Humanities Editor's Notes

The Jefferson Lecture Constitutional scholar Forrest McDonald will deliver the sixteenth Jefferson Lecture in the Humanities on May 6 in Washington, D.C., and on May 13 at the University of Kansas in Lawrence. The highest honor conferred by the U.S. government for outstanding achievement in the humanities, the Lec­ ture was established by the National Endowment for the Humanities in 1972 as an opportunity for outstanding thinkers to talk about ideas in a public Forrest McDonald, author of Novus forum. Dr. McDonald, a professor of history at the University of Alabama, Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual who has written nine books on the U.S. Constitution and the founding Origins of the Constitution, is the period, will talk about the intellectual world of the founders, a world where 1987 Jefferson Lecturer in the Human­ the public discussion of ideas was frequent and popular. ities. A professor of history at the Uni­ versity of Alabama, Dr. McDonald has Throughout his career, Forrest McDonald has sought to explain how the taught at Brown and Wayne State uni­ founders arrived at the system of representative, limited government that versities and at the College of William continues to safeguard personal rights and to promote individual achieve­ and Mary. Photograph by C. James Gleason ment. He has explored the ideas that the early statesmen derived from En­ lightenment philosophy and classical government, from their experiences as British subjects and as revolutionaries, from the economic conditions of the period, and from their individual beliefs and aspirations. Some of these H u m an ities is a bimonthly review published by the National areas of study are represented in this issue of Humanities. Endowment for the Humanities The founders debated their ideas about the methods and principles of governing through brilliant political essays. These debates are discussed in Chairman: Lynne V. Cheney this issue in "The Anti-Federalists vs. the Federalists," a pair of essays by Director of Publications and Public Affairs: political scientists W. Carey McWilliams of Rutgers University and Thomas Marguerite Hoxie Sullivan L. Pangle of the University of Toronto, which demonstrate that the ex­ Assistant Director for Publications: change of ideas about government is ongoing in American political life. Caroline Taylor "Whenever the people are well-informed," Thomas Jefferson wrote Editor: Linda Blanken from Paris in 1789, "they can be trusted with their own government." Since Managing Editor: MaryT. Chunko Circulation: Joy Evans 1982, the Endowment has supported more than 350 projects with approx­ Editorial Board: imately $22 million to encourage studies of the Constitution so that Ameri­ John Agresto, Marjorie Berlincourt, cans will be well informed about their government. The 1987 Jefferson Harold Cannon, Richard Ekman, Lecture in the Humanities is a part of that effort. The award recognizes the Donald Gibson, Guinevere Griest, combination of intellectual vitality and social concern exemplified by Jerry Martin Thomas Jefferson. Previous Jefferson lecturers have been Leszek Designed by Maria Josephy Schoolman Kolakowski, Cleanth Brooks, Sidney Hook, Jaroslav Pelikan, Emily T. Ver- The opinions and conclusions expressed in meule, Gerald Holton, Barbara Tuchman, Edward Shils, C. Vann Wood­ Humanities are those of the authors and do ward, Saul Bellow, John Hope Franklin, Paul A. Freund, Robert Penn not necessarily reflect Endowment policy. Material appearing in this publication may be Warren, Erik H. Erikson, and Lionel Trilling. freely reproduced with appropriate credit to —Linda Blanken Humanities. The editor would appreciate cop­ ies for the Endowment's reference. The chair­ man of the Endowment has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business re­ quired by law of this agency. Use of funds for printing this periodical has been approved by the director of the Office of Management and Budget through September 1988. Send re­ quests for subscriptions and other communi­ cations to the editor, Humanities, National Endowment for the Humanities, 1100 Penn­ sylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20506. Telephone 202/786-0435. Annual sub­ scription rate: $14.00. (USPS 521-090) ISSN 0018-7526. 2 Contents

Government by Ideas Forrest McDonald, the 1987 Jefferson Lecturer in the Humanities by Linda Blanken. One of the nation's foremost authorities on the Constitution will speak about the men and ideas that formed it.

Heroic Biography by Edwin M. Yoder, Jr. What can the people expect from biographers who take on their national heroes?

The Anti-Federalists vs. the Federalists. How is power controlled? What 12 are the limits of liberty? The Federalists won in 1787, but Anti-Federalist answers to these questions resound. The Anti-Federalists vs. ... by W. Carey McWilliams The Federalists by Thomas L. Pangle

The Economics of the Constitution by S. A. Spitz. How constitutional 19 interpretation results in incentive or intervention.

Miracle at Philadelphia by Caroline Taylor. An exhibition on the Great 22 Convention makes the miracle real through documents and art. Science and the Humanities The Dialectics of Interdisciplinarity by Harold Dorn. Legitimate disci­ 30 plinary alliances arise from enticements to discovery not from desires to cure society.

Ethics in a Science Curriculum by Edmund D. Pellegrino. How medi­ 34 cal schools are facing the demands of moral decisions.

Albert Einstein: The Apprenticeship of Genius by Mary T. Chunko. 37 The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein will solve the mysteries sur­ rounding the most famous scientist in history.

Features Remapping the World by Matthew Kiell. The six-volume History of 24 Cartography begins publication this spring.

The Best Young Men Go West by Jean Lawrence. The Journals of the 27 Lewis and Clark expedition recount the adventure of the American outback.

Indiana Brushes up Its Shakespeare by Joseph H. Brown. The 29 Tempest is an allegory of the Old World vs. the New in an Indiana chautauqua.

The Humanities Guide A former NEH program officer "tells all" about writing successful 39 proposals/Questions and answers about Interpretive Research/Recent NEH grants by discipline/Subscription information/Deadlines The 1987 Jefferson Lecturer in the Humanities

FORREST McDONALD BY Linda Blanken

FORREST McDONALD, who bears McDonald won the Fraunces Tavern "Fulmer told me, 'You cannot un­ an uncanny physical resemblance to Book Award for his biography of Al­ derstand the Constitution by starting Patrick Henry, talks about the Amer­ exander Hamilton in 1980 and has in 1787,'" McDonald remembers. ican founders in a voice some men published books about the presiden­ "'You've got to go back at least to use when they're remembering an cies of George Washington and the 1760s and get a lo-o-o-ng run­ uncle or older friend of the family. Thomas Jefferson. ning look at it.' So under his guid­ He is affectionate, respectful, He first took up residence in the ance for a year or two I read amused by their weaknesses, and eighteenth century during research enormous quantities. I read every somewhat awed by their accom­ for his doctoral degree in history, statute passed by the British Parlia­ plishments. He smiles at the vanity which he received from the Univer­ ment. I read all the debates in the that kept George Washington's spec­ sity of Texas, Austin, in 1955. He Parliament between 1763 and 1787. I tacles a secret from all except his was inspired by an argument be­ read all the proceedings of all the aides-de-camp. He often ends a tween two professors at the univer­ state legislatures, and I read all the story about the general's strength as sity over the Beard thesis. An statutes enacted by all the legisla­ a leader with a fervent, Texan eminent historian, Charles Beard tures. I did this before I set out on "Gawd!" that survived twenty years had published An Economic Inter­ the road." of his teaching in the North (at pretation of the Constitution of the Brown University in Providence, United States (Macmillan Company, Sources not subjects then at Wayne State University in 1913), which demonstrated to the This process of immersion is, says Detroit). satisfaction of many that the drafters McDonald, one of the guards that On May 6 in Washington, D.C., of the Constitution were a property- historians construct against bias. and on May 13 at the University of holding interest group who wrote "You study sources, not subjects," Kansas in Lawrence, McDonald, the document in such a way as to McDonald says. "And you don't who is now professor of history at derive personal economic advan­ frame a question, you don't frame a the University of Alabama, will tage. Beard contended that the hypothesis, you don't frame a the­ speak more formally about the ratifiers of the Constitution were ory until you have exhausted the founders, as he delivers the Six­ "merchants, money lenders, security reading material. You don't even ask teenth Annual Jefferson Lecture in holders, manufacturers, shippers, questions of the sources; they'll tell the Humanities. The lecture is the capitalists, and financiers," and that you after a while what the questions highest honor awarded by the its opponents were "non-slavehold- are. I don't start out investigating a federal government for scholarship ing farmers and debtors." McDonald subject; I start out investigating ma­ in the humanities and is conferred would later dismantle the Beard terial." by the National Endowment for the thesis in his first work on the Consti­ McDonald practices what he Humanities. McDonald will speak tution, We the People: The Economic teaches. Students in his seminars at about the intellectual world of the Origins of the Constitution (University the University of Alabama, some of founders, where he has spent most of Chicago Press, 1958), but as a stu­ which he teaches with his wife, of the past thirty years, "with only dent in Texas, he recalls, he realized Ellen Shapiro McDonald, are intro­ occasional excursions into the twen­ "that if people like these could dis­ duced immediately to Max Farrand's tieth century," he says. McDonald agree over something as fundamen­ Records of the Federal Convention of practices history through immersion. tal as the Constitution, well, I was in 1787 (Yale University Press, 1967, One of three finalists for the 1986 uncharted territory." 1987). At the College of William and Pulitzer Prize in History for Novus McDonald earned his master's de­ Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins gree in 1949 with a study of Beard's where McDonald is filling a one-year of the Constitution (University Press book and was then directed by his appointment as the James Pinckney of Kansas, 1985)—his third interpre­ dissertation adviser, Fulmer Mood Harrison Professor of History, his tive history of the Constitution— (to whom We the People is dedicated), students read not only the Conven­ to read the vast body of primary ma­ tion debates, but Hamilton's and Linda Blanken is editor of Humanities. terial that led to the events in 1787. Jefferson's opinions on the constitu­

Novus (Put­ (Bobbs-Merrill, as "mag­ Enough Wise Men: (University Press of The Presidency of Alexander Hamilton: A form a body of work the People, The Anti- The Presidency ofGeorge (University Press of (Norton, 1980), and Pluribus Unum: The Forma­ National Review (Houghton Mifflin, 1965, re­ Consequently, McDonald is on the In the thirty years since, the books The Story ofOur Constitution Ordo Seclorum history. 1963), E tion of the American Republic, 1776- 1790 Washington Biography Thomas Jefferson printed by Liberty Press, Indi­ anapolis, 1979), that makes McDonald one of the na­tion's foremost authorities on the early national period of American road again. Because of the interestthe in Constitution as the bicentennial that have drawn on this research that M.E. Bradford describes in a re­cent Kansas, 1976), nam, 1971), and the National Archives. have earned McDonald a reputation isterial." We Federalists, 1781-1789 Kansas, 1974), well as the U.S. Library of Congress

the People " ___ With two consecutive grants from McDonald answers flatly, "N o."He adds, "The direction that my Among the formal acknowledg­ Plymouth automobile, which "un­complainingly carried me the equiv­ alent of thrice around the globe in my search for data." the Social Science Research Council, McDonald spent two years (1951-53) combing the state archives and his­ torical societies on the east coast, as took was that after having read ev­ erything related to eighteenth-cen­ tury history that I could find in Georgia, and went through every­ the historical society, and I read all the newspapers they've got there. And then I drove to Columbia, thenI drove to Charleston, then I drove to Raleigh, is a recognition of the Chrysler Cor­ poration and the UAW-CIO for the research on the eighteenth century Austin, Texas, I drove to Atlanta, thing they had in the state archivesthere that was in any way related. And then I drove to Savannah, to ments in the preface to We

Virginia, v. Madison, Gib­ Cohens v. and Marbury Ogden, v. "They all said it was the hardest Still, in the interest of efficiency, The McDonalds surprised their States, portions of the Virginia and tionality of the Bank of the United 'then come back and we'll talk about state," says Ellen McDonald, "and subject. "We told them to pick a specified the materials but not the seminar students last semesterby bons and selections from the Virginia and cisions on Kentucky resolutions, Marshall's de­ search not selective reading? some direction on the material? Is re­ doesn't the mature historian impose duced a good paper." smiles, "but every one of them pro­ read the whole file,' we told them, are we looking for?' they asked. 'Just asked. 'No topic/ we said. 'But what to 1787. 'But what's the topic?' they files for that state, from 1783 forward to read everything in the newspaper assigning a research project that Massachusetts bills of rights. assignment they'd ever had," she what you've read.' Photograph by C. James Gleason approaches, McDonald lectured at interests," as McDonald calls them, fourteen different campuses last fall. interact with "lessons of experience" He has a similar schedule for spring and political compromise to form "a and next fall, and, to make sure that new order for the ages." McDonald would be available to lec­ In Novus Ordo Seclorum McDonald ture this September 17, the two-hun- reviews English common and parlia­ dreth anniversary of the signing, mentary law, which contributed to Murray State University in Kentucky the several ideas of property and lib­ invited him three years ago. Next erty, among other concepts, that the year, the University Press of Kansas framers brought to the Convention. will publish the collected lectures. He also describes the systems of po­ litical theory that many Americans The Trilogy on the Constitution had learned from John Locke, David Through a complex, state-by-state Hume, Montesquieu, Jean Jacques and delegate-by-delegate analysis of Burlamaqui, Sir James Steuart, the economic interests that com­ Emmerich de Vattel, and Niccolo peted in and among the diverse ter­ Machiavelli. ritories of the thirteen states during As preparation for writing Novus the 1780s, McDonald concludes in Ordo Seclorum, McDonald read ev­ We the People that "it is not even the­ erything that the eighteenth-century oretically possible to devise a single American politician would have set of alignments on the issue of read. His research for the biography ratification that would explain the of Alexander Hamilton gave him a contest as one in which economic head start on this project. self-interest was the principal "I had been struck by the fact that motivating force." He undertook the Hamilton gives credit to people from study, he wrote, "to clear the decks" whom he gets ideas. Most eigh­ and proposed at the same time to teenth-century people do not. Ben­ follow his first book "with two jamin Franklin declares that men are more, in which I shall attempt to ruled by ambition and avarice, as if write something meaningful about he coined the thought. So I decided the making of the Constitution." We to read everything Hamilton had the People ends with the following read. That's a pretty good list. hypothesis: "Only two authorities are cited in the debates of the Convention— A fourth possible economic interpretation Montesquieu, a handful of times, of the making of the Constitution is that and Blackstone, once. But by the it was the expression of the prevailing time I wrote Novus, I could go popular ideology of the socially desirable through those speeches and tell you or normal relationship between govern­ what book the words are coming ment and economy. This ideology did not from,"says McDonald, pointing to a necessarily coincide with the philosophi­ well-worn stack of volumes of the cal systems of theorists and other Records of the Convention. thinkers, but was rather a broad mosaic A distinctive feature of of folk values, assumptions, myths, and McDonald's interpretation of politi­ ideals, a vaguely defined mold which cal theory is the discussion of the ordinary individuals unconsciously used sources and characteristics of the as a frame of reference in judging several kinds of American repub­ whether any proposed political or licanism: economic action was acceptable. Few will be disposed to deny the ex­ Speaking broadly, even grossly, one istence of such a general mold of popular may characterize American schools of re­ opinion, but it may seem difficult or im­ publican thought as being in two catego­ possible to reduce it to concrete terms. ries: those which reduced their principles The hypothesis anticipates the into systems or ideologies, and those third work in the trilogy, and, as dif­ which did not. Those which did—again The motto from the Great Seal of the United ficult or impossible as it may have speaking broadly, for there were shades States, E Pluribus Unum, is the title of Forrest seemed to reduce the "general mold and overlappings, and the substantive McDonald's second book on the Constitution, of popular opinion" to concrete differences are clearly visible only at the which describes the political maneuvering be­ terms, this is, in fact, one of the extremes—may likewise be characterized hind the ratification of the Constitution, (op­ achievements of Novus Ordo Se- in two categories. One, the more nearly posite) The title of his latest book is taken from clorum. The book explores how the classical, may be described as puritan; the reverse of the Great Seal, Novus Ordo Se- multitude of competing, intersect­ the other, the more modern, may be de­ clorum—a new order for the ages. ing, and overlapping "principles and scribed as agrarian. 6 McDonald defines the "filters" that helped shape American opin­ ions about government as "local tra­ ditions, prejudices, and circum­ stances that predisposed people in the various parts of the country to choose selectively among the sources of their ideas." This is an idea also underlying the controver­ sial "Celtic thesis," which has provoked arguments among histo­ rians since McDonald and Grady McWhiney, then also a professor of history at the University of Alabama, published an essay called "The South from Self-sufficiency to Peonage" in The American Historical Review in 1980. Historians have taken issue with the claim that the traditional practices and culture of Celtic herdsmen must form part of any interpretation of the American South, because the South was largely populated by these people.

Theory and Experience In a previous work, E Pluribus Unum, McDonald had asserted that "writing the Constitution had been a great achievement in practical, not theoretical, politics." In Novus Ordo Seclorum he reaffirms that sentiment, yet develops more fully the blend of idea and experience. McDonald explains the nature of the influence of theory on the framers as he discusses their "lessons of experience" from 1776 to the trilogy, E Pluribus Unum. points to a factor in the creation of 1787: "Various of the ideas and Although several reviewers the Constitution that had little to do ideals that we have been considering dubbed this 1965 study of the wheel­ with political schemes or economic served as guides to the Patriots of ing and dealing among the founders considerations. It might have been Seventy-six, and during the eleven "neo-Beardian," McDonald's book is otherwise, McDonald writes, "but years after the Declaration of Inde­ a narrative history that tells a story there were giants in the earth in pendence they also served as prisms not only of political intrigue, but of those days, and they spoke in the through which public events were virtue and vision. Of the ratification name of the nation, and the people perceived." His discussion of the in Pennsylvania, for example, followed them." compromise proposal that made ac­ McDonald writes that people "were ceptable John Dickinson's plan of in a mood to vote their pride, not Hamilton and the Heroes mixed government illustrates the their pocketbooks. In 1786 the anti- It is something of an irony, combination of practical and the­ Morris [Anti-Federalist] faction had McDonald admits, that he has been oretical politics that produced the sought to do them the favor of ex­ named the Jefferson Lecturer in the Constitution. He first classifies the empting them from taxes, a favor Humanities, "since I am the last un­ delegates by the political theorists that had the incidental (if not the reconstructed Hamiltonian Federalist they invoked to justify their posi­ primary) aim of depriving them of living." His interest in Hamilton is a tions on the nature of the legislature. the vote. The nationalists saw to the natural combination of two direc­ He then notes "that if the conven­ repeal of this measure, and though tions that McDonald pursued early tion was not to end in failure, a com­ repeal cost the artisans and me­ in his career: eighteenth-century his­ promise must be worked out and/or chanics money, it restored their right tory and twentieth-century finance. extraordinary means of persuasion to vote and won their loyalty. In the McDonald's first position after must be applied." The "extraordi­ election on the Constitution they graduation from the University of nary means of persuasion" em­ showed that loyalty: the Federalists Texas was that of a researcher on the ployed to bring about the writing won by the overwhelming margin of Public Utility History Project for the and ratification of the Constitution 1,198 votes to 160." Moreover, at the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. are described in the second book in conclusion of the book, McDonald From this work, he published his 7 first book, Let There Be Light: The In McDonald's view, part of the through the records of every town Electric Utility Industry in Wisconsin, process of writing history is uncon­ meeting that had been held in New 1881-1955 (American History Re­ scious or intuitive. He refers to this Hampshire during colonial and revo­ search Center, 1957). In the process, belief in the preface to E Pluribus lutionary periods, he suddenly real­ he became fascinated by Samuel Unum, where he describes the ized "the significance of something Insull, an Englishman who pro­ "three phases of the historian's cere­ I'd seen back in New Jersey. Every­ gressed from Thomas Edison's secre­ bral processes": body had always considered the pa­ tary to a magnate of the public per money movement of the 1780s The first of these, ingesting, is system­ utilities industry in the United as a relief to private debtors who atic and logical: one utilizes one's train­ States. So McDonald wrote the biog­ wanted a currency that would de­ ing to find all the relevant materials, and raphy, Insull (University of Chicago preciate rapidly. But the New Jersey one by one takes them all in. The second, Press, 1962). act, I realized in a flash, was really a digesting, is partly logical but mainly in­ "Once you've been through Sam­ slick though rather primitive effort tuitive and unconscious: the human uel Insull's finances, other finances to take care of the public debt with­ brain can and daily does perform many become easy," says McDonald. "As out imposing an insufferable burden thousand times as many calculations, re­ it turned out, the studies I did of of taxation. This was such a wonder­ ducing facts to generalizations, as can be twentieth-century business and ful moment when I had understood performed on the brain's logical, con­ economic history complemented my something in a way that nobody had scious surface. The third, writing, is interest in the eighteenth century, understood it before!" (McDonald's partly intuitive and partly a matter of particularly in terms of understand­ interpretation appears on pages 38- hard, systematic work. ing the ungodly complicated public 39 of E Pluribus Unum.) finances following the Revolution. The historian has experienced sev­ On his farm in Tuscaloosa, Ala­ The work on Insull made it possible eral demonstrations that his brain, bama, McDonald will suspend work, for me to do the Hamilton biography like some independent, creative re­ after a few hours of writing, to plant and an intermediate project, the search assistant, continues to reduce a hundred daffodils or camellias or book on the presidency of Wash­ facts to generalizations while he fruit trees. And as he plants this ington, in which I had to work out works on something else. Once, spring, his brain will be working the implications of Hamiltonia- while he was methodically going toward some future harvest. nism." In addition to reading everything that Hamilton had read, McDonald also read all that he had written and that had been written to him. He did this in the course of reviewing for the William and Mary Quarterly all twenty-six volumes of The Papers of Alexander Hamilton as they were pub­ lished. McDonald's interpretation of Hamilton's life is based on an eighteenth-century practice that McDonald says he will treat more fully in the Jefferson Lecture. Early Americans chose a public role or character and shaped their lives ac­ cordingly. McDonald's Hamilton re­ sembles a character that he would have read about in the memoirs of Jacques Necker, the finance minister for Louis XVI. McDonald quotes Necker:

