Science for Nuclear safety and security

JRC thematic report

Joint Research Centre (JRC) The European Commission’s in-house science service

EUR 26659 EN Joint Research Centre If you would like to learn more about the activities of the JRC, please contact:

Geraldine Barry European Commission Joint Research Centre Communication Unit Head of Unit

CDMA 04/168 1050

Brussels Tel. +32 (0)2 29 74181 Fax +32 (0)2 29 85523

Ispra Tel. +39 (0)332 78 9889 Fax +39 (0)332 78 5409

Contact: https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/contact Website: https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/

European Commission Joint Research Centre Legal Notice Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of this publication. © European Union 2014 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu/) Contents

Foreword by Vladimir Šucha, JRC Director-General 2

Introduction 4

1. Nuclear Safety 6 1.1 Reactor safety 7 1.2 Fuel safety 8 1.3 Nuclear waste management and decommissioning 9 1.4 Emergency preparedness 9

2. Nuclear security 11 2.1 Safeguards 12 2.2 Non-proliferation 13 2.3 R&D activities to combat illicit trafficking 14 2.4 Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear hazards mitigation 14

3. Reference measurements, materials and standards 16 3.1 Structural materials 17 3.2 materials 18 3.3 Nuclear data 19 3.4 Radioactivity measurements 20 3.5 Standards for safeguards 21

4. Nuclear knowledge management, training and education 22 4.1 Nuclear knowledge management 22 4.2 JRC training programme on Nuclear Safety and Security 23 4.3 Monitoring human resources in the nuclear energy sector 24

5. Fostering the innovation flow 25 5.1 Innovation in materials 25 5.2 Innovation in fuels 26 5.3 Innovation in safeguards 27 5.4 Generation IV International Forum (GIF) 28

The JRC’s nuclear facilities 29 Publications 31 Useful tools and websites 35 Useful contacts 35 Partners 36 Foreword by Vladimir Šucha, JRC Director-General

n the European Union service, the EU provides both direct research and policy Iaround 27% of support for nuclear safety and security issues, next to its is produced by nuclear scientific and technical expertise in other domains such as energy. Nuclear energy plays Economic and Monetary Union, public health and safety, a fundamental role in the or agriculture and global food security. It also tackles EU for it to meet its own many societal challenges such as climate change, energy targets to cut greenhouse security or socio-economic inequality and therefore also gas emissions and to ensure strives to contribute to growth, jobs, innovation and a low- its energy security. The carbon economy. In addition, the JRC scientific support to choice to use EU policymaking benefits from its interdisciplinarity. or not in the energy mix of each of the 28 EU Member In the nuclear area it fulfils the research obligations of States is a national decision the Euratom Treaty. For over 50 years the JRC has been and currently the situation differs significantly amongst conducting direct research in the nuclear field and has them. Today, there are 14 countries in the EU operating been providing expertise to complement the training and over 130 reactors, two of which have clear phasing out education efforts of the Member States. JRC activities policies, and four that are investing in new-builds. support the need for nuclear safety, security research and cross-cutting activities, in order to ensure that top-level Since 1957, the Euratom Treaty has foreseen a clear role competence and expertise for nuclear safety assessments for the EU in ensuring the safe and sustainable use of are available in the EU. nuclear energy across Europe and helping the Member states meet the highest standards of safety, security The JRC, for example, carries out research in the field of and non-proliferation. Through the Joint Research Centre safety. This research area focuses on fuel (JRC), the European Commission’s in-house science behaviour under harsh reactor conditions. The JRC also

2 deals with pre-normative research on nuclear structural The JRC has several strategic international agreements materials, resulting in codes and standards, novel test and cooperates with international organisations and techniques and advanced inspection procedures. Another partners such as the International Atomic Energy Agency area of expertise is the development of nuclear reference (IAEA), the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation materials, standards and measurements for benchmarks of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD/NEA), to control environmental radioactivity measurements and the US Department of Energy and third countries, such to check conformity assessments. as , , . In addition, the JRC is the Euratom implementing agent within the framework of the The JRC works very closely with the EU Member States, Generation IV International Forum. both to maximise synergies and to provide a knowledge pool for nuclear stakeholders. This publication highlights the JRC activities in the nuclear research field and I hope that it will help the reader In the context of its policy support role, the JRC contributes understand the need for solid science to meet global to the solutions for Europe’s longer-term energy challenges, nuclear safety and security challengesha and the JRC’s role, as well as helping to address citizens’ concerns about current which builds on ourour worldwideworldwide recognised expertise in , in particular safety and security and this area.rea. waste management. For example, the JRC assists Member States in gathering feedback on operational experiences in the nuclear field and supports the exchange of radiological environmental monitoring. The JRC also has a significant policy support role in the EU, for instance by coordinating an EU action plan on chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear security, aiming to reduce the threat of such incidents, including terrorist acts.

3 Introduction

CHAPTER 1 Nuclear safety

nsuring nuclear safety and security is a priority for the EEU. As the European Commission’s in-house science service, the Joint Research Centre (JRC) supports the Commission in fulfilling the obligations originally set up by the Euratom (European Atomic Energy Community) Treaty in the areas of nuclear research, training and education, Nuclear safety covers the whole life cycle of a nuclear and radiation protection. installation. It includes: safety, nuclear fuel safety, nuclear waste management and decommis- The JRC’s nuclear research activities are defined in a sioning and emergency preparedness, all activities that Council Regulation on the research and training pro- are covered by the JRC. gramme of the European Atomic Energy Community (2014-18), which complements the EU framework pro- The JRC assists the Member States’ nuclear safety authori- gramme for research and innovation, Horizon 2020. The ties and their technical support organisations, as well activities also fulfil the legal obligations under the Euratom as the European Commission services in this field, for Treaty (chapter III arts 36 and 39), and under several example in the field of radiological information exchange. Euratom recommendations, decisions and directives. The JRC also performs direct nuclear fuel safety research The March 2011 Council as well as nuclear summits in its state-of-the-art experimental facilities. Its research conclusions also emphasise the need to give priority to focuses on safety limits of nuclear fuels and cycles the highest standards for nuclear safety and security in under normal and accidental scenarios, and on the fuels’ the Union and internationally. behaviour under harsh reactor conditions.

There are currently around 130 nuclear reactors in opera- tion in 14 EU countries, which produce approximately one CHAPTER 2 third of the European Union’s electricity. The choice to use Nuclear security nuclear power or not in the energy mix of each of the 28 EU Member States is a national decision and currently the situation differs significantly among them. Some Member States have nuclear phase-out policies, whilst some others are opting for long-term operation and life- time extension of their nuclear plants.

This report provides a comprehensive overview of the Nuclear security deals with the physical protection and work of the JRC, the European Commission’s in-house control of nuclear materials. JRC research topics in this science service in the domain of nuclear safety and area include nuclear safeguards, Additional Protocol, security. This research area encompasses the safety of open source information on nuclear non-proliferation, nuclear reactors and the nuclear fuel itself, the safe combating illicit trafficking of nuclear materials and operation of nuclear energy systems, as well as nuclear nuclear forensic analysis. safeguards, non-proliferation and the fight against illicit activities involving nuclear and radiological material. The JRC provides scientific, technical and operational support to the Commission’s Energy Directorate-General The description of the JRC’s work is divided into five chap- responsible for nuclear safeguards, the Directorate- ters, each chapter describing JRC research and relevant General for Home Affairs and the Directorate-General for scientific outputs in the area, linked to their policy back- Development Cooperation under the chemical, biological, ground and context. In addition, lists of facilities, partners radiological and nuclear (CBRN) security action plan. and references as well as links to useful tools and It also cooperates with major partners in EU Member websites are provided. States and countries worldwide, as well as with the Inter- national Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in the areas of nuclear measurements, process monitoring, containment and surveillance and advanced safeguard approaches.

4 The JRC also contributes to the development and im- plementation of EU strategic trade controls, to the de- velopment of specific expertise in the forensic analysis of nuclear and radioactive materials, to the testing and standardisation of equipment and to the enhancement of CHAPTER 5 border security and related training efforts for first front- Fostering the innovation flow line responders and national experts in the detection and identification of nuclear materials.

CHAPTER 3 Reference measurements, materials and standards The JRC pursues innovation through EU research pro- grammes in the areas of nuclear materials for new reactor technologies, , nuclear safeguards and nuclear non-proliferation; and safety for innovative reactor designs.

The sustainable use of resources requires pushing the The EU helps to ensure that nuclear energy activities in technological limits of materials and fuels. The JRC works all Member States are pursued and enforced with the on nuclear structural materials that can be used in harsh highest standards of nuclear safety, security and non- new reactor environments by performing pre-normative proliferation. It is fundamental that these EU standards research and development (R&D), delivering qualified are also harmonised with global initiatives. data into codes and standards, developing novel test techniques, and advanced inspection procedures, which The JRC scientifically supports this harmonisation pro- are intended for use within Generation IV reactors, the cess and the enforcement of EU legislation by developing new generation of reactors. material and document standards. It is also a world-re- nowned and accredited provider of certified nuclear ref- Long-lived radionuclides, which are a by-product of erence materials, nuclear reference measurements and nuclear reaction, are still of major concern for nuclear determines benchmarks for the control of environmental waste management. Fundamental safety properties at radioactivity measurements and conformity assessments different stages of irradiation are addressed by innova- in order to establish confidence in measurement results of tive JRC programmes for the transmutation of long-lived national safety and international safeguards authorities. radionuclides.

R&D in nuclear safeguards and non-proliferation aims to CHAPTER 4 prevent or detect the misuse of . In order Nuclear knowledge management, training to tackle new security concerns associated with growing and education and increasingly advanced facilities, the JRC undertakes research and development in nuclear safeguards, non- proliferation and nuclear security with a view to develop high quality process monitoring, sealing and laser-based 3D verification techniques, and to carry out open-source media analyses.

The safety of innovative reactor designs is pivotal in view The Euratom Treaty clearly underlines the role of the of their potential deployment in Europe. The JRC works European Commission as the responsible entity for facili- in partnership with European and international organisa- tating nuclear research in Member States and for carrying tions to develop safety assessment methodologies for out an EU research and training programme. This is cru- innovative reactor designs, to define their criteria and to cial to maintain high levels of nuclear safety and security. establish guidelines. It also investigates the application To this end, the JRC monitors European human resources of innovative multi-physics computational approaches in the nuclear field, develops nuclear knowledge manage- for safety analysis under simulated normal, transient and ment and has established a comprehensive training accidental operational modes. programme on Nuclear Safety and Security.

5 1 Nuclear safety

uclear safety covers the design, construction, opera- and cycles under normal/off-normal operating conditions Ntion and decommissioning of all nuclear installations and severe accident scenarios. The main goals of the (e.g. reprocessing plants, nuclear power plants and waste analyses are the determination and modelling of the evo- storage facilities) as well as fuel management. The JRC lution of the physical, chemical, and thermo-mechanical provides assistance and direct research in the fields of properties in the presence of increasing fission products nuclear fuel safety, decommissioning, waste management and atomic displacement due to irradiation. radiological monitoring and emergency preparedness to both the Member States and the European Commission The JRC also works directly with industry in the field of services. It assists EU countries directly via the European decommissioning to improve governance and technology, Clearinghouse on Nuclear Power Plants Operational since many nuclear installations in Europe will soon reach Experience Feedback initiative, which analyses events in the end of their operational lifecycles. nuclear power plants worldwide. Its reactor safety research activities are focused on severe accident model- Beyond EU borders, the JRC supports projects addressing ling, and on cooperation with international organisations nuclear safety in EU candidate countries (under the EU such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance – IPA) and in and the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation for other countries worldwide (under the EU Instrument for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD/NEA). Nuclear Safety Cooperation – INSC). In addition, the JRC is closely cooperating with relevant national and inter- Within its experimental facilities, the JRC performs national organisations to support the development and research to determine the safety limits of nuclear fuels improvement of nuclear safety standards.

JRC hot cells facility for the study of the nuclear fuel safety.

JRC activities in this area provide scientific support bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ#SP?RMKȩLMȩ ȩMDȩȩ"CACK@CPȩ to the following policy initiatives: 1987 on maximum permitted levels of radioactive contamination of foodstuffs bȩȩȩ2PC?RWȩCQR?@JGQFGLEȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ RMKGAȩ#LCPEWȩ bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ#3ȩ,Mȩ ȩMDȩȩ(SLCȩȩ Community (Euratom Treaty) – 1957 amending Council Regulation (EC) No 1085/2006 bȩȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ  #!ȩMDȩȩ(SJWȩȩMLȩRFCȩ establishing an Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance conditions governing imports of agricultural products (IPA) originating in third countries following the accident at bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ#!ȩ,Mȩ ȩMDȩȩ(SJWȩȩ the Chernobyl nuclear power station establishing an Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ  #!ȩMDȩȩ-ARM@CPȩȩMLȩ (IPA) imports amending Regulation (EC) no 733/2008 bȩȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  #SP?RMKȩMDȩȩ-ARM@CPȩȩJ?WGLEȩ bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ#SP?RMKȩ,Mȩ ȩMDȩȩ$C@PS?PWȩ down requirements for the protection of the health of 2007 establishing an Instrument for Nuclear Safety the general public with regard to radioactive substances Cooperation in water intended for human consumption

6 1 bȩȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  #SP?RMKȩMDȩȩ"CACK@CPȩȩ bȩȩ"CAGQGMLȩ ȩMDȩȩ"CACK@CPȩȩMLȩ!MKKSLGRWȩ

laying down basic safety standards for protection arrangements for the early exchange of information in Nuclear safet against dangers arising from exposure to ionising the event of a radiological emergency radiation, and repealing Directives 89/618/Euratom, bȩȩ0CAMKKCLB?RGMLȩ  #SP?RMKȩMDȩȩ(SLCȩȩ 90/641/Euratom, 96/29/Euratom and 2003/122/ on the application of article 36 of the Euratom Treaty

Euratom concerning the monitoring of the levels of radioactivity y bȩȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  #SP?RMKȩMDȩȩ(SJWȩȩ in the environment for the purpose of assessing the establishing a Community framework for the exposure of the population as a whole responsible and safe management of spent fuel and bȩȩ!MLAJSQGMLQȩMDȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ!MSLAGJȩMDȩȩ?LBȩȩ+?PAFȩ 2011 on the mandate for the stress tests, EUCO 10/1/11 bȩȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  #!ȩMDȩȩ,MTCK@CPȩȩMLȩRFCȩOS?JGRWȩ bȩȩ BT?LACBȩDSCJȩAWAJCȩMNRGMLQȩ1RP?RCEGAȩ0CQC?PAFȩ?LBȩ of water intended for human consumptionDirective Innovation Agenda (SRIA) of the SNETP 2009/71/Euratom of 25 June 2009 establishing a bȩȩ%CMJMEGA?JȩBGQNMQ?JȩMDȩ&GEF *CTCJȩ5?QRCȩ1RP?RCEGAȩ Community framework for the nuclear safety of nuclear Research Agenda of the IGD-TP (Implementing Geological installations "GQNMQ?JȩMDȩ0?BGM?ARGTCȩ5?QRCȩ2CAFLMJMEWȩ.J?RDMPKȩ

1.1 Reactor safety In addition, it collaborates with the Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform (SNETP) and provides Operational experience feedback (OEF) from the more than support to European networks and associations related 400 operational nuclear reactors worldwide is important to severe accidents, such as SARNET and NUGENIA to improve nuclear safety. In order to maintain an effective (Nuclear Generation II and III Association). feedback mechanism, a wide range of information needs to be accessed and processed. The European EU Clearinghouse A new Euratom FP7 research project which focused on initiative has therefore been set up, supporting the EU nucle- the Code for European Severe Accident Management ar safety authorities, EU technical support organisations and (CESAM) was launched in 2013. international organisations, and the broader nuclear stake- It regroups 17 EU partners and India. The JRC has an holders community. The JRC operates its centralised office. active role in the project, as it contributes to modelling activities and the main part of the project, The experience gained has been key to the JRC’s participa- which focuses on power plant applications and severe tion in a safety review of all EU nuclear power plants: a com- accident management. prehensive and transparent risk assessment, known as the nuclear ‘stress tests’ organised by the European Commission The ultimate aim is to provide recommendations and and the European Nuclear Safety Regulators Group (ENSREG) to contribute to the enhancement of severe accident in the aermath of the Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011. management in European nuclear power plants, based 5GRFȩRFCȩQCR SNȩMDȩ?ȩNPMHCARȩGLȩȩMLȩQCTCPCȩ?AAGBCLRȩ on the understanding of severe accident phenomena modelling and analyses for nuclear power plants, the JRC and especially the ones relevant to Fukushima. This further reinforced its contribution to Europe’s post-Fukushi- knowledge will be built on the further development ma nuclear safety efforts. The outcome will set the technical of the ASTEC computer code (Accident Source Term foundations for the review of EU legislation on nuclear safety. Evaluation Code), the European reference computer code for the simulation of severe accidents in nuclear The JRC has longstanding expertise in the field of severe power plants (NPPs). ASTEC is jointly developed by accidents, including through its participation in the FP7 the French Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Severe Accident Research Network Of Excellence (SARNET), Nucléaire (IRSN) and the German Gesellscha für which mainly covers on-site phenomena (accident pro- Anlangen- und Reaktorsicherheit (GRS), with the gression and source term evaluation) during the early and support of EU and non-EU partners. mid-term phase of a severe accident.

Beyond EU borders, the JRC supports projects addressing nuclear safety in EU candidate and other countries world- wide. In addition, the JRC is closely cooperating with relevant national and international organisations to support the development and improvement of nuclear safety standards.

Work in progress

The JRC is developing databases and organising training sessions to strengthen the feedback on operating experience of nuclear power plants in the EU. It is also conducting research on nuclear event evaluation methods and techniques, in support of long-term EU policy needs Contribution to the understanding of severe accident phenomena, like the on operational feedback. Fukushima accident.

7 1.2 Fuel safety They focus in particular on how the increasing presence of fission products and of displaced atoms in the crystal- The safety of nuclear fuel is the basic safety requirement line lattice of the fuel causes macroscopic degradations when producing nuclear energy. The fuel rods in the core of the lattice’s mechanical properties (swelling, cracking), of a reactor must retain all radionuclides while generating and its capacity to transport the heat generated by the energy. The JRC uses experimental facilities and nuclear fission process to the . modelling codes to study the properties and behaviour of nuclear fuel, and to determine the safety limits under TRANSURANUS is a computer programme which predicts normal and off-normal operating conditions, including the thermo-mechanical behaviour of fuel rods in nuclear severe accident scenarios. reactors and during storage. It was developed by the JRC in 1982, and has since been used by safety authorities, industry, research centres and universities across the EU. The programme is part of a long tradition of high quality modelling at the JRC. To keep it at state-of-the-art level, it undergoes continuous development and updating, taking into account new understandings of physico- mechanisms determining the nuclear fuel properties, and new accurate sets of experimental data measuring those same properties. In many cases the experimental data are produced by the scientific facilities of the JRC.

