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The Maghreb (Al-Maghrib): from the Sea to the Sahara

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The Maghreb (Al-Maghrib): from the Sea to the Sahara ROMAN AFRICA: From the Sea to the Sahara, From LiBYA to MoROCCO and From NUMIDIAN BERBERS to Conquering ARABs Lady Africa, El Djem, Tunisia Ancient and Modern Regions of the Maghreb (Coastal and Western North Africa) • Mauretania • Morocco – Tingitana (especially) – Caesariensis • Algeria – Sitifensis • Tunisia • Numidia • Libya • Africa Proconsularis • Byzacena • Tripolitania • Cyrenaica Theatre at Dougga, ca 169 CE Peoples and periods of the Magrib: An Ancient “Melting Pot” • Indigenous people = Berbers (from the Latin: “barbarus,” meaning foreign and speaking a strange speech, Engl., “Barbarian”); Libyan peoples; Mauri in Morocco • Punic or Semitic peoples, Phoenicians (Carthage founded ca. 814 BCE) • Roman, Latin-Speakers (African colonies established following the Punic Wars (263- 146 BCE) – Carthage fell to the Romans in 146 BCE – Colony of Africa established under Julius Caesar, ca. 40 BCE • Vandals (Germanic tribes migrating from the North, most immediately from Spain, ca. 430-540) • Greeks (following the Byzantine/Roman “reconquest” – 534- 703) • Arabs (beginning in the 640s, with the fall of Carthage in 698) – by ca. 700, the whole region was under the control of the Umayyads • Resistance from Morocco to Umayyad rule, beginning of Islamic independent kingdom of the Idrissids in Fez (Idriss I) in 792 The Punic Period: Queen Dido Sacrificing, Vatican Virgil Punic House, Kerkouane, Cape Bon, 330-260 BCE Thuburbo Maius (Tunisia), Capitolium Bulla Regia, Tunisia House of Amphitrite, first half 3rd cen. Famous Generals and Rulers • Hannibal (247-182 BCE) • King Massinissa (Numidia) – d. 148 BCE • King Jugurtha (Massinissa’s grandson) • Juba I (crushed by Julius Caesar, 46 BCE) • Juba II (Augustus’ client king of Mauretania married to Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Mark Antony and Cleopatra) • Septimius Severus (first African Emperor of Rome) • Dihya Al-Kahina (woman warrior and leader of the Berbers against the invading Arabs) King Juba I d. 46 BCE Cleopatra Selene II and Juba II, Rulers of Mauretania ca. 30 BCE Mauretanian Royal Tomb, Algeria Septimius Severus, Julia Domna, and Caracalla (Geta erased) Gods and Religions of AFRICA • Native Gods, Numidian/Berber/Libyan pantheon • Phoenician Gods (e.g., Ba’al and Tanit, later Romanized as Saturn and Caelestis or Juno) • Roman Polytheism (Liber Pater, Magna Mater, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Venus, Hercules, Neptune) • Judaism • Christianity – Roman (188-430/35) – Vandal (Arian 430s - 540) – Greek (534 – ca. 700 Byzantine – Carthage fell in 698) • Islam (698 – present) Tophet, Carthage Sufetula, Forum, Temples to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva Sacrificial Altar, Djemila, Algeria Ecclesia Mater Mosaic, Tabarka, Christian Cemetery Church Christian Baptismal Font from Kelibia, Tunisia Great Mosque, Kairouan, Tunisia, 670 CE Famous Poets, Philosophers, Historians and Theologians • PubliusTerentius Afer (Terence - Latin playwright – 185-160 BCE) • Marcus Cornelius Fronto (100-170, tutor to Marcus Aurelius) • Apuleius (125- 180 CE) – “The Golden Ass” • Tertullian (late 2nd cen) • Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (d. 258) • Lactantius (tutor to Emperor Constantine’s son, Crispus) • Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (d. 430) St. Augustine of Hippo, attributed to Caravaggio ca. 1600 Timgad, Algeria The Bread Basket of the Roman Empire Country Estate, Africa Proconsularis Amphitheatre, El Djem, Tunisia Bardo Museum, 2-3rd cen. Races at Carthage Races at Gafsa, 6th cen. Now in the Bardo Museum Gladiator in Combat, Thelepte, 3rd cen. Now in Bardo Museum Bestiarii at work – from Smirat, now in the Sousse Museum (2nd cen) Lady Africa, El Djem, Tunisia Christian Controversies in Roman Africa • Tertullian and the New Prophecy (Late Second and Early Third Century) • Cyprian and the Unity of the Bishops (Middle Third Century) • Donatus and the Purity of the Clergy (Fourth and Early Fifth Century) • Pelagius and the Power of Human Will (Early Fifth Century) • Only the first three are directly linked to Christian Practice The New Prophecy • The Paraclete and Counselor that Christ promised in John 14:25 & 16:7-13 had finally arrived and inspired prophets with new teaching. • The change was in new practices that were more rigorous. – No reconciliation for serious post-baptismal sin • Especially idolatry, adultery, murder – Only one marriage in a life-time; marriage continues forever – Fasting lasting until sundown, without food or drink • Only those following the New Prophecy have power to forgive (but do not use it) – Not bishops, in virtue of their office (Matt 16:19) – Not martyrs, in virtue of their witness and intercession (Rev 6:9-11) Cyprian and the Unity of the Bishops • The Fallen in the Decian Persecution (250-51) – The Sacrificers and the Certified – Exclusion from Communion: could they be readmitted? – Limits of Bishop’s Power and Authority – Intercession of the Confessors and Martyrs • Laxist Presbyters offered Communion to Fallen – Appeal to authority of the Martyrs • Cyprian argued that only Bishops in unity have power and authority to sanctify by forgiving sins – In rituals of baptism, eucharist, reconciliation – Power (Holy Spirit) given by Christ to “college” of bishops (John 20:22-23 – Only Faithful Bishops, in unity have power to sanctify – Martyrs can intercede at Judgment by Christ; not in church Cyprian and Rebaptism • Laxist Presbyters who accepted the Fallen set up their own College of Bishops – Claimed that they also had the power to sanctify – Objected to the rigor of Cyprian • Cyprian and his colleagues rebaptized Converts baptized by Laxists – Only Bishops in unity could baptize – Only Bishops who were faithful could hold and exercise power to sanctify (gift of Holy Spirit) – Baptism (and Eucharist) performed outside the unity were useless. • Cyprian met with disagreement in Rome and Africa – Efficacy of Sacraments depended on God not Bishop Donatist Schism • Diocletian Persecution (303-304 in Africa) required Bishops to turn over sacred books and vessels – Some Bishops refused and were executed – Some Bishops capitulated or dissembled • Conflict over status of Caecilian of Carthage (312-336) – Charge that he had been ordained by failed bishop – Donatus made competing bishop of Carthage • Appeals to Constantine to settle conflict – Trials in Rome and at Arles supported Caecilian – Constantine attempted to force unity 317-321 Expansion of Donatist Schism • Donatist church was isolated in Africa – All Bishops had to be free of crime of apostasy • Only the faithful could have Holy Spirit and could sanctify – Acceptance of an apostate Bishop incriminated other Bishops • The entire church had become unfaithful by tolerating Caecilian and his colleagues – Donatist were the only Holy Church – Rebaptize converts from Caecilianist church • “Catholic” Bishops rejected Donatist charges and theory – The efficacy of sacramental ministry depends on Christ – Unfaithful bishops harm only themselves; should be removed – Converts from Donatist church are not rebaptized Attempts to Resolve Division • Constantine (317-321) attempted to suppress through nonlethal force • Constans leader (345-47) used incentives and exile of leaders – Julian allowed leaders to return from exile in 362 • Theodosius & Honorius (392- – More aggressive bishops on both sides – Donatists supported some revolts against emperors – Privileging of Christians over traditional pagans – Honorius began treating Donatists as deviants – Catholics make concessions for acceptance of Donatist clergy – Colloquy of Carthage (June 411); imperial suppression of Donatists through fines and confiscation of property.
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