There are men whose zeal ought not to be cooled: such are those who being con­ scious that they are qualified for great things, have a noble thirst for glory; who being impelled by the force of their genius, feel themselves too confined within the narrow limits of common oc­ cupations; and those, more especially, who being early struck with the idea of the public good, meditate on it, and make it the most important business of their lives. 8

Jefferson and Washington Star, Washington Post Jefferson was clearly a he­ Where is the balance to be struck? toward hagiography, as H. L. Mencken, with his tongue-in-cheek depiction of George Washington as an intoxicated roue and land-grab- in Malone's six-volume sued his great subject for forty years. His Time. roic presence for Malone, who pur­ umnist with the Writers Group andformer Editorial Page ing in 1979. He is a graduate of the Uni­ ber, tilts toward burlesque. I think we find a satisfying answer Yet Malone made no effort to con- Editor ofthe (late) Edwin M. Yoder, Jr., a syndicated col­ won the Pulitzer Prize in editorial writ­ versity ofNorth Carolina, Chapel Hill, and of Oxford University. BY EDWIN M. YODER, JR. 9 Heroic Biography It would fall somewhere in the examples to be avoided. They tilt "those two fat volumes ... with their and demonology, which should nineteenth-century collector of charming myths about Washington, and William Herndon, scouring tales of the martyred Lincoln, as Strachey famously attacked, in his which should be reserved for saints, We think of Mason Weems, the tone of tedious panegyric, their la­ mentable lack ... of detachment." be reserved for the truly villainous. backwoods Kentucky and Illinois for raphy that we expect to satisfy both curiosity and the thirst for inspiring example. Obviously, I do not have preface to "Eminent Victorians"— broad realm between hagiography, in mind the sort of biography Lytton the great Jefferson bi­ ographer, died last hen Dumas Malone, December, I found

Let us, however, use the term It is not a recognized term of his­ great and near great, a style of biog­ sought to do for Napoleon and his imperial court. provisionally, as a convenient term for a certain sort of biography of the thought an illegitimate pursuit. We the biographer's subject for patriotic would be reminded of what the great neoclassical painter David or nationalistic ends, it would be torical art; indeed, insofar as it hints even slightly at the sly inflation of W myself pondering what historians are apt to consider a hazardous sub­ ject: heroic biography. National Portrait Gallery ceal frailties and contradictions. archs (especially Elizabeth I and her that famous expression is not a re­ Read Malone on Jefferson's narrow­ father before her) licensed and lim­ flection of character so much as a re­ ing views of states' rights in old age, ited the manner in which artists flection of Washington's discomfort or on his vindictive pursuit of Aaron might represent them. The result with a new and ill-fitting set of false Burr, or his quarrels with John Mar­ was a style in royal portraiture that, teeth. He happened to be trying shall. No prettification there. Yet the after the genius of Holbein, tended them out when he sat to Stuart. overall effect of this wonderful work to a pale abstraction and idealism of Such are the trivial and harmless is to evoke those mythic strengths imagery. In the Soviet Union, even dissonances that all of us encounter that make the author of the Declara­ today, there is the Great Encyclo­ in the lore of the founders and other tion of Independence so imposing a pedia to which one may turn to dis­ national heroes—and relish, too; for presence in our national imagina­ cover the precise state of any . there is something in us ordinary tion. It would be a fortunate re­ historical reputation at any time. Re­ folk that seeks the consolation of public, lacking the unifying publics neither have, nor assert, knowing that heroes have their mystique of royalty, whose heroes such controls. An American "great foibles too. and founders all in due course found encyclopedia" enshrining some their Dumas Malones. official orthodoxy about the nation's The foregoing reflections lead, great is as unimaginable as a Soviet D naturally, to a more general ques­ Lytton Strachey, poking saucy fun at tion: Does the biographer who takes Lenin. ut turn the question on a national hero, a member of the The result is that the more com­ around, ask it another way, and we pantheon of founders, incur some plex the figure, the wider the variety get a rather different answer. Does a special obligation? A responsibility of interpretations. Merrill Peterson democratic republic, notwithstand­ to handle the alabaster gingerly, to has shown, in The Jefferson Image in ing its stern immunity to the cult of avoid the tarnish of mockery or the American Mind, how every age personality, not need heroes as iconoclasm? and political sect recreates the Sage much as more hierarchical societies? of Monticello to its own specifica­ And if we do, as I think is the case, tion; and yet, on the whole, without how shall the need be served with­ lasting harm. One of the founders, out sacrifice of scholarly integrity? Benjamin Franklin, undertook to I have cited the example of Dumas When the late Fawn codify, as it were, his personal im­ Malone's Jefferson. Douglas Southall Brodie published her best-selling, age and reputation. He did so in his Freeman's Washington (although one-volume Jefferson biography autobiography, one of the American not so good as his Lee) is a model; some fifteen years ago, she in effect classics and a rich source of votive so is that brilliant cameo of Wash­ accused the Jefferson scholars—Mal­ myth and imagery. Yet if it was his ington by Samuel Eliot Morison, one and others—of doing precisely sly intent to enshrine himself as a "The Young Man Washington," that: playing watchdog to the pan­ plaster wise man, he failed. He did with its endearing evocation of (as theon, and sacrificing the subtle, not prevent later biographers, from Morison puts it) "the last person you ambiguous stuff of truth to that role. Phillips Russell in the 1920s to more would ever suspect of having been a Her most sensational charge, for in­ recent ones, from tracking him into young man." Beveridge's John Mar­ stance, was that Thomas Jefferson, the salons of eighteenth-century shall would rank with them; and lonely after the early and tragic Paris where the ladies are seen to be others. death of his wife, sired several il­ swooning over the shrewd doctor's There are, I think, two expecta­ legitimate children by a slave rustic coonskin cap and stroking his tions to be satisfied in heroic biogra­ woman, Sally Hemings. In her view, bald head. phy. One, the more obvious and in and the view of those who swal­ some ways the easiest, is inspira­ lowed her reading of the evidence, it tion. Each of us will have his idea of was clear that a "Jefferson mafia" what that is. For me, it is the evoca­ had shirked the prime obligations of tion of Washington's magnanimity— scholarship and conspired to keep A nd what of the greatest for instance, toward the egregious Jefferson's character inviolate. national icon of all, George Wash­ young "Citizen" Genet, the French The suggestion was nonsense. ington? Like many generations of revolutionary envoy who, landing in There was no conspiracy; only a American schoolchildren, I studied Charleston, so annoyed Washington very different—and I would say in public school classrooms from with his inflammatory speeches. But more responsible—attitude toward whose walls the pater patriae glared when Genet's former colleagues some very shaky historical evidence. sternly down. That memorable turned against him in Paris and put Yet the episode helps to illuminate Gilbert Stuart portrait, with its par­ a price on his head, Washington the question I am posing. And at the ticularly reproving set of the mouth, generously permitted him to stay on most obvious level, one would have was everywhere. I certainly knew and settle down in New Jersey as a to say that Brodie was, in principle, the stories of the cherry tree and of gentleman farmer. I like to think, absolutely right. It is not the right spinning the coin across the Rap­ too, of John Marshall, in the pre- function of biographers, however ex­ pahannock. It would be many years Supreme Court years, when, almost alted the patriotic standing of their before I encountered—in one of Dan alone in his party, he opposed the subjects, to falsify them for any rea­ Boorstin's "American Experience" hysterical and repressive Alien and son. In the Tudor age, British mon- volumes, I believe—the story that Sedition Acts. I like to think of 10 Jefferson, with that queer blend of vanity and modesty, deciding with a twinkle in his eye to omit all his po­ litical offices from the cenotaph that marks his grave. If the Civil War was our Iliad, the lives and characters of the founding generation constitute our Aeneid, our founding myth. Modern scholarly biography is a long way from classi­ cal epic; yet the function of the he­ roic biographer is at least allied to the function Vergil assumed when he undertook to link imperial Rome to the fall of Troy. After all, history, and its subspecies, biography, are precisely humanistic disciplines, and it is not outrageous to expect them to be, in appropriate measure, hu­ manizing. As autonomous pursuits, independent of the response they evoke, they are likely to be sterile and worse than useless.

B ut if we may expect inspira­ tion, there is no escape from com­ plexity. After Freud, the ambiguities of human character, the willfulness of impulse, must be considered even when we deal with heroes. But this, while it can be overdone, is no bar­ rier to heroism properly understood. James Madison, who was crucial to the founding of our government, was deeply imbued with the Calvin­ ist view of human nature, the lurk­ ing dangers of the will to power and the need to contain it institutionally. He was no romantic—nor were most of those realists who wrote our Con­ stitution. Dr. Freud would have had little to tell the American founder who wrote, in Federalist 51: "But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no gov­ ernment would be necessary___" It is no slight art, of course, to evoke greatness in biography—hero­ ism, within the limited meaning I have assigned it. Suetonius and Tac­ itus showed long ago how easy it is to evoke villains, how the Neros and Caligulas can be portrayed believa­ bly in the starkest blacks and whites. Heroic portraiture demands a more various palette, a more subtle and inclusive line. Dumas Malone showed how it can be done. May his tribe increase. The Anti-Federalists vs. ... BY W. CAREY McWILLIAMS

THE ANTI-FEDERALISTS drew ists began with the conviction, ax­ strength from ancient wisdom, but iomatic in traditional political they were also eighteenth-century science, that the measure of a' re­ Americans, and—like their country­ public is the public spirit of its cit­ men generally—they were "people izens. The grounds for this view are of paradox," torn between the old simple and probably unanswerable: and the new. They were also a di­ A republic is self-governing only to verse lot, united mainly by what the extent that laws are enforced by they opposed, but Anti-Federalism, citizens as well as made by them. for all its eddies and currents, fol­ Self-rule includes rule over the self. lowed a mainstream, and Herbert Members of a society are not fully Storing was right to draw our atten­ autonomous if they must be tion to "what the Anti-Federalists compelled by others were for" in the volume of that to obey the name that introduces The Complete law. Republican excel­ Anti-Federalist (University of lence, therefore, requires Chicago Press). The Anti- strong assent, a commitment to Federalists shaped and de­ abide by the law, submitting one's fended an ideal of the frater conduct to a common rule. nal republic which is When the Anti-Federalists con­ distinctly American. They tended that the Constitution would were the losers in 1787, but end in despotism, they were predict­ their teaching, like a half­ ing, with a tablespoon of hyperbole, remembered song, still that a republic as large and diverse tantalizes and enriches as the United States would depend our political life and more and more on enforcement and heritage. less and less on assent, coming to The Anti-Federal- lean on a state bureaucracy rather than civic respectability and respon­ sibility. They were right, of course. The American tax code is still re­ markably self-enforced, but the I.R.S. is under constant pressure to strengthen its policing mechanism. As the Anti-Federalists worried, in a large republic, the law vacillates be­ tween being too weak and growing too strong. As this suggests, the Anti-Federal- ists were no libertarians. Their view of politics tended to be stern and ex­ acting, and they were more comfort­ able with ideas of civic duty than we are apt to be today. Their thinking was deeply influenced by the doc­ trine of the Covenant. Unlike the Federalists, they held to the older idea that political society is funda­ mentally a permanent bond between persons, not an alliance created for limited purposes. Political society shapes, and is shaped by, who we are: The cornerstone and proving ground of all politics is the soul. Although the Anti-Federalists often spoke the fashionable lan- Illustrations by Lew Azzinaro

guage of the social contract, referring to gov­ ernment as the contrivance of naturally free individuals, their doc­ trine was more consonant with the view that social and political life is natural for human beings. "A state of society," Agrippa wrote, "is the natural state of man ... the state of government is as natural to man as a state of society." In other words, al­ though God and nature may leave it to human beings to institute the forms of government, their politi- cality is not a matter of choice. Aris­ totle's proposition that the polis is prior to the individual in the order of nature—that political society is a prerequisite for human life, just as it is a precondition for human liberty and the pursuit of human happi­ ness—was familiar doctrine in colo­ nial America. "Individual estates," John Winthrop had remarked at the beginning, "cannot subsist in the ruin of the public." And in 1774, Nathaniel Niles contended that, by and benefit from public goods: They sions. If law and politics are only nature, there are no private rights: can sit in the new park or attend a restraints, however, wholly at odds Private claims, like individuality it­ meeting at the town hall. In a large with private interests and personal self, derive from the community and state, however, only a small fraction feelings, the government will be ex­ are founded in convention. Few of the government's activities are perienced as a despotism. A large Anti-Federalists would have gone so perceptible in day-to-day life. Rea­ state, distant from the emotional far, but they were inclined to con­ son tells Americans that Justice world and daily life of its citizens, cede a moral priority to political Holmes was right, that "Taxes are can rule only by repression or by community, recognizing that it is po­ what we pay for civilized society," "corruption"—a direct appeal to the litical society—as opposed to the vil­ but the taxpayer may not feel that citizen's private interests. The Anti- lage, the family or the "state of way on April 15th. "The laws of a Federalists would not have been sur­ nature"—which by combining many free government," Richard Henry prised that totalitarian regimes, with skills and crafts, enables individuals Lee wrote, "rest on the confidence their demand for civic zeal and fer­ to discover and practice what they of the people, and operate gently— vor, depend on state terror. And do best. and never can extend their influence they might have accused contempo­ The Anti-Federalists leaned to­ very far—... about the center, where rary Americans of a political system ward the classical view that the best the benefits of the government in­ that depends, to a dangerous de­ political society is small and stable duce the people to support it volun­ gree, on the lobbying of powerful in­ because such a regime reduces the tarily; yet they must be executed on terest groups, which the Anti- tension between public reason and the principles of fear and force in the Federalists would see as a civic vice. private sensibility and, at its best, extremes." The small state can also teach can win the affections of the people In any country, civic education in­ softly because it is more compatible as allies for the public good. In the volves a discipline strong enough to with a citizen's dignity; in such a small state, citizens are apt to see curb the body and direct the pas­ (continued on page 17) 13 efforts only when they are confident that they will own the fruits of their labor: their homes and property. In the absence of government, scarcity tempts and even compels human beings to threaten and usurp one an­ other's property. In this modern understanding, the role of government is less the pro- motion of human fulfillment or per­ fection, and more the protection of private interests. Human beings are characterized by overwhelming nat­ ural drives, which express the ines­ capable need to overcome or minimize insecurity, poverty, op­ pression, and humiliation. In order to escape such suffering, members of a society are driven to make cer­ tain claims, expressed as "inalien­ able natural rights." Legitimate government, both Federalists and Anti-Federalists believed, is simply the instrument by which the gov­ erned secure and promote these he leading Federalists ultimate goals of politics and over rights. tended by and large to the fundamentals of political phi­ The real debate began when the view their debate with the losophy. Both sides continued to founders had to specify how govern­ Anti-Federalists as a family look for inspiration to the biblical ment was to be designed so as best quarrel.T Madison, Hamilton, Wilson, and classical heritages, but both had to perform this limited function. The and especially Jefferson looked upon come to reinterpret those older Federalists charged the Anti-Federal- the greatest Anti-Federalists (e.g., strains of thought in the light of the ists with an exaggerated tendency to Patrick Henry, George Mason, Sam­ new conceptions of God, nature, see government as a necessary evil, uel Adams, Richard Henry Lee) as and politics derived from the great posing almost as many threats as it elder brothers, whose basic commit­ political theorists of the Enlighten­ held promises of security. Because of ments they applauded, whose ment. From this modern perspec­ its distance from the mass of the statesmanship they esteemed, and tive, Federalists and Anti-Federalists people, the Anti-Federalists feared a whose worries they listened to with alike viewed government as an artifi­ centralized, national government. respect. But the Federalists were cial construction, contrived to de­ They argued that government could convinced that in the present "crit­ fend against the hostility of the be kept within safe bounds only if ical" period of the fledgling republic natural human situation. In their the chief locus of power remained at these former comrades-in-arms re­ "state of nature," Enlightenment the state and local level, for only mained too attached to conceptions philosophers taught, human beings then, they contended, could repre­ that, however respectable in them­ are thrown into a hostile environ­ sentatives be jealously watched by selves or in appearance, had proved ment of frightful economic scarcity. the populace and made to resemble impractical, at least in the American Only human labor, science, and their constituents, sharing and thus context. commerce can overcome the natural sensing immediately the people's The Federalists agreed with their condition of bare subsistence, and needs. Yet the Anti-Federalists dis­ opponents for the most part over the members of society will expend such trusted government even at the lo- 14 The Federalists BY THOMAS L. PANGLE