Optical microscope cross section (~10 mm diameter) of an irradiated In the context of recent EU funded programmes, the commercial fuel rod. JRC developed detailed and physics-based models which have been fed into the TRANSURANUS code, The studies include fuel safety during irradiation in-pile along with new materials properties. For example, the and post-discharge from the nuclear reactor core. Safety fission gas behaviour model has been implemented and issues relevant to conventional and advanced fuels and assessed during the most recent benchmark for fuel cycles in the EU, such as extended fuel operation (which performance codes (Fuel Modelling at Extended permits higher fuel consumption, or ‘burn-up’), fast - FUMEX-III) organised by the IAEA, while the model and reactor fuels (such as compounds), and closed material properties for actinide redistribution in mixed cycle fuels incorporating minor (neptunium, oxide fuels has been published and will be tested in , ) fall under the JRC research scope. the framework of the new benchmark organised by the Expert Group on Innovative Fuels from the OECD/NEA. The JRC investigates physical, chemical and thermo- mechanical properties of nuclear fuels and materials. Fuel compounds (actinide oxides, carbides, nitrides and other Work in progress special compositions) are prepared to characterise basic and safety-relevant properties, and to test specific aspects The JRC is studying emerging safety issues relevant for of their behaviour under irradiation conditions. Post-irra- current and future trends in the EU. This involves examining diation examination allows assessment of the response of mixed oxide (MOX) properties, fuel-cladding interactions, fuel and cladding to the extreme solicitations experienced mechanisms for high burn-up structure (HBS) formation, in the reactor. The effects on the properties of the fuel behaviour of fuel during loss of coolant accidents (LOCA); due to strong temperature and fission density gradients, exploring innovative fuels for nuclear light water reactors combined with the intense irradiation damage and the *50Qȩ?LBȩQK?JJȩKMBSJ?PȩPC?ARMPQȩ1+0Q ȩ?LBȩA?PPWGLEȩ accumulation of fission products, are also investigated. out research into fuel systems for advanced reactors (plutonium compounds) and closed cycle fuels incorpo- rating minor actinides (neptunium, americium, curium).

Fuel safety experiment at the JRC hot cells. High magnification morphology of fuel irradiated at high temperatures. In addition, the JRC is preparing further severe accident The JRC analyses cover morphology and structure, compo- studies on specific aspects of the Fukushima accident: sition and phase distribution, heat and matter transport, extended loss of cooling, in-vessel materials interactions, mechanical and chemical interactions, and span from off-vessel fuel-concrete interactions and spent fuel the atomic level to the macroscopic/operational one. behaviour in cooling ponds.

8 The JRC also links its research to the main priorities of EU The JRC will furthermore create a decommissioning 1 technology platforms and relevant networks (SNETP, NU- ‘reference centre’ in view of harmonising and standardising

GENIA, the European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative the methods for clearance measurements in the EU. Nuclear safet – ESNII, and the European Energy Research Alliance – EERA). Nuclear fuel rods used in reactors are typically hollow metallic tubes of 4 m long and a diameter of about

1.3 Nuclear waste management and 10 mm, containing a stack of pellets made up of y decommissioning or uranium-plutonium dioxide.

2FCȩ#SP?RMKȩ2PC?RWȩ?LBȩRFCȩ5?QRCȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  Transporting them safely is key to the back-end of the EURATOM) establish the basis for responsible and safe . To optimise the analysis of hypotheti- management of spent fuel and radioactive waste in cal accidents, the authorities demand that some knowl- the EU, building on a series of internationally accepted edge gaps (and the related experimental data) are filled. principles, such as the protection of present and future generations. The goal of radioactive waste management One of these gaps is how much fuel would be released is therefore disposal under robust safety conditions. from a spent fuel rod in case of an accident causing The JRC contributes directly to the implementation of mechanical failure. The JRC investigated the resistance RFCȩ5?QRCȩ"GPCARGTCȩ@WȩQSNNMPRGLEȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ,SAJC?Pȩ of spent fuel rods against severe impact: «crash tests» Energy Forum (ENEF) in guiding the Member States. were performed on spent fuel rods from different reactor types and with different characteristics.

The JRC, in collaboration with and the Gesellscha für Nuklear-Service (GNS), characterised the fracturing behaviour and the fuel release. The conclusions were that under these impact conditions only a relatively limited amount of fuel is released from the rod. These types of studies are now widened to include the possible effects of extended storage time on the impact resistance of the spent fuel rods. Photoemission spectrometer to study surface pheno- mena relevant for 1.4 Emergency preparedness spent fuel corrosion processes. Lessons learnt aer the Fukushima accident highlight the importance of well-defined and established emergency A key challenge is the disposal of high-level waste in deep response procedures involving all actors (operational, geological repositories. The amount and type of such waste technical, regulatory and legal entities). depends on the national nuclear programme and the fuel cycle option used. Nowadays, the two main management During the early phase of a large-scale accident with the options for spent fuel are reprocessing or direct disposal. release of radioactive material, it is not only essential to Through research the JRC supports Member States on the notify competent authorities as early and efficiently as long-term safety of disposed high-level waste and spent possible, but also to rapidly exchange relevant radiologi- fuel. Large amounts of waste will be generated in the cal information. Only timely information on the (likely) coming decades because a significant number of nuclear contaminated area can to sound and internationally facilities will reach the end of their useful life. coordinated actions to protect the affected population.

The JRC also cooperates with industry to improve governance, Under the Euratom Treaty, EU countries are obliged to collaboration and technology in the field of decommissioning. continuously monitor radioactivity in the air, water and soil, and report it to the European Commission. During Work in progress the early phase of an accident it is not only important to exchange monitoring information, but also to use The JRC is providing technical support to the Commission’s it for estimating the dispersion of radioactivity in the Directorate-General for Energy for the assessment of the environment. A concept for an operational system that GKNJCKCLR?RGMLȩ?RȩL?RGML?JȩJCTCJȩMDȩRFCȩ5?QRCȩ"GPCARGTC links the European information systems (see further) with predictive radio-ecological models for the various It is also studying the safety aspects and criteria of spent environmental areas is being developed by several national fuel during extended storage, subsequent handling and European research institutes. Dedicated efforts will thus transportation. The JRC is additionally involved in several be needed to integrate measurements and models (for relevant R&D programmes, to improve the safety case, example to identify areas likely to be contaminated to including operational safety during industrial implementa- an extent that would require appropriate but potentially tion of both waste management options (i.e. partitioning costly countermeasures like the removal of associated and transmutation, and final disposal processes). agricultural products from the market).

9 Today, the EU exchanges this kind of information through It continuously makes data available from 39 organi- two main information systems: EURDEP (the European sations in 37 European countries, from about 4400 Radiological Data Exchange Platform) and ECURIE (European automatic gamma dose-rate stations on an hourly basis Community Urgent Radiological Information Exchange), and some 100 air concentration monitoring stations both conceived, developed, tested and implemented by the on a daily basis during an emergency, as well as under JRC, assisting therefore both Member States and candidate normal conditions. countries in meeting their legal reporting obligations. At the same time, international data standards and protocols On a global level, the JRC assists the IAEA in developing with the IAEA have been developed and implemented to its International Radiation Monitoring Information keep these information systems compatible with the EU System (IRMIS). In this concept, EURDEP will continue countries’ international obligations. to act as the European real-time monitoring network and the European Commission (through the JRC and The JRC is also responsible for the development, testing and the Directorate-General for Energy) will remain the GKNJCKCLR?RGMLȩMDȩRFCȩ#!30'# PCJ?RCBȩQMȓU?PC ȩ5C@#!30'#ȩ European contact point for IRMIS. In addition, the JRC uses web technology and therefore only internet access is will provide technical assistance to test the initial data required for the national contact points to operate it. The exchange with the IAEA member states outside Europe. emergency information is handled in a bulletin board style, The EURDEP concept, as a regional data exchange which the Member State authorities really appreciate as it system, will also serve as a prototype for setting up allows them to handle the large amount of information in regional networks in other parts of the world. In this a very orderly manner in case of an exercise or accident. context, the JRC will start a feasibility study in South- East Asia in 2014, in collaboration with the IAEA. The soware has been officially tested for the first time during the IAEA-organised international emergency response exercise (ConvEx3) in November 2013 where Work in progress it was found to be operating according to expectations. The JRC is adapting the current information exchange 5FCLȩAMJJCARGLEȩP?BGMJMEGA?JȩB?R?ȩDPMKȩBGȎCPCLRȩL?RGML?Jȩ systems to allow access through social media and to sources, it is most important to understand how the moni- involve countries outside of Europe. At the same time it is toring in the Member States is done (sampling methods investigating the most efficient way to transfer the content. and procedures, measuring and reporting techniques or the design of the networks). The JRC carried out scientific It is also analysing existing environmental radioactivity analyses to formulate recommendations on how this can networks, focusing on their design and how to improve the be harmonised at international level. harmonisation between their results. In this context, the JRC is further exploring how existing radio-ecological The JRC is also establishing the Reference Centre for models might make better use of raw data, providing Radioactivity Measurements in the Environment and prognosis of radioactivity dispersion in the environment. Food to evaluate the performance of quick measurement methods, and to provide science-based advice to policy- makers and responsible laboratories alike.

The JRC organises regular inter-laboratory comparisons among the monitoring laboratories of Member States to as- sess the comparability of the monitoring data. These pro- vide the laboratories with a means of benchmarking their performance and improving their measurement capabilities.

The European Radiological Data Exchange Platform (EURDEP) facilitates the transmission of large datasets from radioactivity environmental monitoring networks. Results of the monitoring laboratories for the determination of 228Ra in mineral water.

In addition, the JRC is preparing an inventory of methods used to monitor radioactivity in food and of the corresponding regulatory framework in the Member States and at commu- nity level. In a second phase, recommendations to improve harmonisation between Member States will be provided.

EURDEP web interface showing the on-line gamma dose-rate monitoring stations in Europe.

10 2 Nuclear security

he 1957 Euratom Treaty was the first cornerstone of and an integrated, holistic approach were singled out as TEU engagement in nuclear safety and security. It intro- the main drivers towards enhanced nuclear security. duced a strict system of safeguards to ensure that nuclear materials are only used for declared, peaceful purposes. In the area of combating illicit trafficking of nuclear and The EU has exclusive powers in this domain, which it exer- radiological materials, significant progress has been cises with the aid of a team of inspectors who enforce the made in recent years with an EU action plan on chemical, safeguards throughout the EU. Within its framework and biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) security. The with the framework of the European Safeguards Research CBRN action plan also addresses the need to reduce the and Development Association (ESARDA), the JRC has been threats of this type of incident, including terrorist acts. providing scientific, technical and operational support and cooperates with major partners in the EU. The EU has developed particular expertise in the forensic analysis of nuclear and radioactive materials and in the At international level, the European Commission provides testing and standardisation of detection equipment. scientific support and technical developments to the Inter- Training programmes have been developed for first front- national Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The JRC supports line responders and national experts in the detection and the IAEA in the areas of nuclear measurements, process identification of nuclear materials, and the enhancement monitoring, containment and surveillance and advanced of border security and related training efforts. These are safeguards approaches. This includes the development internationally coordinated, with the US and the IAEA, of tools to support the identification of illicit procurement through the Border Monitoring Working Group (BMWG). activities, as well as the development and implementation Progress in nuclear forensics through the International of EU strategic export controls through technical assess- Technical Working Group on Nuclear Forensics (ITWG) also ments and capacity building programmes. merits special mention.

JRC nuclear safeguards and forensic laboratory with mass spectrometry instrumentation. JRC activities in this area provide scientific support The JRC co-organised the EU high-level event on to the following policy initiatives: “international cooperation to enhance a worldwide nuclear security culture” in the run-up to the 2014 nuclear security bȩȩȩ2PC?RWȩCQR?@JGQFGLEȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ RMKGAȩ#LCPEWȩ summit in Amsterdam. More than 100 participants from Community (Euratom Treaty) – 1957 around 40 countries – including Member States, the bȩȩ2FCȩ'LRCPL?RGML?Jȩ2PC?RWȩMLȩRFCȩ,ML .PMJGDCP?RGMLȩMDȩ United States, Japan, the Republic of Korea and Canada ,SAJC?Pȩ5C?NMLQȩMDȩȩ NPGJȩȩ',$!'0! ȩ – and international organisations participated in the and associated Additional Protocol event. The participants identified three main enablers bȩȩ3LGRCBȩ,?RGML?Jȩ1CASPGRWȩ!MSLAGJȩ0CQMJSRGMLȩ for a strengthened nuclear security culture: people and 1540(2004) – All states shall act to prevent culture; legal frame and best practice; and knowledge proliferation of mass destruction weapons and technological advancement. Co-operation at all levels

11 bȩȩ2FCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ3LGMLȩ!MSLRCP 2CPPMPGQKȩ1RP?RCEWȩ (14469/4/05 REV4), 30 November 2005 bȩȩ ȩQCASPCȩ#SPMNCȩGLȩ?ȩ CRRCPȩ5MPJBȩzȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ Security Strategy adopted by the European Council on 12 December 2003 bȩȩ$GEFRȩ?E?GLQRȩRFCȩNPMJGDCP?RGMLȩMDȩUC?NMLQȩMDȩK?QQȩ destruction - EU strategy against proliferation of 5C?NMLQȩMDȩ+?QQȩ"CQRPSARGMLȩ  ȩ?BMNRCBȩ by the Council of the European Union on 10 December 2003 bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ,Mȩ ȩMDȩȩ+?WȩȩQCRRGLEȩSNȩ?ȩ Community regime for the control of exports, transfer, brokering and transit of dual-use items (Recast) bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ,Mȩ ȩMDȩȩ,MTCK@CPȩȩ establishing an Instrument for Stability bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ,Mȩ ȩMDȩȩ-ARM@CPȩȩ concerning the application of the provisions on Euratom safeguards bȩȩ!MKKSLGA?RGMLȩDPMKȩRFCȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩMDȩȩ+?PAFȩ 2009 on nuclear non-proliferation, COM/2009/0143 JRC on-site laboratory at the reprocessing plant in La Hague (). bȩȩ!MSLAGJȩAMLAJSQGMLQȩMLȩQRPCLERFCLGLEȩAFCKGA?J ȩ biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) security It also operates the analytical on-site laboratories at the in the European Union - an EU CBRN Action Plan, two largest European reprocessing plants in the nuclear 15505/1/09 Rev.1 sites of Sellafield (UK) and La Hague (France) whose bȩȩ!MSLAGJȩ!MLAJSQGMLQȩ?LBȩLCUȩJGLCQȩDMPȩ?ARGMLȩ@Wȩ throughput represents 80% of the world’s reprocessed the European Union in combating the proliferation . JRC experts are present on-site for of weapons of mass destruction and their delivery more than 40 weeks per year, carrying out on average 800 systems, 17172/08 spent fuel analyses. The JRC sample investigations, which are for nuclear accountancy, allow Euratom inspectors to check the fissile material chain and inventory of the 2.1 Safeguards nuclear facilities, thereby ensuring that nuclear material is not diverted from its intended use. Under the Euratom Treaty, the European Commission has the duty to verify that nuclear material is only used for Euratom safeguards are strongly interlinked with those of declared purposes. The aim of the EU regional safeguards the Member States and international organisations, such system is to deter the diversion of nuclear material from as the IAEA. Key partnerships have also been developed peaceful use by maximising the chance of early detection. with the US Department of Energy (R&D agreement on nuclear safeguards and security), , Japan and China. The JRC supports DG Energy, whose mission is to ensure that nuclear material within the EU is not diverted from its Safeguards need to be taken into account from the early intended use, and that the safeguarding obligations that design phases when building new facilities, this is the have been agreed with third parties are complied with. At so-called ‘safeguards-by-design’ concept. Together with an international level, the JRC provides the International the Directorate-General for Energy and the IAEA, the JRC Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) with instruments, tools and supports these efforts and contributes to the activities of methodologies for the control of nuclear materials and the proliferation resistance and physical protection (PRPP) facilities in order to avoid proliferation or diversion. working group of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF).

In the EU, the nuclear fuel cycle is present in all areas, The JRC’s nuclear safeguards activities have been from uranium enrichment, to fuel production, power significantly improved by the opening of the Large reactors, spent fuel reprocessing and final disposal, which Geometry Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (LG- makes the full effective and efficient implementation of the SIMS), a new analytical laboratory for nuclear micro- safeguards and security requirements a challenging task. N?PRGAJCQȩ?L?JWQGQ ȩ5GRFȩRFGQȩQR?RC MD RFC ?PRȩD?AGJGRW ȩ Technological advances are needed and the large flows of JRC scientists can detect – within a few hours – the nuclear materials call for continuous improvements. existence of nuclear particles in samples taken during safeguards inspections and determine their enrichment JRC contributions to R&D have been fundamental to level. This allows international safeguards authorities assuring better safeguards. The JRC provides for example to verify the absence of undeclared nuclear activities. technologies to safeguarding authorities in various fuel The newly-applied technique has been evaluated and cycle domains such as enrichment, fuel fabrication, developed by JRC scientists in close collaboration with reprocessing facilities and final disposal. leading equipment manufacturers in the field; this innovation will both enhance and speed up the nuclear verification process.

12 remains a major concern for global 2 stability and peace. Despite clear and binding legislation

(such as the Non Proliferation Treaty), the IAEA’s Nuclear securit onsite inspections and state-analysis capabilities, and the United Nations Security Council resolutions and sanctions, there are a number of countries that are still MDȩQGELGȏA?LRȩAMLACPL ȩ5FGJCȩQMKCȩMDȩRFCQCȩF?TCȩQGELCBȩ agreements with the IAEA, others refuse to collaborate y with the international community. It is crucial to be able to determine the nature of the possible nuclear proliferation threat. In addition, the threat of non-state actors accessing nuclear-sensitive technology and nuclear weapons should also be considered.

Large Geometry – Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometer for the analysis of particles which contain nuclear materials. Inaugurated in 2012, the joint JRC The JRC develops new tools, approaches and analysis and DG ENER project verifies 235U enrichments in declared facilities and capabilities in this field. Its work can be divided in supports the IAEA for the detection of undeclared nuclear activities. three main areas: verifying the declarations of nuclear materials operators and the absence of undeclared Work in progress activities, determining indicators to detect clandestine activities and developing technologies for the verification The JRC is carrying out R&D on material signatures for the of the effective disarmament of nuclear weapons. improved characterisation of inspection samples (nuclear forensics for safeguards purposes). It is also improving For checking abnormal and clandestine activities or the accuracy of measurement systems to allow more facilities (or the declared absence thereof) the JRC robust safeguards conclusions. develops advanced, innovative techniques and in- field deployable tools (using self-localisation, ambient 5MPIȩGLȩNPMEPCQQȩGQȩ?JQMȩPCJ?RCBȩRMȩ?BT?LACBȩLML BCQRPSA- intelligence, augmented reality tools) and investigative tive assay systems (automated modelling for numerical radio-analytical methodologies for the IAEA to evaluate calibration, alternative detectors, cylinder verifi- material properties against what has been declared. cation at centrifuge enrichment plants, spent fuel assay) and the identification and design information verification It also carries out highly sensitive trace and particle anal- (DIV) through 3D laser applications and innovative seals. ysis both through environmental monitoring and inside the facilities. In addition, the JRC is studying the potential of open source information including satellite imagery and trade data, and it is developing new methodological approaches to safeguards and proliferation resistance evaluation methodologies.

The JRC is also performing R&D to support the new IAEA state evaluation concept, in particular in the area of acquisi- tion paths analysis. It is continuing its work on safeguards- by-design, and together with the Commission’s Directo- rate-General for Energy, it is supporting the facility specific guidelines that are being prepared under the IAEA auspices.

