DMIn ITechnicaDirectors
| | ProposedPlanning and Evaluatlon Group be a need to identify priority environmental issues between sectors and prepare specific environmentalstrategies. These would place water and drainage sector issues in their proper contextat both Federal and Provincial levels.
The FPC with its attached agencies is the most appropriate authority to undertake this task at Federal level, in liaison with WAPDA, and the P&Ds at Provincial level, in liaison with EPAs.
At present the FPC and the P&Ds also have main responsibility for screening project proposals, ensuring that they are consistent with overall development plans and approving them for funding. This is undertaken from both technical and economic viewpoints but it would be appropriate for environmental screening to be added to the project appraisal process.
The NCS recommendsthat the ECNEC should have its mandate broadened to include the environment, which would imply strengtheningthe FPC accordingly.
It is strongly recommended that each P&D should have an EnviromnentalDivision. Such Divisionswould undertakepreparation of environmentalstrategies, screen projects and ensure that ELAswere undertakento an adequate standard. Only North-West Frontier Province so far has an EnvironmentalDivision although it is understoodthat the other Province will soon have such divisions.
These divisions would liaise with the EPAs and take advice from them when needed.
It is further recommendedthat P&Ds, as the senior technical institutionsat Provincial level, should take the lead in establishing a suitable coordinating body or committee for water quality monitoring and analysis. The EPAs would also play a major role in this.
Agricultural Departments
The Departmentsof Agriculture are responsible not only for provision of advisory services but also for irrigation matters below the Mogha and on the farm. They should therefore be required to verify that irrigation water actually entering the fields is of adequate quality. They should also be responsible for preventing agricultural chemicals from entering drains or polluting groundwaterand drinking water supplies. etc.
Public Health Engineering Departments(PHEDs)
PHEDs oversee water supplies and sanitation in rural areas and smaller towns but they do little monitoring. Where monitoringdoes take place, it is only of PHEDs' own water supply schemes. A comprehensiveapproach is required, covering all sources of drinking water used, water borne diseases, etc.
PHEDs need data on water quality, pollution and disease problems, and their relationshipto health in specific locations. By participating in monitoring and evaluation, and regular physical monitoring,it shouldbe possibleto build a clearer picture of these problems in rural areas and to identify where pollutants may be passing through the food chain.
PHEDs shouldtherefore actively participate in a much wider range of activitiesthan they do at present. For this, they should also have impr-ved laboratoryfacilities and additional field 24 staff for physical monitoringpurposes.
Fisheries Dearments
Their main role, with reference to the drainage sector and the environment, should be to closely monitor all waters, especially rivers and lakes, where drainage from irrigated areas may be affecting fish production and aquatic life generally. Like the PHEDs, they should undertake monitoring and laboratory analysis in sufficient detail to include identificationof pollutants passing through the food chain.
5.2 Environmental Assessment
Although ultimately each Provincial line Department will be responsible for environmental assessment,and shouldhave its own environmentalpersonnel within Planning and Monitoring Cells, in the short to mediumterm it will be only the EPAs, WAPDA and the P&Ds who will have any significant environmental expertise. Unfortunately even this is likely to be engineering based, which is of only marginal relevance to the issues in hand.
The EPAs' role, together with the P&Ds, will be to stipulate under what circumstancesEIAs will be required, to provide advice and to assist P&Ds in screening EIA quality.
Future assessments will have to be contracted out and expatriate expertise, particularly environmentalistswith natural sciencebackgrounds, will be required in the foreseeablefuture.
Establishmentof centralised GovernmentEIA field services is not recommended. It the long teim it will be more efficient to exploit the private sector and research and academic institutions.
5.3 Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring and evaluationshould be the main responsibilityof WAPDA at Federal level, and the P&Ds at Provincial level, supported technically by the EPAs. Self monitoring and evaluating by line institutions should be minimised and in any case they wIll not have adequate expertise in the foreseeablefuture to undertakecomprehensive environmental impact or socio-economic M&E.
Although in the past P&Ds have been reluctant to engage in field activities, it would be appropriate, as the senior technical institutionsat Provincial level, for them to do so in the future. This would also help to improve the quality of planning and ensure that M&E is carried out objectively.
The P&Ds need substantialmanpower and budgetary strengtheningto incite them to develop a field capacity for both socio-economicand environmentalimpact monitoring and evaluation, especially as they have multi-sectoral responsibilities. Even if internal manpower were insufficient, they should be allocated sufficient budget to ensure services can be contracted out.
Similar arguments apply to WAPDA but if most M&E is undertaken at Provincial level, WAPDA might be involvedless frequently. WAPDA shouldtherefore expectto focus mainly on M&E of projects implementedunder the auspicesof EPDsin order to reduce the burden on P&Ds, who have multi-sectoral interests.
25 Collaborationand coordinationbetween WAPDA, P&Ds and the EPAs would be essential for each water sector related M&E exercise.
5.4 Physical Monitoring and Analysis
WAPDA could take the lead in devising a National water quality monitoringmaster plan, in, particular liaising with the Provincial P&Ds, IPDs and the EPAs. The main purpose of the masterplan would be to define the precise responsibilitiesof WAPDA and IPD staff, and technical and financial requirements, to establish an effective network of monitoring points and suitable laboratory facilities. This approach recognises that IPDs are likely to play a leading role in actually collectingsamples since they have vast numbersof canal staff already in the field in suitable locations.
In the Provinces, P&Ds should take the lead in establishingcoordination committees to assist in agreeinglocalised water quality standardsand to help organise comprehensivewater quality monitoring. The EPAs would have a major role to play in this. The committees and the EPAs would have a duty to ensure that there are no gaps and that all interested parties are satisfied. Although IPD staff are likely to collect the majority of water samples, other concernedinstitutions, such as PHEDs, FisheriesDepartments, etc, will also wish to do their own samplingand analysis.
Although to a large extent Departmentswill be responsible for their own self-monitoring, analysis and implementationof corrective measures, each line Department should, as far as possible, monitor the activities of the others. For example:
- Fisheries Departmentcould monitor dischargesby IPDs into lakes and rivers
- PHEDs could monitor water. from the health viewpoint. from any known potablesource and also from where diseasesmight emanate, such as mosquito breeding areas
- AgriculturalDepartments could monitor water in watercourses
- IPDs could monitor water at key system entry points and near relevant industrial and sewerage outlets or other sources of pollution
- The EPAs should provide additionalsupport with sample spot checks.
There will be an associatedneed to identify suitable laboratory facilities for each concerned institutionand to providethe necessarybudget for monitoringto commence. The monitoring progranune should be sufficiently comprehensiveto be able to trace water borne chemicals and pollutants through the food chain and evaluate the implications.
Complaints would be channelled through the EPAs who would determine the need to take legal action, if any.