rather, were Protestant Christian corruption. In general, men were to piety, civic brotherhood (accom­ be trusted only when they were so panied by a certain xenophobia), situated as to be unable to act apart chastity, frugal resistance to luxury, from the general populace and its and manliness (expressed especially consensus; and the Anti-Federalists in militia training and service). They tried to instill the populace with a saw these virtues, religious as well spirit of watchful distrust of leaders as civic, as means rather than as and institutions. ends. They condemned grand politi­ The Federalists argued that the ex­ cal or military ambition, the attempt perience of most Americans, begin­ to distinguish oneself, and the taste ning in the Revolution itself but for diversity, as the forerun­ especially in the years afterward, ners of aristocratic disproved many of the key assump­ cal level; tions that made up this vision of consequently, they government and society. The type of gave too little thought to the society and social spirit that ways in which government could be was the necessary backbone designed to limit itself. The Anti- of the Anti-Federalist re­ Federalists relied on the ability of the publicanism had always populace to exercise the needed been fragile or fleeting and check on government's power. by 1787 was disappearing. A The Anti-Federalist vision of a re­ commercial society, ani­ public presupposes some very un­ mated by free enterprise likely qualities in the populace. They believed that the citizenry had to remain roughly equal in economic status and homogeneous in way of life— sharing the same manners, tastes, morals, and religion. Wealth could be accumulated, but only slowly and steadily, and in such a way as to avoid great diversity and inequality, which would lead to fac­ tional and class strife. The Anti- Federalist Brutus I explained why such homogeneity was required of a republican citizenry. "In a republic," Brutus wrote, "the manners, senti­ ments, and interests of the people should be similar. If this be not the case, there will be a constant clash­ ing of opinions; and the representa­ tives of one part will be continually striving against those of the other. This will retard the operations of government, and will prevent such conclusions as will promote the pub­ lic good." The Anti-Federalists regarded yeo­ man farmers as the backbone of so­ ciety. The virtues that they wanted inculcated in the citizens were not the grander traditional virtues of he­ roic ambition, pious sainthood, or aristocratic love of leisured grace and beauty. The necessary virtues, and dedicated to the protection of remain simply a federation of the property and the means for creating states. The national government wealth, was mankind's most reason­ must directly represent the people— able response to its natural situation the diverse individuals engaged in in a world of scarcity. Alexander their faction-ridden pursuits of hap­ Hamilton summarized the view in piness. Moreover, the success of the Federalist 12, "The prosperity of com­ republic would depend on granting merce is now perceived and ac­ this national government power— knowledged by all enlightened the freedom of action, the taxing ca­ statesmen to be the most useful as pacity and financial resources—that well as the most productive source would allow it to set and manage a of national wealth, and has accord­ full agenda for the nation. The gov­ ingly become a primary objective of ernment would need power not only their political careers." in foreign policy (power the Anti- Admitting this, the Anti-Federal­ Federalists accepted) but in finance ists failed to understand or accept More often than not, Madison con­ and monetary policy, interstate com­ that such a society could not possi­ tinued, the active majority— merce, law-enforcement, civil and bly remain an insular, homogenous especially when whipped up by criminal adjudication, and national society in which yeoman farmers demagogues who played on the peo­ improvements (canals, roads, har­ predominated. But commerce and ple's distrust of "aristocrats"— bors). trade necessarily introduced cos­ would move against the few who The Federalists did not for a mo­ mopolitanism, competition, luxury, had become most prosperous, ment deny that a national govern­ and conspicuous consumption. This through their own or their parents' ment endowed with such extensive development was inevitable, and the industry and frugality. The resulting powers must be carefully watched Quixotic attempt to prevent it, the discouragement to work, accumula­ and rigorously limited; and they Federalists believed, would only tion, and investment would retard agreed that the balance of power be­ bring oppressive interference in pri­ prosperity for all. Moreover, the ma- tween state and national govern­ vate life by social censors of one sort joritarian impulse (especially when ments could play an important role or another. The lawlessness pro­ armed by sanctimonious appeals to in this respect. They also agreed that duced by the prohibition amend­ virtue) would threaten minorities de­ public opinion, rooted in and ex­ ment, the enormous difficulties fined as such by their religion, way pressing a spirited love of individual encountered in the administration of of life, ethnic origin, or opinions. liberty that pervaded the entire pop­ rationing during World War II, and The new vision offered by the ulace, was the final, irreplaceable the unworkability of the attempts to Federalists built on a great insight of barrier against tyranny. Yet they in­ fight inflation through wage and David Hume. A large-scale commer­ sisted that the Anti-Federalists failed price controls all illustrate how re­ cial republican society, Hume be­ to appreciate the most important in­ sistant the commercial spirit is to lieved, with a multitude of cross­ termediate barriers, devised by what government restrictions on con­ cutting factions and cleavages, the Federalists called their "new sci­ sumer freedom. would be less likely than a small ho­ ence of politics." Building on and ex­ What is more, the Federalists cor­ mogenous community to allow for tending the insights of previous rectly predicted that commercial the coalescence of a single majority modern theorists, the Federalists de­ growth would result in economic di­ faction and more likely to compel vised a new, complex plan whereby versity rather than homogeneity. groups and factions to compromise governmental power was separated, Merchants, lawyers, manufacturers, by forming coalitions in which the focused, checked, balanced, and and laborers, would increasingly zeal and power of each group would therefore limited—from within. The outnumber farmers, and would di­ be moderated. Compromise among new institutions of the Presidency, vide into competing classes, fac­ multiple interests implied, however, Supreme Court, and Senate, along tions, and interest groups. Based on that the locus of political power with the less innovative House of this perception, the Federalists con­ should be shifted from the more ho­ Representatives, formed a govern­ tributed an entirely original concept mogenous local level to the more mental power in such a way that it to political history: a new vision of heterogeneous, moderate, and com- achieved two distinct and essential healthy republican society that faced promise-prone national level. In fact, goals. Each of the great institutions up to, rather than tried to ignore or politics at the national level could was designed so that it could most overcome, the future nation's inevi­ and should be used to police and effectively carry out its tasks— of de­ table diversity of clashing private in­ mitigate the tendencies to major- liberation, action, or adjudication— terests. James Madison explained itarian excess at the local and state while at the same time it checked the benefits of such a republic in the levels. But if politics at the national and balanced the other institutions brilliant Federalist 10. It is true, he ar­ level were to be the arena in which to prevent their overstepping or gued, that in any restricted locality factions of all sorts clashed, bar­ abusing their legitimate authority. or even within a single state, one gained, compromised, and moder­ There would be, therefore, much faction could predominate. But this ated; if national government were to less need to rely, at least in a regular situation would not breed true fra­ protect minority factions and indi­ or routine way, on the dangerous ternity or homogeneity; rather, this viduals from local oppression, then threat of popular uprisings, or on was a recipe for majority tyranny. the national government could not the potentially disintegrative appeal 16 to states' rights, in order to keep a tive (the presidential veto power). subservient to popularity and major­ powerful national government But perhaps no disagreement was ity whim. And they hoped that a within bounds. so revealing as that touching the na­ well-administered national govern­ To be sure, the Anti-Federalists ture and function of representatives. ment would induce in all Americans also espoused the separation of The Anti-Federalists sought in repre­ a certain degree of respect or even powers. But, the Federalists com­ sentatives a mirroring of the people reverence for great statesmanship plained that the Anti-Federalists and the popular will. They taught that would echo, in a dim or faint were too obsessed with the recent distrust of elected officials, and wor­ way, a very old republican tradition transgressions of monarchic and ried that national representatives that saw politics as much more than aristocratic England. They failed to would be too independent and dis­ the tool for the advancement of col­ see that in an essentially popular or tant from the people. The Federal­ lective private interests. In this cru­ democratic regime, there was at least ists, in contrast, sought in cial respect, the Federalists showed as much danger of tyranny by the representative government a filter­ themselves to be more idealistic, popularly elected legislative assem­ ing and refining, a sobering eleva­ aristocratic, or classical in their re­ blies as there was by the executive tion and broadening, of the popular publicanism than were the Anti- branch or the national judiciary. The will. They saw in the great enter­ Federalists. Federalists perceived the need and prises of national government a importance—insufficiently recog­ magnet that would attract the ener­ Thomas L. Pangle is professor of political nized by the Anti-Federalists—for gies of the most talented, ambitious, science at the University of Toronto and such devices as bicameralism (with and public spirited among the cit­ the author of Montesquieu's Philoso­ one house of the legislature elected izens. They applauded some degree phy of Liberalism (University of Chi­ indirectly and for longer terms than of independence and distance for cago Press, 1973) and of a forthcoming the members of the other house), ju­ representatives, as a way of promot­ study of the philosophic influences on the dicial review, and executive preroga­ ing leadership that was not simply American founders.

(ANTI-FEDERALISTS, continued from page 13) state, individuals are more likely to hence, on public forums that respect curity and makes it easier for us to feel that they matter. The small the dignity of citizens, where, able trust one another. Stability makes it country allows one's rulers to hear to speak if one wishes, one listens seem safe to invest oneself in one's one's voice and recognize one's from choice. Republican delibera­ fellows and worthwhile to work for uniqueness, so that an individual is tion, the Anti-Federalists would the public good: Orderliness is the not treated simply as a member of have told us, demands local meet­ foundation of the arts of association some group or statistical class. And, ings and forums. and civic participation. "If it were as the Anti-Federalists repeatedly Anti-Federalists also held that, to not for the stability and attachment pointed out, government in a small be a proper school for civic virtue, a which time and habit give to forms state is easier for citizens to oversee state should be stable as well as of government," Samuel Bryan de­ and control. Its activities are likely to small. When Roger Sherman told the clared, "it would be in the power of be simple and comprehensible, and Constitutional Convention that the the enlightened and aspiring few, if citizens, as Richard Henry Lee ob­ "habits, usages and manners" of they should combine, at any time to served, "can unite and act in concert each state "constitute its happi­ destroy the best establishments, and and with vigor" with relative ease, ness," he was contending that the even to make the people the instru­ while in large states, those advan­ customs and attachments of a small ments of their own subjugation." tages belong only to the few. regime can help to redefine the pas­ All of this implies, of course, the As Madison hinted, the daunting sions of an individual, building hap­ propriety of limits to individual lib­ scale and complexity of our giant re­ piness on common and public erty and, especially, of restraints on public makes most of us "timid and foundations. "The good old way" is acquisition. Commercial life en­ cautious," content to have a choice valuable because it orders and limits, genders greed and disunity, the between private governments and to but also because it engenders se­ Anti-Federalists observed, because it enjoy our private liberties. To the appeals to passions that are univer­ Anti-Federalists, our civic life would sal and low. The division of labor have seemed tepid if not sickly; they brightens human life and frees our preferred a good deal of political tur­ best talents, but it tends to make bulence to a citizenry grown "lan­ common interests subtle and even guid" or "cool and inattentive." invisible. Creditor and debtor do not In a healthy republic, speech and often think of their commonalities. law rule private force and interest, Specialization can destroy the sense and the Anti-Federalists regarded of the common life, hence Mercy the right to participate in civic delib­ Otis Warren's alarm at "restless pas­ eration as indispensable. The force sions" which create a "rage for pro­ of deliberation, however, turns on ject, speculation and various artifices willing and attentive listeners, and to support a factitious dignity." On the other hand, internal com­ materialized as positive law restric­ merce, can unite a people—and the tions, theoretically subject to repeal. Anti-Federalists sometimes spoke as In the Anti-Federalist view, the civil if commerce alone would be a suffi­ liberties to be guaranteed would cient bond for the Union. External have been binding on all legitimate trade, however, can only divide governments, including the states. them, because it creates dependence Later, in Barron v. Baltimore, Chief on outsiders. Foreign commerce Justice Marshall was to argue that weakens the civic bond and self-gov­ the Bill of Rights was intended to ernment alike, giving foreign mar­ not, like Patrick Henry, ardent restrict and apply only to the federal kets and policies power over Christians. They believed in human government. For the most part, domestic life. The daily newspaper equality and in obligations to hu­ however, the Anti-Federalists were attests to this, as we listen for the manity as a whole, and they rejected not concerned to deny to the central decisions of foreign central banks the xenophobia of the closed com­ government rights that the states re­ and OPEC conclaves. Of course, the munity. The Articles of Confedera­ tained, but rights that no govern­ Anti-Federalists knew that a com­ tion, for example, guaranteed the ment possessed. mercial regime may seek, through "free inhabitants" of all states both The Anti-Federalists envisioned a imperialism, to reassert political con­ "free ingress and regress" and the country made up of deliberative trol over economic life, but they rec­ "privileges and immunities of free communities in which freedom of ognized that an imperial regime is citizens in the several states." Sam speech and assembly would be the ruled by its empire and gradually be­ Adams's Boston was to be Spartan rule, linked by internal commerce comes, like ancient Rome, more im­ in austerity, but Christian in charity, and "adequate" representative insti­ perial and less republican. patriotism joined to philanthropy. tutions. The sort of republic they The Anti-Federalists did not The Anti-Federalists relied on rep­ hoped for—slow-moving, austere, shrink from the conclusion that a re­ resentative government, but in a and talky—was suited, as they public must be willing, in principle, form different from that envisaged knew, for the ordinary routines of to accept austerity, sacrificing by the framers. They wanted a much political life, in which custom is an economic growth for the common larger Congress and much smaller adequate guide, and for the great good. They regarded frugality as a districts, so that representatives crises of politics which demand a virtue, but like most of us, they would be tied by bonds of friendship public-spirited willingness to make wanted material prosperity, consis­ and feeling to relatively small com­ great sacrifices. The framers, by con­ tent with their higher goals. But they munities, and so that citizens would trast, designed a regime suited to a insisted that there are higher goals feel as though they had been present middle range of political events, and that, because the allure of and given their consent in person. those in which change is required money is so great, one must be fully Representatives were to be rotated but which are not so taxing that prepared for sacrifice. Sam Adams frequently to safeguard their ties to speed of decision and expertise may caught this view in a phrase when the home community: "exactly in not substitute for strong assent. But he spoke of his hope that Boston the ratio of their removal from the in Federalist 49, Madison acknowl­ might become a "Christian Sparta," people," Cincinnatus maintained, edged that there are "great and ex­ an austere republic of heroic spirit. "do aristocratic principles infect the traordinary moments" in which a minds of men." Expert legislators "recurrence to the people" is neces­ were less important than representa­ sary. If those moments are likely to tives able to convey strong and gen­ be frequent, we would do well to re­ uine assent. And in any case, build the local deliberative forums George Clinton argued, the chance that were the foundations of the of election should be dispersed Anti-Federalists' America. ^ widely, so that the "desire of render­ ing themselves worthy" might en­ W. Carey McWilliams is professor of po­ courage civic virtues among the litical science at Rutgers, the State Uni­ largest number. No legislature prac­ versity of New Jersey, and author of The ticable for the Union would be large Idea of Fraternity in America (Uni­ enough, Melancton Smith observed, versity of California Press, 1973), for but we might "approach a great way which he won the National Historical So­ toward perfection." ciety Prize. Yet despite their admiration for The broad side of Anti-Federal the small state and their suspicion of thinking was most evident in the commerce, the Anti-Federalists were championship of a Bill of Rights, a not advocates of the classical polis. In battle Anti-Federalists both won and the first place, the need to survive in lost. They had hoped for a statement what was soon to be a world of na- of natural rights—probably aug­ tion-states demanded larger political mented by those common law rights societies. And second, the Anti- Americans held almost equally sa­ Federalists were products of a Chris­ cred—as a preface to the Constitu­ tian culture even when they were tion. Instead, the Bill of Rights 18 The Economics of the Constitution

BY S. A. SPITZ agricultural society with a growing business, and they invoked their commercial sector. economic rights under Article X, sec­ With the two-hundreth anniver­ tion 1 of the Constitution and also sary of the Constitution, the Ameri­ the Fourteenth Amendment." The can public has a unique opportunity Supreme Court ruled that there exist to reacquaint itself with philosophi­ two sets of privileges and immu­ cal and legal issues that are inherent nities—federal and state—and the in the Constitution and vital to the federal government does not con­ nation's economic welfare—issues cern itself with individuals' the Social Philosophy and Policy economic activity within a state. Fur­ Center (SPCC) at Bowling Green thermore, the Fourteenth Amend­ State University is bringing before ment should be interpreted narrowly the public in Ohio with a three-year to apply only to the rights of newly bicentennial project "Economic freed slaves. According to the rul­ Rights and the Constitution," sup­ ing, a narrow interpretation of the ported by the National Endowment due process clause should also ob­ for the Humanities. A conference tain, and the right to pursue a par­ consisting of lectures, panels, and ticular vocation is of no concern to workshops, held on the Bowling the federal government. From the Green campus in October 1985, was 1890s to the mid-1930s, however, the number of sections of the the first of a series of events for pub­ due process clause was regularly in­ Constitution including lic education. At the conference na­ voked to declare unconstitutional the Bill of Rights, focus tionally recognized scholars from a legislative regulation that seemed on individual economic variety of disciplines discussed the unduly to hinder individuals' rights freedomsA and property rights. Arti­ relationship of the Constitution to to engage in economic activity. Yet cle I, section 10, for example, pro­ economic rights. by the mid-1930s—the start of the hibits states from impairing the Professor Ellen F. Paul, SPCC dep­ New Deal's "constitutional crisis"— obligation of contracts. Article IV, uty director and director of the con­ the due process clause had again lost section 2, guarantees citizens of each ference, points out that Supreme its power as a legal argument against state the same privileges and immu­ Court interpretations of key consti­ state regulation, now generally up­ nities enjoyed by citizens of all other tutional sections involving the clash held against individual economic states; and the Fifth and Fourteenth between individual economic rights claims—a trend continuing today. Amendments proscribe government and society's police power to enforce The conference, entitled "Liberty, from depriving persons of "life, lib­ its own needs have followed definite Property, and the Foundations of erty, or property without due proc­ trends. The "due process" clause in the American Constitution," focused ess of law," and forbid government the Fourteenth Amendment, for ex­ on the concept of economic rights as denying any person "equal protec­ ample, was at first rejected as a vehi­ understood at the time the Constitu­ tion of the laws." Such concepts and cle for adjudicating state economic tion was written. Historical inter­ phrases reflect the influence of regulation. "In the key 1873 Slaugh­ pretation of the concept was offered various philosophical, political, and terhouse cases," she explains, "New by nine noted scholars. Some 175 economic theories and trends cur­ Orleans butchers brought suit people attended the keynote ad­ rent at the time the Constitution was against the state of Louisiana be- dress, in which historian Gordon framed: from English and European cause of a law creating a monopoly theories of natural law and natural of one firm for all slaughtering of an­ S. A. Spitz has a Ph.D. from Stanford rights, to politico-economic ideas of imals. The butchers charged that the University, has studied law at laissez-faire entrepreneurship, to monopoly created a situation that in­ Georgetown University Law Center, America's structure as an essentially fringed on their ability to stay in and is a consultant policy analyst. 19 Wood of Brown University dis­ preserve the republic won by the the milk was needed in New York. cussed the conflict of interest be­ Revolution. Productive use of prop­ The distributors brought suit and the tween the Federalist framers of the erty by small farmers would pro­ Court ruled that the state of New Constitution, intent on a strong cen­ mote the civic virtue needed to York was hoarding milk, thus inter­ tral government controlled by a maintain an economically and politi­ fering with interstate commerce. The wealthy, educated, landed elite who cally independent nation. Central decision reflected a broadening of would rise above the multiple, clash­ authority would coordinate Amer­ federal power in interpreting the ing demands of state legislatures to ica's commercial development, spon­ contracts clause as it pertains to in­ create a model republic, and the less soring free trade to provide markets terstate commerce, McConnell said. economically and socially powerful for agricultural surpluses, thus stav­ Because intrastate "takings" of prop­ Anti-Federalists, represented by ing off what Madison foresaw as an erty would have less effect on a na­ such men as Pennsylvania legislator inevitable progression toward con­ tional commerce, there seemed little William Findley, who called for a centration of wealth in the hands of need to regulate it, yet the very re­ government of "ordinary” men a few large manufacturers. moteness of federal government, openly representing their individual Law professor Michael McConnell seemed to necessitate protection of economic and political interests. of the University of Chicago dis­ individual citizens' property against Wood contended that the Anti- cussed an apparent anomaly in the undue "takings" by this distant au­ Federalist ideology essentially pre­ Constitution's protection of property thority for its own purposes. vailed, that today we are "in Find­ rights against federal, but not state, The intertwining of "contract" and ley's world, not Madison's." government intervention ("just com­ "property" has remained a problem Andrew Reck, professor of phi­ pensation" clause in the Fifth of constitutional interpretation since losophy at Tulane University, main­ Amendment) and its protection of the eighteenth century and has tained that the system of contract against state, but not federal, formed the basis of two notable Su­ government established by the Con­ government interference ("contracts preme Court cases. In the first case, stitution reflected human nature as it clause," Article I, section 10). Grant­ Fletcher v. Peck, (1810), the central was perceived in the seventeenth ing that the framers understood question was whether the state, in and eighteenth centuries. The "contract" as a subcategory of this case Georgia, could rescind title Federalists sought to establish a gov­ "property"—following Blackstone's to land previously granted to private ernment that would regulate "natu­ tenet that contract is "property in ac­ individuals if the state itself had ral" human passions—ambition, tion"—McConnell argued that the been the original grantor. In his de­ pride—in order to benefit society as Constitution's authors were most cision, Justice Marshall ruled that a a whole. Checks and balances, the concerned with a strong national grant was a contract within the separation of powers provided for in economy (the "commercial re­ meaning of the Constitution and the Constitution, would constrain public"), and were therefore careful that the Constitution included a gen­ individual interests within govern­ to guard against the possibility of eral prohibition against impairing ment administration while the cen­ states interfering with interstate the obligation of contracts. Thus, tral authority regulated and commerce by impairing the obliga­ state seizure of land could be con­ channeled the clash of individual tion of contracts from state to state. demned following the contract passions without. The clause was one of the Supreme clause. In the second case, Bowen v. Political scientist Jean Yarbrough Court's main justifications for strik­ Public Agencies Opposed to Social Se­ of Loyola University discussed ing down state laws that discrimi­ curity Entrapment (1986), the Court Jefferson's preoccupation with agri­ nated against interstate commerce in separated the concepts of "contract" cultural land as "property." Viewing the classic 1949 case, H.P. Hood & and "property." The Supreme Court America as ideally a middle-class re­ Sons v. DuMond. In this case, milk ruled that the federal government, public of small freeholders, Jefferson distributors in New York State had in reneging on a written contract too saw no ideological conflict be­ been denied a license to ship milk to that allowed states to withdraw from tween personal and property rights. Massachusetts on the grounds that the Social Security system, was not But expanding on the thought of "taking" property. eighteenth-century moral philoso­ The conference concluded with pher Lord Kames, Jefferson consid­ a lively interchange between political ered the right to labor even more scientist William Letwin and fundamental than stable ownership Bernard Siegan, professor of law of property, because labor—the use at the University of San Diego, on of property rights—applied more di­ the role of capitalist ideology in the rectly to an individual's right to life. \ Constitution. Letwin argued from Consideration of Madison's career' relevant constitutional clauses and reveals that, as a congressional dele­ The Federalist that there is no evi­ gate, Madison supported state and dence the Federalists intended to regional sovereignty with constraints enshrine either capitalism or a on central authority, moderated tem­ laissez-faire economy—indeed, that porarily only to prevent national fi­ these terms were not even in general nancial collapse. But by 1787, use until the nineteenth century. Madison had come to view a strong He continued that the framers of the central government as essential to American Numismatic Society Constitution assumed that most 20 American Numismatic Society U.S. Library of Congress productive property would be in private ownership but that public bodies would own and operate some property (notably unsettled lands) and that private ownership of land would be subject to some public regulation, and that the Constitu­ tion's "economic neutrality" has been a large factor in its "du­ rability." Professor Siegan argued from Article I, section 10, subsection 1, which protects owners and en­ trepreneurs against ex post facto laws understood to be civil as well as penal, that securing of private prop­ erty to owners to use as they wished was of vital importance to the Con­ stitution's framers, and that this can be interpreted as espousal of a laissez-faire, capitalist economic sys­ tem. As Robert Utley, a political scien­ tist from Wake Forest College, pointed out, the U.S. Constitution is the oldest of any still active writ­ ten constitution in the world. For this reason alone, it is a document of unique significance and the Social Philosophy and Policy Center ex­ pects even greater interest in its next two conferences, to be held in May 1987 and April 1988. Moreover, Americans from all parts of the country will benefit from a three- volume compendium of the lectures, panels, and workshops, revised and edited for national distribution by a leading publisher. A reader that combines an introductory essay, annotated bibliography, edited ex­ cerpts of relevant Supreme Court cases, and background essays in his­ tory, law, and philosophy for use by college political philosophy, law, history and government courses will also be published. One-hour overview videotapes of the con­ ference discussions will be broadcast over WBGU-TV and distributed at cost to, among others, secondary school civics and social studies classes, college political science in­ structors, community groups and educational cable systems. In addi­ tion, newspaper essays by the conferees, analyzing and comment­ ing on the conference will appear over the next two years.