2.2 Non-proliferation

JRC Design Information Verification (DIV) laboratory for safeguards purposes.

The JRC also aims at developing indicators which can point to the build-up of possible clandestine activities and thus determine proliferation threats by country, focusing on the technology, know-how and components required for such activities and their trading. This is done for instance through research on sensitive dual-use technologies and goods sub- ject to strategic export control and through the support to export control actors, such as industry and technology pro- viders, licensing authorities, enforcement and jurisdiction institutions. The JRC also provides technical support and JRC provides reference materials for nuclear safeguards verification. capacity building to the Commission and Member States.

13 Finally, the JRC supports the development of independent by enhancing prevention, detection and response mecha- verification technologies and control of arms dismantle- nisms. ment.

Aer clandestine, undeclared nuclear programmes came to light, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) sought to use information sources in addition to state-declared information to derive indicators of possible undeclared, safeguards-relevant activities. In support to the IAEA, the JRC has surveyed and catalogued open sources on import and export, customs trade data and developed tools for their use in safeguards. Tests on the use of this data by the IAEA suggest safeguards relevance along a number of lines, including improving the understanding of a state’s nuclear programme and supporting the verification of nuclear related exports worldwide. JRC nuclear forensics laboratory for fingerprint and DNA analysis. The JRC’s work on trade analysis contributed to findings on procurement activities of proliferation concern 5GRFȩGRQȩJMLE QR?LBGLEȩCVNCPGCLACȩGLȩF?LBJGLEȩ?LBȩ reported by the IAEA. Since then the IAEA has used analysing nuclear material, its high-level expertise trade data sources and analysis techniques developed and specialised facilities, the JRC is perfectly equipped to by the JRC on a regular basis. The IAEA stated that develop technical solutions to the nuclear security chal- the new approach developed by the JRC ‘provided lenges. Of course, the JRC also cooperates with a wide very useful results and will be instrumental to the range of other key players in this area. consolidation of information driven safeguards’. The JRC’s R&D in combatting illicit trafficking focuses on nuclear detection technologies, testing and standardisation Work in progress of equipment, responses to illicit trafficking incidents and nuclear forensic science. The JRC for example develops The JRC is further defining, qualifying and quantifying strategies and tests technologies for advanced radiation innovative indicators, focusing on tools for integrated detection systems and for alarm adjudication, in particular nuclear non-proliferation analysis, using multiple source with a view to ‘innocent’ alarms. In response to illicit information based on in-field data (where available); on trafficking, it conceived a model that could foster the IAEA reports; open source information and daily news; implementation of national response plans. It also ensures independent data gathering from specialised databases that law enforcement needs are included in responses to (e.g. trade); and on advanced analyses of technical capa- radiological and nuclear incidents. In the area of nuclear bilities, environmental sampling and remote observation. forensics the JRC studies ‘nuclear signatures’ (which provide hints on the history and origin of the material), develops In addition, it supports the efforts against the illicit trade of analytical and interpretational methods supporting the dual-use goods by contributing to the definition of guide- attribution of nuclear material of unknown origin, and lines for harmonised trade controls; by performing research performs analyses of seized nuclear material in support and technical studies on dual-use technologies; supporting of EU Member States, international organisations and EU services in amending dual-use control lists; delivering countries outside the EU. capacity building and training for authorities in the EU and candidate countries and by performing enhanced internal Work in progress compliance programmes for research and industry. The JRC activities in the area of nuclear security are inter- twined with strategic collaborations with the IAEA and the 2.3 R&D activities to combat US Department of Energy (DOE). The work currently focuses illicit trafficking on developing advanced detection systems for neutron and gamma radiation, on strengthening the JRC’s leading role in Illicit trafficking of nuclear and other radioactive material nuclear forensics and improving the nuclear forensic toolset. remains an issue of concern due to radiological hazards linked to proliferation and the threat of nuclear terrorism. 2.4 Chemical, biological, radiological and Since 1993 more than 2 300 incidents were registered in nuclear hazards mitigation the IAEA’s Incident and Trafficking Database, more than 200 of which involved nuclear material. Illicit nuclear trafficking In an international security context, preventing and miti- begs the questions why, how and where the material has gating chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) spun out of regulatory control, what the geographical and hazards has become crucial. Through the EU CBRN ac- historical origin is, and what the intended use could be. tion plan, the EU significantly contributes to the interna- Nuclear security measures aim to address these concerns tional efforts to mitigate the associated threats and risks.

14 The role of the JRC here lies in conducting radiological sharing information, disseminating best practices; 2 and nuclear research, mainly in the areas of detection and maintaining the CoE private ‘Coordination and

technologies, forensics, response and training. Communication’ portal developed by the JRC. Nuclear securit

The EU CBRN action plan is implemented through the Prevention of and Fight against Crime work programmes of the Commission’s Directorate-General for Home Affairs (DG HOME). As a member of the CBRN advisory group, y the JRC gives technical support to the implementation of the plan which is guided by consultation with national authorities and other relevant stakeholders such as the IAEA, Interpol and Europol.

In this context, the JRC manages EUSECTRA, a security training centre, and is responsible for the Illicit Trafficking Radiation Assessment Programme (ITRAP+10). The JRC is also working on a CBRN glossary, contributing to the IAEA illicit trafficking database and supporting its expertise in nuclear forensics. In addition, it offers virtual reality trainings and studies performance of portal monitoring EUSECTRA outdoor lab with portal monitors which simulates border controls. under environmental conditions.

The JRC has developed a method for rapid and accurate age dating of uranium samples. Nuclear forensic science makes use of measurable material parameters that provide hints on origin, age and intended use of the material. Using the radioactive decay of nuclear material allows determining the date of the last chemical separation, referred to as the ‘age’ of the material. Research has resulted in new signatures and improved analytical methods. Determining the production date of nuclear material is particularly important for investigating authorities.

In addition, the JRC produced the first certified reference material for uranium’s production date and Illicit trafficking radiation assessment programme (ITRAP) facility at the JRC. carried out an inter-laboratory comparison exercise.

The JRC also supports the technical implementation of Work in progress the EU Centres of Excellence on Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Risk Mitigation (CBRN CoE Ini- The JRC has been tasked by the Commission’s Directorate- tiative) outside the EU. This initiative aims to implement General for Home Affairs to extend the ITRAP+10 project a coordinated strategy for mitigation and preparedness to include additional equipment and pave the way towards against risks related to CBRN material at the internation- further equipment standardisation together with EU al, regional and national levels and to boost cooperation. Member State laboratories. The JRC also runs a project on the inter-comparison of short range dispersion modelling The origin of the risk can be criminal (proliferation, the, for nuclear security events (such as terrorist attacks) with sabotage and illicit trafficking), accidental (industrial the EU Member States and proposes a benchmark study catastrophes, in particular chemical or nuclear, waste to analyse the use of these models in decision support treatment and transport) or natural (mainly pandemics). systems for nuclear emergencies. There are currently more than 40 non-EU countries GLTMJTCB ȩ 5MPIGLEȩ GLȩ AJMQCȩ AMJJ?@MP?RGMLȩ UGRFȩ RFCȩ On behalf of the Commission’s Directorate-General for Directorate-General for Development and Cooperation, Development and Cooperation, the JRC also assures the the JRC has been instrumental in the setting up and international coordination of nuclear security outreach opening of the CBRN regional secretariat, providing projects (including security of radioactive sources, detec- technical support such as evaluation and quality control, tion of and response to illicit trafficking and export control) needs assessment and knowledge management. and helps the countries benefiting from support under the Instrument for Stability in the analysis of their needs, the JRC support includes developing CBRN guidelines prioritisation of projects, the monitoring of ongoing work and National Action Plans, and carrying out needs and the evaluation of the impact of executed projects. assessments; monitoring and evaluating aspects of projects and undertaking quality control;

15 3 Reference measurements, materials and standards

U instruments, in particular standards and directives, important tools for the enforcement and monitoring of EU Emust be in line with global initiatives, such as those legislation, such as the Euratom Treaty. As the guardian of coming from international conventions and nuclear safety the European treaties, the Commission watches over the standards, including the IAEA and OECD/NEA. The JRC effective regional nuclear safeguards, by implementing supports this harmonisation process by developing inspections, reporting and providing technical and scientific reference materials, measurements and standards. support to its Member States in close partnership with the IAEA. Not only for nuclear safety legislation is there a growing demand for harmonised approaches, but also for The JRC supports these activities by developing and modelling tools used for safety assessments of nuclear providing nuclear reference materials and standards, which installations. Despite enormous progress, modern safety are used as benchmarks for control measurements and evaluations with reduced error margins still ask for conformity assessments, so that safety and safeguards substantial additional research efforts both on nuclear authorities and nuclear laboratories can demonstrate and materials properties. that their measurement results are reliable, traceable and globally comparable. The JRC also performs reference The JRC is a world-renowned and accredited provider of measurements that are used for safety and security nuclear reference materials and measurements, which are assessments and for implementing standards.

JRC activities in this area provide scientific support Moving forward to enhance and accelerate the to the following policy initiatives: sustainable growth of the European economy by 2020, COM(2011)311 bȩ2PC?RWȩCQR?@JGQFGLEȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ RMKGAȩ#LCPEWȩ bȩȩ!MKKSLGA?RGMLȩDPMKȩRFCȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩMDȩȩ Community (Euratom Treaty) – 1957 October 2010 - An Integrated Industrial Policy for bȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ,Mȩ ȩMDȩȩ-ARM@CPȩȩMLȩ the Globalisation Era Putting Competitiveness and European Standardisation Sustainability at Centre Stage, COM(2010)614 bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ#SP?RMKȩ,Mȩ ȩMDȩȩ$C@PS?PWȩ bȩȩ!MSLAGJȩAMLAJSQGMLȩDPMKȩȩ?LBȩȩ+?PAFȩȩMLȩ 2005 on the application of Euratom safeguards - the implementation and continuous improvement of Council/Commission statement highest standards for nuclear safety bȩȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  #SP?RMKȩMDȩȩ(SJWȩȩ bȩȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ!MSLAGJȩAMLAJSQGMLQȩMDȩȩ1CNRCK@CPȩȩ establishing a Community framework for the on standardisation and innovation responsible and safe management of spent fuel and bȩȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩ1R?Ȏȩ5MPIGLEȩ.?NCP ȩ+?RCPG?JQȩ0M?BK?Nȩ radioactive waste Enabling Low Carbon Energy Technologies of 13 bȩȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  #SP?RMKȩMDȩȩ(SLCȩȩ December 2011, SEC(2011)1609 final establishing a Community framework for the nuclear bȩȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩ1R?Ȏȩ5MPIGLEȩ.?NCPȩ?AAMKN?LWGLEȩRFCȩ safety of nuclear installations Communication (COM/2011/563) of 19 September bȩȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  #SP?RMKȩMDȩȩ"CACK@CPȩȩ 2011 – 1st Situation Report on Training and Education laying down basic safety standards for protection in the nuclear energy field in the European Union, against dangers arising from exposure to ionising SEC(2011)1046 final radiation, and repealing Directives 89/618/Euratom, bȩȩ+SRS?Jȩ0CAMELGRGMLȩ PP?LECKCLRȩMDȩRFCȩ!MKGRĸȩ 90/641/Euratom, 96/29/Euratom and 2003/122/ International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM MRA) of 14 Euratom October 1999 on the mutual recognition of calibration bȩȩ!MSLAGJȩ"CAGQGMLQȩ  !$1.ȩMDȩȩ+?PAFȩ and measurement certificates between national and 2010 to strengthen the Non Proliferation Treaty as international metrology organisations, signed by JRC- the cornerstone of the international nuclear non- IRMM proliferation regime bȩȩ"CQGELȩ?LBȩ!MLQRPSARGMLȩ!MBCȩDMPȩKCAF?LGA?Jȩ bȩȩ!MSLAGJȩ"CAGQGMLȩ  !$1.ȩMDȩȩ+?PAFȩȩ COSGNKCLRQȩMDȩGLLMT?RGTCȩLSAJC?PȩGLQR?JJ?RGMLQȩ!5 ȩ relating to the position of the European Union for ȩzȩ!#,ȩ5MPIQFMNȩ EPCCKCLRȩAMKNGJGLEȩ the 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the modification requests intended to be part of the 2PC?RWȩMLȩRFCȩ,ML .PMJGDCP?RGMLȩMDȩ,SAJC?Pȩ5C?NMLQ revision of the RCC-MRx design code edition 2012) bȩȩ!MKKSLGA?RGMLȩDPMKȩRFCȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩMDȩȩȩ(SLCȩ 2011 - A strategic vision for European standards:

16 3.1 Structural materials Developing design codes and best practice procedures (in 3 particular for creep and fatigue under high temperatures)

The structural integrity of mechanical components in form the focus of the JRC’s structural materials research, R nuclear reactors must be guaranteed to ensure their safety. together with the development of non-destructive test eference measurements, materials and standard These components are exposed to exceptionally harsh and virtually non-invasive techniques and standards, environments due to a combination of high temperatures of novel experimental techniques to investigate stress and stresses, corrosive and intense radiation. corrosion cracking in representative environment, of Such a setting is a significant challenge for present physics-based models with special emphasis on the grain- Generation II and III, and future Generation IV reactors. scale by strain-gradient crystal plasticity models; of web- based systems for data sharing and preservation; and The main issues for structural components of water on the assessment of the integrity of welds with special cooled reactors are related to life-extension beyond the emphasis on residual stress measurements. The JRC is original design life (typically 40 years) and possibly to playing a very active role in Sustainable Nuclear Energy power uprates. These need to be addressed by under- Technology Platform (SNETP) and the research networks standing, predicting and mitigating ageing mechanisms for water cooled reactors (NUGENIA), fast reactors (ESNII such as stress corrosion cracking and radiation damage. and European Energy Research Alliance Joint Programme 5?RCPȩAMMJCBȩPC?ARMPQȩRF?Rȩ?PCȩASPPCLRJWȩ@CGLEȩ@SGJRȩUGJJȩ on Nuclear Materials - EERA JPNM), and co-generation operate under similar conditions as Generation II reactors, heat and electricity (NC2I), for which roadmaps and joint and as such advantage can be taken of the vast available research programmes are being implemented. s operational experience, extending the design life from 40 to 60 years. Moreover, the safety requirements will be Due to their superior high temperature strength and higher and additional obligations may have to be imposed corrosion resistance, Oxide Dispersion Strengthened (for instance for the load-following capacity). (ODS) steels are candidate materials for future nuclear reactor applications. Based on previous The components and materials in Generation IV reactor CVNCPGCLACȩUGRFȩRFCȩBCTCJMNKCLRȩMDȩRFCȩ!#,ȩ5MPIQFMNȩ designs will generally be exposed to higher tempera- EPCCKCLRȩ!5 ȩȩMLȩRFCȩ1K?JJȩ.SLAFȩ2CQRȩ tures, significantly higher levels of radiation fluxes and Method for Metallic Materials, the JRC has used this new coolants that interact in a different way. They will small-specimen test method to assess the creep and probably be designed for a lifetime of at least 60 years. fracture performance of various commercial and The prototypes for reactors investigated within the Euro- experimental ODS steels. The ferritic ODS steels were pean Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative (ESNII) will shown to exhibit strong anisotropy in both their creep be based on commercially available materials such as resistance and their ductile versus brittle behaviour austenitic steels and ferritic-martensitic steels, but these as a function of temperature. The anisotropy in need to be qualified for harsher conditions. mechanical performance combined with a pronounced susceptibility to thermal embrittlement represent limitations regarding potential applications of ODS steels in safety-critical components.

Preparation of the small punch test set-up: a semi-non-destructive minia- Outcome of the small punch test: X-ray of ODS (Oxide Dipersion Strength- ture test to determine material properties. ened) steel. The colours represent the thicknesses of the deformed disc.

17 Work in progress or magnetic field, spanning a wide range of values. For instance, temperature measurements can be performed The JRC is developing methodologies to predict long-term from a few thousand degrees down to 0.5 degrees above material property degradation through accelerated tests, absolute zero. with extrapolation to operational conditions via physics- based models, as well as degradation resistant materials with respect to temperature, irradiation and corrosion. In addition, it is further developing design codes and assessment procedures to address new problematic domains such as environmental degradation of components, as well as the interaction between different mechanical loading modes.

The JRC is also integrating its research closely with national research programmes towards a European nuclear research platform for the integrity of systems, structures, components and materials, and accelerating innovative solutions and new products by incorporating the industrial application closer into basic research.

Surface science 3.2 Actinide materials laboratory installation Nuclear power is an established technology that can at the JRC. help satisfying increasing energy needs at global level. However, in many countries, issues about nuclear reactor Amongst the few research centres in Europe with a licence safety, waste management and proliferation raise deep for handling transuranium compounds, the JRC is the only concerns about sustainability. Materials research can one offering the opportunity to the European academic provide the means to solve, or at least mitigate, the main community to carry out comprehensive experimental problems associated with the deployment of nuclear power investigations of actinide materials. Its laboratories plants, minimising risks and improving safety standards. are open to the European academic community for the execution of studies selected by an independent Actinide materials form the nuclear reactor core and are an committee on the basis of scientific merit. As research important component of the materials to be treated when opportunities in this field are diminishing across Europe, managing the nuclear fuel cycle. Knowing the properties the JRC represents a unique location in the European of actinides and the consequences of their interaction with Research Area for maintaining required competences in the materials that form the reactor structure (the walls, the this strategically important domain. coolant, the cylindrical tubes that house the fuel pellets, etc.) is key for establishing models that are able to predict Uranium dioxide (UO2) is used as fuel in nuclear - in a reliable and accurate way - the phenomena that reactors. Its macroscopic behaviour is well documen- may compromise operational safety, and thus to prevent ted, but all aspects of its performance, reliability, and them. However, theoretical models still do not match safety are still largely based on empirical data. The the complexity and variety of the interactions involving major obstacle for developing first-principles safety actinide atoms and the available experimental information assessment models is the complexity of its physics is far from complete, which makes this a difficult task. JRC at an atomic level. For instance, the transfer of heat research on actinide materials contributes to filling this across a fuel element is determined by the oscillations knowledge gap. A wide range of experimental techniques of uranium and oxygen atoms about their positions in are used to measure macroscopic quantities (like thermal the UO2 lattice. In turn, these oscillations are strongly and electrical conductivity, heat capacity, mechanical influenced by how the electrons behave, that is how and magnetic characteristics, melting and behaviour, and they are distributed in space and how they interact phase transformations), and to investigate, at microscopic with each other. Both of these points have been level, spatial and temporal correlations between atoms. clarified by a combined experimental and theoretical These correlations determine where the atoms are and study carried out at the JRC. how changing the state of one of them perturbates the state of all the others. Experimental data are then Researchers have discovered that the electronic clouds used for the development of comprehensive theoretical surrounding the uranium ions in UO2 have the shape of models providing a quantitative correspondence between a pancake (in physical terms, the uranium ions carry microscopic observations and macroscopic properties. The an electric quadrupole moment) and order in space at types of investigated materials include organo-metallic low temperature with a motif that pushes the oxygen complexes, ceramic compounds, halides, and inter- ions away from ideal positions. Oscillations of these metallic systems. Experiments making use of quantum electric quadrupoles, propagating as waves along the beam probes (electrons, photons, ) are used crystal, have been directly observed by measuring the to investigate surface and bulk properties as a function energy lost by neutrons fired at an UO target. of external parameters, such as temperature, pressure, 2

18 These experimental findings have led to the Rapid progress in computer technology made advanced 3 development of a comprehensive theory showing that simulation techniques increasingly precise. The accuracy

of nuclear safety calculations now largely depends on the R

quadrupole waves affect the vibrations in the crystal eference measurements, materials and standard lattice, which in turn determine a large part of the accuracy of nuclear data. thermal conductivity. These data, which cannot be calculated but must be Researchers presumed that quadrupole waves existed measured with the utmost accuracy, basically describe for a wide class of materials in connection with the behaviour of all possible interactions between unconventional forms of superconductivity, but despite particles and nuclei as a function of their energy. intensive research efforts it was never demonstrated. These quadrupole collective excitations represent They are also needed for the design and safety evaluation a new form of elementary excitations in solids that of irradiation facilities; fuel fabrication and waste manage- could give rise to exotic collective behaviours with ment installations; equipment used for nuclear safeguards; unexpected technological potential. industrial and environmental purposes and applications in medicine, such as the optimisation of doses during irradia- tion treatments of cancers, or the protection of patients Work in progress and personnel during diagnostics.