26 S5S Drainage Managementand Finance
5.5.1 Organisation of Operation and Maintenance
Effective integration of irrigation and drainage activities is only likely to be achieved if operation and maintenance(O&M) of both canals and drains is contained within the lines of command of the relevant field based officers, starting from Executive Engineers (XENs) downwards. This would facilitate coordinated use of manpower and equipment and would imply that 'drainage' personnel would have the same promotion prospects as 'irrigation' personnel.
It is necessary to ensure that equipment is availableto be used at the right moment, which could be better coordinated under single and localised lines of command.
In most TPDstructures, the existing setup is conduciveto integrated drainage and irrigation O&M, of surface drains at least. However, in Sindh the situation needs rectifying. Sindh IPD should be required to restructure control of drainagesystems, reallocatingresponsibilities so that lines of commandstart with Chief Engineers of respective barrages and pass through the XENs who are currently concerned with canals.
It is also important that any proposed programme of drainage development should be implemented by the respective lines of command within each IPD. This would avoid problems such as have arisen with SCARP projects.
5.5.2 Career and Training Initiatives
Experiences of SCARPtubewells, Sindh drainage arrangementsand also of CommandWater Managementpilot projects (see Betts et al, 1989), suggest that if personnel are diverted away from the main lines of command,then their promotionand hence career prospects are limited. This applies particularly at more junior levels, below XEN grades.
There may be a case for a specific corps of drainage specialists for planning and design purposes, at relatively senior levels. However, even at this level, it is likely that no more than specific 'adjustment' training of existingirrigation engineers will be needed. This aspect is elaborated in Chapter 11 (Main Report; Volume 2), Training Requirements.
Developing a separate cadre of drainage specialists with separate lines of command is not recommended, particularlyas this would make it more difficultto integratedrainage operation into a comprehensivewater managementstrategy.
Training initiatives aimed at improvingoperation and maintenanceof irrigation and drainage systems generally were presented in the Water Sector InvestmentPlan (WSIP, Vol 3, 1990). Also, a range of training courses were offered under the second Irrigation Systems RehabilitationProject (ISRP2).
It should be noted that the benefits of such training programmes have not been evaluated and so the consultantsare reluctant to make firm recommendationsspecifically for O&M within the context of this study.
27 5.53 CostRecovy and Drainage Ces
It would not be realistic to expect drainage cess to cover even direct O&M of drainage until such time as water charges are raised and revenue assessment and actual collection are improved. Indeed, drainage charges, where they exist at all, are minimal, which is indicative of the current situation. Even if there was political will to significantly increase charges, there is no immediatelikelihood of a reasonableproportion being collected. Any discussion of a rational and equitable approach to cost recovery and drainage cess is, at this stage, hypothetical.
It appears that only Sindh Province has so far implementedany drainage cess charges. The stated objective is to recover 25% of direct O&M costs. The charges, which have recently been revised, are applied only in selected areas as follows:
- Rs 32/acre in fresh groundwater areas where there are tubewells and tile drainage
- Rs 5/acre in other areas for surface drainage.
The Board of Revenue is responsiblefor collection.
Success in collectiondepends largely on farmers' perception of the need for drainage. For example, in the wet-foot rice growing areas of the Right Bank of Sindh, most farmers consider drainage unnecessary. For the Larkana-Shikarpurarea. the RBMP (1991) report indicates the following:
Desirable IPD recurrent expenditure (drainage): Rs 90/acre Actual IPD recurrent expenditure (drainage): Rs 42;acre Official drainage cess charge: Rs 5/acre
Actual collection as percent of cess due: 13% Actual collection as percent of actual expenditure: 2% Actual collection as percent of desirable expenditure: 1 %
Farmers are more likely to agree to pay drainage cess where the benefits are obvious, such as when land is reclaimed, or seen to be going out of production in the absence of adequate drainage. It is possible that the farmers in Larkana-Shikarpurhave good reason not to pay: many of the drains are blocked and, dependingon the crop grown, the benefits of operational drainage might in any case be negligible.
Most officials agree that drainage cess should be incorporated into overall charges for irrigation water and drainage because this will greatly simplify assessment and collection procedures. The most rational and equitable approach is seen by IPD staff to be one which relates drainage cess to the type and cost of service provided rather than, say, scaling drainage cess in proportion to irrigation charges for different crops.
28 The implied rationale is related closely to the engineers' perception of benefits of drainage, which appear to be linked to technical complexityand installationcost, although these might not correlate with farmers' willingnessto pay or with benefits realised.
This approach could mean, for example, differentiatingdrainage cess charges in ascending order, as follows:
- flood alleviation drainage - other surface drainage - tile drainage - tubewell drainage in FGW areas - tubewell drainage in SGW areas.
It is preferable, in theory, to determine type of drainage installation, and drainage cess, according to cost-benefit criteria rather than on grounds of technical 'need' or feasibility. Cost-benefit analysis should of course include valuation of crop output benefits and not be based only on the cost of providing drainage facilities. Farmers' willingnessto pay is likely to correlate with their perception of benefits arising from improved agriculturalproduction, which may have little relationship to cost.
Unfortunately,existing crop water charges, being based on crop water requirements, do not necessarily correlate well with an optimal cost-benefit relationship since the financial or economic value of the crop is not taken into consideration. Possibly the total amount that farmers actually pay (i.e. official abiana plus payments to IPD staff) wculd, if analysed, demonstratea closer cost-benefitrelationship from the farmers' viewpoint. The same might apply to drainage.
Thus drainage cess should, ideally, be related to both the cost of service provided and the value of benefits for dominant crops of the area concerned. There is a need to assess farmers willingnessand ability to pay, which would also provide indicators of benefits, and this lends weight to the argument that farming communitiesshould be consulted before design and constructionof drainage schemnes.
Under present arrangements there are water charge differentials, although modest, not only between Provinces but also between seasons and between some canals. These offer a precedent for implementing differential drainage charges between localities and cropping zones, etc.
It is concludedthat a theoretical cost-benefitapproach to determining drainage cess must be tempered by practical realities with the objective of optimising actual revenue collection, whilst taking account of the present social and political climate.-
29 REFERB3CES
ACE (Assoiated Consulting Engineers), 1990: Natonwide Study for Improving Procedures for Assessmentand Collectionof Water Charges and Drainage Cess.
Betts, R. et al, 1989: Mid-Term Evaluation of the Command Water Managenent Programme, ISPAN-US AID.
Chaudhry, M. A. & Ali, M., 1989: Economic Returns to Operation and Maintenance in Different Componentsof the Irrigation System in Pakistan, ODI-IIMI.
LBOD Project, 1991: Socio-EconomicImpact EvaluationStudy: Vol3, SociologicalStudies, Sindh DevelopmentStudies Centre.
MUr, Douglas, 1986: The Local Impact of Centralised Irrigation Control in Pakistan: A Socio-CentricPerspective. IIMI, 1986.
National Conservation Strategy (NCS), 1991: 2nd Draft, Chapters 10 to 12.
Nayman, Dr Oguz, 1988: InformationSeeking Habits of Farmers.
