Springer Handbook of Nanomaterials Springer Handbook provides a concise compilation of approved key information on methods of research, general principles, and functional relationships in physical and applied sciences. The world’s leading experts in the fields of physics and engineering will be as- signed by one or several renowned editors to write the chapters com- prising each volume. The content is selected by these experts from Springer sources (books, journals, online content) and other systematic and approved recent publications of scientific and technical information. The volumes are designed to be useful as readable desk reference book to give a fast and comprehen- sive overview and easy retrieval of essential reliable key information, including tables, graphs, and bibli- ographies. References to extensive sources are provided. HandbookSpringer of Nanomaterials Robert Vajtai (Ed.) With 685 Figures and 64 Tables 123 Editor Robert Vajtai Rice University Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science 6100 Main MS-321 Houston, TX 77005-1827 USA ISBN: 978-3-642-20594-1 e-ISBN: 978-3-642-20595-8 DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-20595-8 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2013942548 c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Production and typesetting: le-tex publishing services GmbH, Leipzig Senior Manager Springer Handbook: Dr. W. Skolaut, Heidelberg Typography and layout: schreiberVIS, Seeheim Illustrations: le-tex publishing services GmbH, Leipzig; Hippmann GbR, Schwarzenbruck Cover design: eStudio Calamar Steinen, Barcelona Cover production: WMXDesign GmbH, Heidelberg Printing and binding: Stürtz GmbH, Würzburg Printed on acid free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) 61/3180/YL 5 4 3 2 1 0 V Foreword Nanomaterials are based on structures with character- cup, which was probably created in istic features on the scale of nanometers. This size is Rome during the 4th century AD, small if we compare with normal things around us, but contains embedded nanoparticles of it is not particularly small on the atomic scale. In fact, gold and silver. Because of these distances between individual atoms are typically a tenth particles, the cup normally seems to of a nanometer (an Ångström), so a piece of a mater- be a light green color, but it becomes ial with a side of a nanometer may contain hundreds or ruby red when light is shone through even a thousand atoms. Therefore a nanomaterial usu- it. The Lycurgus cup is a wonder of ally has some resemblance to a bulk material based craftsmanship from Antiquity, and it on the same atoms, but the normal material has been is based on nanotechnology. modified to reach superior properties such as higher Finally, let’s consider nanoce- mechanical strength, different optical and magnetic per- ramics. The world’s most widely formance, permeability to a fluid, or something else. used artificial material is the nanoce- Prof. Claes-Göran Thus nanomaterials may allow us to obtain properties ramic cement, which was used ex- Granqvist that were previously impossible to achieve, impractical tensively by the Romans in con- Department of to manufacture, or too expensive for use on a scale large structing buildings, baths and aque- Engineering Sciences enough to be significant in daily life. ducts. Furthermore, recent archaeo- Solid State Physics Among the general public, and even the scientific logical discoveries indicate that the Uppsala University Sweden community, nanomaterials are widely perceived as new Romans were not the first, that in many different way – newly invented, newly used by the Macedonians were using cement human cultures, and newly studied. centuries earlier. In fact, nanomaterials are not new at all. Nature Even research on nanomaterials is not as new as it itself is filled with nanofeatures that have evolved in seems. The term apparently began appearing in the titles biological systems, one well known example being of scientific publications only 15 years ago. But today’s moths’ eyes with nanostructured surfaces that provide nano was the subject of an older literature under the antireflection and allow efficient use of feeble light. term ultrafine. Looking at history, we can also see that human be- As the examples above indicate, nanomaterials are ings have been using nanomaterials of various sorts for well rooted in the past. But they are also very much of a very long time. Let us take three examples: nanocar- the future. Let us consider a few specific examples. bons, nanometals, and nanoceramics. Nanocarbons, used for cave painting and the print- Nanocarbons can be created in abundance on the ing of the Gutenberg Bible, are very much in focus nanometer scale when organic matter burns. Such car- today, in the forms of fullerenes, nanotubes and nanodi- bon nanoparticles were used by humans as far back as amonds, all of which offer a multitude of possibilities forty thousand years ago to depict and decorate. The for future technology. Two-dimensional carbon in the particles were mixed with fat and used for painting in form of graphene has unique properties directly based the caves of Altamira and Lascaux in Spain and France, on quantum physics, and it may have important ap- to mention two especially striking and well known plications in transparent electronics and elsewhere. cases. This kind of carbon, in principle, is also an es- Graphane, its hydrogenated cousin, is exciting in its sential ingredient in ink and printing paste, and it was own right. used by monastic scribes and by Gutenberg and his fol- Nanometals, employed by the Romans to create the lowers to make texts of explosive cultural significance amazing Lycurgus glass cup, are the basis today for and stunning beauty. manifold applications, including thermal collectors that Nanometals have also been utilized for thousands of harness the sun’s energy and innovative plasmonic solar years. An example is the world famous Lycurgus glass cells. Indeed, plasmonics is becoming a household word cup, now in the holdings of the British Museum. This because of its relevance for light-emitting diodes, sen- VI sors and catalysts for chemical reactions, just to mention issues are of great importance. We should remember the a few technologies. terrible impact that asbestos – in fact, a natural nano- Thus many aspects of nanomaterials are indeed truly material – had on human health before it was widely new and are the subject of intense worldwide interest in banned. We certainly do not want to discover one day today’s academic and industrial research laboratories. that, in our quest for new materials to solve techno- This Handbook, which is a testimony to this growing logical problems, we have unleashed another dangerous body of knowledge, presents welcome and authoritative nanomaterial into the world. surveys over nanocarbons, nanometals and nanoce- The editor and authors are to be congratulated on ramics in its first three parts. Other sections cover the successful completion of this Handbook of Nano- nanocomposites and nanoporous materials, as well as materials. It will surely be a work of great and lasting organic and biological nanomaterials. Applications and importance for the scientific community. impacts are discussed at the end, together with impor- tant questions of toxicology, hazards and safety. These Uppsala, November 2012 Prof. Claes G. Granqvist VII Foreword It has been more than a decade since President Bill Clin- science. The main goal of ma- ton talked about the promise of nanotechnology and terials science – macroscopic and the importance of increasing investments in nanoscale nanoscale – is providing new and science and engineering research in a speech at the Cal- improved building blocks for engi- ifornia Institute of Technology on January 21, 2000. neers in all fields. That said, nano- In his remarks, the President recalled Richard Feyn- materials science has distinct fea- man’s American Physical Society talk there in 1959. tures compared to the more mature The following week, in his State of the Union Address, science and engineering of macro- President Clinton announced his 21st Century Research scopic materials, the most salient Fund, a $3 billion budget increase, which included the being its revolutionary nature. New multiagency national nanotechnology initiative (NNI). materials and groups of materials The first year’s budget allocation to NNI was close to with surprising properties continue half a billion US$, nearly doubling what the agencies to be discovered – graphene and Prof. Neal Lane had been spending on nanoscale research; and with the topological insulators are two exam- Malcolm Gillis University continuous