The JRC is currently performing research on physical Only a few facilities worldwide are able to deliver nuclear data s properties of actinide elements and compounds under with the required accuracy. In Europe, the major facilities are extreme temperatures, pressures and magnetic field the international laboratory of CERN in and the conditions; it is studying the physical-chemistry of surfaces JRC whose infrastructure includes the Van de Graaff and the and interfaces of model fuel materials and the chemistry GELINA particle accelerators. GELINA is specially designed for of organoactinide complexes. It is also investigating high-resolution nuclear data measurements, and has the best high-temperature thermodynamic properties and phase energy resolution in the world for these types of measurements. diagrams of actinide materials, with emphasis on oxides and carbides and the radiation effects on vibrational and thermal properties of actinide dioxides.

GELINA (Geel Linear Accelerator) is a unique accelerator facility for the production of neutrons located at the JRC in Geel (Belgium).

The Japanese Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) selected a JRC-developed method as one of the most suitable approaches to characterise molten fuel originating Single molecule from severe nuclear accidents such as at the Fukushima magnet behaviour of a . This characterisation is an inter- wheel-shaped national obligation during the decommissioning phase, uranium cluster. according to IAEA safeguards. Japanese researchers are now developing and optimising the methodology 3.3 Nuclear data to quantify special nuclear materials in particle-like debris of the molten reactor fuel. For the safety licensing process, a very detailed modelling and simulation of reactor behaviours in normal and acciden- tal conditions is needed. This is extremely complicated as Work in progress modern nuclear energy systems employ a variety of reac- tor types, and energy conversion and fuel cycle technologies, The JRC is strengthening its role as major provider of each of which use different coolants and structural materials. reference nuclear data for nuclear energy applications in Europe, and it puts the focus on cooperation with stake- In essence, any model simulating the behaviour or the holders in Europe and worldwide. safety of a nuclear energy system evaluates the production, transport and interaction of neutrons. All important aspects It aims for example to substantially contribute to CIELO, related to safety, such as reactor kinetics, nuclear criticality, an international collaboration between nuclear data heat production, induced radioactivity, radiation damage, experts for the worldwide standardisation of evaluated and fuel radio-toxicity result from interactions between nuclear data, used for harmonised safety assessments in neutrons and nuclei. They define the sources of radiation, nuclear energy. The JRC is also working on its contribution the radiation levels in different areas of the facility, the to a new IAEA nuclear reaction data standards evaluation effect on people and materials, the nature and amount of to enhance nuclear data quality assurance. The quality of nuclear waste, the activation of irradiated materials, and neutron data standards is a key issue for improved safety the safety margins that must be applied. of present day and innovative reactor systems.

19 radioactivity and radioprotection in support of EU policies. Radiation emitted by certain radionuclides provides a ‘fingerprint’ by which specific processes in industry and the environment can be traced. For environmental and many other types of samples with very low activity, underground gamma-ray spectrometry can be used. In the past 15 years, the JRC has performed underground measurements for about 200 different projects. Examples are the characterisation of reference materials for their radioactive components; the determination of 60Co (cobalt-60) in steel samples from Hiroshima; and the measurement of water samples from GAINS spectrometer for nuclear data measurements. the Pacific Ocean aer the Fukushima accident.

3.4 Radioactivity measurements Good knowledge of the decay properties of radionuclides is also indispensable. There are more than 3000 The JRC is specialised in performing reliable radioactivity radionuclides and all decay in different ways. Not many measurements, and contributes to the harmonisation of the laboratories possess the equipment for high accuracy results throughout Europe. Reliable measurements of α-, β- measurements. The JRC uses its unique infrastructure to and γ- radiation are not only of great importance for nuclear improve the accuracy of decay data of radionuclides. safety and security but also for food safety, environmental Its high-quality reference measurements contribute to monitoring and medical diagnosis and treatment. Indeed, all better quality assurance for example in radioactivity Member States have nuclear installations or make use of measurement laboratories worldwide; in safe use of radioactive materials, particularly for medical purposes. radionuclides in novel medical treatments and in more precise assessments of the environmental impact of The JRC performs primary standardisations of radioactivity radioactivity; on improved tools for nuclear safeguards, (the most accurate type of measurements) independent of on a stronger foundation for geochronology based on the any other radioactivity standard. It supports the work of decay of long-lived natural activity; on access to nuclear international organisations such as the Comité International properties of importance to nuclear science and des Poids et Mesures (CIPM) in providing a proper means astrophysics and proper uncertainty assessments. of calibration for any activity measurement anywhere in the world. It organises and participates in key comparisons The JRC has recently developed a certified reference to establish international equivalence of radioactivity material for 40K (potassium), 137Cs (caesium) and standards. This direct link to the international standards 90Sr (strontium) in dried bilberries, which can work enables the JRC to determine traceable reference values as calibration or validation sources for radioactivity for its certified reference materials and for proficiency test measurements of many types of food and feed. samples used to ensure the quality of radiation monitoring This reference material will be used by food control results obtained by Member State laboratories. laboratories to ensure quality of their data. Its direct link to the international standards for radioactivity To measure the lowest radioactivity levels, the JRC allows the JRC to issue reference materials with performs low background measurements in its 225m deep proven traceability and small uncertainty of its certified underground laboratory ‘high activity disposal experimental property values. Moreover, the JRC completed precision site’ (HADES), which is located at the premises of the Belgian work on alpha-particle emission probabilities of two ,SAJC?Pȩ0CQC?PAFȩ!CLRPCȩ1!)b!#, ȩ2FCPCȩRFCȩAMQKGAȩ isotopes of uranium, 238U and : some uncertainties ray flux is ~10,000 times lower than above ground and were improved by two orders of magnitude. consequently, the background noise for the instruments is also ~10,000 times lower enabling measurements of radioactivity that cannot be measured above-ground.

HADES underground laboratory. This technique was initially employed in fundamental physics to study rare events but has been developed by the JRC into other fields of application such as environmental JRC high-resolution alpha particle laboratory.

20 Work in progress Under the Euratom safeguards system regular inspec- 3 tion activities are held. Measurements during these inspec

To strengthen its role as provider of reference decay data, tions have to stand in court and are therefore carried out R the JRC is constantly improving its radionuclide measure- with the highest quality nuclear reference materials and eference measurements, materials and standard ment methods. It collaborates with the leading European methods, of which the JRC’s large sized dried (LSD) spikes measurement institutes and prioritises new measure- IRMM-1027 series is one example. They are used for the de- ment projects addressing the needs of EU policies, based termination of uranium and plutonium content of spent fuel on requests from the nuclear data section of the IAEA solutions at the Euratom safeguards on-site laboratories at and the international decay data evaluation project. the reprocessing plants of Sellafield in the UK and La Hague, France. Achieving the required high level of detection proba- As the updated Euratom basic safety standards address bility is a major challenge, enabled by the JRC LSD spikes. a more rigorous characterisation and radionuclide-specific identification of naturally occurring radioactive materials The analysis of uranium particles, which is addressed (NORM), the JRC will start conducting research in this field. in the additional protocol to the Non-Proliferation Treaty, has become one of the most powerful tools to detect undeclared nuclear activities. Sophisticated 3.5 Standards for safeguards mass spectrometry techniques now allow the direct investigation of the isotopic composition of uranium and Nuclear safeguards activities are based on international other chemical elements in micro-metre-sized single s agreements and in the EU they are defined in the Euratom particles found on environmental swipe samples taken by Treaty. The Non-Proliferation Treaty requires signatory safeguards inspectors. The JRC-organised inter-laboratory states to provide detailed accounting records for their fis- comparisons, which confirmed the capability of European sile materials, the non-diversion of which is verified by Safeguards and the IAEA network analytical laboratories independent measurements. for environmental sampling in measuring isotope ratios in uranium particles of the size below 1 μm diameter. The JRC provides safeguards authorities and the nuclear industry with standards for environmental sample analy- The JRC has developed and improved methods for sis and for measurements of samples from all stages of routine uranium isotope ratio measurements using the the nuclear fuel cycle. It is also actively supporting the modified total evaporation for multi-collector thermal nuclear measurement community in applying the latest ionisation mass spectrometry (MTE-TIMS) and for international standards in practices of conformity as- accurate isotopic measurement of uranium hexafluoride sessment to underpin confidence in safeguards results (UF6). Accurate measurements of the major and minor and decisions. This support includes material standards isotope ratios of uranium are important as they give in the form of reference materials and measurements; an indication to safeguards authorities of, the type of European and international documentary standards; in- ‘feed’ materials, of the enrichment process, and the ternational guidelines, documents and tools on conform- ‘history’ of nuclear material. As a consequence of these ity assessment, including target performance criteria; recent analytical advances the JRC is suggesting the and international platforms for exchange on needs for revision of existing uranium documentary measurement standards in safeguards. standards for measurements of UF6, and the development of a new standard based on MTE-TIMS. Certified reference materials are used in method and instrument validation, and conformity assessment. They are indispensable for the transparency, traceability and accuracy of measurement results. In particular, measure- ments of uranium and plutonium isotope ratios at pro- liferation-sensitive stages, such as enrichment and repro- cessing of nuclear fuel, help nuclear safeguards authorities trace the sources of nuclear material and investigate the diversion of nuclear material for non-civil purposes.

Reference measurements of UF6 samples from enrichment plants.

Work in progress

In light of new challenges such as which will require harmonisation across different cultures, the JRC aims to provide valuable input for the develop- ment and implementation of standards for safeguards at Large sized dried spikes are a fundamental part of fissile material control. international, national and regional levels.

21 4 Nuclear knowledge management, training and education

he Euratom Treaty states that “the Commission shall JRC activities in this area provide scientific support Tbe responsible for promoting and facilitating nuclear to the following policy initiatives: research in the Member States and for complementing it by carrying out a Community research and training bȩȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  #SP?RMKȩMDȩȩ(SJWȩȩ programme”. Education and training (E&T) in the nuclear establishing a Community framework for the field has therefore always been an integral part of the responsible and safe management of spent fuel and JRC’s work. With its activities the JRC supports the strong radioactive waste unanimous understanding among the 28 Member States bȩȩ"GPCARGTCȩ  #SP?RMKȩMDȩȩ(SLCȩȩ to invest in nuclear safety and security research and establishing a Community framework for the nuclear cross-cutting activities such as training and education, in safety of nuclear installations order to ensure that top-level competence and expertise bȩȩ!MSLAGJȩAMLAJSQGMLQȩDPMKȩȩ?LBȩȩ"CACK@CPȩȩ for nuclear safety assessments are available in the EU. on the need for skills in the nuclear field bȩȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩ1R?Ȏȩ5MPIGLEȩ.?NCPȩ?AAMKN?LWGLEȩ the Communication (COM/2011/563) from the Commission of 19 September 2011 – 1st Situation Report on Training and Education in the nuclear energy field in the European Union, SEC(2011)1046 final bȩȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ!MSLAGJȩAMLAJSQGMLQȩMDȩȩ1CNRCK@CPȩȩ on standardisation and innovation

4.1 Nuclear knowledge management

The JRC carries out work in the nuclear knowledge management field by developing guides and multimedia training modules for knowledge preservation, consoli- Training course organised by the JRC. dation and transfer; the establishment of international practice communities, knowledge capture, knowledge Education and training in the nuclear field must also be dissemination and outreach. considered a key component of the international nuclear infrastructure in order to maintain high levels of nuclear The JRC develops training and education tools in various safety, as stated by both the Council of the European nuclear energy fields; they target different types of users, Union and the 2009 G8 summit. However, organisations ranging from experts that need in-depth training on such as OECD/NEA and IAEA have raised concerns about particular topics, to the general public and media outlets. the current nuclear education and training level. The focus of these tools is to deliver quality content in a modern and appealing way, using modern technologies The JRC’s current E&T efforts are diverse and can be such as online multimedia and augmented reality in order grouped in three major activities: (a) nuclear knowledge to engage as wide an audience as possible. management (b) contribution to the European E&T activities, by hosting students and organising internships and The JRC updates the Karlsruhe Nuclide Chart, a living specialised training courses in the fields of nuclear safety, periodic table displaying all known isotopes of all safeguards, security and forensics and (c) monitoring elements and their radioactive data in a distinctly easy the human resources development in the nuclear field in to navigate colour scheme. The Karlsruhe Nuclide Chart Europe. has been tracking new elements since 1958 and is the

product of a longstanding partnership between the JRC and Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. Its history charts the discovery of new elements and decay models, neutrinos, quarks, antimatter and dark matter.

22 An updated edition has been published in 2012 and The tool focuses on three phases: emergency planning, 4 contains new and updated radioactive decay data preparedness and response; people and their protection on 737 nuclides not available in the previous edition, (radiation protection and evacuation in case of a nuclear N

dating from 2007. In total, nuclear data on 3847 accident) and post-accident measures for people and the uclear nuclides are presented. The new edition includes environment.

the new element names copernicium (symbol Cn, k nowle element 112), flerovium (symbol Fl, element 114) and The JRC is also organising two workshops for candidate countries, new Member States and Horizon 2020

livermorium (symbol Lv, element 116), as recently d approved by the International Union of Pure and associated countries, to disseminate the results of their ge management, training an Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It also provides the most research through education and training. recent values of the atomic weights and isotopes abundances and other various nuclear parameters. 4.2 JRC training programme on Nuclear Safety and Security

Taking into account the long-term prospects of nuclear power production, expertise is needed in all domains d

of nuclear technology for many decades to come. This e d

includes waste management and decommissioning, but ucatio also the broad field of safety and security of current and

future reactors. n

The JRC training programme on Nuclear Safety and Security is one of the JRC’s answers to the diminishing opportunities for students and young professionals to gain hands-on experience in working with nuclear materials. Indeed, facilities to handle nuclear materials are not located in academic institutions but in national and international research institutions, where a high level of safety and security must be guaranteed. The key goal of the programme is to create better access to nuclear The Karlsruhe nuclide chart. research facilities, while facilitating the E&T programmes of Member States and pan-European organisations. The JRC also created Nucleonica, a soware used by By providing its expertise in the nuclear field, the JRC professionals for everyday calculations, for obtaining actively contributes to improving educational tracks, in quick results and testing, or for validating and verifying collaboration with leading European universities and complex computer models. It employs cloud applications educational institutions. and IT tools within an integrated know-ledge environment. A collaboration platform is at the core of The programme consists of four pillars: higher education, a community of students and professionals where users vocational training, user access and information not only access information individually, but can also dissemination. For the first pillar JRC staff contribute to interact. academic courses and special educational activities such as summer schools and inter-semester courses. Its key Nucleonica and the Karlsruhe Nuclide Chart compile and components are the grantholder and trainee programmes make scientific data freely available in an educational, through which students are hosted at the JRC nuclear ‘live’ format which makes use of web crawlers, rss facilities for several months to three years. feeds, along with a discussion forum, a blog, a wiki and numerous tutorials. The approach to both tools is The vocational training focuses on young professionals, minimising the effort needed to find, access and process many of whom have no specific expertise in the nuclear extensive amounts of data in real time. domain when initially hired, and is being developed with partners from the European GENTLE project (Graduate and Executive Nuclear Training and Lifelong Education Work in progress under the FP7 Fission Training Scheme) and with other European educational institutions. The user access The JRC is contributing to the soon-to-be-published IAEA programme offers short-duration opportunities for safety guide on nuclear knowledge management and de- researchers who can perform dedicated experiments velopment of a knowledge management strategy and its on nuclear data, radioactivity measurements, nuclear implementation in nuclear organisations. materials, or materials relevant to nuclear technology, which are not possible in their laboratories. The JRC is further developing – also in collaboration with the IAEA – an online multimedia tool to summarise Finally, the programme information centre provides the lessons learned from the three major nuclear acci- independent information about nuclear science and dents: Fukushima, Chernobyl and the Three Mile Island. technology to the general public.

23 The JRC has launched a transnational access programme, expert recommendations on EU-wide nuclear E&T actions, called EUFRAT (European facilities for nuclear reaction promoting lifelong learning and cross border mobility. and decay data measurements) to facilitate the access The JRC ensures the effective communication, cooperation of outside researchers to its nuclear data facilities. and impartial operation of EHRO-N. It provides for example In a period where the nuclear research community is the necessary infrastructure and networking contacts, confronted with a declining number of young researchers ensuring long-term stability, collects data and high level the EUFRAT project tries to attract young people into expert recommendations and maintains relations with entering the nuclear data research field. EUFRAT offers other similar national and international organisations. new nuclear scientists and engineers unique training opportunities so that they can prepare for their PhD EHRO-N’s senior advisory group (SAG) is composed of studies, enabling them to continue this type of research highly-qualified experts representing approximately 30 in the future. More than 100 researchers from the organisations worldwide. It provides general guidance Member States participated in the experiments, of which on conceptual issues such as the type of data and 25% were young students. data quality required, the analysis to be performed, the endorsement of major human resources-related Apart from training programmes, the JRC also developed reports and the preparation and execution of major training and education tools. Notable examples are the communication campaigns. online multimedia module, developed in collaboration with the IAEA, for training in the field of reactor pressure All EHRO-N reports are available on a public website, vessel embrittlement of the water-water power reactor which also includes other interesting features regarding 55#0ȩ?LBȩDMPȩJC?PLGLEȩFMUȩRMȩ@CQRȩA?PPWȩMSRȩ55#0ȩ nuclear training, education and stakeholders. integrity assessments, an online Frequently Asked Ques- tions repository to explain the basics of nuclear energy to The JRC has for the first time mapped all nuclear the general public, and an animated tool for school-aged stakeholders in the EU, from both the supply children to explain how nuclear energy works. (universities, academies, training providers, etc.) and demand side (operators, manufacturers, regulators, etc.). It analysed the human resources situation in the nuclear energy sector, contacting all stakeholders and calculating the HR needs under the assumption of two nuclear energy demand scenarios.