Oates, P.M., 1990: Farners and DevelopmentInstitutions, Water Sector InvestmentPlan (WSIP) Vol 3, WAPDA & Mott MacDonaldInternational.
Rht Bank Master Plan, 1991: Main Report, Mott MacDonaldInternational.
Right Dank Master Plan, 1991: Vol 8: Social Aspects, Mott MacDonald International.
Right Bkhk Master Plan, 1991: Vol 9: Public Institutions,Mott MacDonaldInternational.
WAPDA, 1990: Water Sector InvestmentPlan (WSIP): Vols I & 3.
World Bank, 1991: EnvironmentalAssessment Source Book.
30 REFERENCES
ACE (Associated Consulting Engineers), 1990: Nationwide Study for Improving Procedures for Assessment and Collectionof Water Charges and Drainage Cess.
Betts, R. et al, 1989: Mid-Term Evaluation of the Command Water Management Programme, ISPAN-US AID.
Chaudhry, M. A. & AlN,M., 1989: Economic Returns to Operation and Maintenance in Different Components of the Irrigation System in Pakistan, ODI-IIMI.
LBOD Project, 1991: Socio-EconomicImpact Evaluation Study: Vol3, SociologicalStudies, Sindh Development Studies Centre.
Merrey, Douglas, 1986: The Local Impact of Centralised Irrigation Control in Pakistan: A Socio-Centric Perspective. IIMI, 1986.
National Conservation Strategy (NCS), 1991: 2nd Draft, Chapters 10 to 12.
Nayman, Dr Oguz, 1988: InformationSeeking Habits of Farmers.
Oates, P.M., 1990: Farmers and DevelopmentInstitutions, Water Sector Investment Plan (WSIP) Vol 3, WAPDA & Mott MacDonaldInternational.
Right Bank Master Plan, 1991: Main Report, Mott MacDonaldInternational.
Right Bank Master Plan, 1991: Vol 8: Social Aspects, Mott MacDonaldInternational.
Right B - M-aster Plan, 1991: Vol 9: Public Institutions, Mott MacDonaldInternational.
WAPDA, z990: Water Sector InvestmentPlan (WSIP): Vols I & 3.
World Bank, 1991: EnvironmentalAssessment Source Book.
31 Appendix - A
DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT(DSEA): INSTInUTONAL ASPECTS
DISCUSSION PAPER NO 1
'Approach to institutional aspects. scope of main issues and potential allocation of responsibilities"
By Peter Oates (InstitutionsConsultant), Lahore 1st March 1992.
1. BACKGROUND
1.1 Purpose of this Discussion Paper
This paper is intended for circulation amongst key officers in selected Provincial Departments/Agencies in advance of holding discussions requested by the institutions consultant (myself). 't outlines topics I wish to discuss and hopefully will enable formulation of opinions before we meet. There is no need to prepare a written response.
1.2 ADproachto this consultancI
My role in this study is to cover institutionalaspects of the DSEA. This is essentially a management and economic responsibility, with due regard for policy, procedural and manpower issues, etc. It is stressed however that there are several 'institutional' details of a technical/scientificnature which are not my responsibility.
The approach I am taking is known as "process' consultancy, which means holding regular discussions to enable a two-way flow of ideas and opinions.
1.3 World Bank Terms of Reference for Institutions: i) World Bank TORs for the study envisage that, ideally, future institutional arrangements should enable drainage operationto become an integral component of a comprehensive "water managementstrategy" for the nation. ii) There is a perceived need to strengthen environmental capabilities of relevant institutionsand reviewlrecommendappropriate linkages betweenEPAs, WAPDA and IPI)s and, in particular, the interface between WAPDA and IPDs. iii) There is a requirement to propose approachesfor adequateoperation and maintenance of drainage: funding, staff strengthening,facilities and equipment. iv) A rational and equitable cost recovery programme should be devised, proposing suitable arrangements for drainage charges, indicating:
What should the level of recovery from beneficiariesbe?
A-1 - How should charges be levied (for example: incorporated into higher water charges or kept as separate drainage cesses)?
v) Proposals are requested for improvingplanning procedures from the environmental viewpoint (for drainage projects) and relevant aspects of moniitoringand evaluation are to be included with these.
vi) Related to this, proposals are also requested concerning improving the authorisation and funding process.
vii) Training requirements are to be specified and a training programme to be implemented.
viii) Additionally, for studying approaches to a possible National Drainage Programme, proposals for a staff strengtheningprogramme, includingreview of the pros and cons of developing a technical career ladder for drainage personnel, are requested.
1.4 Comments on the above TORs:
a) I expect to address most aspects of the above TORs, excp:
My- role in determining approaches for operation and maintenanceof drains, TOR (iii), will be limited because some of this aspect requires technical knowledgeof maintenanceprocedures and the efficiency of differenttypes of equipment, etc.
I am not responsible for training, TOR (vii), although I will be happy to discuss training priorities in advance of the arrival of the training consultant (due in mid-March). b) I believe it is essential to focus on the roles that the various institutions will have to play, from an environmentalviewpoint, in the future planning, implementationand monitoring of drainage programmes. The study is not a blanket analysis of all institutional functions and capabilities for their own sake and therefore it must be limited to the specific objectives of the DSEA. c) In my opinion the World Bank TORs should have also specified reviewing the roles and capabilitiesof a number of additional institutions,especially the relevant sections of Planning and Development Departments and the Public Health Engineering Departments. d) I also acknowledge that other institutions, such as Departments of Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, Fisheries, Archaeology, NGOs, Women's groups, and the farming communitiesin general will all have roles to play, but it is not be possible to analyse capabilities of all these organisations in a short institutional consultancy. However, it is possible to indicate suitable environmentalresponsibilities for each of these in the future development of a National Drainage Programme.
1.5 Sequential a=proach to the study
I intend to undertake the study in the following sequence:
A-2 APPENDICES (a) Confirm and limit the scope of institutionalaspecs of the DSEA in terms of main topics which are directly relevant, and hence determine the range of drainage related environmental purposes and objectives which key institutions should adopt. This exercise would includeprioritisation of the main issues. [It should be noted that there are a great many environmentalaspects of irrigation and drainage to be considered by the consultingteam, but not specificallyby the institutions consultant.]
(b) Following from the above, determine, through meetings and discussions, which institution/agencyshould best be responsiblefor each aspect or topic.
(c) Analyse each key institution's existing capability to have such responsibilities and ascertain legal/constitutionalbackup (if any).
(d) Review specific institutional issues requested by the World Bank, such as:
- operation and maintenanceof drains - drainage charges - planning procedures & requiremnentsfor envirommentalanalysis.
(e) Recommendstrengthening and linkages, as appropriate, to overcome constraints and shortfalls in institutional capabilities.
(f) Determine appropriate policies, procedures and cross-sectoral relationships.