In 1986 Dr. Ellen F. Paul of Bowling Green State University was awarded $376,990 through the Bicentennial Proj­ ects Program for "Economic Rights and ■ The Whiskey Rebellion, referred to in this 1794 proclamation, was one of the first challenges of the Constitution." the economic order established by the Constitution and inspired by Adam Smith. 21 Miracle at Philadelphia BY CAROLINE TAYLOR

THE NUMBER OF HOSTAGES investigation is precisely what we and helping with revision of the being held for ransom in the Middle hope to encourage," says Duckett. research and documentary materials East reaches twenty-one, yet the The exhibition, which runs through into a strong narrative whole," says country remains powerless either December 31, 1987, is housed in Duckett. "The scholars saw clearly to declare war or to pay ransom. the eighteenth-century Second Bank that the focus of the story itself As the trade deficit increases, new of the United States in Philadelphia. should be on the work within the trading partners are required. At There visitors will find original docu­ Convention. We could then build home, farmers who are threatened ments and art of the period, con­ onto this central exhibit sections with the loss of their land for non­ temporary audiovisual programs, showing why the nation's leaders payment of debt organize an armed sculpture, illustrations—even a word came together and depicting key rebellion when their pleas for relief processor screen depicting how the events that followed the Conven­ are ignored. Inflation is rampant. Constitution would have been tion." State legislatures are torn by fac­ edited by the Committee on Style A portrait of Washington by tionalism. A leading cabinet officer if the technology and been available Rembrandt Peale dominates the first warns that the destruction of Ameri­ at the time. three galleries, which describe can liberty can be prevented only "Because we had four extraordi­ events leading to the Convention. by a strong national government. nary institutions—three predating The painting, completed in 1820, "If some of these issues do not the Convention itself—with great ex­ hangs above the exhibits to symbol­ seem to be two hundred years old, pertise among their staffs," says ize Washington's overriding, though their similarity to contemporary con­ Duckett, "we were able to use their often quiet, influence on the pro­ cerns may spark the interest of visi­ expertise and documents from their ceedings. tors to our exhibition," says Peggy collections in constructing a story Pages from personal letters writ­ Duckett, chairman of the "Miracle at chronology that runs from the end ten by John Jay, Henry Knox, Philadelphia" exhibition, sponsored of the war until the ratification of George Washington, and James by the Friends of Independence the Constitution and the attachment Madison, portray their anguish and National Historical Park in associa­ of the Bill of Rights. expectations for the fledgling coun­ tion with the American Philosophi­ "Our scholars were remarkably try. In a 1783 letter to Governor Ben­ cal Society, the Historical Society helpful at providing the entry points jamin Harrison of Virginia, George of Pennsylvania, and the Library Washington declared: "I am decided Company of Philadelphia. The ex­ in my opinion, that if the powers hibition is supported by the National of Congress are not enlarged, & Endowment for the Humanities and made competent to all general pur­ the J. Howard Pew Freedom Trust. poses, that the Blood which has been "Our greatest challenge," says spilt—the expense that has been Duckett, "was the problem of pre­ incurred—& the distresses which senting in exhibition format the com­ have been felt, will avail nothing plex abstractions of the constitu­ and that the bond already too weak tional debates in ways that would which holds us together, will soon connect immediately with the world be broken, when anarchy & con­ of the twentieth-century museum fusion will prevail." visitor. A display case in the central gal­ "Of course, further reading about lery presents a folio from Madison's the period will reveal that the issues notes taken from his front-row seat are not at all parallel with those in at the Convention, the nearly micro­ contemporary life, but that extended scopic, though readable handwriting filling the page from edge to edge. Caroline Taylor is assistant director Exhibits in the central gallery for publications in the N E H Office of A modern Ben Franklin looks on as stu­ focus on the convention itself—the Publications and Public Affairs. dents sign the Constitution. debates over composition of the 22 Fashioned along the lines of baseball trading cards, portraits of delegates to the 1787 Convention teach young­ sters about individual contributions to the Constitution.

legislature, sectional compromises signed to resemble baseball trading A series of activities have been sug­ with respect to slavery and trade, cards. "The cards use contemporary gested for understanding the Con­ and finally the delineation of the museum-quality portraiture of each vention itself—ways of analyzing the powers of government, the checks delegate who participated in the dis­ various primary issues the delegates and balances portrayed by an intri­ cussions, debates, confrontations, debated—and suggestions for class­ cate, synchronous system of weights and compromises," says Duckett. A room approaches that can involve and measures, viewed through the shadow silhouette had to be used students more immediately in this lens of a microscope representing for the five delegates for whom no process. For example, to show the the judiciary. portraiture existed. In place of the care and precision with which the To depict the major sectional com­ usual RBI's or batting averages, the draft was executed, there are re­ promises achieved during the de­ cards provide detailed biographical produced documents of the drafting bates, a map correlated with the data on the delegates, including process, beginning with the hand­ regional disputes can be manipu­ information about their education, written first draft by James Wilson. lated by levers to show which com­ families, backgrounds, and major Duckett is hoping for a 1987 mira­ promise eventually ensured unity contributions to the Convention. cle— something not quite as trivial among the states. Another exhibit To show why these delegates as swapping a "Jacob Broom" for a explains how one compromise— came to the convention, a news­ "Jonathan Davidson" or knowing that on slavery—failed and how only paper datelined April 1, 1787, head­ which delegate later disappeared after the Civil War could amend­ lines the major issues of the from a New York hotel and was ments to the Constitution finally of­ period—piracy off the Barbary coast, never seen again. She hopes that fer equal protection of the laws. Two Shays' Rebellion, a tempest over the 1987 "Miracle at Philadelphia" books published through the exhibi­ the states' paper money, a do- will spark a revival of interest in tion— The Delegates Library: Intellec­ nothing Congress. "This newspaper the people who forged a document tual Heritage of the Constitutional Era, can add an immediacy to the prob­ that has, through twenty-six amend­ and Bicentennial Bookshelf: Historians lems and perhaps some sense of ments and thousands of court rul­ Analyze the Constitutional Era, both by being present as the 1780s issues ings, survived to remain a living Jack Greene—provide opportunities emerge," says Duckett. charter from the people to their gov­ for further reflection and follow- To give a sense of the city to ernment. up reading. which the delegates came, a vivid The scholars also reviewed drafts map shows the houses where people "Miracle at Philadelphia: The Constitu­ of the conceptual chronology of the lived, the markets where they tional Convention Bicentennial Exhibi­ exhibition design, as well as docu­ shopped, the rivers where they went tion" received $250,000 in outright ments, label copy, and educational for recreation or transport or to see funds and $275,000 in matching funds materials designed to allow teachers John Fitch give a demonstration through the Humanities Projects in Mu­ to connect the Philadelphia Con­ of his new paddle steamboat. The seums and Historical Organizations vention, as nearly as possible vis­ map is dotted with personal vi­ Program of the Division of General Pro­ ually, with students in the gnettes and notations about the grams. The award was made in 1984 classroom. The most popular of open sewers and other conditions to the Friends of Independence National these materials has been the "Dele­ that contributed to the sights and Historical Park. Margaret Duckett is gate Cards," a packet of cards de­ smells of an eighteenth-century city. the project director. 23 Remapping the World BY MATTHEW KIELL

Maps may be called the light or eye of Asian cultures up to the seventeenth are fundamental tools aiding the history. century. human mind in making sense of its —Hulsius Over the ages, maps—how they universe at various scales, "writes sixteenth-century geographer have been created, what significance J.B. Harley of the University of they have had in a society, and how Wisconsin, Milwaukee, in the series "What is a map?" The answer seems they have been studied—have introduction. obvious. It is something that shows played many roles. They have en­ "There is a mapping impulse in you where places are—countries, abled cultures to demonstrate how the human consciousness," Wood­ rivers, towns, and on a smaller they understand their surroundings, ward explains. "Humans are in­ scale, highways, streets, trains, their philosophies, their religions. terested in the physical environment etc.—and how to get from here to A map is not only practical; it is and what their place is in relation there. But, as T. B. Harley and symbolic. to it. The map is a natural outgrowth David Woodward, editors of the "Until very recently the idea of of that." six-volume History of Cartography, a map was that it simply showed lo­ On a more complex level is the see it, a map is much more: It is a cations," explains David Woodward need to share knowledge. Map- man-made representation of the of the University of Wisconsin, makers and users can communicate world—not the world itself but how Madison. "It told how to get from about places or spaces they have human inhabitants interpret it. one place to another. In the History, experienced. Even before people de­ Maps were first drawn in pre­ we've tried to enlarge that definition veloped written language, maps historic times. But cartography, the so that the symbology of the map served as a form of written study of maps, is very young. As as a whole—as an iconographical or communication. "They are undoubt­ an academic discipline, it did not ex­ cosmologic symbol—is also in­ edly one of the oldest forms of hu­ ist until the nineteenth century. Not cluded. Before the twentieth cen­ man communication," Harley until 1839 did a Portuguese student tury, cartographers always consid­ writes. And even with the develop­ named Santarem coin the word "car­ ered such items as medieval world ment of sophisticated written lan­ tography." Traditionally, cartogra­ maps to be marginal because these guage, they "speak across barriers phy has not even been a single maps functioned mainly to teach of ordinary language" because they discipline but a combination of many the Christian faith, not to show loca­ are more broadly representational arts and sciences, a mixing of his­ tions." and symbolic. tory, history of science, art history, Woodward and Harley took the A familiar way of sharing and archaeology, linguistics, and geogra­ medieval world map not as a devia­ communicating knowledge among phy. tion from what maps normally are, citizens of many early cultures, This spring, a major step toward as most scholars before them had, maps showing the range of the Em­ unifying and redefining the field but as a point of departure. "We pire were on public display in Rome. will be taken when the University said, 'If we include these, then we They were mentioned in classical of Chicago Press, with long-standing also have to include Asian or Renais­ Greek drama. Aristophanes in The support from the National Endow­ sance cosmographical diagrams. Clouds, for example, mentions prop­ ment for the Humanities, publishes We even have to include the modern erty maps and world maps. The volume 1 of The History of Cartogra­ use of national maps in advertis­ masses neither designed maps for phy, a series that spans Western and ing.'" This broadens the perspective their own purposes nor produced Mediterranean cartography from of cartography far beyond the pa­ them themselves until the Re­ prehistory through the fifteenth cen­ rameters where many people, naissance. How they were made, tury. The 600-page volume will in­ especially geographers, will feel how they were used, and who used clude thirty-nine color plates and 200 comfortable. Woodward realizes them were matters controlled by black-and-white photographs. Vol­ that, taken to its extreme, temporal the elite classes. Maps were invalu­ ume 2—slated for publication next graphs can be included under their able tools for wielding power. year—explores the cartography of definition of map. "We tried to be In ancient China, for example, inclusive rather than exclusive con­ hydrologists developed and studied Matthew Kiell is an editor and freelance cerning what a map is," he says. detailed charts that permitted them writer in Chicago. Why do we make maps? "Maps to predict and therefore control 24 (clockwise from above) A diagram of winds engraved on a cylindrical marble block, ca. A.D. 200; composite drawing from an early to middle Bronze Age petroglyph, 2000 to 1500 B.C., showing ritual sites; Roman coins depicting the globe of Crates, an early Roman geogra­ pher who used crossbars to represent the oceans; city plan of Rome drawn by a 15th- century Florentine artist. floods. Such skills and knowledge the heavens. "The roles of maps in the West and were only parsimoniously and par­ Almost every culture used maps in the Orient don't differ very tially shared. to control water—irrigation, flood much," Woodward says. "In the What Woodward has found most control, aqueducts, water rights. maps of the West in volume 2 you surprising in the course of his work Cultures that have required such will see the same map functions on the six-volume history is that control through civil engineering— as in the Asian maps in volume 1 maps have had universal and un­ Italy, Holland, England, China— in the different periods we deal changing functions across the cen­ have highly developed cartography. with. There are examples of Chinese turies and across cultures. Almost Town plans were long considered property maps, topographical maps, all the types of maps have been to be a Renaissance invention. But sea charts, world maps. What available in every period: town very good town plans were drawn in emerges is the need for all of these plans, property maps, military the Roman period, and one town kinds of functions in all kinds of maps, sea charts, iconographic (as plan has been discovered that shows societies." showing the extent of a nation's a Turkish settlement from 6000 B.C. Although function has remained or group's power) or political maps, Not only are the similarities strik­ remarkably consistent, perspective world maps, cosmographical maps ing between periods of history; they in maps has shifted over the cen­ showing the extent of the world and are striking between East and West. turies, from the personal to the ob­ jective. The personal is seen in the in­ stinctive, egocentric tendency to set the proportions of a map according to the mapmaker's perspective. As a result, the area around the map- maker's home appears larger than more distant regions. The map is geographically distorted, but it speaks clearly about the psychology of the individual mapmaker or the culture. (The now-famous Steinberg New Yorker cover of New York City and beyond is an excellent example of a throwback to this instinctual approach to map proportion.) Maps of indigenous cultures reflect this tendency, as do those created before the Renaissance. The procedure of laying out a grid, assigning posi­ tions to places on the basis of this grid, and giving each place equal im­ portance is seen first in the second- century work of Ptolemy. Also important is the present- day mapmaker's rapidly expanding ability to gather and present data. It is in this sphere, with the develop­ ment of ever more powerful computer technology, that David Woodward sees radical changes in cartography. The greater detail and accuracy made possible by new technology will revolutionize map- making. In important ways maps have remained constant over time; technological improvements have not changed the need for and uses of them.

The University of Chicago Press was awarded $12,657 in 1985 through the Publication Subvention category in the Division of Research Programs for “The Itinerary map of the route from London to Apulia, Italy, mid-13th century. Succes­ History of Cartography, Volume I" sive stopping points are thumbnail sketches, some based on actual appearances of Drs. J.B. Harley and David Woodward sites. Intermediate distances are marked with days of travel time. are the editors of the volume. 26 aving acquired a parcel of land, a wealthy Vir­ ginia civil servant asked a family friend to explore andH map the new territory. The parcel of land was the Lou­ isiana Purchase, the Virginian was President Thomas Jefferson, and the family friend was a soft-spoken Army officer named Meriwether Lewis. To accompany him, Lewis thought of William Clark, a fellow soldier and formerly his superior. Assem­ bling a band of about fifty men, Lewis set off from Pittsburgh in 1803 for the trackless outback beyond the Missouri River. Clark joined them near Louisville, and the his­ toric partnership was formed. (Al­ though the two men are enshrined in history as captains, Clark never attained a rank higher than lieuten­ ant, a fact that was concealed from the men on the expedition for the sake of discipline.) Jefferson, believing knowledge begat power and faced with geo­ political competition from land-hun- gry Great Britain, instructed his youthful emissaries (Lewis was twenty-nine, Clark thirty-three) to keep meticulous notes on every as­ pect of the newly acquired acreage— from the geography, to the weather, to plant and animal life, to the characteristics of Indian tribes along the way. Referring to themselves as the Corps of Discovery, the tiny band felt its way across America, guided by greasy maps scrawled by fur traders and the good counsel of In­ dians they encountered. The result was thousands of pages of maps, notes, and drawings that form a vivid portrait of a continent virtually unknown to the inhabitants of its eastern seaboard. In the proc­ ess, only one member of the corps perished—of appendicitis— despite matter-of-fact accounts of rampaging bears, starvation, and cold. To preserve and expand on the "... a species of small fish which begin to run and are taken in great quantities in the Columbia accomplishments of the two ex­ River about 40 miles above us by means of skimming or scooping nets." plorers and their crew (four of —Lewis, Fort Clatsop, February 24, 1806 whom also kept journals), the Na­ tional Endowment for the Human­ ities has funded the third installment of a project to produce a definitive, The Best Young Men annotated version of the original

Jean Lawrence is a Washington freelance- writer. Go West BY JEAN LAWRENCE 27 journals, maps, and herbarium of ... about 8 A.M. we fell in with two brown or the Lewis and Clark expedition. yellow [grizzly] bear ... one of them made his Cosponsoring the project are the University of Nebraska Center for escape, the other after my firing on him pursued Great Plains Studies and American me seventy or eighty yards, but fortunately had Philosophical Society, where many of the documents are preserved. been so badly wounded that he was unable to The Journals of the Lewis and Clark ... prevent my charging my gun ... and [we] Expedition will span eleven volumes, at the rate of approximately one killed him. a year. —Meriwether Lewis, April 29, 1805 The first volume, an Atlas of maps created primarily by Clark and, for comparison, the maps they had eighty years. "In an attic in the Such characterizations might have available to them, was published pigeon hole of a rolltop desk, sixty- been applied in retrospect, reflecting in 1983 (University of Nebraska seven pages of Clark's field notes the dissimilar fates of the two men. Press, $100). were found in 1953," Moulton says. Lewis became involved in political Volume 2, taking the Corps of "In another case, a man went into squabbles and suffered personal fi­ Discovery from the jumping-off a bookshop and asked to see any nancial setbacks, finally committing point in Pittsburgh through its first Americana they might have. He was suicide in 1809. Clark lived to be winter encampment, near St. Louis, handed the fair copy of a diary of nearly seventy as the "grand old and on to the Nebraska-South Da­ an enlisted man from the journey." man of St. Louis," according to kota border, was published in De­ Included in Moulton's treatment Moulton. cember 1986 (University of Nebraska of the expedition will be the diaries "I found it interesting that the Press, $40). of four enlisted men. This material two rarely disagreed on anything," Volume 3 is due out early in 1987; will be carried separately in a later Moulton adds. "One liked dog meat the rest of the volumes are in plan­ volume, while Lewis and Clark's ob­ and the other didn't; and one liked ning and production. servations will be interwoven in salt and the other didn't. But that The director of the project, Gary chronological order in the earlier was about all." E. Moulton, an associate professor of volumes. Whatever the chemistry, an eager history at the University of As with most handling of hand­ audience awaits Moulton's efforts. Nebraska-Lincoln, stresses that the written material, guidelines were There is an organization called the inclusion of new documents and necessary. Demonstrating what one Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage his emphasis on the many ancillary investigator termed "dazzling vir­ Foundation that has a thousand findings differentiate this work from tuosity in his approach to punctua­ dues-paying members and.publishes an earlier and still respected tran­ tion, capitalization, and simple regularly on the expedition. The scription produced by Reuben G. sentence structure," Clark had no group sometimes reenacts segments Thwaites in 1905. less than twenty-seven ways of of the trip at annual meetings. "Thwaites was working alone spelling "Sioux." "Two men went out there," ob­ and quickly," Moulton points out. Even though he has been reading serves Moulton with scholarly "He did not have the resources to their innermost thoughts for years, understatement, "and it is taking annotate the portions of the journals Moulton says he has not been able twenty of us over ten years to find pertaining to such matters as geol­ to form an idea of the personalities out what they did." ogy, linguistics, botany, and a host of the two men. of other disciplines. I am on the tele­ "The conventional wisdom goes Dr. Gary E. Moulton of the University phone constantly with experts in that Lewis was introspective and of Nebraska was awarded $210,032 in more than a dozen fields," Moulton aloof, and Clark was more out­ 1985 through the Editions category in adds. going," he says, "but that doesn't the Division of Research Programs for Moreover, new documents have necessarily come through in their “The Journals of the Lewis and Clark been discovered during the last writing." Expedition."