The bottom-up report showed that there is a 30% gap in nuclear human resources, which is presently covered by the industry with in-house nuclearisation of other engineering graduates; the top-down analysis indicated that the expected future nuclear capacity to be installed is significantly lower than in the 1980s, but that a steep rise in construction is to be expected due to additional power plants, replacement of the current reactor park and the extension of the lifetime of current reactors. The JRC is keeping up its efforts to ensure this information is Nuclear courses WWER. up-to-date and a second survey is already ongoing.

Work in progress Another key message is that a successful implementation of the European Credit system for The JRC has launched courses and student research Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) in the nuclear projects in the framework of the GENTLE project’s energy sector will lead to a better future analysis of the programme. This includes inter-semester courses for gap in knowledge, skills and competences. graduate and post-graduate students studying specific topics that are generally not part of the academic program. Examples are courses in the field of nuclear Work in progress safeguards and forensics, nuclear fuel, and nuclear data. EHRO-N is promoting its methodology in non-EU countries, in order to achieve a global mutual recognition system. 4.3 Monitoring human resources It is also actively supporting the implementation of the in the nuclear energy sector European Credit System for Vocational Education Training (ECVET) in the nuclear energy sector, by organising seminars The European Human Resources Observatory in the for stakeholders and establishing a job taxonomy based Nuclear Energy Sector (EHRO-N) was set up by the on the knowledge, skills and competences framework for European Nuclear Energy Forum (ENEF), an initiative of nuclear professions in the area of design, operation and DG ENER. Since its official launch in 2011, EHRO-N has decommissioning. been operated by the JRC to provide qualified data on human resource needs in the nuclear field and high-level

24 5 Fostering the innovation flow

he JRC’s innovation activities in the nuclear field 5.1 Innovation in materials Tare focused on the following areas: materials for new reactor technologies, transmutation techniques, safe- New technologies for future nuclear reactors, like the guards and safety for innovative reactor designs. fast reactors and high temperature reactors, envisage extended service lives of up to 60 years, with components JRC activities in this area provide scientific support exposed to unexplored or unqualified environments, such to the following policy initiatives: as higher temperatures and variable thermo-mechanical loads, new coolant environments, and high dose irra- bȩȩ2PC?RWȩCQR?@JGQFGLEȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ RMKGAȩ#LCPEWȩ diation by fast neutron spectra. Structural materials are Community (Euratom Treaty) – 1957 crucial for a safe nuclear technology, hence innovative bȩȩ2FCȩ'LRCPL?RGML?Jȩ2PC?RWȩMLȩRFCȩ,ML .PMJGDCP?RGMLȩMDȩ technological solutions and surveillance concepts for ,SAJC?Pȩ5C?NMLQȩMDȩȩ NPGJȩȩ',$!'0! ȩ materials selection and component design are needed for and associated Additional Protocol these new operating conditions. bȩȩ$GEFRȩ?E?GLQRȩRFCȩNPMJGDCP?RGMLȩMDȩUC?NMLQȩMDȩK?QQȩ destruction - EU strategy against proliferation of Today, however, the existing materials testing standards 5C?NMLQȩMDȩ+?QQȩ"CQRPSARGMLȩ  ȩ?BMNRCBȩ and design codes do not meet all the requirements for fu- by the Council of the European Union on 10 ture operating conditions. The JRC contributes to closing December 2003 this technology gap by performing pre-normative R&D and bȩȩ0CESJ?RGMLȩ,Mȩ ȩMDȩȩ+?WȩȩQCRRGLEȩSNȩ?ȩ transferring it into codes and standards which are needed Community regime for the control of exports, transfer, to assess structural integrity. Focus is also placed on novel brokering and transit of dual-use items (Recast) test techniques for rapid screening and accelerated testing bȩȩ"CAGQGMLȩLMȩ ȩMDȩȩ"CACK@CPȩȩ of materials, advanced inspection procedures and innova- concerning the approval of the accession of the tive materials data management to promote harmonisation. European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) to a Framework Agreement for International The JRC carries out performance and reliability Collaboration on Research and Development of assessments of structural materials and components Generation IV International Forum Nuclear Energy at laboratory scale, in particular materials testing Systems with respect to thermo-mechanical performance, bȩȩ"CAGQGMLȩ!ȩMDȩȩ,MTCK@CPȩȩDMPȩRFCȩ corrosion and irradiation resistance, taking into account European Atomic Energy Community to (1) adhere high-temperature coolant compatibility and long- to the Generation IV International Forum, and (2) term operation. Advanced materials degradation and to conclude a technical exchange and cooperation component inspection procedures, including the integrity agreement and the Department of Energy of the assessments of welds, are also performed using the United States of America JRC’s state-of-the-art experimental facilities. bȩȩ!MKKSLGA?RGMLȩDPMKȩRFCȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩMDȩȩ+?PAFȩ 2009 on nuclear non-proliferation, COM/2009/0143 bȩȩ!MKKSLGA?RGMLȩDPMKȩRFCȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩMDȩȩ December 2011 - Energy Roadmap 2050, COM(2011)885 bȩȩ!MKKSLGA?RGMLȩDPMKȩRFCȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩMDȩȩ November 2007 - A European strategic energy technology plan (SET Plan) - Towards a low carbon future, COM(2007)723 bȩȩ!MSLAGJȩAMLAJSQGMLQȩMLȩQRPCLERFCLGLEȩAFCKGA?J ȩ biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) security in the European Union - an EU CBRN Action Plan, 15505/1/09 Rev.1 bȩȩ1RP?RCEGAȩ0CQC?PAFȩ?LBȩ'LLMT?RGMLȩ ECLB?ȩMDȩRFCȩ JRC transmission Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform electron bȩȩ(MGLRȩ.PMEP?KKCȩMLȩ,SAJC?Pȩ+?RCPG?JQȩMDȩRFCȩ microscope European Energy Research Alliance facility for advanced material studies.

25 The JRC further promotes the development of codes- Work in progress of-practice and standards for novel test techniques. For example it advocated a standard for small-specimen The JRC is working on the scientific base for European testing, and has contributed to advancing a European standardisation, and is further strengthening its pre- Design Code for future nuclear facilities, by taking part normative research efforts in energy technologies. It will in a feasibility study on the need for standardised design also continue its contribution to safety and feasibility and construction rules for future nuclear reactors. assessments of innovative nuclear reactors through own work and European projects addressing the qualification of These activities are combined with advanced materials existing materials as well as the performance assessment data management tools to promote harmonisation, pres- of new materials with respect to high temperature creep, ervation and re-use of materials data generated through fatigue and corrosion resistance. European R&D programmes, as well as physics-based modelling and simulations to understand the interaction between the microstructure of materials and their overall 5.2 Innovation in fuels performance. Europe’s nuclear reactor fleet is mainly fuelled with

JRC R&D activities are closely aligned with the industrial uranium oxide (UO2) which on discharge from the reactors initiatives defined within the Sustainable Nuclear Energy contains various toxic species including the particularly Technology Platform (SNETP), and are integrated into the important long-lived (longer than 100,000 years) minor joint programme on nuclear materials of the JRC and the actinides neptunium, americium and curium. To limit their European Energy Research Alliance. Moreover, with its potential risk to the environment, the JRC investigates results from scientific R&D, the JRC fuels the strategic the transformation of minor actinides into short-lived debate about nuclear R&D both at the European and (around 500 years) species in dedicated reactors. Novel international level. new fuels are synthesised to determine fundamental safety properties, such as thermal conductivity, melting The JRC has developed MatDB, an online materials point, vaporisation behaviour, enabling initial assessment database, which hosts materials data from various of their safety during operation in nuclear reactors. European R&D programmes as well as, for example, the comprehensive IAEA surveillance databases for the embrittlement of pressure vessel steels. It contains over 40,000 test results coming mainly from European R&D projects and provides a web-interface for data content, data entry, data retrieval and analysis routines. MatDB has been under continuous development and use for more than 30 years, evolving from a simple desktop application into an advanced online system.

Through this tool, the JRC promotes standardisation for preserving and exchanging materials data.

MatDB has recently been enabled to use digital object identifiers (DOIs) for data publication. Assigning DOIs to datasets and publishing them in much the same way as conventional scientific publications provides the opportunity to promote data preservation, sharing, and reuse. The benefit to researchers is that their datasets can be cited in derivative works. Importantly, while promoting the work of researchers, data publication does not imply that data is freely accessible. Instead, if JRC minor actinides laboratory. a dataset is restricted or confidential, then only some limited information will be visible. Such fuels should optimise the transmutation efficiency and also circumvent potential safety issues related to For project partners who have generated data and which is generated in large amounts in these very who are planning to report their results in a scientific special fuels. Along with the laboratory investigations, publication, this means there is the possibility to assign the JRC has teamed up with other European laboratories DOIs to datasets and reference them in the bibliography to perform safety tests on these new fuels in the High in exactly the same way as references to conventional Flux Reactor (HFR) in Petten and the Phenix reactor. The publications. results are continuously integrated in the JRC’s modelling tools, such as TRANSURANUS.

26 The JRC has synthesised innovative fuels to study the In the verification domain, focus is set on high-quality 5 safety of fuels in irradiation tests in systems for measurements during the enrichment process. reactors in France and the Netherlands. These fuels Emphasis is also placed on process monitoring for example F

were composed of (Pu, Am)O2 [plutonium, americium- focusing on the front-end and back-end of the nuclear ostering the innovation dioxide] particles and (Zr, Pu, Am)O2 [zirconium, fuel cycle. Innovative 3D laser based techniques have plutonium, americium-dioxide] particles embedded been developed by the JRC for verification of tampering in a molybdenum matrix, as a novel means to reduce or modification of systems. At facility level, the emphasis the operating temperature of the fuel and thereby to is put on the monitoring and modelling of material flows, enhance the safety margin to the melting of the fuel. sealing techniques and unattended and remotely operated The irradiation experiment itself and the examinations systems. Environmental sampling and other verification methods such as laser based methods and satellite

thereaer indicated excellent behaviour. Eventually such fl fuels can be foreseen in dedicated reactors, such as in imagery continue to pose challenges. To contribute to the ow the Myrrha project in Belgium or ASTRID in France. evaluation and/or the verification of state activities and capabilities, open source analysis focused on trade of Should uranium sources ever be short in supply, fuels sensitive technologies offers significant potential. based on could be considered as a sustainable option to meet energy demands. Thorium is a by- In the field of nuclear safeguards, there is a strong product from rare earth mining, and though not widely demand for a robust and durable seal system to used today, it has the advantage that plutonium and monitor, identify and verify containers used for under- minor actinides are far less abundant in the fuel aer water storage of nuclear spent fuel materials. Sealing irradiation. As a first step in the safety assessment and identification systems are also used for nuclear of such fuels at high burn-up, the JRC synthesised transportation casks, long term dry storage repository (Th,Pu)O2 [thorium, plutonium-dioxide] pellets, which or other movable structures of strategic value, such UCPCȩGPP?BG?RCBȩGLȩRFCȩ)5-ȩNMUCPȩNJ?LRȩGLȩ-@PGEFCGK ȩ as containers, weapons or explosives. The seals do not Germany. The irradiation test was performed under prevent access but give non-erasable, unambiguous representative conditions, and the fuel performed at evidence of opening or tampering. least as well, if not better, than its classical (U,Pu)O2 MOX [mixed uranium, plutonium dioxide] counterpart. The ultrasonic seals developed by the JRC are used to detect any opening of the container. The seals have artificial cavities manufactured to have a unique Work in progress GBCLRGRW ȩ?ȩQM A?JJCBȩ~ȏLECPNPGLR ȩ5FCLȩMNCLCBȩMPȩ tampered with, the identity remains the same but the The JRC synthesises the highest quality samples and integrity has been broken, which is detectable with the determines essential data (melting point, thermal ultrasonic reading system. conductivity, heat capacity, mechanical properties, etc) needed by Member State authorities to license the fuel. It These ultrasonic seals are radiation resistant and undertakes separate effect investigations, over multiple extremely reliable, even in very harsh environmental time and distance scales, to unravel complex issues conditions. They do not have electronic components and of nuclear fuel under irradiation (irradiation induced are made of stainless steel, giving them a very long damage, gas transport, chemical evolution, mechanical lifespan. They are particularly suited for underwater constraints) in normal and accident conditions. The goal is applications but in the near future they will be used to provide new models, backed by dedicated experiments, to seal dry storage casks as well. The JRC’s ultrasonic to be incorporated in fuel performance codes, which will sealing system is used by international organisations, have exceptional predictive capability, a necessity for all such as the IAEA, for the control of nuclear materials. reactor licensing authorities.

To meet these goals, JRC scientists and engineers have found innovative ways to harness conventional scientific equipment to the stringent demands of a nuclear laboratory. Such unique facilities include laser melting point determination, electron microscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies to name but a few.

5.3 Innovation in safeguards

R&D in nuclear safeguards, non-proliferation and nuclear security is a cornerstone of the JRC’s work on nuclear safety and security. The activities in this field aim to prevent or detect the misuse of nuclear fuel cycle technology for non-civil purposes. 3D laser application to verify changes in a storage facility.

27 In the context of the Support Programme to the IAEA, and has actively participated in the working groups linked the JRC has also developed a laser-based system (3DLR) to material R&D programmes (in partnership with the FP7 that creates accurate 3D models of nuclear facilities, RAPHAEL/ARCHER projects). both indoor and outdoor, and is able to detect any change to the nearest millimetre. 3DLR was introduced Safety of Generation IV reactor designs has also been to support Design Information Verification (DIV) activities addressed by the JRC through the participation in in large and complex nuclear facilities. The JRC has also dedicated FP7 projects (SARGEN_IV, LEADER, CP-ESFR, developed the Laser Item Identification System (L2IS) ( 1+', ȩUGRFGLȩRFCȩ%'$ȩ0GQIȩ?LBȩ1?DCRWȩ5MPIGLEȩ%PMSNȩ to assist inspectors in identifying and tracking UF6 (Integrated Safety Assessment Methodology and guidance cylinders during transit between process and storage document), with a contribution to the development of the areas at an enrichment plant. Both systems have safety design criteria for the -cooled fast reactor successfully passed vulnerability assessments and have (SFR). Furthermore, in collaboration with the CP-ESFR been authorised by the IAEA for routine safeguards use. (collaborative project for a European sodium fast reactor) consortium, the JRC is actively contributing to the GIF SFR steering committee, the safety design criteria task force Work in progress (SDC-TF) and to projects on safety and operation, and system integration and assessment. The JRC is developing advanced non-destructive assays (automated modelling for numerical calibration, 5GRFGLȩRFCȩ%CLCP?RGMLȩ'4ȩ'LRCPL?RGML?Jȩ$MPSK ȩRFCȩ(0!ȩ alternative neutron detectors, gas centrifuge enrichment has been actively contributing to the proliferation plant (GCEP) cylinder verification, spent fuel) and is resistance and physical protection working group (PRP- performing destructive analyses of metallic impurities .5% ȩ.0..5%ȩU?QȩR?QICBȩ@Wȩ%'$ȩRMȩBCTCJMNȩ?ȩAMKNPC- in special nuclear materials (SNM) and environmental hensive methodology for the proliferation resistance sampling. and physical protection (PR&PP) evaluation of the Generation IV reactors. The resulting methodology has The JRC is also further developing tools for the advanced been made available to GIF and underwent a series of process monitoring of facilities and improving the identi- revisions to arrive in its final form. fication and Design Information Verification (DIV) through 3D laser applications, image-reviewing tools, innovative The working group also produced a comprehensive seals, and open source information including satellite case study applying the GIF PR&PP methodology to imagery and trade data. an exemplary sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) and HMGLRȩQRSBWȩA?PPGCBȩMSRȩ@WȩRFCȩ.0..5%ȩ?LBȩRFCȩQGVȩ Generation IV systems steering committees. This 5.4 Generation IV International Forum joint study presents the main features of all the six (GIF) Generation IV systems, highlighting the main aspects relevant for their proliferation resistance and physical The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) has identified protection robustness. The three resulting final reports sustainability, competitiveness, safety, reliability, proli- are available on the public GIF website. feration resistance and physical protection as the main criteria for the next generation nuclear reactor systems.

Six reactor concepts have been selected for further internationally coordinated R&D: the sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR); the gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR); the QSNCPAPGRGA?JȩU?RCP AMMJCBȩPC?ARMPȩ1!50ȩRFCȩTCPWȩFGEFȩ temperature reactor (VHTR); the lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR); and the (MSR).

Each concept employs a variety of reactor, energy conversion and fuel cycle technologies. Their designs feature thermal and fast neutron spectra, closed and open fuel cycles, and the full range of reactor sizes. Depending on their degree of technical maturity, the Generation IV systems are expected to be commercially introduced between 2020 and 2030, or beyond. The JRC is contributing to safety-related research in materials and fuels, safety assessment of reactor designs, and in cross-cutting topics on several of these reactor concepts.

In addition, it has contributed in the safety-related fuel development programmes (e.g. technology, fuel/clad interaction) of the GFR, SFR, VHTR systems (in partnership UGRFȩRFCȩ$.ȩ%M$?QR0 ȩ **' ,!# ȩ! 0 -5 12#ȩNPMHCARQ ȩ

28 JRC’s nuclear facilities

1. Nuclear safety 2. Nuclear security bȧȧ ȧ*?@MP?RMPWȧDMPȧRFCȧ?ECGLEȧMDȧK?RCPG?JQȧGLȧJGEFRȧU?RCPȧ bȧ ȧȧ BT?LACBȧ Q?DCES?PBQ ȧ KC?QSPCKCLR ȧ KMLGRMPGLEȧ PC?ARMPȧ*50ȧCLTGPMLKCLRQȧ + *'  The AMALIA ?LBȧ KMBCJJGLEȧ J?@MP?RMPWȧ  1+* Laboratory laboratory for aqueous corrosion and stress corrosion to develop, implement and validate safeguards cracking studies encompasses four recirculating measures, to monitor the operation of facilities water loops with 6 autoclave systems, including full through an extensive collection of data from multiple water chemistry control, environmental mechanical types of sensors, and to model the plant operations testing facilities, electrochemistry, electric impedance, in order to be able to analyse the data collected and acoustic emission monitoring, to assess coolant by the monitoring system. AS3ML is designed for compatibility and materials degradation issues in light the testing, developing, demonstration of and water reactor environments. training on innovative integrated solutions for the implementation of safeguards in the different types bȧȧ ȧ&GEFȧ$JSVȧ0C?ARMPȧ&$0ȧThe high flux reactor is one of nuclear installations. of the most powerful multi-purpose materials testing research reactors in the world. The HFR is a tank in pool bȧ ȧȧ*?PECȧECMKCRPWȧQCAMLB?PWȧGMLȧK?QQȧQNCARPMKCRPWȧ type light water-cooled and moderated and operated J?@MP?RMPWȧ *% 1'+1 Laboratory for searching ?Rȩ+5 ȩ2FCȩPC?ARMPȩNPMTGBCQȩ?ȩT?PGCRWȩMDȩGPP?BG?RGMLȩ traces of nuclear materials in particles collected on facilities and possibilities in the reactor core, in the cotton swipes during nuclear safeguards inspections. reflector region and in the poolside facility. The HFR is owned by the JRC but operated by the Dutch Nuclear bȧ ȧȧ*?QCPȧJ?@MP?RMPWȧDMPȧLSAJC?PȧQ?DCES?PBQȧ?LBȧ Research and consultancy Group (NRG). security: Laser based systems to carry out containment and surveillance techniques for nuclear bȧȧ ȧ&MRȧACJJQ Complete set of facilities for handling and safeguards, including fingerprinting of nuclear treating irradiated nuclear fuels and materials, and for containers, change detection, design information performing detailed scientific investigations covering verification systems and outdoor verification systems. all aspects related to the safety of nuclear fuels during irradiation under normal and accident conditions. bȧȧ ȧ,SAJC?PȧRP?ACȧ?LBȧ?L?JWQCQȧD?AGJGRWȧSet of installations for the chemical, physical and spectroscopic analysis bȧ ȧȧ+GAPMQRPSARSP?Jȧ ?L?JWQGQȧ J?@MP?RMPWȧ Facilities of actinide and nuclear materials. for microstructural characterisation and materials degradation studies, including scanning, transmission bȧȧ ȧ.CPDMPK?LACȧJ?@MP?RMPWȧ ȧ.SJQCȧLCSRPMLȧGLRCPPME?RGMLȧ electron and atomic force microscopy, 3D X-ray RCQRȧ?QQCK@JWȧ.#0* ȧ ȧ.3,'2  Laboratory for the tomography, X-ray diffraction, thermo-electric power assessment and evaluation of performances for all and Barkhausen noise measurements, and micro and non-destructive assay (NDA) techniques applied in the nano-indentation hardness measurements. safeguards and security of nuclear materials. PUNITA incorporates a pulsed (D-T) and bȧ ȧȧ+?RCPG?JQȧ PCQC?PAFȧ J?@MP?RMPGCQȧ Series of unique, allows active neutron interrogation to detect minute mostly home-built experimental installations quantities of nuclear materials. dedicated to the study of thermodynamic and thermo- physical properties of actinides and nuclear materials. bȧ ȧȧ2?LIȧKC?QSPCKCLRȧJ?@MP?RMPWȧ ȧ1MJSRGMLȧKMLGRMPGLEȧ J?@MP?RMPWȧ2 +#ȧ ȧ1+* Facility to develop bȧ ȧȧ1RPSARSP?Jȧ +?RCPG?JQȧ .CPDMPK?LACȧ QQCQQKCLRȧ measurement techniques for bulk handling facilities, laboratories: Facility used for the mechanical where large quantities of materials are processed, performance characterisation, life assessment and through inventory quantification and density qualification of structural materials for present and characterisation. next generation nuclear systems. Testing capabilities include high temperature (thermo-)mechanical tests, low-cycle fatigue, creep and fracture mechanics tests, as well as miniaturised mechanical tests.