2. GENERAL SCOPE AND SUGGESTED RESPONSIBILMES: FOR DISCUSSION
2.1 General scope and ranking of sources of environmentalproblems
In the environmentalcontext of irrigation and drainage, being mainly a rural set of issues, I suggest the following order of priority for sources of problems, as a debating point: 1) Saline effluent 2) Surplus water generally 3) Agricultural chemicals 4) Industrial chemicals 5) Sewerage effluent 6) Other pollution problems.
With regard to urban and industrialisedareas, particularlyin the context of human health, the order of priority might well be different. This raises the questions:
- How relevant to urban areas are issues of drainage effluent from irrigated agricultural areas?
How relevant to rural and agricultural areas is "urban" effluent?
Under present and proposed drainage systems, what are the most important cause- and-effect enviromnentallinkages?
Also, different institutions with different responsibilitiesmight propose different priorities.
A-3 2.2 Prioritisation of potential impacts and effects
The range of potential impactsand effects resulting directly or indirectly from these problems is great and geographicallyvery variable, depending on many factors (see for example the DSEA Inception Report and the DSEA Working Paper No. 2). It might only be possible to ascribe an order of priority in a project and location specific analysis, such as when undertaking an EnvironmentalImpact Analysis (EIA).
The Apjendix of this discussion paper gives the World Bank's initial list of issues to be considered for potential environmentalimpacts. It is stressedthat several impactsand effects might be positive, especially "upstream' effects on improving drainage, agricultural production and human health. Some "downstream" effects might also be positive.
Although it might be difficult to prioritise all these impactsand effects in an overall context, it is essential to determine:
(a) which issues are deemed significant and hence need attention, and
(b) which institution is to be responsible for addressing each issue.
Once the allocation of responsibilities is clear, it will be much easier for each institutionto determine its own individual priorities.
An example might be water quality. Monitoring and analysis of water quality might be different depending on whether the perspective is one of crop production or human consumptionor fisheries, etc. The required standardswould also be different, and so might mitigative measures to be implemented in each case. In this example, more than one institution is likely to be involved.
Clearly, precise and unambiguousdivision of responsibilityfor various activities is required. This needs to be discussed.
2.3 Broad categorisationof environmentalactivities for institutions
It is perhaps useful, for institutionalpurposes, to categoriseenvironment related activitiesinto four broad groups:
Category Activity
A) Policy and Legal: - macro environmentalassessment - policy planning - legislation and enforcement B) Project Planning: - environmentalassessment - design - economic appraisal (environmental) - socio-economic monitoring and evaluation (M&F) C) Research and - environmental impact Monitoring: analysis - technical research and studies - technical monitoring
A-4 D) Implementation: - enhancementmeasures - preventative measures - mitigative measures.
Operation and maintenanceare omitted as not in themselves being directly 'environmental activities", although the consequencesof, for example, poor maintenance,might create a need for implemeniaton of preventativeor mitigative measures.
2.4 Cross-Tabulationof who might be responsible for what
The table below is a first attempt at such a tabulation, for discussionpurposes, indicating a potential lead institutionin each case. It is stressed that it will not always be necessary for the respective institution to have an 'in-house" capability, since some activities will be contracted out, but it must be made clear under whose auspices these would be undertaken.
The types of issue listed are intendedto reflect emphasison drainageand irrigation, since this is the focus of the overall study. I have not been able to completethe table to my satisfaction and therefore I would be gratefulif respective Departmentalofficers could kindly be prepared to give their opinions.
------Activity Category------Issue (or Sub-sector) A B C D Policy/Legal PLanning Res.IMon Ipltementation
Water qualitv Cfor Droductive ourooses) - Rivers EPA EPA - Canals and Drains EPA VAPDA IPD IPD - Grounduater EPA WAPDA UAPDA WAPDA - Lakes and ponds EPA Fish. Fish. IPO? - Coastal And Marine EPA Fish.
Potable water quality - Urban EPA or PHED? PHED EPA PHED - Rural EPA or PHED? PHED ? UAPDAor IPD?
Land resources - dWaterlogging IPD or Ag? UAPDA IP or Ag? IPD - SaLinity IPD or Ag? WAPDA IP or Ag? IPD - Chemical Pollution EPA Agric. Agric. Agric.
Social Aspects - Settlement - Migration - Land tenure - Social structure - water conflicts - Gainers and losers - Women's attitudes
Forestry resources Forest. Forest. Forest. Forest.
Uildlife resources
ArchaeoloaicaL resources, etc.
A-5 3. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE INSTMMUONS CONSULTANT
3.1 Operation and maintenanceof drains and drainage charges
I will be discussing these issues with relevant Provincial officers. Both donors and government officials are aware of the need to recover at least O&M costs of both irrigation water supplies and disposal of drainage effluent. One problem is to be realistic about political constraints and to determine what leverage can be exercised over decision makers.
3.2 Im2roving the planning process to incorporate environmentalconsiderations
In particular, discussions will be held with the EPAs, WAPDA and the IPDs.
3.3 Social issues pertaining to drainage and irrigation
I have been asked to briefly review social aspects relevant to the DSEA. Unfortunatelytime will not allow in-depth analysis, but topics I believe need to be addressed include (but may not be limited to):
identificationof gainers and losers due to changes in drainage or irrigation (to include not only farmers but also fishermen etc)
acceptabilityof re-use of effluent
conflicts over water supplies and land use
- land settlement and human migration issues
- improving linkages between the farming communitiesand government officials to alleviate disruption due to new schemes
- involvingfarmers in improved water managementwith a view to minimisingthe need for drainage or other mitigative measures
- changes in social structure in rural communities
- women's attitudes and opinions
- preferences in domestic water use (cooking & drinking; personal hygiene; washing of clothes)
A-6 APPENDIX to DiscussionPaper No. 1: Topics listed in World Bank TORs
(i) Increase in waterloggingand salinity (soil modification)and their adverse effects on surroundingland use and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems,or, conversely, decrease in such conditions through well designed, constructed, operated and maintained drainage systems;
(ii) loss of habitat and vegetationincluding trees becauseof constructionof watercourses, canals, evaporationponds etc.;
(iii) modificationof downstream river and lake ecology because of changes in surface water hydrology and water quality from irrigation and drainage waters;
(iv) modificationof wetlands including riverain forests and mangroves from changes in surface water hydrology and water quality from irrigation and drainage waters;
(v) change in waterfowlmigration patterns because (f loss or reduction of wetlandsused as wintering, feeding and resting areas;
(vi) introduction of exotic plants, e.g. aquatic weeds into natural and man-made waterways;
(vii) loss or damage of archaeological,historical and cultural resources from construction of irrigation and drainage facilities and/or from changes in soil moisture conditions;
(viii) conflicts over water supplies and land use;
(ix) change in migration patterns. e.g. immigrationto new agricultural areas because of restored irrigation brought about by drainage of abandonedlands;
(x) changes in land use, e.g. farming of newly restored (drained) agricultural lands;
(Xi) changes in social structure of communities, i.e. landowners, tenants, labourers, farmer cooperativesystems, water user associations, role of women etc. with new and restored agricultural lands;
(xii) :nadequacyof regional drainage patterns to prevent flood hazards;
(xiii) lowering of surface water quality of the irrigation and drainage water because of the consequencesof urbanization, e.g. salts, sewage, fertilizers, pesticides and industrial wastes, and subsequent adverse downstream effects to fisheries, other aquatic organisms, and humans;
(xiv) deteriorating groundwater quality through leaching of agricultural chemicals, recycling of FGW by pumping and upconing of poorer quality water into better quality upper FGW lenses;
(xv) changes in groundwater flows and levels; and
(xvi) increased seawater encroachmentinto freshwater systems.