Head of a Brant duck sketched by Lewis on March 15, 1806. 28 Etching of Caliban by John Hamilton Mortimer, 1741-79.

Indiana Brushes up Its

Shakespeare BY JOSEPH H. BROWN

THE INDIANA COMMITTEE for phor for the confrontation between the Humanities (ICH) is reviving the people of Western Europe and the traveling Chautauqua, nine­ the natives of the Americas." teenth-century America's successful As an expression of the contrast experiment in popular education. between Old and New Worlds, "the Explains Michael Jones of the ICH, shipwreck survivors will be repre­ "chautauquas once traveled the Mid­ sentative of Renaissance England," The Folger Shakespeare Library west and the western parts of the explains Ware, "and the inhabitants activities will culminate in a pro­ country, bringing a host of educa­ of the island and the island itself cession into the tent for the Great tional opportunities, culture, and will reflect the indigenous American Debate, the evening's main feature. festivities to the communities they cultures of the period." For example, The second day of the chautauqua visited." The ICH is putting together according to Edgecombe, "We'll will begin with a series of work­ an old-fashioned chautauqua as a be matching many of the characters shops on various aspects of the way to "saturate the state with with native gods and imagery. Cal­ Elizabethan age led by scholars from Shakespeare." iban will still be a monster, but his local colleges and universities. The Called "An Elizabethan Kaleido­ costume will be drawn from some workshops will cover such topics as scope: Shakespeare's Tempest and native American source. John Gates, religion and morality, government the New World,"the Chautauqua's our music director this summer, and justice, theater, utopian liter­ focal point will be a new production is researching music composed in ature and several historical utopian of The Tempest by the Indianapolis the Spanish colonies, pieces that experiments, censorship, the occult Shakespeare Festival (ISF), and its borrow from both the Spanish and and its role in everyday life, and "New World"theme will pay tribute the Indian cultures." costumes and clothing. The work­ to the tenth Pan American Games Elizabethan conceptions of the shops will be followed by a panel hosted concurrently in Indianapolis. New World will also be explored in discussion of The Tempest as a way The chautauqua will bring Shake­ the Chautauqua's Great Debate, a of preparing an audience unfamiliar speare to five Indiana communities personae performance featuring with Shakespeare for the perform­ this summer. such prominent Elizabethans as ance that will follow in the evening. "Shakespeare was very much Queen Elizabeth, William Shake­ Each community will also host aware of discoveries in the New speare, and Sir Walter Raleigh. The Elizabethan activities of its own World at the time he wrote The Tem­ performers in the debate will first choice, under the direction of local pest,” notes Elizabeth Ware, produc­ deliver monologues about their steering committees. ing director of the ISF. "There were lives, then debate one another. Fi­ "Our revels now are ended," says reports of the New World as a nally, the discussion will open to Prospero in Act IV of The Tempest. garden utopia inhabited by strange the audience. "These our actors,/ As I foretold beasts and savages, and we are "One of the issues we'd like to you, were all spirits and/ Are melted using that as a stepping-off point discuss," says Edgecombe, who into air, into thin air... / And, like for our production." is producing the debate for the ICH, this insubstantial pageant faded,/ "We know that Shakespeare had "is that of class in Elizabethan Eng­ Leave not a rack behind." But after access to these writings because land. After the magical elements the chautauqua in Indiana has some of the lines from The Tempest of The Tempest, the notion of class faded, those actors and scholars will parallel descriptions sent back by difference and suitability of people leave behind students and adults explorers from the New World," to share space is a recurring who understand more about Shake­ elaborates David Edgecombe, the question." speare and the Elizabethan vision Festival's artistic director. "What The chautauqua will open with of the New World. I'm doing is using the Elizabethan's a free lecture and a program of mu­ landing in the New World as a meta- sic from the Elizabethan period. "Festivities on the green" will fol­ Programs of the Indiana Committee for Joseph H. Brown is a manuscript editor low, recreating the feeling of an the Humanities are supported through at the University of Chicago Press. Elizabethan street scene. The day's the NEH Division of State Programs. 29 The author argues that interdisciplinary studies should arise from research not from social concerns.

The Dialectics of

Interdisciplinarity BY HAROLD DORN

THERE IS AN ineluctable tension ported by Aristotle, who described ing the philosophers who got their living between the commitment to intellec­ him as the "founder" of natural phi­ there because they are fed like the choicest tual discipline and the commitment losophy, to have come under crit­ birds in the coop: “Many there be that to social betterment. The "disci­ icism for the uselessness of his batten in populous Egypt, well-propped plines" are seen to be intellectually investigations: pedants who quarrel without end in insular, their insularity reinforced the Muses' bird-cage." There is the anecdote of Thales the Mile­ by the structure of academic depart­ sian and his financial device, which ... ments. Disciplined study evokes The higher learning in the modern is attributed to him on account of his the image of the reclusive scholar world reveals the same tension. reputation for wisdom. He was re­ sequestered in an ivory tower in Newton is said to have laughed only proached for his poverty, which was apparent indifference to worldly af­ once during his long life—when supposed to show that philosophy was fairs. Conversely, in the name of he was asked to what benefit the of no use. According to the story, he generating socially relevant knowl­ study of Euclid could be turned. knew by his skill of the stars while it was edge, mission-oriented interdiscipli­ In the eighteenth century, the yet winter that there would be a great nary studies have been prescribed French chemist, Claude Berthollet, harvest of olives in the coming year; so, as an antidote to the detachment rebuked James Watt for proposing having a little money, he gave deposits and social aridity of disciplinary re­ that they commercialize a chemical for the use of all the olive-presses in search. In fact, however, inter­ discovery: "If one loves the sciences Chios and Miletus, which he hired at disciplinary studies have arisen in one has little need of wealth." And a low price because no one bid against both traditions—spontaneously from Louis Pasteur's tribute to the life him. When the harvest-time came, and the normal play of ideas that charac­ of science reflects the full force of many were wanted all at once and of terizes research along disciplinary the ambiguity over the delights of a sudden, he let them out at any rate lines as well as from the intervention research, on the one hand, and serv­ which he pleased, and made a quantity of an urgent quest for the solution ice to society, on the other: "To him of money. of social or political problems. who devotes his life to science, Ever since the origin of rational Aristotle added that, "Thus he nothing can give more happiness inquiry in the ancient Aegean world, showed the world that philosophers than increasing the number of dis­ investigations that have appeared can easily be rich if they like, but coveries, but his cup of joy is full to be useless and meaningless, that their ambition is of another when the results of his studies im­ driven only by the desire to know, sort." Three hundred years after mediately find practical applica­ have aroused uncertain responses, Thales is supposed to have dabbled tions." albeit sometimes tinged with grudg­ in olive oil futures the antithesis Especially in troubled times, the ing respect and utilitarian hopes. between abstract learning and social pursuit of learning ostensibly for And, if the scholar, secluded in his utility was evident at the state-sup- its own sake provokes critical and laboratory or study, happened to ported Alexandrian Museum. Euclid searching inquiry, and sometimes enjoy the largesse of public support, is reported to have snapped when agonizing self-scrutiny. In 1939, his efforts have also provoked de­ a student questioned the utility of a particularly troubled year, Bertolt mands for accountability and for evi­ studying geometry: "Give him three Brecht gave voice to the dilemma, dence of relevance to the public obols, since he must needs make with obvious mixed feelings, in one interest. History records many anec­ gain out of what he learns." The of his poems: dotes that display this tension. public stipends received by the A conversation about trees is Thales, the first philosopher-scientist scholars who worked at the museum almost a crime for whom even a perfunctory biog­ added still another dimension of Because it implies silence about raphy can be constructed, was re- resentment and criticism. According So many misdeeds. to a contemporary commentator: Harold Dorn is the head of the human­ This apprehensive desire to foster ities department at the Stevens Institute Timon of Phlius, the satirist, calls the useful, rather than "pure," knowl­ of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey. Museum a bird-cage, by way of ridicul­ edge has driven the fields of 30 learning into many interdisciplinary sponsors. Externally induced pro­ engineer describes the various ox­ misalliances. grams of what amounts to inter­ ides that pollute the atmosphere; the Attempts to produce socially rele­ disciplinary contraband—attempts sociologist lectures on the class-dif- vant cross-disciplinary studies often to produce moral edification and ferential effects of environmental seek to fulfill their social mission behavior modification—shift the bur­ degradation; and the student is left by devising some combination of dens traditionally carried by pro­ to produce the synergism that has the humanities and the sciences grams of social and political action escaped his mentors. in order to achieve the holistic un­ onto an institution whose greatest To recognize fully the defects of derstanding that disciplined inquiry strength has been unfettered re­ interdisciplinary programs pre­ allegedly conceals. "Scientific liter­ search and teaching. scribed by objectives other than the acy," the attempt, through inter­ Another defect of these socially accumulation and dissemination disciplinary curricula, to provide and politically inspired schemes of knowledge and, conversely, to students in the liberal arts with a sig­ of interdisciplinary studies springs appreciate the potential of intellec­ nificant understanding of the sci­ precisely from their social and politi­ tually legitimate interdisciplinary ences, has been promoted as one cal urgency. There is no time for studies, it may be useful to review remedy for the remoteness of the the long, unpredictable process of some recent interdisciplinary tri­ traditional humanities from the dis­ undirected and unforced study and umphs. These efforts have in­ tress of the contemporary world. discovery. "So many misdeeds" terwoven the humanities and the And, more recently, "technological must be addressed and corrected sciences, not to promote any literacy" and "computer literacy" expeditiously. The result is that in program of social action, but rather have joined the bandwagon. An im­ many cases the pressure is trans­ in response to the enticements of plication of these slogans is that formed, not into genuine inter­ learning and discovery. Some of humanities scholars cannot properly disciplinary studies, but merely into these ventures have resulted in new indulge themselves in refined hu­ improvisations of team-teaching, fields within the humanities (in­ manistic tastes for their own sake; often by scholars in widely sep­ cluding the humanistic social sci­ they must be stiffened by a knowl­ arated disciplines. The mechanical ences); others in new fields within edge of science and technology in order to produce a citizenry capable of participating in democratic gover­ nance in a highly technical world. Conversely, the sciences and the professions have all too often sought their social certification through aca­ demic cartels with the humanities. In the face of anxieties about the so­ cial effects of what is sometimes called (with more histrionics than history) the scientific and technologi­ cal revolution, ethics courses have been introduced into medical train­ ing, and appropriately "relevant" humanities courses are constantly being dreamed up for engineering students. Quite apart from the fact that ethics instruction is not known to change behavior, these efforts repudiate the traditional and abiding mission of humanities education to study the cultural treasures of the world's civilizations and to confront the issues of man's place in nature. (And if it should be found that ethics courses do, in fact, produce an effect on behavior, we must steel ourselves for the possibility that they may make the student more cagey rather than more godly.) In general, these pressures to merge Armillary the "two cultures" strain the univer­ sphere, an sity along its weakest fault line— astronomer's between its need to respond spon­ tool showing taneously to the inner logic of in­ the relative quiry and society's desire to derive positions of benefits from the institutions it planetary orbits. 31 the sciences. In both cases they dis­ since the middle of the nineteenth Prior to the 1930s it was a field of in­ play the most telling contrast with century. As a result, we have a bet­ terest to a few solitary scholars interdisciplinary programs that are ter understanding of the interplay trained in one of the traditional dis­ the result of direction and interven­ between aesthetic sensibility and ciplines. Then, in 1931, a Soviet phi­ tion. And one of their definitive technical requirements in the art of losopher of science provoked a earmarks is that they begin with building. We have also, incidentally, tempestuous controversy by claim­ research, not with teaching. gained undergraduate courses which ing that Newton's Principia is to be The application of civil engineer­ embody the insights that have understood in terms of the social ing, specifically the methods of emerged from the research. and economic conditions of seven- structural analysis, to the study of But the flagship field of such inter­ teenth-century England. Battle lines historic buildings has reopened and disciplinary studies is the history were drawn and redrawn, and the resolved several questions that have of science; it displays the process of intellectual combat has been fierce, puzzled historians of architecture merger in its most complete form. spilling over into several established fields of research. Coinciding with National Library of Medicine (and, in some measure, contributing to) the demise of positivism, with its guarded insistence on the strictly logical and empirical rules of sci­ ence, the controversy sparked a re­ newed interest in the correlations among science, ideology, and society. It led from research and the play of ideas to new university programs and to new courses of instruction. In the process, a new discipline emerged from the inter­ disciplinary matrix. This develop­ ment was quite the reverse of the socially or politically programmed interdisciplinarity, which begins with team-teaching and ends with the team teachers returning to their posts to await another call to duty. The patterns of spontaneous inter­ disciplinarity are manifold and di­ verse. In the case of the history of science, the new discipline has found its home among historians and is generally studied and taught in departments of history. Con­ versely, the history of art is housed in art departments and the history of music in conservatories. These af­ filiations probably reflect some inner structure of the fields whose histo­ ries are studied. There may, at pres­ ent, be some fundamental incom­ patibility between the sciences, with their appealing commitment to the "truth,"and their histories, which find as much interest in, and attach as much importance to, discarded and discredited theories as to those currently regarded as correct. The miasma of ideas that historians of science find so salubrious and con­ genial are more appropriately stud­ ied in conjunction with wars, plagues, deception, and decay than in an intellectually sanitary depart­ ment of scientific research. The history of science has pro­ duced a new field of the humanities. Sir Isaac Newton, 1642-1727. In the reverse process of affiliation, U.S. Library of Congress when the humanities or the human­ istic social sciences are assimilated by science, still other issues arise. Are not the humanities incorruptibly humanistic, not to be decomposed into forces or molecules? The clamor of reductionism and determinism may be heard—reducing human affairs to the level of physical or biological processes. An especially instructive case is the recently renewed interest in sociobiology, the systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior. In its most extravagant ex­ pression it foresees even the tradi­ tional humanities being cannibalized by biology. Edward O. Wilson, one of its leading investigators, has stated: "Scientists and humanists should consider together the pos­ sibility that the time has come for ethics to be removed temporarily from the hands of the philosophers and biologicized." Such a program, or even its recommendation, is bound to raise a few hackles; it ex­ cites passionately held philosophical convictions about what it means to be human. But there is a further, and more menacing, implication whenever, in the course of cross- disciplinary studies, the fields of social analysis are subjected to the methods of the biological or physical sciences. The concern is under­ standably aroused, particularly since Louis Pasteur, 1822-95. the 1930s, that the study of human affairs in biological terms may accen­ tuate physical differences, insulated the importance of which Marxists able for extensive pastoralism, and mar­ from cultural variables, among hu­ consistently stress—are added ginal areas in which both these forms man ethnic groups. Sociobiologists ecological, including demographic, of economic activity are possible. In the have quite unfairly felt the sting considerations. (The mode of pro­ latter areas the predominant economic of this accusation; unfairly, because duction is joined by the mode of re­ activity depends on specific historical cir­ there is no inherent connection be­ production.) Anthropology, archae­ cumstances and is not determined di­ tween sociobiology, with its impec­ ology, ecology, and history are the rectly by ecology. cable scientific pedigree and its major contributing disciplines, and complete dissociation from any eth­ In true dialectical fashion, a final its chief objective is the explanation nic animosity, and the beer-hall comment is futurological. An inter­ of cultural and historical processes raciology of the twenties and thirties disciplinary merger of great interest in terms of material variables. Less which sprang from a political, not would be a revival, on a higher polemical formulations simply stress a scientific, tradition. level, of what was at one time a the importance of material and Still another area of interdisciplin­ common grade-school combina­ ecological factors in social change ary combinations, this one centered tion—history and geography. It without attempting to impose a spe­ in the humanistic social sciences, would integrate, on global and mac- cific research strategy on the emer­ is related, at least distantly (but not roanalytical scales, institutional and gent field of analysis. In a recent fraternally), to sociobiology. It is intellectual history with ecological study of pastoral nomadism, for ex­ sometimes designated ecological ma­ and anthropological studies as well ample, the Soviet historian A. M. terialism, and it is, in a sense, de­ as the histories of technology and Khazanov stressed the relevance of rived from a revision of Marxism agriculture. According to one of its ecological and cultural conditions (actually a reversion, inasmuch as pioneers, Joseph Needham, it even to macrohistorical explanation: Marx himself occasionally cited conveys an ecumenical message. ecological factors). To the mode of The entire temperate zone of Eurasia It will surely make us more learned; production—the technological and' subdivides more or less neatly into areas and it might also make us a little economic underpinnings of society favourable for agriculture, areas favour­ better. 33 The author argues that medical ethics provides a model for interdisciplinary studies.