29 3. Reference measurements, materials 4. Nuclear knowledge management, and standards training and education

bȧ ȧȧ!CPRGȏCBȧLSAJC?PȧPCDCPCLACȧK?RCPG?JQȧJ?@MP?RMPGCQȧ bȧ ȧȧ#SPMNC?Lȧ LSAJC?Pȧ QCASPGRWȧ RP?GLGLEȧ ACLRPCȧ for the preparation and provision of certified nuclear #31#!20 ȧSpecific technical infrastructure where reference materials and reference measurements; a wide range of nuclear materials is available, to well-characterised targets for measurements in enable unparalleled training opportunities in the field for nuclear safety and nuclear of nuclear security and safeguards. Training areas safeguards applications. include border detection, train-the-trainers, mobile emergency response, reach-back, creation of national bȧ ȧȧ$SLB?KCLR?Jȧ NPMNCPRGCQȧ MDȧ ?ARGLGBCȧ K?RCPG?JQȧ response plans, nuclear forensics, radiological crime SLBCPȧCVRPCKCȧAMLBGRGMLQȧState-of-the-art installa- scene management, nuclear security awareness and tions designed for basic research on behaviour and sustainability of a national nuclear security posture. properties of actinide materials under extreme condi- tions of temperature, pressure, external magnetic field and chemical environment. Surface science labo- 5. Fostering the innovation flow ratory for synthesis, structural, and spectroscopic characterisation of model nuclear materials. bȧ ȧȧ1C?JGLEȧ ?LBȧ GBCLRGȏA?RGMLȧ J?@MP?RMPWȧ 1'*?@ Laboratory for the development, testing and commis- bȧ ȧȧ$SCJQȧ?LBȧK?RCPG?JQȧQWLRFCQGQȧ?LBȧAF?P?ARCPGQ?RGMLȧ sioning of security systems based on innovative facility: Shielded glove boxes for the synthesis and sealing technologies (ultrasound, fibre optics, characterisation of actinide materials, including electronics, etc.) for nuclear safeguards applications nuclear fuels. worldwide.

bȧ ȧȧ%CCJȧ *GLC?Pȧ AACJCP?RMPȧ %#*', ȧ A pulsed white spectrum neutron source with the best time resolution in the world. It is especially designed for the measurement of highly accurate neutron cross- section data. GELINA is a multi-user facility, serving 10 experiments simultaneously. Measurements at GELINA provide data which form the basis for a wide range of evaluated neutron cross-section data. These data are needed for the safety assessments of present-day and future nuclear energy systems.

bȧ ȧȧ&GEFȧ ?ARGTGRWȧ BGQNMQ?Jȧ CVNCPGKCLR?Jȧ QGRCȧ & "#1ȧ Laboratory for ultra-sensitive radioactivity measure- ments 225 m deep underground.

bȧ ȧȧ0?BGMLSAJGBCȧ KCRPMJMEWȧ J?@MP?RMPGCQ A cluster of instruments for high precision radioactivity measure- ments.

bȧ ȧȧ4?LȧBCȧ%P??Ȏȧ?AACJCP?RMP Vertical 7 MV Van de Graaff accelerator producing either continuous or pulsed ion beams, generating mono-energetic beams of neutrons. Measurements at the Van de Graaff accelerator provide data which form the basis of a wide range of evaluated neutron cross-section data. The domains under study encompass safety of fission reactor and fuel cycle technology, high burn-up fuels, nuclear waste transmutation and innovative reactor systems.

30 Publications

This list provides only a selection of JRC publications in this T.(2010). Materials Today, Vol. 13, pp. 24-32. domain. For a complete overview of publications in the nuclear field, please refer to the JRC’s Publications Repository: Impact of auto-irradiation on the thermophysical properties of http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/ MVGBCȩ LSAJC?Pȩ PC?ARMPȩ DSCJQ ȩ 1R?GASȩ " ȩ 5GQQȩ 2 ȩ 0MLBGLCJJ?ȩ 4 4 ȩ Hiernaut J.P., Konings R.J.M., Ronchi C. (2010). Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 397, pp. 8-18. 1. Nuclear safety Volatile fission product behaviour during thermal annealing ofirradiated UO2 fuel oxidised up to U3O8, Hiernaut J.-P., Reactor safety .?N?GM?LLMSȩ" ȩ5GQQȩ2 ȩ)MLGLEQȩ0 ( + ȩ0MLBGLCJJ?ȩ4 4 ȩ ȩ Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 372, pp. 215-225. The objectives of the Phebus FP experimental programme and main findings, Clement B., Zeyen R. (2013). Annals of Nuclear Nuclear waste management and decommissioning Energy, Vol. 61, pp. 4-10. Final report ACSEPT: http://cordis.europa.eu/publication/ The Stresa database: A token for the future, Pla P., Ammirabile L., rcn/15435_en.html Annunziato A. (2013). Annals of Nuclear Energy, Vol. 62, pp. 8–16. Final Report RECOSY: Festschri des Karlsruhe Institute of The European Research on Severe Accidents in Generation-II Technology, KIT Scientific Report No 7572 and -III Nuclear Power Plants. Van Dorsselaere J. P., Auvinen A., CP?F?ȩ" ȩ!F?RCJ?PBȩ. ȩ)JHCL?Iȩ' ȩ+G?QQMCBMTȩ ȩ.?AGȩ1 ȩ5?JRCPȩ RED-IMPACT report: Impact of Partitioning, Transmutation and Tromm Th.,Zeyen R. (2012). Science and Technology of Nuclear 5?QRCȩ 0CBSARGMLȩ 2CAFLMJMEGCQȩ MLȩ RFCȩ $GL?Jȩ ,SAJC?Pȩ 5?QRCȩ "GQ- Installations, Article ID 686945, Vol. 2012. posal (2008). Schrien des Forschungszentrums Jülich, Energy & Environment, Vol. 15. ISSN 1866-1793. ISBN 978-3-89336-538-8 SARNET: Severe accident research network of excellence. Zeyen R., Albiol T., Van Dorsselaere J.P., Chaumont B., Haste T., Journeau Emergency preparedness Ch., Meyer L., Raj Sehgal B., Schwinges B., Beraha D., Annunziato Radioactivity from Fukushima Daiichi in air over Europe; part 1: A. (2010). Progress in Nuclear Energy, Vol. 52 (2010), pp. 2-10. spatio-temporal Analysis. Bossew P., Kirchner G., De Cort M., de European Clearinghouse on Nuclear Power Plants Operational Vries G., Nishev A., de Felice L. (2012). Journal of Environmental Experience Feedback. Noel M., Bruynooghe C., Ranguelova V. Radioactivity, Vol. 114, pp. 22- 34. (2010). Kerntechnik: Vol. 75, no 1-2, pp. 7-11. International data and information exchange in Europe – Summary Report on Nuclear Power Plants Construction, systems to assist the EU Member States in radiological and nu- Commissioning and Manufacturing Events. Zerger B. (2011). clear emergency situations. De Cort M., de Vries G., Galmarini S., Publications Office of the European Union. ISBN 978-92-79- Tanner V.(2011). Radioprotection, Vol. 46 (6), pp. 751–757. 18973-9/ EUR24674. Monitoring radioactivity in the environment under routine Three decades of NPP construction lessons. Noel M., Zerger B. and emergency conditions. De Cort M. in: Nuclear power – (2013). International, Vol. 58, pp. 38-40. control,reliability and human factors, Tsvetkov P. (Ed.) (2011), Chapter 8.ISBN 978-953-307-599-0 An overview of TACIS and PHARE nuclear safety projects related to thermal hydraulics. Pla Freixa P., Farrar B., Duchac A., Bieth M. Determination of natural and anthropogenic radionuclides in soil (2012). Progress in Nuclear Energy, Vol. 58, pp. 76-88. ȩPCQSJRQȩMDȩ?ȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ3LGMLȩAMKN?PGQML ȩ+CPCĒMTıȩ( ȩ5ĴRHCLȩ U., Altzitzoglou T. (2012).Applied Radiation and Isotopes, Vol. 70, Decommissioning of RA Nuclear Research Reactor and Radioac- pp. 1836-1842. RGTCȩ 5?QRCȩ +?L?ECKCLRȩ ?Rȩ 4GLŖ?ȩ ,SAJC?Pȩ 0CQC?PAFȩ !CLRPCȩ GLȩ Serbia. Bucalossi A., Burcl R., Cecille L., Djuricic J., Kelly J. (2009). Food aer Fukushima – Japan’s regulatory response to the radio- Nuclear Engineering International, Vol. 54, Issue 663, pp. 30-34. active contamination of its food chain. Berends G., Kobayashi M. (2012).Food and Drug Law Journal, Vol. 67, pp. 51-64. Fuel safety Transuranium Elements in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Fanghänel T., Glatz J.P., Konings R. J.M., Rondinella V. V., Somers, J. (2010). 2. Nuclear security Handbook of Nuclear Energy, Ed. D.G. Cacuci;, Springer- Springer Science+Business Media LLC, Chapter 26, pp. 2935-2998, ISBN #3ȩCȎMPRQȩRMȩQRPCLERFCLȩLSAJC?PȩQCASPGRW ȩ(MGLRȩ1R?Ȏȩ5MPIGLEȩ 978-0-387-98130-7 "MASKCLRȩzȩ15" Safety of Advanced Nuclear Fuel Cycles, Fanghänel T., Glatz Safeguards J.P., Rondinella V.V., Somers J. (2011).Proc. Int. Conf. on Future The European Commission Cooperative Support Programme: Nuclear Systems GLOBAL ‘11, Makuhari, Japan, (11-16 Dec. Activities and Cooperation, Gonçalves. J.G.M., Abousahl S., Aregbe 2011), CD-ROM 7 ȩ(?LQQCLQȩ5 ȩ*ňRXCLIGPAFCLȩ) ȩ MCJJ?ȩ+ ȩ1AFU?J@?AFȩ. ȩ ȩ Safety of Fast Reactor Fuels at the Joint Research Centre – Proceedings of the 54th INMM Annual Meeting, Palm Desert, USA Institute for Transuranium Elements (JRC-ITU), Somers, J Glatz Recent JRC achievements and future challenges in verification for J.P., Konings R. J.M., Rondinella V. V. (2011). IAEA Technical Meet- LSAJC?PȩQ?DCES?PBQȩ?LBȩLML NPMJGDCP?RGML ȩ(?LQQCLQȩ5 ȩ*SCRXCL- ing on Design, Manufacturing and Irradiation Behaviour of Fast kirchen K., Emons H., Abousahl S., Aregbe Y., Berndt R., Cojazzi G., Reactors Fuels, (30 May-03 June 2011), Obninsk, Russia. Hedberg M., Littmann F., Mayer K., Peerani P., Sequeira V. (2012). 2FCȩFGEFȩ@SPLSNȩQRPSARSPCȩGLȩLSAJC?PȩDSCJ ȩ0MLBGLCJJ?ȩ4 4 ȩ5GQQȩ Proceedings of the 53rd INMM Annual Meeting, Orlando, USA.

31 Applying the GIF-PR&PP methodology for a qualitative analysis !?R?JMESCȩ MDȩ 5# ȩ "?R?ȩ 1CPTGACQȩ MLȩ %JM@?Jȩ 2P?BC ȩ 4CPQGLMȩ ! ȩ of a misuse scenario in a notional Generation IV Example Sodium Tsukanova M., Cojazzi G.G.M. (2010). Publications Office of the Fast Reactor. Cojazzi G.G.M., Renda G., Choi J.S., Hassberger J. European Union. ISBN 978-92-79-18919-7, EUR 24657 EN (2012). Special issue on Safeguards (Therios I., Guest Editor), Nuclear Technology, Vol. 179, pp. 76-90. Strengthening Strategic Export Controls by Internal Compliance Programs. Ramaen S., Sevini F, Charatsis C., Michel, Q. (2013). On-site Laboratories of Euratom: Ten Years of Excellent Results Publication Office of the European Union. ISBN 978-92-79- and Time to Renew. Casteleyn K., Duinslaeger L., Boella M., Chare 34806-8, EUR 26364 EN P., Lipcsei F., Schwalbach P., Synetos S., Enright T., Le Terrier A., Luetzenkirchen K., van Belle P., Zuleger E., Aregbe Y. (2011). Pro- R&D activities to combat illicit trafficking ceedings of the 52nd INMM Annual Meeting, Palm Desert, USA. Nuclear Forensic Science: Correlating Measurable Material Pa- Improved particle location and isotopic screening measurements P?KCRCPQȩRMȩRFCȩ&GQRMPWȩMDȩ,SAJC?Pȩ+?RCPG?Jȩ+?WCP ȩ)ȩ5?JJCLGSQ ȩ of sub-micron sized particles by Secondary Ion Mass Spectro- M; Varga, Z. (2013). Chemical Reviews, Vol. 113, pp. 884−900. metry, Hedberg P. M. L., Peres P., Cliff J. B., Rabemananjara F., Attribution of uranium ore concentrates using elemental and Littmann S., Thiele H., Vincent C., Albert N. (2011). Journal of ?LGMLGAȩ B?R? ȩ )CCE?L ȩ # ȩ 5?JJCLGSQ ȩ + ȩ +?WCP ȩ ) ȩ 4?PE? ȩ 8 ȩ Analytic Atomic Spectrometry, Vol. 26, p. 406. Rasmussen, G. (2012). Applied Geochemistry, Vol. 27, pp. 1600- Improvements in routine uranium isotope ratio measurements 1609. using the modified total evaporation method for multi-collector Testing on novel neutron detectors as alternative to 3He for thermal ionization mass spectrometry. Richter S., Kuehn H., security applications. Peerani, P. et al. (2012). Nuclear Instru- Aregbe Y., Hedberg M., Horta-Domenech J., Mayer K., Zuleger ments and Methods in Physics Research A, Vol. 696, pp. 110–120. E., Buerger S., Boulyga S., Koepf A., Poths J., Mathew K. (2011). Journal of Analitic Atomic Spectrometry, Vol. 26, p.550. Investigative radiochemistry – a key element in nuclear forensics, +?WCP ȩ) ȩ5?JJCLGSQ ȩ+ ȩ4?PE? ȩ8 ȩ5GQQ ȩ2 ȩ$?LEFĴLCJ ȩ2 ȩ ȩ A Safeguardability Check-List for Safeguards by Design. Sevini F., Proceedings Radiochimica Acta, Vol. 1, pp. 145–149. Renda G., Sidlova V. (2011). ESARDA Bulletin No. 46, pp. 79-88. ISSN 0392-3029 Integrated Border Management: R&D Activities at JRC. Janssens, 5 ȩCRȩ?J ȩ ȩ.PCTCLRGML ȩ"CRCARGMLȩ?LBȩ0CQNMLQCȩRMȩ,SAJC?Pȩ A quantitative Monte Carlo modeling of the uranium and pluto- and Radiological Threats S. Apikyan et al. (eds), pp. 65–77. nium X-ray fluorescence response from a Hybrid K-edge/K-XRF densitometer. Berlizov A., Sharikov D.A., Ottmar H., Eberle H., Galy Nuclear forensics—a methodology providing clues on the origin J., Luetzenkirchen K. (2010). Nuclear Instruments and Methods in MDȩGJJGAGRJWȩRP?ȑAICBȩLSAJC?PȩK?RCPG?JQ ȩ+?WCP ȩ) ȩ5?JJCLGSQ ȩ+ ȩ Physics Research A, Vol. 615, p.127. Ray, I. L. F.( 2005). Analyst, Vol. 130, p.433 Proliferation Resistance Characteristics of Advanced Nuclear Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear hazards Energy Systems: a Safeguardability Point of View. Cojazzi G.G.M., mitigation Renda G., Sevini F. (2008). ESARDA Bulletin No. 39, Special Issue on Proliferation Resistance, pp. 31-40. ISSN 0392-3029 JRC CBRN activities: Contribution to the Implementation of the EU CBRN Action Plan and to the CBRN Centres of Excellence Non-proliferation Initiative. Abousahl S., Palajova Z. (2013). Proceedings of the 34th ESARDA conference, Bruges 27-30 May 2013. $GPQRȩ ?ARGTGRGCQȩ MDȩ RFCȩ #1 0" ȩ ȩ #VNMPRȩ !MLRPMJȩ 5MPIGLEȩ %PMSN ȩ Sevini F., Zero S., Michel Q. (2013). Proceedings of ESARDA 35th 2FCȩ MPBCPȩ+MLGRMPGLEȩ5MPIGLEȩ%PMSNȩ?Qȩ?ȩKMBCJȩDMPȩKSJRGJ?R- Symposium 2013 eral Collaboration. Abousahl S., Melamed E., Colgan P., Rouillet- Chatelus V., Pappas R., Daures P., Berthou V., Gally J., Klement Collection and Analysis of Open Source News for Information 1 ȩT?Lȩ&CCQUGHIȩ5 ȩ1R?ȎMPBȩ+ ȩ5GRRPMAIȩ+ ȩ!FSPAFȩ . ȩ U?PCLCQQȩ ?LBȩ #?PJWȩ 5?PLGLEȩ GLȩ ,SAJC?Pȩ 1?DCES?PBQ ȩ !MH?XXGȩ Proceedings of IAEA Nuclear Security Conference 1-5 July 2013. % % + ȩT?Lȩ"CPȩ%MMRȩ# ȩ4CPGJCȩ+ ȩ5MJD?PRȩ# ȩ0SR?Lȩ$MUJCPȩ+ ȩ $CJBK?Lȩ7 ȩ&?KKMLBȩ5 ȩ1AFUCGEF?PBRȩ( ȩ$CPESQMLȩ+ ȩ ȩ Best practices in collaborative assistance to States in deploy- ESARDA Bulletin, nr. 50, pp. 94-105, December 2013. ing and sustaining radiation detection systems for combating criminal use of nuclear and other radioactive material and illicit Recent JRC Achievements and Future Challenges in Verification trafficking. Melamed E., Abousahl., S., Rouillet-Chatelus V. (2013). DMPȩ,SAJC?Pȩ1?DCES?PBQȩ?LBȩ,MLNPMJGDCP?RGML ȩ(?LQQCLQȩ5 ȩCRȩ?J ȩ Proceedings of IAEA Nuclear Security Conference 1-5 July 2013. (2012). Journal of Nuclear Material Management, Vol. 40 (4), pp. 11-23. EU efforts to strengthen nuclear security. Abousahl S., Klement Estimation of trade flows related to export-controlled dual use 1 ȩ2Q?J?Qȩ1 ȩ0SBGQAFF?SQCPȩ5 ȩ+?GCPȩ# ȩ ȩȩ.PMACCBGLEQȩMDȩ IAEA Nuclear Security Conference 1-5 July 2013, see also Joint items, Data sources, methodology and tools. Versino C., Cojazzi G.G.M. (2011). EUR 25214 EN, ISBN 978-92-79-23089-9 1R?Ȏȩ5MPIGLEȩ"MASKCLRȩ15"ȩȩȏL?J Illicit Trafficking Radiation Detection Assessment Program. The Big Table: A Soware Tool for Nuclear Trade Analysis. Abousahl S., Marin-Ferrer M., Peerani P. (2011). ITRAP+10, Versino C., Contini F., Chatelus R., Cojazzi G.G.M. (2011). Publica- Proceedings of the 33rd ESARDA conference, Budapest, Hungary. tions Office of the European Union. ISBN 978-92-79-20297-1, EUR 24823 EN Global Trade Data to Support IAEA, Safeguards. Versino C., Chatelus R., Cojazzi G., Contini F., Tarvainen M., Tsois A. ( 2010). ESARDA Bulletin Vol. 45, pp. 14-22. ISSN 0392-3029