A-7 Appendix - B RECORD OF INSTfTUTION CONSULTANT'S MEETINGS
Datc Location Dcpartmcnt
252.1992 Lahore NESPAK Team Leader Ch. Ata-ur-Rehman
29.2.1992 Lahore WAPDA G.M. Planning Mr. Qamar Chief Engineer, WRP & Mr. Muhammad Jabbar & DSEA Projet Director Chief Economist Mr. Muhammad Afzal
23.1992 Lahore IPD Additional Secretary & Chief Mr. Zaidi Engineer, Developmcnt Chief Engineer, Planning Mr. M. Akhtar Rana
23.1992 Lahore P&D Chief, Water & Power Mr. Ahmad Khan
23.1992 Lahore PHED Under Secrctary, Projects Mr. Shaukad
23.1992 Lahore EPA Acting D.G. & Director of Mr. Salcemi Planning and Coordination
3.3.1992 Lahorc IPD Chief Enginccr, Drainagc Mr. Riaz-ul-IIaq and Floods Chief Enginecr, Planning Mr. M. Akhtar Rana
4.3.1992 Karachi Secretariat Sccrctary, Irrigation Mr. Idris Rajput
43.1992 Karachi P&D Chief, Water & Powcr Mr. Gulam Mustafa Abro
4.3.1992 Karachi P&D:SRPO Director, Economics Mr. Soomro
73.1992 Lahorc EPA Acting D.G. & Director Mr. M. A. Salcemi Planning & Coordination Director Monitoring and Mr. Miraj Din Implementation Deputy Director, Tcchnology Mr. Basith Transfer & EIA
83.1992 Lahore P&D Joint Chief Economist Dr. (Mrs) Shaheen Khan (Social WelfarelNGOs) Chief, Water & Power Malik Ahmed Khan Assistant Chief, Water & Power
93.1992 Lahore WAPDA Chief Engineer, WRP and Mr. Muhammad Jabbar DSFA Project Director Environmental Enginccr Mr. Saeed Wali Waheed
153.1992 Peshawar PHED Chief Engineer Mr. Nazir Ahmcd Afridi Executive Engincer Mr.Saeed-h-Rizvi Superintendent Enginccr Mr. Karim Khan
153.1992 Peshawar EPA Deputy Director Mr. Hamid Hassan
B-1 Dite Location Department
163.1992 Peshawar EPA Director Mr. Asghar Ali Shah Deputy Director Mr. Hamid Hassan Research Assistant Mr. Irshad
16.3.1992 Peshawar P&D Chief of Environmental Mr. Rafeek (Envir. Diva) Division
163.1992 Peshawar P&D Chief, Water & Power Mr. Abdul Quyam Khan
16.3.1992 Peshawar IPD Superintendent Engineer Mr. Allah Bakhsh Baloch
19.3.1992 Islamabad ADB Project Director Mr. David Lee Environmental (Telephone Conversation) Managemcnt Strengthening Project
24.3.1992 Quctta P&D Chief Economist Mr. Emir Rashid Chief, Water & lHealth Mr. Anwar Haq Badr Chief Technical Advisor Dr. Han ScheUart Joint Chief Economist and Mr. G.M. Marri Chicf M&E
24.3.1992 Quetta Pl-IED Chief Engineer, PHED Sardar Munir Ahmed
24.3.1992 Quetta P&D Chief, Industries etc. and Taj Mohaumad Faiz Acting D.G. of EPA
25.3.1992 Karachi Women's Chief, Women's Division SyedNehalAhmed Division
25.3.1992 Karachi P&D Chief, Water & Power Gulam Mustafa Abro
253.1992 Karachi Secrctariat Additional Secretary, PHED Mr. Moula Bux Khatian and Rural Dev.
25.3.1992 Karachi EPA Director Mr. F. H. Mughal
25.3.1992 Karachi P&D,SRPO Deputy Director, Agriculture Mansoor Memon
B-2 Appendix - C
THE GAZErTE OF PAKISTAN
Extraordinary Published by Authority
Islamabad, Saturday, December31, 1983
PART I
Acts, Ordinances, President's Orders and Regulationsincluding Martial Law
Orders and Regulations
Government of Pakistan
MINISTRY OF LAW AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS
(Law Division)
Islamabad. the 31st December 1983
No. F 17(1) 83-Pub. - The following Ordinance made by the President is hereby published for general information:
ORDINANCE NO. XXXVII OF 1983
AN
ORDINANCE
to provide for the control of pollution and preservation of living environment
WHEREAS it is expedient to provide for the control of pollution and preservation of living environmentand for matters connected therewith or ancillary thereto;
AND WHEREAS the President is satisfied that circumstancesexist which render it necessary to take immediate action.
NOW, THEREFORE, in pursuance of the Proclamationof the fifth day of July, 1977 and in exercise of all powers enablinghim in that behalf. the President is pleased to make and promulgate the following Ordinance:
I. Short title, extent and commencement, (1) This Ordinance may be called the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance, 1983.
(2) It extends to the whole of Pakistan and its territorialwaters, ExclusiveEconomic Zone and historic waters.
C-I (3) It shall come into force on such day as the Federal Governmentmay, by notification in the official Gazette, specify in this behalf.