Ethics in a Science Curriculum BY EDMUND D. PELLEGRINO

HIROSHIMA AND Auschwitz The experiment began twenty grams emphasize medical ethics; brought home, more forcefully than years ago in an unexpected way. others combine ethics with history, any learned discourse, how complex A small group of ministers on half literature, or philosophy. Others the ethical dilemmas in the uses a dozen medical campuses and a link ethics with the humanistic social of scientific knowledge can be. They smaller group of medical educators sciences or with religious studies. left no doubt that science cannot saw the moral dilemmas accompany­ Frequently these courses combine act as its own moral arbiter and ing medicine's unprecedented prog­ humanities, human values, and proved that the world urgently ress. Anticipating the enthusiasm for ethics in proportions that vary, de­ needs scientists who combine com­ medical techniques that sometimes pending on the interest and ca­ petence with moral sensitivity. The dehumanizes patient care and pabilities of the local faculties. practical challenge is how the neces­ submerges human values, they Despite the differences in content, sary fusion of science and morality gathered informally to foster the a pedagogic pattern with certain can best be effected. teaching of ethics and values in definable characteristics has evolved. Clearly a major responsibility falls medical schools and to encourage The usual objective of teaching upon the universities, the spawning the establishment of programs on ethics is to impart the skills neces­ grounds of new knowledge and their own campuses. On two cam­ sary to recognize and analyze ethical new scientists. Until recently their puses, they were successful. In 1968 dilemmas that arise in clinical situa­ response has been incomplete and two new medical schools, at Penn­ tions. The aim is to show students uncertain. The one exception has sylvania State University and at the that the analysis of moral issues can­ been in medical education. Here the State University of New York at not be separated from clinical deci­ ubiquity and complexity of moral Stony Brook, established the first sions and that ethical analysis is part choices are all too direct and formal teaching programs in ethics of being a competent physician. personal to be ignored—prolonging, and the humanities. In 1969 the A second objective is to help each engineering, and terminating human group founded the Society for student recognize his or her own life, transplanting organs, treating Health and Human Values and in ethical and moral values, how these patients with AIDS—the whole pan­ 1970 the Institute of Human Values values influence clinical decisions, oply of moral questions that make in Medicine. and how they might conflict with up medical ethics today. With a decade of support by the those of the patient. Medicine, as it was in Plato's time, National Endowment for the Hu­ In most instances, ethical prob­ is again the paradigm of the ethical manities, the Institute of Human lems—starting and stopping treat­ use of knowledge. For the past Values in Medicine gathered mo­ ment, allocating resources, manag­ twenty years, medical educators mentum in the effort to teach ethics ing economic conflicts—are illus­ and ethicists have cooperated in a in medical schools. Under its aus­ trated in case presentations. In sev­ pioneering effort to integrate ethics pices, eighty faculty institutes were eral schools, this teaching is later into a medical curriculum. Their held at medical schools across the supplemented by case presentations experiences are important to science country to acquaint faculties with in the hospitals and clinics, in ethical educators—not just those in medical the objectives, content, and meth­ "rounds," and in continuing educa­ science—because all the sciences odologies relevant to teaching ethics tion for practicing physicians. need an ethical perspective. Their and humanities to medical students. Medical ethics is developing a experiences are also controversial The institute also offered summer body of knowledge and a scholarly and are criticized by philosophers fellowships to humanists and physi­ apparatus approaching that of other and scientists alike. cians to help each group become university disciplines. An enormous familiar with the other's discipline. body of literature is being produced Edmund D. Pellegrino is the director Many of the participating faculty by ethicists, physicians, philoso­ of the Joseph & Rose Kennedy Institute members started programs in ethics phers, economists, and moral the­ of Ethics and the John Carroll Professor on their own campuses. ologians. Last year more than 2,000 of Medicine and Medical Humanities Today formal instruction in ethics articles appeared in English alone. at Georgetown University in Wash­ is available in almost every medical Graduate programs now prepare ington, D.C. school in the country. Some pro­ an increasing number of students 34 The case method is essential to by Sir Luke Filbus, nineteenth century, stract. The most effective teachers mosphere of critical reflection and Indeed, properly conducted, such a move is more effective in teaching theory than starting with the ab­ are professionally trained ethicists who are secure in their own dis­ cipline and who are committed to imparting it to medical students. Their presence introduces an at­ theory. But good teachers easily move from concrete cases to the ex­ amination of principles and theories. physicians. that end. It captures student interestand illustrates the practical necessity of an analytical framework. The charge of superficiality centers on the emphasis on cases rather than count the objectives being sought. No one argues that teaching ethics philosophy, nor that it will make achievable—to impart the skills of ethical analysis and a spirit of moral introspection and reflection to future in a medical school can substitute for college or graduate courses in moral each doctor an ethicist, or a scholar. The aim is modest, practical, and The D octor The criticisms of professional phi­ There is some truth in these crit­ of those criticisms are, themselves, suspect. They suggest either of a acquaintance lack with what is being done, or an attitudinal bias about the intellectuality of one discipline academia. losophers do not take fully into ac­ school. The more positivistic medical icisms. Some courses are superficial; others are badly taught by inade­ quately trained or poor teachers; much scholarly effort in the field is repetitive and trivial. But, on bal­ ance, the criticisms are not suffi­ ciently well founded to negate the versus another all too common in taken from technical subjects, and hold either that ethics cannot be taught or that moral education be­ faculties deny any value to ethics as a discipline because it is not sub­ value of ethics as an academic sub­ ject in a science curriculum. Some question the need, lament the time longs to home and church, or thatis it too late to teach ethics in medical ject to experimental validation. both clinical and basic scientists, Despite these obvious successes, to beto teachers and consultants in the teaching of ethics as part of a medical curriculum has not escaped criticism both by ethicists and med­ ical faculties. Professional ethicists States alone devoted to teaching hospitals, health care organizations, medical schools, and liberal arts colleges. The latter are significantly expanding their offerings in bio­ medical ethics. More than a hundred that scholarship in medical ethics assert that such teaching is doomed to superficiality, that too emphasis much on cases leads to casuistry to to the multiplicity of ethical issues that are now of daily concern in medical education and practice. or research in biomedical ethics. In­ creasingly, ethicists act as con­ sultants to hospitals, ethics com­ centers now exist in the United fession have emerged in response is is shallow. Medical faculty members, at the expense of principles, and mittees, legislative bodies, the academic discipline and a new pro­ agencies. In effect, a whole new courts, the Congress, and federal National Library of Medicine dialogue on moral issues un­ ple anymore than a course in paralleled in any other professional biochemistry automatically makes Further Reading activity. them scientists. But such courses Many ethicists collaborate with make students aware of ethical is­ Integrating Human Values in Medi­ clinicians. They usually spend a year sues and give them skills that in­ cal Students' Clinical Education, or more becoming acquainted with crease the probabilities of better Association of American Medical the customs and procedures charac­ moral choices. Because those choices Colleges, Washington, D.C., 1986. teristic of hospital teaching. Thus, are unavoidably part of being a phy­ Applying the Humanities, Daniel they come to respect the urgency sician, medical faculties have an obli­ Callahan, Arthur L. Caplan, Bruce and complexity of clinical ethical de­ gation to assure that some minimum Jennings (editors), N.Y.: Plenum, cisions. Many become proficient in proficiency in ethics is attained by 1985. medical terminology, teach at the all their students. The Place of Humanities in Medi­ bedside, and act as ethical consult­ At the heart of these criticisms cine, Eric J. Cassell, Hastings Cen­ ants for their clinical colleagues. is the scientist's disdain for en­ ter, 1985. Their own research is usually stimu­ deavors not susceptible to experi­ The Nazi Doctors, Robert Jay Lifton, lated by the cases they observe. mental validation. Ethics seems to N.Y.: Basic Books, 1986. These ethicists, now full-time medi­ some scientists little more than vain The Humanities in American Life, cal school faculty members, like Soc­ musing or frustrating debate. This Report of the Commission on Hu­ rates are literally bringing positivistic stance is too complex to manities, University of California philosophy into the marketplace. be countered in this brief essay. We Press, 1980. Like any new scholarly endeavor, can point only to the uncertainties Teaching Ethics, the Humanities, some research in medical ethics is of science, itself, and the fact that, and Human Values in Medical spotty in quality and sophistication. like it or not, moral choices must Schools: A Ten-Year Overview, Papers of substance, however, are be made. If ethics cannot give infalli­ Edmund D. Pellegrino and numerous. Indeed, some philoso­ ble answers, it can at least add a Thomas K. McElhinney, Institute phers believe that involvement in critical perspective on morals not on Human Values in Medicine, medical problems has infused the indigenous to the scientific method. Society for Health and Human study of ethics with new life. Even We can expect that the quality Values, Washington, D.C., 1981. their research has been stimulated and the rigor of teaching ethics will "Relevance and Utility of Courses by the wrenching moral choices doc­ improve, that more physicians, in Medical Ethics: A Survey of tors and patients face daily. These nurses, and other health profes­ Physicians' Perceptions," Ed­ choices focus on the classical and pe­ sionals will take formal and ad­ mund D. Pellegrino, M.D., with rennial problems of ethics. vanced study in biomedical ethics, Richard J. Hart, Jr., M.D., Sharon Medical ethics also has stimulated and that new intersections between R. Henderson, M.P.H., Stephen the teaching of ethics in colleges ethics and law, economics, and pub­ E. Loeb, Ph.D., Gary Edwards, and even in some high schools. The lic policy will be intensively de­ Journal of the American Medical climate is now set for a continuum veloped. Biomedical ethics formerly Association Vol. 253, No. 1, 1985. of education in ethics—from high concentrated on one-to-one clinical The Teaching of Ethics in Higher school and college to medical school situations, but, today, it increasingly Education, Institute of Society, and post-graduate education. What embraces the larger issue of social Ethics and the Life Sciences, Hast­ professional ethicist would decry ethics. The international and cross- ings Center, 1980. such a flourishing of his discipline? cultural aspects are just beginning Finally, is it not the aim of a liberal to be explored. Medical ethical prob­ arts education, and of ethics within lems are universal, but the ethical that context, to prepare citizens who solutions are different in different can make thoughtful moral judg­ cultures. Understanding these ments? Teaching medical ethics differences and establishing com­ points the way for similar endeavors munication between them is a main not only in the sciences but in the challenge for the years ahead. nonscientific professions. In short, the pioneering efforts The criticisms of medical educa­ of ethicists and medical educators tors and scientists come from a dif­ are still in progress, and still in need ferent quarter. They usually express of development. They provide a skepticism about ethics as an intel­ model for teaching ethics in a scien­ lectual discipline. They doubt that tific curriculum that engineers, basic ethics can be taught at all, thus con­ and applied scientists, scientific ad­ fusing ethics as a discipline with ministrators, and bureaucrats—all the commonplace definition of ethics who face moral questions in the use as a set of beliefs. Ethics is a branch of knowledge and expertise—must of philosophy, a discipline with a examine. If our unprecedented tech­ method and content, and is, there­ nological progress is not to over­ fore, as teachable as biochemistry. whelm us and make us its servants, Courses in ethics will not automat­ we must resort to the ancient disci­ ically make physicians virtuous peo­ pline of ethics. 36

37

"The story of Einstein's difficulty "Our preliminary evaluation of New material relating to this Humanities. the significance of these letters for the first volume was fully justified," says Stachel. "The wealth of per­sonal information and scientific dis­ cussion in the new constitute letters a windfall will for Einstein scholars." Through these letters, the Einstein's youth. In order to include all but two of the early letters in in finding a job teaching physics years 1899-1902 have become the best documented period of Mary T. Chunko is managing editor of BY MARY T. CHUNKO has been known in a general way for a long time," says Stachel, what "buthasn't been well documented at the time." Stachel believes the that foundation of the older Ein­ stein's reticence and the emotional stopped work on the volume until publish the several hundred letters is just how dire his situation was distance that he placed between himself and others, even members of his family, can be traced to his period in Einstein's life surfaced, Stachel and his staff had completed editing that volume, which then cov­ ered the years 1879-1901, when receivedthey information from one of Einstein's relatives indicating the ex­ istence of a substantial number of letters from Einstein to Marie, who became his wife in 1903. The staff it could obtain permission from the Einstein Family Correspondence Trust, which owns the letters, to as well as a small number of letters from Marie to Einstein. early experiences. quite unexpectedly, just as the first volume was going to press last year. their sons, Hans Albert and Eduard written by Einstein to Marie, and to

The Early Years, will be published this spring by The Collected Papers ofAlbert Ein­ Stachel hopes that publication An antidote to our limited knowl­ stein's correspondence and writings sponsor of the series with the dance at the Swiss Federal Poly- graduation and subsequent difficulty and his engagement to Mileva had met at the polytechnical school. the early stages of his scientific de­ of volume 1, which contains Ein­ during the period 1879-1902, will help to dispel the popular thatnotion "Einstein was born old." The Princeton University Press, co­ Hebrew University of Jerusalem. covers the period of Einstein's atten­ technical School in Zurich, his in finding employment in his field, Marie, a fellow physics student he edge of the young Einstein and of in the form of an annotated collec­ tion of Einstein's early correspon­ dence and writings. The first volume of volume, entitled velopment will soon be available stein the Albert Einstein: The Einstein: Albert of Genius Apprenticeship "... n his scientific autobiography, Albert Einstein wrote, essential in the being of a manof my type lies precisely in he thinks, not in what he does

Understanding how a man of I theory of relativity. remains as elusive to most people as an in-depth understanding of the Stachel, editor of the papers. Yet that time, they will be collecting, transcribing, annotating, and pub­ staff of the Einstein project at Boston understanding of Einstein's genius lic mind, 'Einstein' is synonymouswith 'genius,'" says physicist John lishing all of Einstein's writings, University will be contemplating for the next thirty-five years. During both public and private. "In the pub­ the communication of thoughts that have played a considerable role in my endeavors." Einstein's type comes into being is a question that the five-member what or suffers. Consequently, the ary''obitu­ can limit itself in the main to Photograph by William A. Smith low scholars to examine the entire corpus of Einstein's work and "will also help to establish connections between documents that otherwise might easily escape notice. For ex­ ample," Stachel explains, "even an attentive reader of a paper on the nature of intermolecular forces that Einstein published in 1911 might not realize that, in this paper, he si­ lently corrects a fundamental error he made in his first paper, published a decade earlier. Because Einstein generally acknowledged his errors Courtesy of Dr. John Stachel quite freely ... this oversight may be taken as evidence of how much he wanted to forget—and wanted others to forget—what he referred to in 1907 as 'my worthless begin­ ner's works.'" Stachel plans to include in this edition all of Einstein's writings, published and unpublished, that can be located. All texts will be pub­ lished in their original languages (in most cases, German), and Eng­ lish translations will be given for all texts not written in German, French, or English. (Einstein's corre­ spondence was international.) Eng­ lish translations of all previously untranslated items will eventually Drawing from the notebook Einstein kept of the lecture course given by his pro­ be available in a microform edition. fessor of physics at the Swiss Federal Polytechnical School in Zurich, which he at­ After the first volume, the papers tended from 1896 to 1900. will be divided into volumes of "cor­ respondence" and "writings" and the first volume, Stachel and his blown" helped the myth of his early arranged chronologically into three colleagues decided to extend the intellectual isolation to persist. "Peo­ periods: "The Swiss Years" (1902- period covered by that volume to ple often like to disregard what 14), "The Berlin Years (1914-33), and June 1902, when Einstein started might be called the 'apprenticeship' "The Princeton Years" (1933-55). work at the Swiss Patent Office. The period in a great man's life." Pub­ Cross-references between the vol­ volume now contains seventy-three lication of these letters, he adds, umes of correspondence and writ­ letters by Einstein and sixteen to should settle the debate among ings will allow the individual items him, compared with twenty-nine scholars as to how closely Einstein to be read in a strictly chronological by him and two to him in the pre­ followed the work of the scientific sequence, which will enable readers vious version. community during his early years. to trace the evolution of Einstein's The new letters are undoubtedly His letters to Marie prove that Ein­ thought, both public and private, among the most interesting in the stein was an avid reader of the An- during any given period. Stachel volume, according to Stachel. "The nalen der Physik, the leading physics hopes that the series will lead to a letters offer us a picture not only journal of the day. better understanding of the man of Einstein's character and ideas as If many of the letters in the first who, in a 1945 letter to Hermann a young man, they also give us a volume contradict the notion of Brock, wrote, "I sold myself body much more complete idea of what Einstein's intellectual isolation from and soul to science—the flight from scientific articles he read during the the scientific community, believers the I and the We to the It." period." He adds that many scholars in the precocity of genius can take have believed that Einstein did not heart from an 1899 letter in which Princeton University Press was awarded pay much attention to the work Einstein discusses "the electro­ $280,150 in 1984 in matching funds being done in physics during this dynamics of moving bodies," thus through the Editions category in the Di­ period. This is partly attributable to preempting by six years his use of vision of Research Programs for “The the fact that, in his early papers, Ein­ the phrase in his famous relativity Collected Papers of Albert Einstein." stein cited few works by other physi­ paper of 1905. Dr. John J. Stachel is the project direc­ cists. Stachel believes that "a human Publication of the series, which tor. Einstein's writings are quoted with tendency to want to believe that a is divided into volumes of corre­ permission from the Hebrew University mind like Einstein's emerged full spondence and of writings, will al­ of Jerusalem. 38 THE Humanities GUIDE GRANTS DEADLINES PROPOSALS PROGRAMS