32 3. Reference measurements, materials and Strong-coupling d-wave superconductivity in PuCoGa5 probed standards by point-contact spectroscopy. Daghero D. et al. (2012). Nature Communications, Vol. 3, p. 786. Structural materials Structural, electronic, and magnetic characteristics of Np2Co17. Thermal fatigue striping damage assessment from simple Halevy I. et al. (2012). Physical Review B, Vol. 85, 014434. screening criterion to spectrum loading approach. Paffumi E., Multipolar, magnetic, and vibrational lattice dynamics in the Radu V., Nilsson K.F. (2013). International Journal of Fatigue, low-temperature phase of UO2. Caciuffo R. et al. (2011). Vol. 53, pp. 92-104. Physical Review B, Vol. 107, 136401. Plastic deformation induced microstructure evolution through gradient enhanced crystal plasticity based on a non-convex Nuclear data Helmholtz energy. Klusemann B., Yalçinkaya T. (2013). Interna- Neutron transmission and capture cross section measurements tional Journal of Plasticity, Vol. 48, pp. 168-188. for 241Am. Lampoudis, C. et al. (2013). European Physical Calculation of macroscopic elasto-plastic anisotropy based on an Journal Plus, Vol. 128, p. 86. analytical expression of the Orientation Distribution Function in Measurement of 235U (n,n′γ) and 235U(n,2nγ) reaction cross sec- the case of fibre textures. Decroos K., Seefeldt M., Ohms C., tions. Kerveno M. et al. (2013). Physical Review C, Vol. 87(2), Petrov R., Verhaeghe F., Kestens L. (2013). Computational 024609. Materials Science, Vol. 68, pp. 263-270. Review of the natC(n, γ) cross section and criticality calculations Cohesive element approach to grain level modelling of intergran- of the moderated reactor BR1. Díez C.J. et al. (2013). ular cracking. Simonovski I., Cizelj L., (2013) Engineering Fracture Annals of Nuclear Energy, Vol. 60, pp. 210-217. Mechanics, Vol. 11, pp. 364-377. Improved values for the characteristics of prompt-fission γ-ray +?RCPG?Jȩ!F?JJCLECQȩGLȩ,SAJC?Pȩ#LCPEW ȩ8GLIJCȩ1 ( ȩ5?Qȩ% 1 ȩ spectra from the reaction 235U (nth,f). Oberstedt A. et al.(2013). (2013). Acta Materialia, Vol. 61, pp. 735-758. Physical Review C, Vol. 87, 051602. Anisotropic mechanical properties of the MA956 ODS steel- Determination of Resonance Parameters and their Covariances characterized by the small punch testing technique. Turba from Neutron Induced Reaction Cross Section Data. Schillebeeckx K.,Hurst R.C., Hähner P. (2012). Journal of Nuclear Materials, P. et al. (2012). Nuclear Data Sheets, Vol. 113, pp. 3054-3100. Vol.428, Issues 1–3, pp. 76-81. Experimental response functions of a single-crystal diamond Scientific Assessment in support of the Materials Roadmap ena- detector for 5-20.5 MeV neutrons. Pillon M. et al. (2011). bling Low Carbon Energy Technologies. Buckthorpe D., Fazio C., Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A, &CGIGLFCGKMȩ* &MȎCJLCPȩ5 ȩT?LȩBCPȩ*??Lȩ( ȩ,GJQQMLȩ) $ ȩ1AFSQ- Vol. 640, pp. 185-191. ter F. (2011). Strategic energy technology plan. EUR 25180 EN The 235U (n, f) prompt fission neutron spectrum at 100 K input Stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of austenitic stainless neutron energy. Kornilov N. et al. (2010).Nuclear Science and steels in supercritical water conditions. Novotny R., Hähner P., Engineering, Vol. 165 (1), pp. 117-127. Siegl J., Haušild P., Ripplinger S., Penttilä S., Toivonen A. (2011). Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 409, Issue 2, 15 , pp.117-123. High resolution measurements of the Am241 (n,2n) reaction cross section. Sage C. et al. (2010). Physical Review C, Vol. 81 EERA Joint Programme Nuclear Materials. Fazio, C., Nilsson K.F., (6), 064604. de Carlan M. L., Madday F. (2010). Radioactivity measurements Actinide materials Half-lives of 221Fr, 217At, 213Bi, 213Po and 209Pb from the Oxo-Functionalization and Reduction of the Uranyl Ion through 225Ac decay series. Suliman G., Pommé S., Marouli M., Van Ln-Element Bond Homolysis: Synthetic, Structural, and Bonding Ammel R., Stroh H., Jobbágy V., Paepen J., Dirican A., Bruchert- Analysis of a Series of Singly Reduced Uranyl–Rare Earth 5f1- seifer F., Apostolidis C., Morgenstern A. (2013). Applied Radia- 4fn Complexes. Arnold P. L. et al. (2013). Journal of the American tion and Isotopes, Vol. 77, pp. 32-37. Chemical Society, Vol. 13, p. 3841. Radiopurity of a CeBr3 crystal used as scintillation detector. Unified character of correlation effects in unconventional Lutter G., Hult M., Billnert R., Oberstedt A., Oberstedt S., Andreotti Pu-based superconductors and δ-Pu. Shick A. B. et al. (2013). E., Marissens G., Rosengard U., Tzika, F. (2013). Nuclear Instru- Physical Review B, Vol. 87, 020505(R). ments and Methods in Physics Research A, Vol. 703, pp. 158-162. Magnetic and electronic properties of NpCo2: Evidence for Results of an international comparison for the determination of longrange magnetic order. Sanchez J. P. et al. (2013). Physical P?BGMLSAJGBCȩ?ARGTGRWȩGLȩ@GJ@CPPWȩK?RCPG?J ȩ5ĴRHCLȩ3 ȩ JRXGRXMEJMSȩ Review, Vol. 87, 134410. T., Ceccatelli A. et al. (2012). Applied Radiation and Isotopes, Uranium and manganese assembled in a wheel-shaped na- Vol. 70, pp. 1843-1849. noscale single-molecule magnet with high spin-reversal barrier. Distribution of 60Co in steel samples from Hiroshima. Hult M., Mougel V. et al. (2012). Nature Chemistry, Vol. 4, p. 1011. Marissens G., Sahin N. et al. (2012). Applied Radiation and Strongly coupled uranium–oxo complexes from uranyl oxo Isotopes, Vol. 70, pp. 1974-1976. rearrangement and reductive silylation. Arnold P. L. et al. (2012). Measurement of the 226Th and 222Ra half-lives, Pommé S., Nature Chemistry, Vol. 4, p. 221. Suliman G., Marouli M., Van Ammel R., Jobbagy V., Paepen

33 J., Stroh H., Apostolidis C., Abbas K., Morgenstern A. (2012). Putting into Perspective the Supply and the Demand For Nuclear Applied Radiation and Isotopes, Vol. 70, pp. 1913-1918. Experts by 2020 within the EU-27 Nuclear Energy Sector. Simonovska V., Von Estorff U. (2012). JRC Scientific and Policy High-resolution alpha-particle spectrometry of the 230U decay Support Report, 2012. EUR 25291 EN series. Marouli M., Pommé S., Paepen J., Van Ammel R., Job- bagy V., Dirican A., Suliman G., Stroh H., Apostolidis C., Abbas K., Mapping of Nuclear Education Possibilities and Nuclear Stake- Morgenstern A. (2012). Applied Radiation and Isotopes, Vol. 70, holders in the EU-27. Lacal molina M., Von Estorff U. (2011). pp. 2270-2274. JRC Reference Report, 2011. EUR 25160 EN Results of an international comparison for the activity meas- First situation report on education and training in the nuclear urement of 177Lu. Zimmerman B. E., Altzitzoglou T., Arinc A., energy in the European Union. COM (2011) 563 final. Bakhshandeiar E., Bergeron D.E., Bignell L., Bobin C., Capogni M., Cessna J.T., Cozzella M.L., da Silva C. J., De Felice P., Dias M. S., Dziel T., Fazio A., Fitzgerald R., Iwahara A., Jaubert F., Johans- son L., Keightley J., Koskinas M.F., Kossert K., Lubbe J., Mo L., 5. Fostering the innovation flow Nähle O., Ott O., Paepen J., Pommé S., Sahagia M., Simpson B.R.S., Innovation in safeguards 1GJT?ȩ$ $ 4 ȩT?Lȩ KKCJȩ0 ȩT?Lȩ1R?BCLȩ+ ( ȩT?Lȩ5WLE??PBRȩ5 + ȩ Yamazaki I. M. (2012). Applied Radiation and Isotopes, Vol. 70, Nuclear Safeguards and Non Proliferation: course syllabus, Greet pp. 1825-1830. (?LQQCLQ +?CLFMSRȩ #BGRMPȩ ?LBȩ #1 0" ȩ 5MPIGLEȩ %PMSNȩ MLȩ Training and knowledge Management, OPOCE, ISBN-978-92-75- Determination of natural and anthropogenic radionuclides in soil 09741-6, December 2008. ȩPCQSJRQȩMDȩ?ȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ3LGMLȩAMKN?PGQML ȩ( ȩ+CPCĒMTı ȩ3 ȩ5ĴRHCLȩ and T. Altzitzoglou (2012). Applied Radiation and Isotopes, Recent JRC Achievements and Future Challenges in Verification Vol. 70, pp. 1836-1842. DMPȩ,SAJC?Pȩ1?DCES?PBQȩ?LBȩ,MLNPMJGDCP?RGML ȩ5 ȩ(?LQQCLQȩCRȩ?J ȩ Journal of Nuclear Material Management, Vol. 40, no. 4, p. 11-23, Standards for safeguards Summer 2012. NUSIMEP: uranium isotope amounts ratio in uranium particles. Generation IV International Forum (GIF) Truyens J. et al. (2013). Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, Vol. 125, pp. 50-55. Pre-conceptual thermal-hydraulics and neutronics studies on sodium-cooled oxide and carbide cores. Ammirabile L., Tsige-

Uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas source mass spectrometry for Tamirat H. (2013). Annals of Nuclear Energy, Vol. 60, p. 127-140, certification of reference materials and nuclear safeguards October 2013 measurements at IRMM. Richter S. et al. (2013).Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, Vol. 28, pp. 536–548. Generation IV Reactor Safety and Materials Research by the In- stitute for Energy and Transport at the European Commission’s Characterizing uranium oxide reference particles for isotopic (MGLRȩ0CQC?PAFȩ!CLRPC ȩ2SŖCIȩ) ȩCRȩ?J ȩ ȩ,SAJC?Pȩ#LEGLCCPGLEȩ abundances and uranium mass by single particle isotope di- and Design, Vol. 265, p. 1181-1193, December 2013. lution mass spectrometry. Kraiem M., Richter S., Erdmann N., Kühn H., Hedberg M., Aregbe Y. (2012). Analytica Chimica Acta, Code assessment and modelling for Design Basis Accident Analy- Vol. 748, pp. 37– 44. sis of the European sodium fast reactor design. Part I: System description, modelling and benchmarking. Lázaro A. et al. (2014). Improvements in routine uranium isotope ratio measurements Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 266, p. 1-16, January 2014 using the modified total evaporation method for multi-collector thermal ionization mass spectrometry. Richter S. et al. (2011). A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, Vol. 26, pp. 550–564. Systems, Dec 2002; Issued by the U.S. DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee and the Generation IV International Preparation and development of new Pu spike isotopic reference Forum; GIF-002-00. materials at IRMM. Jakopic R., Bauwens J., Richter S., Sturm M., 4CP@PSEECLȩ ȩ5CJJSKȩ0 ȩ#WICLQȩ0 ȩ)CFMCȩ$ ȩ)ňFLȩ& ȩ PCE@Cȩ An Integrated Safety Assessment Methodology (ISAM) for Gen- Y. (2011). ESARDA Bulletin No. 46, pp. 65–71. ISSN 0392-3029 eration IV Nuclear Systems; Version 1.1- June 2011; Issued by the U.S. DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee and the %CLCP?RGMLȩ'4ȩ'LRCPL?RGML?Jȩ$MPSKȩ%'$ 015%   0CT  4. Nuclear knowledge management, training and education Nuclear knowledge management 55#0ȩ0.4ȩ#K@PGRRJCKCLR ȩȩKSJRGKCBG?ȩKMBSJCQȩDMPȩC JC?PLGLE http://capture.jrc.ec.europa.eu Monitoring human resources in the nuclear energy sector Top-down workforce demand extrapolation from nuclear energy scenarios. Roelofs F., Von Estorff U. (2013). JRC Scientific and Policy Support Report, 2013. ISBN 978-92-79-30656-3

34 3QCDSJȧRMMJQȧ and websites

The JRC has developed numerous scientific tools to study differ- Other useful websites ent nuclear safety and security related topics. Most of them are available to the general public. bȩȩ(0!ȩUC@QGRCȩFRRNQ CA CSPMN? CS HPA bȩȩ"GPCARMP?RC %CLCP?Jȩ DMPȩ #LCPEWȩ zȩ LSAJC?Pȩ CLCPEWȩ UC@QGRCȩ 1. Nuclear safety http://ec.europa.eu/energy/nuclear/index_en.htm bȩȩȩ"GPCARMP?RC %CLCP?JȩDMPȩ0CQC?PAFȩ?LBȩ'LLMT?RGMLȩ bȩȩ#3ȩ !JC?PGLEFMSQCȩ UC@QGRCȩ FRRNQ AJC?PGLEFMSQC MCD HPA CA http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/euratom/index_en.cfm europa.eu/ bȩȩ1SQR?GL?@JCȩ ,SAJC?Pȩ #LCPEWȩ 2CAFLMJMEWȩ .J?RDMPKȩ 1,# 2.ȩ bȩȩ1 0,#2ȩ120#1 ȩUC@QGRCȩFRRN QRPCQ? HPA CA CSPMN? CS Q?PLCR www.snetp.eu bȩȩ1SNNMPRȩRMȩ'LRCPL?RGML?Jȩ,SAJC?Pȩ1?DCRWȩ ARGTGRGCQȩFRRN LSAJC?P bȩȩ'KNJCKCLRGLEȩ %CMJMEGA?Jȩ "GQNMQ?Jȩ MDȩ 0?BGM?ARGTCȩ 5?QRCȩ jrc.ec.europa.eu/tacis-insc/index.php Technology Platform, IGD-TP: www.igdtp.eu bȩȩ&WBPMJMEGA?JȩKMBCJJGLEȩ*'1$*--"ȩFRRN ȐMMBQ HPA CA CSPMN? bȩȩ,SAJC?Pȩ%CLCP?RGMLȩ'''''ȩ QQMAG?RGMLȩ,3%#,' ȩUUU LSECLG? eu/lisflood-model.html org/ bȩȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ0?BGMJMEGA?Jȩ"?R?ȩ#VAF?LECȩ.J?RDMPKȩFRRN CSPBCN bȩȩ%CL'4ȩ'LRCPL?RGML?Jȩ$MPSKȩ%'$ȩFRRN UUU ECL  MPE jrc.ec.europa.eu bȩȩ20 ,130 ,31ȩ !-"#ȩ FRRN GRS HPA CA CSPMN? CS GLBCV NFN #3ȧNPMHCARQȧUC@QGRCQ id=130&type=100 bȩȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ!MKKSLGRWȩ3PECLRȩ0?BGMJMEGA?Jȩ'LDMPK?RGMLȩ#VAF?LECȩȩ bȩȩ1 0,#2ȩ,CRUMPIȩMDȩ#VACJJCLACȩFRRN UUU Q?P LCR CS FRRN PCK HPA CA CSPMN? CS 0CK5C@ ?ARGTGRGCQ #ASPGC ?QNV bȩȩ!MJJ?@MP?RGTCȩ .PMHCARȩ MLȩ RFCȩ 1?DCRWȩ MDȩ ARGLGBCȩ 1CN?P?RGMLȩ bȩȩ0?BGM?ARGTGRWȩ #LTGPMLKCLR?Jȩ +MLGRMPGLEȩ "?R?@?QCȩ 0#+ȩ B@ȩ Processes SACSESS: www.sacsess.eu FRRN PCK HPA CA CSPMN? CS 0CK5C@ ?ARGTGRGCQ 0CKB@ ?QNV bȩȩ$?QRȩ ȩ'LQR?LRȩ0CJC?QCȩMDȩ1?DCRWȩ0CJCT?LRȩ0?BGMLSAJGBCQȩDPMKȩ Spent Nuclear Fuel, FIRST NUCLIDES: www.firstnuclides.eu/ 2. Nuclear security Default.aspx bȩȩ ,"#1ȩ NPMHCARȩ MDȩ RFCȩ #30 2-+ȩ $.ȩ GLȩ RFCȩ ?PC?ȩ MDȩ ,SAJC?Pȩ bȩȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ 1?DCES?PBQȩ 0CQC?PAFȩ ȩ "CTCJMNKCLRȩ QQMAG?RGMLȩ Fission and Radiation Protection: http://www.andes-nd.eu http://esarda.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ bȩȩ1?DCRWȩ QQCQQKCLRȩDMPȩ0C?ARMPQȩMDȩ%CLȩ'4ȩFRRN UUU Q?PECL bȩȩ! 0,ȩ!CLRPCQȩMDȩ#VACJJCLACȩFRRN UUU A@PL AMC CS iv.eu