2. Deflnitions - In this Ordinance, unless there is anything repugnant in the subject or context, -
(a) 'Agency' means the Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Agency (PEPA) established under section 5;
(b) 'Air pollutant' means any substance that causes alteration in chemical, physical, biological or radiological integrity of air and includes soot, smoke particulates, combustionexhaust, exhaustgases, obnoxiousgases and radioactivesubstances;
(c) "Council' means the Pakistan Enviromental Protection Council established under section 3;
(d) "discharge' means spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying or dumping;
(e) "effluent" includes any material in solid, slurry, suspension, liquid, vapour, fumes or gaseous form coming out as or from any industrialactivity or any other source;
(f) 'effluent standards"means the permissiblelimits prescribed by the Agencyregarding the quality and quantity of effluents and wastes;
(g) 'emission standards' -meansthe permissiblestandards for emission of air pollutants prescribed by t.e Agency;
(h) 'Exclusive Economic Zone' shall have the same meaningas in the Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 (LXXXIIof 1976);
(i) "Governmentagency' includes a division, department, bureau, section, commission, board, office or unit of the Federal Governmentor a Provincial Government;
(j) "historic waters' means such limits of the waters adjacent to the land territory of Pakistan as are for the time being specified by notification under section 7 of the Territorial Waters and MaritimeZones Act, 1976 (LXXXII of 1976);
(k) "industrial activity" means any process for manufacturing, making, altering, repairing, ornamenting, finishing, packing or otherwise treating any article or substancewith a view to its use, sale, transport, delivery or disposal or for pumping oil, water or sewage or for generating, transforming or transmittingpower;
(I) "industrialwaste' means-waste resulting from an industrial activity;
(mn) 'local authority' includesany agency set up or designed by the Federal Government or a ProvincialGovernment to be a local authorityfor the purposes of this Ordinance;
(n) "local council" means a local council constitutedor establishedunder a law relating to local government;
C-2 (o) 'municipal waste- includes sewage, refuse sludge and human excreta and the like;
(p) wpollution"means any matter which, on being discharged into the air, soil or public waters, alters unfavourablythe chemical,physical, biological6r radiologicalintegrity of the air, soil or public waters or, by itselfor in combinationwith other discharges, is likely to make the air, soil or public waters unclean, noxiousor impure or injurious or disagreeableor detrimentalto the health, safety, welfare or property of persons or harmful to aquatic life, animals, bird, fish, plants or other forms of life;
(q) 'prescribed" means prescribed by rules or regulations;
(r) 'public waters' meanswater areas in public use and includes streams, nullahs, canals, seepagedrains, natural or artificialwater courses, rivers, wells, ponds, ditches, lakes, reservoirs, undergroundor artesianwater, territorial waters, the ExclusiveEconomic Zone and historic waters;
(s) 'regulations' means regulationsmade under this Ordinance;
(t) "rules" means rules made under the Ordinance;
(u) 'sewage" means liquid wastes from sanitary conveniences, kitchens, laundries, washing and the like;
(v) "standards"means effluent standards and emissionstandards;
(w) "territorial waters' shall have the same meaning as in the Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 (LXXXIof 1976);
(x) "treatment works" means the various processes and devices used in the.treatment of wastes; and
(y) 'wastes' includes liquid wastes, suspended wastes, industrial wastes, municipal wastes, wastes from miningprocesses and wastes from farm and agriculturalactivities such as poultry, cattle, animal husbandry, abattoirs and the use of fertilizers and pesticides.
3. Establishment of the Council - (I) The Federal Government shall, by notification in the.official Gazette, establish a Council to be known as the Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Council and consisting of:
(i) the President of Pakistan Chairman
(ii) The Minister incharge of the subject of Environment Vice-Chairman
(iii) Ministers incharge of the subject of Envirornent in the Provinces Members
(iv) such other persons as the Federal Government may appoint Members
C-3 (v) the Secretary to the Government of Pakistan dealing with the subject Secretary
(2) The members of the Council, other than ex-officiomembers, shall hold office for a term of three years.
(3) The Council shall frame its own rules of procedure.
(4) The Council shall hold meetings as and when necessary:
Provided that not less than two meetings shall be held in a year.
(5) The Council may, by general or special order and subject to such conditionsas it may consider fit, delegate any of its functions under this Ordinanceto a Committeeor any member of the Council.
4. Functions of the Council - (I) The functions of the Council shall be to -
(a) ensure enforcementof this Ordinance;
(b) establish comprehensivenational environmentalpolicy;
(c) give appropriate direction to conserve the renewable and expendableresources;
(d) ensure that environmentalconsiderations are interweavedinto NationalDevelopment Plans and Policies;
(e) ensure enforcement of the National EnvironmentalQuality Standards; and
(f) give directions to any Government agency, a body or a person requiring it or him to take measures to control pollution being caused by such agency, body or person or to refrain from carrying out any particular activity prejudicialto public interest or the purposes of the Ordinance.
(2) The Council may, or if so required by the Government or any Government agency shall. direct the Agency to prepare, submit and promote projects for the preventionof enviromnental pollutionor to undertake research in any specified aspect of environment.
5. Establishment of the Agency - (I) The Federal Government shall, by notificationin the official Gazette, establishan Agency to be called the Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Agency to exercise the powers and perform the functionsassigned to it under the provisionsof this Ordinance or the rules and regulations.
(2) The Agency shall be headed by a Director General who shall be appointed by the Federal Government on such terms and conditions as it may determine.
(3) The powers and functions of the Agency shall be exercised and performed by the Director General.
C-4 (4) The Agency shall have such administrative,technical and legal staff as the Federal Government may appoint.
(5) To assist him in the discharge of his functions, the Director General may establish such Advisory Committees as he may deem fit and appoint as members thereof eminent representativesof universities,research institutes,the businesscommunitY and other professions and fields of knowledge.
6. Functions of the Agency - (1) The Agencyshall -
(a) administer this Ordinance and the rules and regulations;
(b) prepare national environmentalpolicy for approval of the Council;
(c) publish an annual report on the state of environment;
(d) establish NationalEnvironmental Quality Standards with the approval of the Council;
(e) revise the National EnvironmentalQuality Standards as and when deemed necessary;
(f) coordinate environmentalpolicies and programmes nationaly and internationally;
(g) establish systems for surveys, surveillance, monitoring, measurement, examination and inspectionto combat environmentalpollution;
(h) take measures to promite the developmentof science and technology which will contribute to the prevention of environmentalpollution, such as the consolidationof survey and research system, the promotion of research and development, the disseminationof the results of such research work and development work, and the education and training of research experts and other governmentalfunctionaries;
(i) provide information and education to the public on environmentalmatters and to recommend to the Council the introduction of environmental information in the syllabi of educational institutions;and
(j) coordinate and consolidate implementationof measures to control pollution with Provincial Governmentsand other Government agencies.
(2) The Agency may -
(a) request any Govermnent agency to furnish any information or data relevant to the functions of the Agency;
(b) with the approval of the Federal Govermnent,initiate requests for foreign assistance in support of the objectives of this Ordinance and enter into arrangements with foreign agencies or organisations for the exchange of material or information and participate in internationalseminars or meetings;
(c) establish and maintain laboratories to conduct research in various aspects of environmentand provide grants to institutionsfor specificprojects;
C-5 (d) delegate Any of its powers under this Ordinance and the regulations to any Government agency;
(e) identifythe needs for legislation in the environmentalfield;
(f) at the request of the Federal Government or a Provincial Government or any Government agency, provide advice and assistance in environmentalmatters,- and
(g) perform any other function which the Council may assign to it.
7. Powers of the Agency -Subject to the provisionsof this Ordinance, the Agency may -
(a) lease, purchase, acquire, own, hold, improve, use or otherwise deal in and with any property, both movable and immovable;
(b) sell, convey, mortgage, pledge, exchange or otherwise dispose of its property and assets:
(c) execute instruments, incur liabilities and do all acts or things necessary for proper managementand conduct of its business; and
(d) appoint such advisers and consultants as it considers necessary for efficient performance of its functions on such terms and conditions as may be prescribed by regulations.