for those who are thinking of applying GUI DE for an NEH grant On Writing a Fellowship Proposal BY RONALD HERZMAN At just about the time I was leaving a marked man, and I am often gest that the Endowment is against the National Endowment for the sought out by my colleagues for ideas, it is vital to realize that ideas Humanities to return to full-time advice for their fellowship pro­ by themselves are not enough. A teaching, a long-time civil servant posals. (More often than not, if project must be at a significant asked me in passing whether my truth be told, I volunteer.) In some stage of development before it can experience made me think more or form or another, the many who gather to itself enough trust to be less highly of the government. have asked me to look at their pro­ funded. Pretty much without hesitation, posals before sending them in seem It is of course equally true that the I answered "more." My answer sur­ to be asking "Do I have the right Endowment does not wish to fund prised me as much as anyone else. slant?" rather than, "Is this a worth­ mop-up operations, and we can The least I expected from my so­ while project?" But the hard yet surely imagine a proposal that is journ in Washington was to be able ultimately comforting truth is that too far along to merit funding. to go back to academe with horror there is no substitute for having One fairly effective means of con­ stories about the bureaucracy, and a worthwhile project, and present­ vincing the panel that you have here I was talking about the govern­ ing that project with clarity. Without achieved that delicate balance be­ ment with a good deal of respect. that, one shouldn't bother to apply. tween work done and work still When I reflected on the reasons for Awards are made for projects of to be done is to make sure that you my answer, I realized that one of some significance that are pre­ supply as part of your grant narra­ the most important was the fairness sented to best advantage. tive an account of how you plan to of the system whereby NEH awards What is there that needs to be spend your time that is thoughtful, grants. It is a good system, tough said about whether a project is of specific, and realistic. One need but fair, and it is a system that is significance or not? Perhaps one not go into excessive detail: I have well administered. thing to be said is that we scholars seen proposals come through I think it is important to begin are not always the best judges of panels that were criticized and ul­ an essay that deals with how to win our own work. We tend quite natu­ timately not funded because they a grant by a strong statement to rally to assume that if we have spent were too obsessive in spelling out the effect that the system is emi­ months or even years thinking how time would be used. nently fair—not because I want to about a particular project, it must Another truism is that an applica­ make some points with my old bud­ be important by definition. We tion should be free from jargon. dies, but because that removes must remind ourselves that this That this is a counsel not always what is perhaps the most undermin­ is not necessarily so and that conse­ honored should come as no sur­ ing misconception about the proc­ quently we must take the time to prise to anyone who has perused ess of getting a grant: that success deal with the question of signifi­ a few scholarly journals lately. But depends on being the right kind cance in the proposal. We must I think it might help to point out of person (political or scholarly) or, convince a panel of our peers, and precisely why jargon is a hindrance alternatively, that success depends for that reason, assumptions which in a grant application. I emphasize on knowing the right gimmick or may be self-evident to us will need this need because I consistently having the right contacts. It's amaz­ to be spelled out to others. meet with a good deal of skepti­ ing how honest panelists get, even Assuming that our project is of cism, not to say disbelief, when when they are judging those whose some importance, and that we can I mention this criterion. One needs work they know well. ("I really like make a case for its importance, to remember that the panel is Professor X, and I respect his work what about the question of present­ very much, but this doesn't seem ing an application to best advan­ Ronald Herzman, professor of Eng­ to be at the level of his best stuff.") tage? How should we think about lish at SUNY Geneseo, was the pro­ How wide that misconception this? One truism that I learned in gram officer for the NEH Summer is I have come to learn in my post- my time at NEH is that the Endow­ Seminars for Secondary School NEH civilian life. My experience ment does not fund ideas. Or Teachers Program in the Division with NEH has of course made me better, because I don't want to sug­ of Fellowships and Seminars. 39 composed of scholars in the field— one can profit from what are the but this does not mean scholars Endowment's equivalent of readers' Questions in the specific area of the proposal. reports. One can and should ask For a proposal in early seventeenth- for the panel reports for a rejected century British literature, an appli­ application, and use them as a se­ cant can expect that the panel mem­ rious commentary on the proposal. and Answers bers will all be trained in literature, This is not easy to do. Rejection but she cannot and should not ex­ hurts, and one way of cutting down pect five experts on the early seven­ on the hurt is to look for all the teenth century to be there. What flaws in the panelists' comments— about if five panelists, a cross-section of how they misread your application, some very bright and very energetic how they clearly didn't know academics, look at your proposal enough about the field, how they and they can't understand it very just didn't want to fund anything Interpretive well. How likely is it that four of in your area. It takes a certain them will be especially impressed amount of humility, a commodity if they have to turn to the one real in notoriously small supply when expert on the panel and ask: "What we have just been rejected, to look Research does this mean"? They may rightly at the comments of the panelists want to know from the expert as though they do in fact have whether you are correct when you something valuable to tell us about say the project has not been done why our application was not before, or whether it is as signifi­ funded. And it is a curious fact that cant as you claim. But they are not there are very few scholars who likely to award money to an appli­ do not almost automatically resub­ cation that they themselves can't mit their rejected article to another THROUGH THE Interpretive Re­ follow. journal (usually taking into account search Program, the Division of Re­ Grant applications should be what their readers have had to say), search Programs supports analytic carefully written. This too doesn't but there are not that many who and interpretive scholarship. Typ­ exactly qualify as shocking advice. will likewise think of resubmitting ically, a project supported through For one thing, as those of us who a grant application after taking into the program requires more than a are teachers know, the quality of account what the panelists have year to be completed and the col­ one's writing is taken as a clue to to say. The fact is, a good applica­ laborative efforts of a team of the quality of one's mind. And in tion can be made better, and scholars. Moreover, like most proj­ that vein it is perhaps not too trivial persistence can pay off. Once ects in the Division of Research Pro­ to point out that even as most again, it takes a certain amount of grams, an Interpretive Research teachers— deny it as we might— humility to discern the difference application usually describes the ul­ are subconsciously influenced by between an application which is a timate product of the research in such grubby things as spelling and near miss from one which is a near very specific terms. When the prod­ punctuation errors (even when they disaster. uct is a book, for example, details are typos), so also will a panel be When I was at the Endowment on format, publisher, and market influenced, however subcon­ I used to be surprised by the fact are usually provided in the pro­ sciously, by anything that speaks that quite often unsuccessful appli­ posal. of a messy application. It's very cants would tell me how glad they Analytic, interpretive, and syn­ hard for a panelist to block out were that they took the time to ap­ thetic scholarship can be supported those minor errors that make it ply, despite the results. (This is not by both the Interpretive Research seem as though an application were the only thing unsuccessful appli­ Program and the Division of Fellow­ written in great haste. So write an cants have had to say to me, but it ships and Seminars. Fellowships are application the same way you would happened often enough to give granted to scholars in the human­ write an article. This is to say it me pause.) At first I thought this ities who work individually. The In­ should not only be well-written, was merely because they wanted terpretive Research Program exists it should be well rewritten. Show to end our conversation on a happy especially to nurture large-scale your application to a colleague. note. But in fact what they were projects requiring assistants or col­ Finally, one should think of the telling me was that the project itself laborators. process of applying for a grant in was clarified for them by the very Two categories of support are much the same way that one thinks process of writing a careful applica­ available. The Projects category is of submitting an article: one sends tion. In some ways, this phe­ open to a wide range of projects in it out with great hope—another nomenon could serve as a non­ the humanities, but the Humanities, NEH truism is that very few grants mechanical formula for deciding Science and Technology category are awarded unless one first applies whether the application you are supports only research that exam­ for them—even while recognizing about to submit is a good one: You ines the place of the sciences and the fact that it is a highly compet­ know you have done a good job technology in human affairs and itive process. One also sends it out if your project is more clearly in uses the disciplines and methods of knowing that, like a rejected article, focus than it was before. the humanities to inquire into sci­ 40 RGAS RPSL GUIDE PROPOSALS PROGRAMS entific developments. The Projects the differences in the review criteria Fellowships Division, which be­ category offers the only support used by the two divisions. In the Di­ cause of their volume of applica­ from the National Endowment for vision of Research Programs, the tions cannot offer preliminary the Humanities for archaeological criteria for judging proposals are al­ advice. Applicants may send a four- research projects. most all concerned with the quality to five-page description of the proj­ One new development in the In­ of the final product. For example, ect or a full first draft (including ten­ terpretive Research Program this are the scholars involved the best tative budget) at least eight weeks year is the possibility of obtaining possible ones to conduct the proj­ before the annual deadline for com­ support for the establishment and ect? Is the topic conceived in a way ments by the Interpretive Research development of research centers that is fully informed by the state of Program staff. The staff will try to that are based on the universities' research on the topic throughout anticipate the questions that are distinctive strengths in faculty, li­ the world? Is the work plan de­ likely to be raised by specialist re­ brary holdings, or other resources. signed to make a high quality prod­ viewers and panelists and will give Universities may receive initial uct likely? Is the product described the best advice possible in order to grants in support of these centers in a way that assures its publication, help the applicant make the pro­ for a maximum of three years. In adequate dissemination or market­ posal more competitive. order to be competitive for support, ing, and intellectual and educa­ How are proposals reviewed however, the proposed center must tional influence? By contrast, • in the two categories of the build upon demonstrable strengths criteria for judging applications to Qinterpretive Research Program? at the university and possess con­ the Fellowships programs empha­ A. Proposals undergo a two-stage siderable financial and other sup­ size the quality of the applicants' review process in the program, be­ port from the university. In other work in their capacities as teachers, fore being presented to the Na­ words, the possibility of NEH sup­ scholars, or interpreters of the hu­ tional Council on the Humanities port for university-based centers is manities. and to Chairman Lynne Cheney. designed to enhance a university's What is the difference be- First, proposals are sent to at least ability to exploit its recognized pri­ tween the centers supported eight specialist reviewers outside orities and strengths, rather than to in the Interpretive Research Pro­ the Endowment. Subsequently, pro­ subsidize ventures that do not oth­ gram and those funded by the Cen­ gram officers convene a panel erwise command institutional re­ ters for Advanced Study category in whose members are familiar with sources. As with many other grant the Research Division? the subjects and types of projects categories in the Division of Re­ A. Grants made in the Centers for represented by the applications. A search Programs, support for cen­ Advanced Study category consist of new panel is put together for each ters is expected to lead to a series blocs of fellowships that are cycle of applications. Each panel is of significant publications. awarded to independent scholarly chaired by a member of the staff. For additional information about research centers (for example, the Competitive proposals must satisfy the kinds of projects that are eli­ National Humanities Center and the the criteria imposed at the two gible for support through the Inter­ Newberry Library). The Interpretive stages: Specialist reviewers are pri­ pretive Research Program, Research Program's new oppor­ marily concerned with sound re­ prospective applicants should con­ tunity for support of university- search design and the importance sult the Division of Research Pro­ based centers focuses on the cost of the project to the discipline, grams guidelines, which are of developing the centers, rather whereas panelists are broader in available from the NEH Office of than on the support of fellowships their concerns, and make compara­ Publications and Public Affairs, 1100 at a center that is already estab­ tive judgments among a group of Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Wash­ lished. proposals, ranking them in terms of ington, D .C., 20506, 202/786-0438. Does the program ever their significance to the humanities. The following commonly asked award "start-up" grants to Prospective applicants should questions may also clarify the pro­ enable scholars to undertake basic consider carefully whether their gram's purposes and goals. research or special studies prepara­ proposals respond to the questions H o w can a prospective appli- tory to work that could result in beginning on page 21 of the Divi­ . cant determine whether a publication? sion of Research Programs guide­ Q project, in which the bulk of work A. is Pilot or planning grants cannot lines. These questions are sent to to be carried out by one scholar, be requested by applicants, but oc­ reviewers along with the proposals should be submitted to the Endow­ casionally, if a review panel or the that they evaluate and are often ment's Interpretive Research staff thinks that a good idea ought used by them as guides for evalua­ Program or to the Division of to be given small-scale encourage­ tion. Fellowships and Seminars? ment, a recommendation might be Do panelists ever determine A. In addition to the simple iden­ made for the award of a small pilot • or recommend certain levels tifying characteristics of an Interpre­ grant. orQ runding for a project or the indi­ tive Research application—namely, Can the program's staff ad- vidual components of a project? it takes longer than a year to com­ vise applicants early in the A. Panelists and reviewers occa­ plete, involves a team effort, and application process? sionally recommend funding levels promises a specific product at the A. Yes— and this is another dif­ different from those requested if end of the grant period—prospec- ference between Interpretive they believe, based on their own tive applicants should keep in mind Research and the programs of the (continued on page 45) 41 GUIDE GRANTS RECENT NEH GRANT AWARDS GRANT NEH RECENT tion myth of the Maya. Maya. the of myth 30-min- tion a produce To $15,000. Amlin: J. tricia Anthropology and Archaeology a cultural history of the Sioux and Assiniboine Assiniboine and Sioux the of history cultural a Film Arts Foundation, Foundation, Arts Film awards. final not offers, are list this in s item the of e Som chaeology. chaeology. Mallie: $113,078 OR; $10,000 FM. To complete complete To FM. $10,000 OR; $113,078 Mallie: U., Indiana crea­ the Vuh, Popol the on film animated ute col tdn poet n h clua an­ cultural Plateau. the on high Colorado the a of ent project plem thropology im student To $37,715. school acDonald: M civilization. Maya Classic of erature f vneia Crsin isoais n colo­ in missionaries Christian evangelical of societies. ancient that way analyze the and about archaeologists series archaeology of eight-part an discipline To for the $500,000. Artisans," "The Sanders: T. illiam W Park; sity U., State Pennsylvania To implement a series of post-performance post-performance of series a implement To U., Arizona lit­ Northern written the in pub­ contained general the knowledge for the lic 60-a synthesizing for script film a revise minute To $15,000. Smith: Dee Inc., InterCultura, ference on the anthropology of Iceland. Iceland. con­ of international anthropology the an on ference implement To $5,860. role the of study anthropological an produce and orlds” W "New programs, two produce ar­ underwater on s program se­ a for public plan of To $15,000. ries McNulty: H. Robert Places, Livable for Partners Indians of North America. America. North of Indians nial and post-colonial southern Africa. Africa. southern U. post-colonial and nial U. discussions led by humanities scholars. scholars. humanities by led discussions U., Boston Calliope Film Resources, In c., c., In Resources, Film Calliope Trust, Broude will focus on major theoretical issues in the the in issues theoretical major on focus will who vocalists and women blues great of classic the the of generation the about evolution and documentary origins television 90-minute History Arts— six-week institute for 25 participants which which history. art of a study participants 25 conduct for To $149,500. institute olly: H six-week Ann ichael M Colleges, Smith Hobart-William a produce To $325,000. Dali: Christine A. MA; the of Busnoys. edition an Antoine of works publish Latin To $7,865. Broude: Criticism and of m usical transm ission through a study of 42 study a through ission transm usical the m of of investigation an conduct To $100,000. Radio, Public National popular. form musical this made New Y o rk U ., ., U rk o of Y work New and Villa-Lobos. life the composer on Brazilian five of documentaries series a radio plan To $20,000. Tavares: Frank relationship between oral and written means means written and oral between relationship of Chicago, Chicago, of of Iowa, Iowa, of CP MA; Anne D. Emerson: $65,000. $65,000. Emerson: D. Anne MA; Iowa City; E. Paul Durrenberger: Durrenberger: Paul E. City; Iowa Bloom ington; Raymond J. De- De- J. Raymond ington; Bloom IL; John Comaroff: $50,000. To To $50,000. Comaroff: John IL; W illiam stow n, M A; Ronald Ronald A; M n, stow illiam W N Y C ; Kay K. Sh elem ay: ay: elem Sh K. Kay ; C Y N Fort W orth, TX; Cordon Cordon TX; orth, W Fort EH a Facso C; Pa­ CA; Francisco, San Flagstaff; Elizabeth N. N. Elizabeth Flagstaff; an aps Univer­ Campus, Main GN W ashingto n, D C ; ; C D n, ashingto W

RO

Washington, DC; DC; Washington,

N C Geneva, NY; NY; Geneva, RP

N C Som erville, erville, Som

GN

CM RO

CP RX N C

A .C . Pugin and A .W . Pugin, pioneers and and pioneers Pugin, . .W A and Pugin . .C A two-volum e study of the lives and work of of work and lives the of study e two-volum Fame, of Hall riters Songw Tufts U., U., Tufts century. 19th the To conduct a series of public sym posia on on posia sym public of series a conduct To the descriptive checklists and a series of sup­ of series a and checklists descriptive the Stanton: B. Phoebe tradition. chant Christian Ethiopian four-volume history of the oratorio from the the from oratorio the a of in 3 history volume publish four-volume To $7,500. Bateman: A. Duke career. early analyzing film a Ellington's script To $48,765. Levi: aissance stained glass in America. America. in glass stained aissance complete To FM. $75,000 R; O $100,905 ness: in architecture Revival Gothic of popularizers 1,0 OR; 100 M T c t ­ n o Ages. the­ c Middle ct musical u the d of and n co antiquity in To ory development FM. the on $1,000 ference ; R O $15,000 early m usic and to develop a new series of of series new a develop to and usic m early U. Community Concerts, Concerts, Ren­ Community and U. medieval of catalogue of plements U. of Notre Dam e, e, Dam Notre of U. present. the to era Baroque and Press, Carolina theory North of the instruments. U. on keyboard of practice onstrations lecture/dem FM. $21,000 OR; $77,365 Fraistat: C. Ann Rose To produce a three-year, m ultidisciplinary ultidisciplinary m three-year, a produce To Benton. Hart Thomas about film a produce To Foundation, Educational motifs. GBH W decorative compose that and terns analyzes that work a publish To $10,000. Yale U ., ., U Yale Studies, Keyboard Early for Center Westfield culture. American Center, Art Walker pat­ repetitive and symmetrical the describes Washington, of U. TX; Nanette R. Pascal: $107,258. To integrate integrate To $107,258. Pascal: R. Nanette TX; 1,4. octlge tasrb, n dupli­ and transcribe, catalogue, To $12,640. music. 17th- on German conference a century hold To FM. $4,000 R; O of images ining exam program educational FM. $50,000 OR; $100,000 O'Neill-Ligon: garet FM. $65,000 R; O $175,000 cGhee: M S. Peter Craalman, Jr.: $75,000. To conduct a summer summer a conduct To $75,000. Jr.: Craalman, cate oral histories of key figures in American American in figures key of histories oral cate $12,000 Edwards: D. Lynn MA; Easthampton, CN i: 1343 T cnut fu- e i ­ in eek four-w a conduct To $113,463. tin: students in the seventh to tenth grades. GZ GZ grades. tenth to seventh the in students U., State a courses. klahom O education West­ of general into heritage culture ern classical the from materials College Community County Dallas music and to collect interviews of contempo­ of interviews collect to and music A. LaFleur: $9,228. To publish and distribute a distribute and publish To $9,228. LaFleur: A. major on focusing non-classicists, for stitute program on classical Greek civilization for for Arizona, civilization of U. Greek classical on program rary composers. composers. rary issues in Homeric scholarship. scholarship. Homeric in issues ok f sas n h sotg o qualified of shortage the on essays of book Inc., Fdn., Res. Georgia of U. Classics M edford, MA; M adeline adeline M MA; edford, M New H aven, C T ; V ivian P erlis: erlis: P ivian V ; T C aven, H New usn (on Nra Aus­ Norman (John) Tucson; RC RO GM Seattle; Naomi B. Pascal: Pascal: B. Naomi Seattle; nepls M; Mar­ MN; inneapolis, M $25,000. To com plete a plete com To $25,000. IN ; C alvin M. Bower: Bower: M. alvin C ; IN tlwae; oet E. Robert ater; Stillw GN RX College Park, MD; MD; Park, College

Chapel Hill; Lewis Lewis Hill; Chapel RP N Y C ; Robert S. S. Robert ; C Y N Athens; Richard Richard Athens;

EH Boston, MA MA Boston, RO

GP RO H. H.

District, District, RX. RP

Cavi- Cavi-

EL

A. Bateman: $8,384. To publish a study of the the of study a publish To $8,384. Bateman: A. Whittier College, plays. College, Aristophanes' Whittier in perspective comic To produce a 60-minute documentary film ad­ film FM. documentary $100,000 60-minute a OR; $235,000produce To Inc., Adelson: Project, M. Alan Writing Heritage Jewish Spain. medieval of ciety 20 for institute six-week a conduct To $97,000. culture. and history Dutch tury on Christianity of civilization. impact Western the treat­ of examines that preparation the and program one Greece ancient of Rome. and civilizations the on freshman course year-long new a develop To $43,581. Press, Carolina level. North of U. pre-collegiate the at teachers Latin omnt' eprec udr ai domina­ Nazi 1944. 1941 to under from Jewish tion entire experience an of community's account existing only the U., Fordham 18th-cen­ on conference international an duct James R. N ichols: $95,068. To conduct two two conduct To $95,068. ichols: N R. James the of aptation Corporation, Broadcasting Educational to strengthen the core courses in the civiliza­ the in sequence. courses tion core the strengthen documents to engage seminal to of reading scholars the in outside by faculty led seminars ge, lle o C uskingum M so­ and history the study will who historians con­ To FM. $4,000 OR; $20,000 rlin: O C. Lena Library, Shakespeare Folger series 12-part a in programs four for ments for script a write To $75,000. Kotlowitz; Robert n h get o-uoen mie flourish­ empires non-European programs great of the series a on for plan To $15,000. gan: Non-US History— h hsoy f h Oto n mpr fr 24 for pire Em an ttom O the of history the covery. covery. Inc., America, Past order in civilization Western of history the in To conduct a six-week summer institute for 24 for institute summer six-week a conduct To history. European of teachers on institute five-week a conduct To $116,300. Princeton U ., ., U dis­ of Princeton voyages Columbus's of time the at ing conference on Russian social history from from history class." a of "middle social development the on Russian 19171890focusing on to a conduct To FM. $4,000 conference OR; $18,000 Clowes: and Western ethical and political thought. thought. political and ethical histor­ Western and and philosophical the on participants U., Princeton Purdue U ., ., U Purdue ical connections between religious thought thought religious between connections ical A. Hubbard: $250,000. To produce a 60-min- 60-min- a produce To $250,000. Hubbard: A. ference on European migration to America, America, to migration con­ a European conduct on To FM. ference $22,000 ; R O $15,000 . ae n $,1. o uls a td of study a publish To $6,414. an: Batem A. 1830-1930. expanding and book, on based Macaulay's film David television ute Inc., Projects, Unicorn U. of Minnesota, Minnesota, of U. U. of North Carolina Press, Press, Carolina North of U. CN EK RX W est Lafayette, IN ; Edith W. W. Edith ; IN Lafayette, est W N YC ; Joseph F. O 'C allaghan: allaghan: 'C O F. Joseph ; YC N J Pu E Sgud $121,856. Sigmund: E. Paul NJ; hoil o h Ld Ghetto, Lodz the of Chronicle EK RX N J; Norm an Itzk o w itz: itz: w o Itzk an Norm J; N St. Paul; Rudolph J. Vecoli: Vecoli: J. Rudolph Paul; St. C A ; Michael Praetorius: Praetorius: Michael ; A C im, L Rbr . Mor­ S. Robert FL; Miami, GN N C New C o n co rd , O H ; ; H O , rd co n o C New Washington, D C; Ray Ray C; D Washington,

EH iy GN City.

Chapel Hill; Lewis Lewis Hill; Chapel Washington, DC; DC; Washington, Chapel Hill; Lewis Lewis Hill; Chapel EH RX