3. Reference measurements, materials and standards bȩȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ 0CQC?PAFȩ 'LDP?QRPSARSPCQȩ DMPȩ ,SAJC?Pȩ "?R?ȩ NNJGA?- tions: http://www.erinda.org/ 3QCDSJȧAMLR?ARQ 4. Nuclear knowledge management, training and education bȩȩ-BGLȩzȩ-LJGLCȩ"?R?ȩ?LBȩ'LDMPK?RGMLȩ,CRUMPIȩDMPȩ#LCPEWȩFRRNQ odin.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ [email protected] bȩȩ#&0- ,ȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ&SK?Lȩ0CQMSPACQȩ-@QCPT?RMPWȩDMPȩRFCȩ Nuclear Energy Sector): http://ehron.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ bȩȩ!?NRSPCȩzȩ)LMUJCBECȩ!MLQMJGB?RGML ȩ.PCQCPT?RGMLȩ?LBȩ"GQQCKG- nation in the Nuclear Energy Sector: http://capture.jrc.ec.europa. eu/ bȩȩ55#0ȩ0.4ȩ#K@PGRRJCKCLRȩ?LBȩ'LRCEPGRWȩ QQCQQKCLRȩFRRN A?N- ture.jrc.ec.europa.eu/wwer/ bȩȩ$PCOSCLRJWȩ QICBȩ/SCQRGMLQȩPCNMQGRMPWȩFRRN RFGQGQLSAJC?P mcw.nl/ bȩȩ-LJGLCȩKSJRGKCBG?ȩRMMJȩQSKK?PGQGLEȩRFCȩJCQQMLQȩJC?PLCBȩDPMKȩ the three major nuclear accidents: http://test3.kz.archimed.bg/ mna_layout/ 5. Fostering the innovation flow bȩȩ##0 ȩ (MGLRȩ .PMEP?KKCȩ MLȩ +?RCPG?JQȩ DMPȩ ,SAJC?Pȩ FRRN UUU CCP? QCR CS GLBCV NFNGLBCV bȩȩ&$0ȩ .CRRCLȩ FRRN GCR HPA CA CSPMN? CS QGRCQ BCD?SJR ȏJCQ BMAS- ments/brochures/hfr_mini_blue_book.pdf

35 DBKWF>•,>WFLK>IB•MBO•IB•,RLSB•1B@KLILDFB •I|#KBODF>•B•IL•0SFIRMML•#@LKLJF@L•0LPQBKF?FIB •'Q>IV•a• /#3 •$O>K@B• a• 01+•'KQBOK>QFLK>I•a• QLJF@•4B>MLKP•#PQ>?IFPEJBKQ •2)•a• >ABK 4ňOQQBJ?BOD•a•+FKFPQOV•LC•QEB•#KSFOLKJBKQ • !IFJ>QB•ÅOLQB@QFLK•>KA•QEB•#KBODV•0B@QLO •%BOJ>KV•a• LOABO•JLKFQLOFKD•TLOHFKD•%OLRM•a• O>WFIF>K ODBKQFKB• DBK@V•CLO• @@LRKQFKD•>KA•!LKQOLI•LC•,R@IB>O•+>QBOF>IP•a• ORPPBIP•2KFSBOPFQV • BIDFRJ•a• RKABP>JQ•CňO•#F@E • RKA•3BOJBPPRKDPTBPBK • RPQOF>•a• RKABP>JQ•CňO•0QO>EIBKP@ERQW •%BOJ>KV•a• RKABP>JQ•CňO•4FOQP@E>CQ•RKA• RPCREOHLKQOLIIB •%BOJ>KV•a• RKABPHOFJFK>I>JQ •%BOJ>KV•a• ROB>R•'KQBOK>QFLK>I•ABP•ÅLFAP•BQ•+BPROBP•a• !>IFCLOKF>•'KPQFQRQB•LC•1B@EKLILDV •Å>P>ABK> •20 •a•!BKQO>I•/BPB>O@E•'KPQFQRQB•LC•#IB@QOF@•ÅLTBO•'KARPQOV •(>M>K•• a• !BKQOB• A|#QRABP• ,R@Iĸ>FOBP• LOAB>RU %O>AFDK>K • $O>K@B• a• !BKQOB•,>QFLK>I•AB•I>•/B@EBO@EB•0@FBKQFCFNRB • $O>K@B•a•!E>OIBP•2KFSBOPFQV •!WB@E•/BMR?IF@•a•!LJFQĸ•!LKPRIQ>QFC•ABP•/>VLKKBJBKQP•'LKFP>KQP •$O>K@B•a•!LJFQĸ• 'KQBOK>QFLK>I•ABP•ÅLFAP•BQ•+BPROBP •$O>K@B•a•!LJJFPP>OF>Q•İ•I|#KBODFB• QLJFNRB•BQ•>RU•#KBODFBP• IQBOK>QFSBP • $O>K@B•a•!LJJFPPFLK•A|#Q>?IFPPBJBKQ•ABP•+ĸQELABP•A| K>IVPB•AR•!# •$O>K@B•a•!LKPFDIFL•,>WFLK>IB•ABIIB• /F@BO@EB • 'Q>IV• a• !WB@E• +BQOLILDV• 'KPQFQRQB• a• "BRQP@EBP• #IBHQOLKBK 0VK@EOLQOLK • %BOJ>KV• a• "F>JLKA• *FDEQ• 0LRO@B •2)•a•#IB@QOF@FQĸ•AB•$O>K@B•a•#KDFKBBOFKD•!LKPRIQ>K@V•>KA•ÅOLGB@Q•+>K>DBJBKQ•0BOSF@BP •2)•a•#@LIB• /LV>IB•+FIFQ>FOB•a•)LKFKHIFGHB•+FIFQ>FOB•0@ELLI • BIDFRJ•a•#2•+0P•>RQELOFQFBP•a•#ROLMB>K• PPL@F>QFLK•LC•,>QFLK>I• +BQOLILDV•'KPQFQRQBP•a•#ROLMB>K•!LJJRKFQV•0QBBOFKD•%OLRM•CLO•0#1 MI>K•a•#ROLMB>K•#KBODV•/BPB>O@E• IIF>K@B• a•(LFKQ•ÅOLDO>J•,R@IB>O•+>QBOF>IP•a•#ROLMB>K•$RPFLK•"BSBILMJBKQ• DOBBJBKQ•a•#ROLMB>K•,R@IB>O•#AR@>QFLK• ,BQTLOH•a•#ROLMB>K•,R@IB>O•#KBODV•$LORJ•a•#ROLMB>K•,R@IB>O•0L@FBQV•a•#ROLMB>K•0>CBDR>OAP•/BPB>O@E•• "BSBILMJBKQ• PPL@F>QFLK•a•#ROLMB>K•0VK@EOLQOLK•/>AF>QFLK•$>@FIFQV •$O>K@B•a•#ROLMLI•a•$BABO>I•'KPQFQRQB•CLO• The JRC works in close contact with a vast array of institutions, +>QBOF>IP• /BPB>O@E• >KA• 1BPQFKD • %BOJ>KV• a• $LOP@ERKDPWBKQORJ• /LPPBKALOC • %BOJ>KV• a• %A>KPH• 2KFSBOPFQV• LC•1B@EKLILDV •ÅLI>KA•a•%BK'3•'KQBOK>QFLK>I•$LORJ•a•%BOJ>KFRJ•"BQB@QLO• OO>V•@LII>?LO>QFLK•a•%BPBIIP@E>CQ• research networks and science-led public and private partners CňO• KI>DBK • RKA• /B>HQLOPF@EBOEBFQ • %BOJ>KV• a• %BPBIIP@E>CQ• CňO• ,RJBOFP@EB• 0FJRI>QFLK• a• %IL?>I• 'KFQF>QFSB• QL•!LJ?>Q•,R@IB>O•1BOOLOFPJ•a•%IL?>I•Å>OQKBOPEFM•a•&BIJELIQW 7BKQORJ•"OBPABK /LPPBKALOC•B 3 •%BOJ>KV• and is continuously strengthening co-operations on global a•&LOF>•&RIR?BF•,>QFLK>I•'KPQFQRQB•LC•ÅEVPF@P•>KA•,R@IB>O•#KDFKBBOFKD •/LJ>KF>•a•'JMIBJBKQFKD•%BLILDF@>I• "FPMLP>I•w•1B@EKLILDV•ÅI>QCLOJ•M>OQKBOP•a•'JMBOF>I•!LIIBDB•*LKALK•a•'KPQFQRQ•AB•!EFJFB•0ĸM>O>QFSB•AB•+>O@LRIB • issues with international partners and organisations. $O>K@B•a•'KPQFQRQ•AB•/>AFLMOLQB@QFLK•BQ•AB•0ŇOBQĸ•,R@Iĸ>FOB•a•'KPQFQRQ•*>RB *>KDBSFK •$O>K@B•a•'KPQFQRQB•CLO• #KBODV•1B@EKLILDV •,LOT>V•a•'KPQFQRQB•CLO•+>QBOF>IP•/BPB>O@E •1LELHR•2KFSBOPFQV •(>M>K•a•'KPQFQRQB•CLO•,R@IB>O• /BPB>O@E •2HO>FKB•a•'KPQFQRQB•CLO•ÅEVPF@P•>KA•ÅLTBO•#KDFKBBOFKD •/RPPF>•a•'KPQFQRQB•LC•*LT•1BJMBO>QROB•>KA• 0QOR@QROB•/BPB>O@E •ÅLIFPE• @>ABJV•LC•0@FBK@BP •ÅLI>KA•a•'KPQFQRQB•LC•,R@IB>O•#KBODV•1B@EKLILDV •!EFK>•a• On the nuclear safety and security field, cooperation is 'KPQFQRQB•LC•ÅEVPF@P •!WB@E•/BMR?IF@•a•'KPQFQRQL•,>WFLK>IB•AF•$FPF@>•,R@IB>OB •'Q>IV•a•'KQBOK>QFLK>I• QLJF@•#KBODV• DBK@V•a•'KQBOMLI•a•'KSBPQFD>@FLKBP•#KBODBQF@>P•+BAFL>J?FBKQ>IBP•1B@KLILDF@>P •0M>FK•a•(>M>K• QLJF@•#KBODV• developed world-wide, with close collaboration with universities, DBK@V•a•(>M>K•,R@IB>O•#KBODV•0>CBQV•-OD>KFW>QFLK•a•(LWBC•0QBC>K•'KPQFQRQB•*GR?IG>K> •0ILSBKF>•a•)>OIPOREB• 'KPQFQRQB•LC•1B@EKLILDV •%BOJ>KV•a•)'! 'KKL #KBODV •ÅLI>KA•a•)LOB>• QLJF@•#KBODV•/BPB>O@E•'KPQFQRQB•a•)LOB>• environmental ministries and agencies, nuclear safety and /BPB>O@E• 'KPQFQRQB• LC• 0Q>KA>OAP• >KA• 0@FBK@B• a• *>?LO>QLFOB• ,>QFLK>I• &BKOF• B@NRBOBI • $O>K@B• a• *>TOBK@B• BOHBIBV•,>QFLK>I•*>?LO>QLOV •20 •a•*>TOBK@B•*FSBOJLOB•,>QFLK>I•*>?LO>QLOV •20 •a•*LP• I>JLP•,>QFLK>I• security authorities, international representatives from research *>?LO>QLOV •20 •a•+>U•ÅI>K@H•'KPQFQRQB •%BOJ>KV•a•+BQBLOLILDF@>I•/BPB>O@E•'KPQFQRQB •(>M>K•a•,>QFLK>I•!BKQOB• CLO•,R@IB>O•/BPB>O@E•/>AFLFPLQLMB•!BKQOB •ÅLI>KA•a•,>QFLK>I•'KPQFQRQB•LC• AS>K@BA•'KARPQOF>I•0@FBK@BP•>KA• and safety organisations, as well as regulators to achieve the 1B@EKLILDV •,>QFLK>I•+BQOLILDV•'KPQFQRQB•LC•(>M>K•a•,>QFLK>I•'KPQFQRQB•LC•0Q>KA>OAP•>KA•1B@EKLILDV •20 •a• ,>QFLK>I•+BQOLILDV•'KPQFQRQB•LC•0LRQE• COF@>•a•,>QFLK>I•ÅEVPF@>I•*>?LO>QLOV •2)•a•,>QFLK>IB•%BKLPPBKP@E>CQ•CňO• highest safety standards in the operation of conventional, AFB•*>DBORKD•O>AFL>HQFSBO• ?CĴIIB •0TFQWBOI>KA•a•,BDBS•,R@IB>O•/BPB>O@E•!BKQOB •'PO>BI•a•-#!"•,R@IB>O•#KBODV• DBK@V•a•,R@IB>O•$LOBKPF@P•'KQBOK>QFLK>I•1B@EKF@>I•4LOHFKD•%OLRM•a•,R@IB>O•+>QBOF>I•!LKQOLI•!BKQOB •(>M>K•a• innovative and advanced fuels and fuel cycles. A representative ,R@IB>O•/BDRI>QLOV•!LJJFPPFLK •20 •a•,R@IB>O•/BPB>O@E•>KA•@LKPRIQ>K@V•%OLRM •1EB•,BQEBOI>KAP•a•,2%#,' • M>OQKBOP•a•->H•/FADB•,>QFLK>I•*>?LO>QLOV •20 •a•-UCLOA•2KFSBOPFQV •2)•a•Å>RI•0@EBOOBO•'KPQFQRQB •0TFQWBOI>KA• sample of these partners can be found on this page. a•ÅEVPFH>IFP@E 1B@EKFP@EB• RKABP>KPQ>IQ •%BOJ>KV•a•ÅLIFQB@KF@L•AF•+FI>KL •'Q>IV•a•ÅLIFQB@KF@L•AF•1LOFKL •'Q>IV•a• ÅOFK@BQLK•2KFSBOPFQV •20 •a•/>A?LRA•2KFSBOPFQV•,FGJBDBK •1EB•,BQEBOI>KAP•a•/!/•*QA •!WB@E•/BMR?IF@•a•/BKKBP• 2KFSBOPFQV •$O>K@B•a•/LV>I•'KPQFQRQB•LC•1B@EKLILDV •0TBABK•a•/RQDBOP•2KFSBOPFQV •20 •a•/RQEBOCLOA• MMIBQLK• *>?LO>QLOV •!EFIQLK •2)•a•0 !0#00•M>OQKBOP•a•0 /,#1•M>OQKBOP•a•0>S>KK>E•/FSBO•,R@IB>O•0LIRQFLKP•a•,R@IB>O• /BPB>O@E•!BKQBO •20 •a•0!) !#,•a• BIDF>K•,R@IB>O•/BPB>O@E•!BKQOB•a•0RPQ>FK>?IB•,R@IB>O•#KBODV•1B@EKLILDV• ÅI>QCLOJ••a•0TBAFPE•,R@IB>O•$RBI•>KA•4>PQB•+>K>DBJBKQ•!LJM>KV•a•0) •a•1B@EKF@>I•/BPB>O@E•!BKQOB• LC•$FKI>KA•a•1B@EKFP@EB•2KFSBOPFQĴQ•!>OLIL 4FIEBIJFK> •%BOJ>KV•a• 1EB• #ROLMB>K• -OD>KFW>QFLK• CLO• ,R@IB>O• /BPB>O@E •!#/, •0TFQWBOI>KA•a•1EB•-@B>KLDO>MEF@•0L@FBQV•LC•(>M>K•a•12 "BICQ •1EB•,BQEBOI>KAP•a•2KFSBOPFQĸ• Å>OFP 0RA •$O>K@B•a•2KFSBOPFQV•!LIIBDB•*LKALK •2)•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC• >OERP •"BKJ>OH•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC• FOJFKDE>J • 2)•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC• LILDK> •'Q>IV•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC• LOAB>RU •$O>K@B•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC• OFPQLI •2)•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC• !>IFCLOKF> •20 •a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•!>J?OFADB •2)•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•"OBPABK •%BOJ>KV•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•#AFK?RODE •2)•a• 2KFSBOPFQV•LC•$BOO>O> •'Q>IV•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•$O>KHCROQ •%BOJ>KV•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•&>J?ROD •%BOJ>KV•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC• &VABO>?>A •'KAF>•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•+>K@EBPQBO •2)•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•+>KFQL?> •!>K>A>•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•+FI>KL •'Q>IV•a• 2KFSBOPFQV•LC•ĪOB?Oń •0TBABK•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•Å>OJ> •'Q>IV•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•/LJB •'Q>IV•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•0QO>P?LROD • $O>K@B•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•0BSFIIB •0M>FK•a•2KFSBOPFQV•LC•1LRILRPB •$O>K@B•a•2MMP>I>•2KFSBOPFQV •2MMP>I> •0TBABK•a• 2KFSBOPFQV•LC•3FBKK> • RPQOF>•a•2/#,!-•*QA •2)•a•,BT• ORKPTF@H•*>?LO>QLOV•a•20•"BM>OQJBKQ•LC•#KBODV•"L#•a• ,>QFLK>I•,R@IB>O•0B@ROFQV• DBK@V•a•20•"BM>OQJBKQ•LC•&LJBI>KA•0B@ROFQV•a•20•"BM>OQJBKQ•LC•0Q>QB••a•20• #IB@QOF@•ÅLTBO•OBPB>O@E•'KPQFQRQB•a•20•,>QFLK>I•'KPQFQRQB•LC•0Q>36 KA>OAP•>KA•1B@EKLILDV•a•4BPQFKDELRPB •2) European Commission Abstract Joint Research Centre This report provides a detailed overview of research on nuclear JRC90424 safety and security, including their policy background and context, Report EUR 26659 EN as carried out by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission’s in-house science service. Organised in five chapters, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2014 the report describes relevant scientific output in nuclear safety; 2014 – 40pp. – 21.0 x 29.7cm nuclear security; reference measurements, materials and standards; EUR – Scientific and Technical Research Series nuclear knowledge management, training and education and, in ISBN 978-92-79-38404-2 (pdf) 978-92-79-38405-9 (print) the last chapter, innovation. In addition, lists of facilities, partners ISSN 1831-9424 (online) 1018-5593 (print) and references as well as links to useful tools and websites are doi:10.2788/82727 (online) doi:10.2788/8322 (print) provided.

Picture credits

All images copyright European Atomic Energy Community except: Cover page: ©petrarottova - Fotolia.com Pages 2 and 3: ©fottoo - Fotolia.com Pages 6 (banner) and 4 (reactor): Areva LB-NA-26659-EN-N doi:10.2788/82727 ISBN 978-92-79-38404-2