8. Environmental impact statement, etc. to be submitted to the Agency -
(1) The provisions of this section shall apply to such -
(a) persons or class of persons, or
(b) industrial activity or class of industrial activity, or
(c) category, type of volume of discharges of air pollutants or wastes, or
(d) area or class of areas, or
(e) classes of public waters.
may be prescribed by regulations.
(2) Every proponent of a project, the constructionor completion of which is likely to adversely affect the environment, shall file with the Agency, at the time of planningthe project, a detailed environmentalimpact statement including informationon:
(a) the impact on the environmentof the proposed industrial activity;
(b) the treatment works of the proposed project;
(c) the unavoidableadverse environmentaleffects of the proposed project; and
C-6 (d) the steps proposed to be taken by the project proponent to minimise adverse environmentaleffects.
(3) The Agency may prescribe guidelines for the preparation of environmentalimpact statementsand, where such guidelineshave been prescribed, the proponentsof projects shall prepare environmentalimpact statements according to the said guidelines.
(4) The Agency may itself or through the appropriate Government agency review the environmental impact statement and, where it deems appropriate, it may also involve public participation in the assessmentof the environmentalimpact statement.
(5) After the review under sub-section (4), the Agency may either approve the environmental impact assessment or reconunend to the Federal Government that the project be modifiedor rejected in the interest of environmentalobjectives.
9. Agency to assist local councils, etc., in disposal or wastes -The Agency shall assist the local councils, local authoritiesor other Governmentagencies and persons to implementschemes for the proper disposal of wastes in line with the standards and procedures prescribed by the Agency.
10. Funds of the Agency - The funds of the Agencyshall be derived from the following sources, namely:
(a) grants made and loans advanced by the Federal Government or the Provincial Government;
(b) grants, loans, advances and other moneys received from local or international agencies;
(c) fees, rates and charges received by the Agency under the provisions of this Ordinance; and
(d) all other sums receivedby the Agency.
11. Audit and accounts - (1) The Agency shall submit its annual budget estimatesfor approval of the Federal Governmentthrough the Council.
(2) The Agency shall maintain proper accounts and other relevant records and prepare annuai statement of accounts in such form as may be pirescribedby rules.
(3) Tbe accounts of the Agency shall be audited in such manner as may be dihectedby the Federal Government.
12. Penalty - (1) Whoever contravenes or fails to comply with any provision of this Ordinanceor of any rule or regulation or any direction issued by the Agencythereunder, shall be punishablewith imprisonmentfor a term which may extend to two years, or with fine which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees, or witb both, and in the case of a continuingcontravention or failure, with an additional fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees for every day after the first during which such contravent or failure continues.
(2) The Director General or an officer generally or specially authorised by him in this behalf may compound any offence under this Ordinance.
C-7 13. Indemnity - No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Council, the Agency, the Director General, or the members, officers, employees, experts or consultantsof the Agency for anything in good faith done or intendedto be done under this Ordinance or any rule or regulation.
14. Bar of jurisdiction - No Court shall take cognizance of any offence punishable under this Ordinance except on a complaint in writing made by the Agency.
1S. Dues of Agency recoveable as an arrear of land revenue - Any dues recoverable by the Agencyunder the provisions of this Ordinanceor any rules or regulationsshall be recoverable as an arrear of land revenue.
16. Power to make rules - The Federal Government may, be notificationin the official Gazette, make rules for carrying out the purposes of this Ordinance.
17. Power to make regulations - (1) The Agency may, by notification in the official Gazette, with the approval of the Federal Government, make regulations, not inconsistentwith the provisions of this Ordinance or the rules, for carrying out the purposes of this Ordinance.
(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such regulationsmay provide for the levy of fees, rates and charges in respect of services render, actions taken and schemes implementedby the Agency.
GENERAL, M. ZIA-UL-HAQ, President.
C. A. RAHMAN, Secretary.
C-8 Appendix - D
EXISTING PLANNING AND PROJECTAPPROVAL PROCESS
I Planning Process
At Provincial level, the ability to provide a longer term strategic planning framework for prioritising development projects is generally weak. Therefore, the balance of projects appearing in Five-year Plan and Annual DevelopmentProgrammes (ADPs) is largely a dirmt result of individual Department's priorities, although influenced by the Planning and Development Departmentsand, in some cases, by external donor interests. The respective Departments often adopt strategies proposed at Federal level but these are not necessarily adapted or revised to suit local conditions.
This is reflected in the processes by which the Annual Development Budget (ADB) is determined and projects selected for inclusion in Five-year and annual plans. Although related, the determinationof the ADBs and the process of development project selection are in large measure conducted as separate exercises.
Development Budget Preparation
The Annual Development Budget is prepared in relation to Federal and Provincial Government sectoral priority guidelines appearing in the Five-Year Development Plan, adjusted at Provincial level through a consultative process involving liaison between line Departments and the respective technical Chiefs at the P&Ds. The technical Chiefs report to the Chief Economists of P&Ds who are also the Chief Technical Advisers to Provincial Government. The Chief Economist liaises with the Department of Finance which receives budget guidelines from the National Economic Council.
The sectoral budget guidelines emanating from the NationalEconomic Councilwill have also taken into account impendingmajor projects consistentwith sectoral policy priorities. During the consultative process, staff of P&Ds may draw on information available from attached agencies, such as the Bureau of Statistics and, in Sindh, from the SRPO.
While the Five-year Plan provides a point of reference it is the Annual DevelopmentBudget (At;3) which is critical. After consultation with the Department of Finance, P&D issues draft ADB guideline allocations for each technicalDepartment, at least six months before the beginning of the Financial year, which commenceson Ist July.
Using the Budget guidelines, each Department then prepares its budget proposal, listing projects to be included. Most projects would have already been under preparation prior to this process, in anticipationof obtaining developmentfunds. P&D then prepares the first draft of the ADB for discussion,usually in January or February. Followingdiscussions with all concerned parties a second draft is prepared. Eventuallythe final ADB emerges, detailing funding requirements, including foreign exchange requirements for imports and also any donor contributions.
The ADB is approved by the Provincial Cabinet, Chaired by the Chief Minister before submissionto the National Economic Council (NEC).
D-1 FollowingBudget approval by the NEC, the complete Annual DevelopmentProgramnme must be ratified by the Provincial Assembly before implementation of included projects. Nonetheless, even at this stage, Budget and Programme approval does not automatically ensure the release of funds for all projects. In practice there is little difference between the ADB and the ADP excepting that the ADP provides more detail on projects.
2 Project Planning Process
Althoughan indicativelist of projects is provided in both the Five-Year Plan and in the ADP, projects must be approved in their own right. This has the advantage that the quality and relevance of projects put forward can be assured before funds are actually released.