N YC ; ; YC N NYC; NYC; EH RP EH

property law in medieval Normandy. RP the transformation of Philadelphia from a pre­ $19,224. To conduct an international meeting Yale U., N ew Haven, CT; William Peters: industrial small town to industrial metropolis. on newspaper preservation and access to be $50,000. To script a film about Joseph Stalin. RO held at the British Library (London). PS GN U. of Utah, Salt Lake City; J.D. Williams: Kartemquin Educational Films, Chicago, IL; Yale U ., New Haven, CT; Paul A. Bush- $30,000. To conduct a lecture and debate se­ Michael J. Hyde: $8,002 O R; $12,000 FM. To kovitch: $20,000 O R; $15,000 FM. To conduct ries led by distinguished historians, constitu­ plan for a documentary film and a dramatic an international conference on the history of tional lawyers, and political scientists. GB film investigating the dilemmas posed by the Russia, 850-1700. RX U. of Washington, Seattle; Naomi B. Pascal: success of "high-tech" medicine and its im­ $4,000. To conduct a political and historical pact on the doctor/patient relationship. GN study of the Washington State Supreme Marymount College, Tarrytown, NY; Elisa A. History—U.S. Court. RP Carrillo: $74,950. To develop a curriculum and help faculty members to improve human­ American Library Association, Chicago, IL; ities offerings. EM Peggy Barber: $270,172. To conduct a tour of Interdisciplinary Mount Senario College, Ladysmith, W l; Paul three facsimiles of the New York Public Li­ F. Meszaros: $27,777. To plan for a two-term brary's exhibition on the drafting and ratifica­ Alamo Navajo School Board, Inc., Magdalena, honors course examining the medieval and tion of the U.S. Constitution. GL NM; William O. Berlin: $54,909. To imple­ Renaissance periods. EL Calliope Film Resources, Inc., Somerville, ment a project to train Alamo Navajo youth to National Academy of Sciences, Washington, MA; Randall Conrad: $10,100. To produce ad­ assist with the collection, documentation, D C ; Mary B. Bullock: $340,000 O R; $110,000 ditional scripting work on a television drama and interpretation of materials to be part of a FM. To continue scholarly exchange and re­ about Shay's Rebellion (1786—87). GN community archive of their tribe's history and lated activities in the humanities involving the Central Wyoming College, Riverton; Sharon culture. GM People's Republic of China. Rl M. Kahin: $75,000. To produce a lecture series American Council of Learned Societies, NYC; New York State Education Department, A l­ a slide-tape show, and photo exhibitions on Jason H. Parker: $150,000 O R; $300,000 FM. bany; Connie L. Brooks: $9,479 O R; $131,859 the history of the Wind River Valley. CP To continue the activities of the Joint Commit­ FM. To implement a statewide program for Civil War Film Project, Walpole, NH; Ken tee on Chinese Studies promoting American the preservation of library research materials Burns: $1,000,000 OR; $350,000 FM. To pro­ scholarly research in the humanities. Rl by adding one full-time professional staff duce a documentary series on the history and American Council of Learned Societies, NYC; member plus secretarial support for the pro­ meaning of the American Civil War. GN Allen H. Kassof: $300,000. To continue ad­ gram's staff. PS Delaware Div. of Historical & Cult. Affairs, vanced research exchanges and related grant Newberry Library, Chicago, IL; Frederick E. Dover; John R. Kern: $15,000. To revise a activities in the humanities with the Soviet Hoxie: $15,000. To conduct a conference on script for a 90-minute film dramatizing the life Union and the socialist countries of Eastern introducing quantitative methods to studying of John Dickinson (1732-1808), a significant Europe. Rl the history of American Indians. RX political essayist of the 1760s. GN CUNY Res. Fdn./Bernard Baruch College, Public Research, Syndicated, Montclair, CA; Indiana U. Alumni Association, Bloomington; N YC; Paula S. Berggren: $93,698. To improve James J. Barlow: $50,000 OR; $100,000 FM. To Frank B. Jones: $150,000. To promote educa­ a required course which introduces students syndicate a series of newspaper articles com­ tional programs for the general public and a to great works in world literature. EK memorating the bicentennial of the Constitu­ scholarly conference on the history and sig­ Carnegie-Mellon U., Pittsburgh, PA; John tion. GB nificance of the Northwest Ordinance. GB Modell: $10,000. To conduct a conference on Rutgers U., New Brunswick, NJ; Reese V. KCET/Community TV of Southern California, the historical study of child development. RX Jenkins: $20,000. To plan for a 60-minute doc­ Los Angeles; Stephen Stept: $45,000. To write Colby College, W a te rville , ME; Peter B. umentary about Thomas Edison and the na­ a 60-minute script for the first program in a Harris: $61,049 OR; $100,000 FM. To develop ture and process of invention analyzed in a three-part dramatic television series on the a Freshman Humanities Program organized in historical and interdisciplinary context. GN life of American lawyer Clarence Darrow thematic clusters. EK Saint Vincent College, Latrobe, PA; Ronald E. (1857-1938). GN Columbia U., NYC; David J. Rothman: Tranquilla: $203,066. To implement faculty Made in U.S.A. Development Corporation, $75,000 OR; $75,000 FM. To investigate the development activities to improve the core N YC; Elsa A. Rassbach: $600,000 O R; $400,000 changing experiences of the chronically ill in curriculum. EM FM. To produce a two-hour historical drama the United States from 1850 to 1950 through Stanford U., CA; Grant Barnes: $2,959. To depicting the evolution of the Lowell, Massa­ patient memoirs, diaries, letters, sanitarium write the first comprehensive biography in chusetts, textile mills from 1839 to 1846. GN records, and physicians' personal and profes­ any language of Shen Congwen (1902-), one Ohio U., Athens; Gary A. Hunt: $111,843. To sional writings. RO of the few Chinese writers to portray regional produce two exhibitions, a symposium, an in­ Connecticut College, New London; R. Francis life, to remain apolitical, and to abandon writ­ terpretive catalogue, and an exhibition guide Johnson: $22,950. To implement planning to ing after the Communist Revolution to pre­ on the history of education in the old North­ enable professors from the humanities and serve his artistic freedom. RP west territories as a result of the Northwest the social sciences to develop courses based U. of Chicago, IL; Penelope Kaiserlian: Ordinance. GL on an interdisciplinary approach to the study $22,618. To purchase a word processing sys­ Oklahoma State University, Stillwater; Car­ of human nature. EK tem and five personal computers that will im­ olyn J. Bauer: $150,000. To conduct a four- Cornell U., Ithaca, NY; Martin O. Harwit: prove procedures for converting elec­ RNS GUIDE GRANTS week residential institute on the origins and $44,253 OR; $250,000 FM. To provide three tronically prepared manuscripts to type. RP principles of the U.S. Constitution for ele­ tenure-track assistant professorships in the U. of Massachusetts, Amherst; Bruce G. mentary and junior high school teachers. ES history and philosophy of science and tech­ W ilcox: $6,458. To publish an interpretive his­ Rutgers U. Press, New Brunswick, NJ; Marlie nology. EL tory of the Afro-American novel over the past P. Wasserman: $4,627. To publish a mono­ Dundalk Community College, Baltimore, 132 years. RP graph that examines family inheritance and MD; John R. Low: $56,589. To develop a mul­ U. of Mississippi, University; Ronald W. the evolution of capital in the United States tidisciplinary course that will be required for Bailey: $82,239. To implement an interpretive from colonial times to the present. RP graduation in Arts and Sciences. EK exhibition and symposia in Chicago and 12 U. of California, San Diego, La Jolla; Robert Exiles Project, NYC; Richard Kaplan: $15,000. other cities and towns on the history of Mis­ C. Ritchie: $50,000 O R; $35,000 FM. To pro­ To write treatments for two 60-minute docu­ sissippi and the migration of black Mississip- duce, for secondary school teachers, a series mentary films about the European scholars pians to Chicago and other urban centers. GP of six lectures, a scholarly symposium, a ma­ who came to the United States prior to and U. of New Mexico, Albuquerque; Gilbert W. jor exhibit, and a workshop on the subject of during World War II. GN Merkx: $30,548. To renew an emergency constitutionalism and nation building in the Hava Kohav Theatre/Dance Foundation, NYC; grant made jointly by NEH and NEA for a United States and Latin America. GB Hava Kohav Beller: $20,000. To write a script newsletter, Encuentro, which provides infor­ U. of Illinois, Urbana; Harriet P. Stockanes: for a 90-minute film exploring the motivating mation on arts and humanities events relating $2,694. To publish a study of the growth and principles and activities of a small group of in­ to the Columbus Quincentenary. RO decline of the San Francisco Building Trades dividuals within wartime Germany who com­ U. of North Dakota, Grand Forks; Gerald Law­ Union during the Progressive era. RP prised the anti-Nazi underground. GN rence: $206,891. To implement faculty de­ U. of Missouri, Kansas City; Richard Indiana U. Alumni Association, Bloomington; velopment and the use of a coordinator for an McKinzie: $44,191. To conduct a study of Frank B. Jones: $125,000 O R; $100,000 FM. To integrated studies program. EM World War I propaganda posters in the Lib­ provide for an interpretive exhibition, cata­ U. of Southern Indiana, Evansville; John H. erty Memorial Museum by high school stu­ logue, brochures, and public lectures during Gottcent: $20,000. To develop a new human­ dents. GM the bicentennial of the Northwest Ordinance ities sequence which will be required of all U. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Michael and the U.S. Constitution. GL students. EK Zuckerman: $105,099 OR; $120,000 FM. To International Federation of Library Assn., Yeshiva U. Museum, NYC; Sylvia A. conduct research projects which investigate Washington, DC; Robert B. Harriman, Jr.: Herskowitz: $27,892. To conduct an educa- 43 tional program for junior high school stu­ Library of America, NYC; Daniel Aaron: Intyre: $88,935. To implement a comparative dents in conjunction with the Yeshiva Univer­ $160,000. To edit the first complete and au­ study of the liberal arts curriculum in 13th- sity Museum's exhibition "Ashkenaz: The thoritative edition of the plays of Eugene century Paris, in 18th-century Scotland, and in German Jewish Heritage." CM O 'Neill. CL 20th-century America. RO Massachusetts Library Association, Wakefield; Sarah S. Getty: $34,721. To imple­ Jurisprudence ment a series of reading and discussion pro­ Religion grams. CL Ramapo College of New Jersey, M ahwah; Modern Poetry Association, Chicago, IL; U. of California, Berkeley; William M. Brin- John Robert Cassidy: $222,195. To create a Joseph A. Parisi: $66,251. To conduct a con­ ner: $30,000 O R; $4,000 FM. To conduct an in­ major in law and society. EL ference and lecture-discussion series marking ternational conference on saints and saint­ the centenary of Marianne Moore. GL hood in Islam. RX New York Center for Visual History, N YC ; U. of Georgia, Athens; Frederick Ferre: Language & Linguistics Lawrence Pitkethly: $325,000 O R; $25,000 FM. $135,500. To conduct a six-week institute for To produce one 60-minute documentary film 25 participants on Western concepts of nature College of Saint Scholastica, Duluth, MN; Sr. on Marianne Moore. CN and God. EH Mary R. Boo: $115,479. To implement a new Oklahoma Library Association, O klahom a Whittier College, CA; Joseph L. Price: program in French and in Spanish. EL City; Margaret A. Studer: $114,608. To imple­ $40,314. To reorient the college's approach to Hamline U., St. Paul, MN; Carole O. Brown: ment reading and discussion programs in 24 the teaching of religion through the develop­ $110,829. To conduct a faculty development Oklahoma libraries. CL ment of three new introductory courses that seminar on literary criticism. EL Princeton U. Press, NJ; Margaret H. Case: address comparative, cultural, and humanis­ Radio Road Gang, Inc., Washington, DC; $3,500. To publish a study of the Chinese poet tic questions. EK Pamela Brooke: $87,344. To produce a chil­ and literary critic Wu Wenying. RP dren's introduction to history, etymology, lit­ Stanford U., CA; Grant Barnes: $3,664. To erature, and the English language. CN publish a study of the medieval German epic, Social Science U. of Chicago, IL; William F. Hanks: $90,940. the Nibelungenlied. RP To study the linguistic expression of spatial, Stanford U., CA; Grant Barnes: $2,205. To Middlebury College, VT; Richard H. Dollase: temporal, and other relationships in a con­ publish a reassessment of Wordsworth's po­ $95,515. To conduct a three-week institute for temporary Mayan language. RO etry in terms of its historical context. RP teacher educators. EH U. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia: V.S. Rajam: U. of Massachusetts, Amherst; Sarah N. Law- Palmer R. Chitester Fund, Coudersport, PA; $160,000. To compile a historical reference all : $129,735. To conduct a six-week summer Robert R. Chitester: $296,000. To produce a grammar of Tamil. RT institute for 24 participants on the teaching of documentary on Karl Marx. CN U. of Texas, Austin; Kathleen M. Jamieson: world literature. EH U. of Minnesota, St. Paul; Geri H. Malandra: $20,000 OR; $3,000 FM. To conduct an inter­ U. of Nebraska, Lincoln; Willis G. Regier: $122,616. To conduct a week-long national in­ national conference on the classical rhetorical $4,629. To publish a companion volume to a stitute to explore the impact of recent de­ theories of India and China, including com­ translation of Jacques Derrida's G/as that will velopments in humanities scholarship on parisons with Western traditions. RX contain translator's notes, commentary, and courses and curricula for nontraditional stu­ explanatory essays on the Derrida work. RP dents. EC U. of Nevada-Las Vegas; Christopher C. Literature Hudgins: $68,527. To conduct a six-week summer seminar for 14 faculty members who American Council of Learned Societies, NVC; teach an introductory course, "Masterpieces Douglas Greenberg: $85,000. To implement a of World Literature." EK program of fellowships for recent recipients U. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill; Lewis of the Ph.D. degree in the humanities. RR A. Bateman: $2,262. To publish a study of the Berkshire Theatre Festival, Stockbridge, MA; important Tudor poet and priest John Skel­ Gordon Hyatt: $19,500. To implement plan­ ton. RP Capital letters following each grant amount ning and research for a dramatic screenplay U. of Wisconsin, M adison; J. Thomas Shaw: have the following meanings: FM Federal about the interaction of Nathaniel Hawthorne $21,000 OR; $4,000 FM. To conduct a con­ Match; OR Outright Funds. Capital letters fol­ and Herman Melville. CN ference on scholarship dealing with Alex­ lowing each grant show the division and the Carolina Wren Press, Inc., Chapel Hill, NC; ander Pushkin. RX program through which the grant was made. Judith F. Hogan: $34,000. To implement a se­ Wellesley College, MA; Jean H. Slingerland: ries of workshops and lectures that would en­ $28,153. To complete manuscript preparation Division of Education Programs courage the disciplined reading, study, and of volume V of the Wellesley Index to Vic­ EB Central Disciplines in Undergraduate interpretation of literature. CL torian Periodicals, containing cumulative bib­ Education Community College Humanities Association, liographies for Volumes I—IV, along with cor­ EK Improving Introductory Courses Philadelphia, PA; Julio Ortega: $152,600. To rections and additions. RT EL Promoting Excellence in a Field conduct a four-week institute for 40 partici­ EM Fostering Coherence Throughout an pants on four major Spanish-American au­ Institution thors. EH Philosophy ES Humanities Instruction in Elementary Cornell U., Ithaca, NY; Bernhard Kendler: and Secondary Schools $4,290. To publish volume 4 in the edition of American Philosophical Association, Newark, EH Exemplary Projects in Undergraduate the letters of Margaret Fuller. RP DE; Baruch A. Brody: $75,410. To conduct a and Graduate Education Cornell U., Ithaca, NY; Bernhard Kendler: series of regional weekend workshops to EC Humanities Programs for Nontradi­ $3,715. To publish full transcriptions of all the strengthen the teaching of philosophy in two- tional Learners manuscripts of "The White Doe of Rylstone" and four-year colleges and universities. There Division of General Programs and a reconstruction of the original version of will be three workshops a year, each with ten CN Humanities Projects in Media the poem. RP participants. EH GM Humanities Projects in Museums and Duke U. Press, Durham, NC; Joanne Fer­ Stanford U., CA; Eckart H. Forster: $16,000 Historical Organizations guson: $16,880. To publish three volumes in a OR; $1,000 FM. To conduct international con­ GP Public Humanities Projects comprehensive edition of the letters of ference on Immanuel Kant's O p u s Pos- GL Humanities Programs in Libraries Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle. RP tumum. the conference will concentrate on Division of Research Programs Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, OH; Her­ the significance of this work for the entirety of RO Interpretive Research Projects bert H. Paper: $82,590 OR; $5,000 FM. To pre­ Kant's philosophy. RX RX Conferences pare a 20-volume edition of the complete Yid­ Temple U., Philadelphia, PA; David M. Bart­ RH Humanities, Science and Technology dish works of Sholem Aleykhem. RE lett: $3,150. To publish a philosophical study RP Publication Subvention Indiana State Library, Indianapolis; Arthur S. of Kant's solution to the problem of human RA Centers for Advanced Study Meyers: $38,226. To implement a series of self-awareness. RP Rl Regrants for International Research reading and discussion programs based on U. of California, Berkeley; Clara Sue Kidwell: RT Tools the books and themes developed by the $94,500. To conduct a summer institute on RE Editions American Library Association. CL American Indian philosophy. EH RL Translations Johns Hopkins U., Baltimore, MD; Eric F. U. of Massachusetts, A m herst; Richard J. RC Access Halpern: $8,210. To study the novel in terms Martin: $6,967. To collect the papers and es­ Office of Preservation of its capacity to represent social and moral says of the German logician Paul Lorenzen. RP PS Preservation problems. RP Vanderbilt U., Nashville, TN; Alasdair C. Mac­ PS U.S. Newspaper Program 44 INTERPRETIVE RESEARCH, continued from page 41 experience, that the requests are of the work plan submitted. Nor­ ing offers often engender unrealistic (often inflated, occasion­ mally, the program also expects at unexpected support for a project ally too modest), or if they also sug­ least 20 percent institutional cost where none had existed before. gest substantial modifications in the sharing on a first-time grant and at How soon after the deadline work plan. As a rule, however, the least 30 percent on a renewal. Most • for proposal submissions is a funding levels included in grant of­ competitive applicants volunteer Q decision made on a proposal sub­ fers are left to the discretion of NEH higher levels of cost sharing. The mitted to either of the two program staff. After the NEH Grants Office Endowment may also offer part of categories? has determined that all proposed the grant in federal matching A. The annual deadline for Inter­ costs are allowable according to funds—that is, the grantee will be pretive Research applications is Oc­ federal regulations, the program matched, dollar for dollar, by the tober 1 for projects starting July 1 of staff will also try to ascertain that Endowment. It has been the Endow­ the following year. Applicants are the budget is cost effective in terms ment's experience that NEH match­ notified by early June.

Humanities The Great American Magazine!

THRIFTY only $14 for 6 issues

PRACTICAL Use it in the classroom, in the library, or as a handy guide to grantsmanship. ★ WITH A SHORT BUT DISTINGUISHED HISTORY

• Seven years of stimulating essays by noted scholars • features on NEH projects

• announcements of NEH grants • the Humanities GUIDE to applying for an NEH grant

SUBSCRIBE Please enter my subscription to Humanities for one year at $14.00 domestic or $17.25 foreign. □ Check enclosed for $ ------Money order enclosed for $ ------

______□ Charge to my Deposit Account No. ] — □ Order No______□ NOW! □ Charge to VISA □ Charge to MasterCard Total charges $ Credit card no. Exp. date: Mo./Yr. Please make checks and money Name — First, Last (please print or type) orders payable to Superintendent of Documents. I Mail to Humanities Title/Institution Office of Publications and Public Affairs Address Room 409, National Endowment for the Humanities City State Zip Code Washington, D.C. 20506 1 LINES -DEADLINES DBA DEADLINES DEADLINES

Deadlines in For projects Area Code for all telephone numbers is 202 boldface beginning

Division of Education Programs --Jerry Martin, Director 786-0373 Humanities Instruction in Institutions of Higher Education— Lyn Maxwell White, Thomas Adams, Jean D'Amato, Barbara Ashbrook, Frank Frankfurt, Judith Jeffrey Howard, Edward Miller, Elizabeth Welles 786-0380 Projects to Strengthen the Humanities in a Single Institution April 1, 1987 October 1987 Projects to Strengthen the Humanities in a Number of Institutions May 1, 1987 January 1988 Humanities Instruction in Elementary and Secondary Schools— Carolynn Reid- Wallace, Stephanie Quinn Katz, Jayme A. Sokolow, Thomas Gregory Ward 786-0377 May 15,1987 January 1988 High School Humanities Institutes at Historically Black Colleges and Universities—Jayme Sokolow 786-0377 March 15,1988 September 1988

Division of Fellowships and Seminars— Guinevere L. Griest, Director 786-0458 Fellowships for University Teachers— Maben D. Herring 786-0466 June 1, 1987 January 1,1988 Fellowships for College Teachers and Independent Scholars— Karen Fuglie 786-0466 June 1,1987 January 1,1988 Fellowships on the Foundations of American Society— Maben D. Herring, Karen Fuglie 786-0466 June 1,1987 January 1,1987 Summer Stipends—Joseph B. Neville 786-0466 October 1,1987 May 1, 1988 Travel to Collections— Kathleen Mitchell 786-0463 July 15,1988 December 1,1987 Faculty Graduate Study Program for Historically Black Colleges and Universities— Beatrice Stith Clark, Maben D. Herring 786-0466 March 15,1988 September 1,1989 Younger Scholars— Leon Bramson 786-0463 November 1,1987 May 1,1988 Summer Seminars for College Teachers— Kenneth Kolson 786-0463 Participants March 1,1988 Summer 1988 Directors March 1, 1988 Summer 1989 Summer Seminars for Secondary School Teachers— Steven S. Tigner 786-0463 Participants March 1,1988 Summer 1988 Directors April 1,1987 Summer 1988

Guidelines are available from the Public Affairs Office two months in advance of the application deadline.

Telecommunications device for the Deaf: 786-0282

46 DUNES -DEADLINES DE/ •DEADLINES DEADLINE!

Deadlines in For projects Area Code for all telephone numbers is 202 boldface beginning after

Division of General Programs—Donald Gibson, Director 786-0267 Humanities Projects in Media—James Dougherty 786-0378 September 18,1987 April 1,1988 Humanities Projects in Museums and Historical Organizations— Dudley Varner 786-0284 June 12,1987 January 1,1988 Public Humanities Projects— Wilsonia Cherry 786-0271 September 18,1987 April 1, 1988 Humanities Projects in Libraries— Thomas Phelps 786-0271 September 18,1987 October 1, 1988

Division of Research Programs—Richard Ekman, Director 786-0200 Texts— Margot Backas 786-0207 Editions— Charles Meyers 786-0207 June 1,1987 April 1, 1988 Translations— Martha Chomiak 786-0207 June 1,1987 April 1, 1988 Publication Subvention— Margot Backas 786-0207 April 1,1987 October 1,1987 Reference Materials— Robert Winans 786-0358 November 1,1987 July 1,1988 Tools— Helen Aguera 786-0358 November 1,1987 July 1, 1988 Access—Jane Rosenberg 786-0358 November 1,1987 July 1,1988 Interpretative Research— Dorothy Wartenberg 786-0210 Projects— David Wise 786-0210 October 1,1987 July 1,1988 Humanities, Science and Technology— Daniel Jones 786-0210 October 1,1987 July 1, 1988 Regrants— Eugene Sterud 786-0204 Conferences— Crale Hopkins 786-0204 July 1,1987 April 1, 1988 Centers for Advanced Study— David Coder 786-0204 December 1,1987 July 1, 1988 Regrants for International Research— Eugene Sterud 786-0204 February 15,1988 October 1,1988 Regrants in Selected Areas— Eugene Sterud 786-0204 February 15,1988 October 1,1988

Division of State Programs—Marjorie A. Berlincourt, Director 786-0254 Each state humanities council establishes its own grant guidelines and application deadlines. Address and telephone numbers of these state programs may be obtained from the division.

Office of Challenge Grants—Harold Cannon, Director 786-0361 May 1,1987 December 1,1987

Office of Preservation—George Farr, Senior Preservation Officer 786-0570 Preservation— Steven Mansbach 786-0570 December 1,1987 July 1,1988 U.S. Newspaper Program—Jeffrey Fields 786-0570 June 1,1987 January 1,1987

47 NATIONAL ENDOWMENT SECOND CLASS MAIL FOR THE HUMANITIES POSTAGE & FEES PAID NATIONAL ENDOWMENT 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW FOR THE HUMANITIES Washington, D.C. 20506 PUB. NO. 187526

Official Business Penalty For Private Use, $300.00

ISSN 0018-7526