It is unusual for a project to be approved in any given financial year if it has not already been listed in the ADP, since block allocations of development funds, except in the case of the Chief Minister, are rare. Most, but not all, new projects receive technical approval in advanceof the ADB process in which case they are almost certain to receive funding although this is not guaranteed. Ongoing projects are given priority in the Budget allocations.
The first step in project planning is preparation of a Project Concept paper. This is loosely equivalent to a pre-feasibilitystudy and is likely to contain quantified estimates of physical goals (e.g. miles of canal to be rehabilitatedor number of machinesto be purchased) but for smaller projects may not contain any cost or benefit estimates.
Concept clearance is given or rejected in the Government hierarchy according to delegated authority, which is related to estimated cost. If approved, a formal Project Proposal is prepared. Concept clearance is sometimesknown as 'administrative approval".
FollowingConcept clearance,project preparation procedures and the specificationof desired activitiesare carried out in accordance with the Planning CommissionBook which contains five 'PC' forms with instructionsfor their use. These are:
- PC-l Proforma for Construction/implementation - PC-II for Investigation/Studies/Design - PC-III for Quarterly Progress Reports - PC-IV for CompletionReports - PC-V for Monitoringof Benefits
The key document, under which all physical projects are proposed, is the PC-I Proforma. The PC-II covers surveys, design and studies which may require special funding but which do not in themselves involve any capital development investment.
It is a Federal requirement for full feasibility studies to be undertaken for all projects likely to cost more than Rs 100 million whether or not donor agencies are involved. Thus, for major undertakings, the feasibility study itself is proposed for funding under the PC-IH (Investigation)head. Feasibility studies are often contracted out.
The remaining PC forms are only applicable'to projects which are implemented.
Major projects normally pass through the following sequence:
D-2 preparation of a Project Concept paper, submissionand approval through the GoP hierarchy;
tentative agreements sought from donor agencies, if relevant;
- PC-Il document (Investigation) is prepared, detailing studies required, including costing of any feasibility study;
- funding of feasibility study is approved, includingdonor assistance where required, and the study undertaken;
- PC-I is prepared and, where relevant, a firm donor commitmentobtained; and
- PC-I is passed up through GoP approvalprocedures, with relevantdonor funding and technical assistance included in the document.
For projects estimated to cost less than Rs 100 million, the PC-I Proforma is often equated to a feasibility study. However, this was not the original intention of the PC-I which is supposed to be a relatively succinct document for high level review. Where feasibility aspects, such as cost-benefit analysis, are included in the PC-I, they tend to be given inadequate attention and the quality of analysis may be poor.
Quantification of benefits tends to be optimistic in order to enhance the approval process. One of the roles of P&D is to evaluate project proposals and advise on these aspects.
For approved projects, it is often only physical progress which is subsequentlymonitored during implementation,while evaluation of benefits is frequently ignored.
3 Authority for Project Approval
Each Federal Ministry of Agency and each Provincial Department is responsiblefor Project Preparation. The level at which any particular project is designed, written up as a developmentproposal and subsequentlyapproved depends on complexityand estimatedcost. Small scale projects may be proposed by lower officer grades and, if within the cost ceiling allowed, can as a minimum be approved by a Superintendent Engineer or Director or equivalent(Grade 19). Chief Engineers or DirectorsGeneral are authorised to approve more expensive development projects and so on up the system.
PC-I proposals for larger projects are prepared under the auspices of the respective Departmental 'Planning and Monitoring Cells", although many other technical staff may actually be involved.
In the absence of block allocations, proposals have to be submitted for the Annual DevelopmentProgramme with specialjustification if not already allowed for in the Five-Year Development Plan. As long as the budget allocation is approved, technical approval to implement small projects may be given within a Department by a Departmental Steering Committee (DSC) chaired by the concerned Secr-etary.
Ihere are variations between Provinces but the typical hierarchy for Provincial and Federal project technical approval is:
D-3 Authority Approximate cost ceiling
Provincial Projects
Chief Engineer or Director General: low cost approval Departmental Steering Conunittee (DSC) up to Rs 5 million Provincial Development Working Party (PDWP): up to Rs 100 million (imit for Provincial level approval) Executive Committee of the National Economic Council (ECNEC): anythingabove Rs 100 million
Federal Ministry or Agency projects
Ministries and agencies (Internal Working Group): up to Rs 10 million Central Development Working Party (CDWP): up to Rs 100 million Executive Committee of the National Economic Council (ECNEC): anything above Rs 100 million
'The Provincial Development Working Party (PDWP) which is the senior body authorised to give technicalapproval for individualprojects costing up to 100 MillionRupees. However, no project can be implementedwithout also havingbudget approval. The PDWP is chaired by the AdditionalChief Secretary (Development)of P&D who is also the RegionalCommissioner.
The Deputy Chairman of the Federal Planning Commission,which is the Federal equivalent of the Provincial P&Ds, is also Secretary of the National Economic Council. At Federal level, the Executive Committee of the NationalEconomic Council(ECNEC) is headed by the Finance Minister and members include Federal Secretaries.and Chief Ministersand Chief Secretaries of the Provinces.
D-4 Appendix - E
POTENTIAL STUDY OF PROVINCIAL PUBLIC SECTOR MANAGEMENT AND FINANCE
Given the problems of recurrent financeand low morale apparently faced by most technical Departments, it is recommendedthat a high level review shouldbe undertakenof manpower, expenditure and funding requirements of aU line Departments and autonomous bodies involvedin the developmentof irrigation. agriculture and rural areas in the Provinces level.
The studywould also cover related aspectsof Provincialfiscal policy and, for each concerned institution, consider where potentialfor implementinga system of charges related to services provided might exist. Where thought relevant, the potential for privatising services would also be reviewed.
The study should also review the potential for giving the IPDs legal powers to determine water charge rates and to be responsiblefor actual collection. This could be a prelude to enabling the IPDs to operate and maintain the canal and drainage systems on a semi- autonomousbasis and thus minimisethe need for Government subsidiesat Provincial level.
Tis would be consistent with GoP's recently stated objective of improving public sector efficiency, reducing the burden to taxpayers and minimisingpublic sector debt obligations.
The study would present detailed proposals for restructuring of the concerned institutions, includingspecific recommendationsfor establishmentreduction where thought appropriate.
The study would also specify, in detail, staff training requirements in the general field of economicdevelopment planning for all concerneddepartments.
The study team is likely to consist of three experts in country for a period of three months, as follows:
an expatriate developmentspecialist (team leader) with particular expertise in public sector managementand manpowerissues, likely to be an economistbut not essential
an expatriate macro-economistwith broad experience of development planning, finance and budgeting
a taxation and legal specialistwith experience of fiscal policy analysis
At least one of the above experts should also have experience of public oorporations and autonomousagencies.
It is expectedthat the process of restructuring and revitalising line Departments and raising staff morale and capabilities would require all existing constraints to be addressed simultaneouslyand is likely to take at least 5 years.
E- I