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Coal Slurry Waste Underground Injection Assessment COAL SLURRY WASTE UNDERGROUND INJECTION ASSESSMENT Final Report: Phase II for submission to West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources Office of Environmental Health Services Agreement Number G090951 July 30, 2010 prepared by Alan Ducatman, M.D., MSc, Community Medicine and Project Principal Investigator Paul Ziemkiewicz, Ph.D, West Virginia Water Research Institute John Quaranta, Ph.D., P.E., Civil & Environmental Engineering Tamara Vandivort, M.S., West Virginia Water Research Institute Ben Mack, M.S., West Virginia Water Research Institute WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY and Benoit VanAken, Ph.D., Civil & Environmental Engineering TEMPLE UNIVERSITY i Table of Contents Foreward………………………..………………………………………………….………...v List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………….……vii Executive Summary………..……………………………….………………..…………..xii Introduction…………………..………………………………………………….….........….1 Historical and Legislative Background of the Phase II Report………………..….1 Specific Tasks of the Legislative Resolution………………………………..……....2 Phase I Tasks………………………………………………..…………………….….2 Phase II Tasks…………………………………………………….………….............2 Tasks Pertinent to Phase I and Phase II………………………………………….2 Specific Phase II Contract Tasks…………………………………….…………....3 Regulatory Framework of the Permitting Process in West Virginia..……..........4 Scope of the Slurry Injection Process in West Virginia…………………..……….6 Summary Statement of Study Limitations, Including Data Gaps……..……….…6 Coal Slurry Monitoring………………………………………………..……………..…..7 Phase I Sites and Time Frames Selected for Study………………………………...9 Impact of Seasonality on Phase I Measures…………………..……………………11 Impact of Public Health Measurement Procedures on Available Data..…….…12 Confounding Impact of Historic Coal Activity……………………………………..13 The Use of Predictive Models……………………………………………..….……....15 Slurry Disposal Methods…………………………………………………………….…15 Literature Review………………………………………………………………………...18 Identification of Sources Being Used for the Investigation…………………..…18 Toxic Components of Coal, Coal Refuse, and Coal Combustion Products.…20 Coal Slurry Composition……………………………………………………….…...20 Organic Contaminants………………………………………………………………21 Metal and Inorganic Contaminants in Coal Beds…………………….……...…22 Metals Added During Coal Processing……………………………………..……24 Metal and Nonmetal Electrolytes in Coal Mining……………….…………..….24 Toxicity and Environmental Impact of Coal and Coal-Related Compounds…24 Generality……………………………………………………………………………...24 Environmental and Health Effects of Coal Mining Activities………………...25 Environmental Contamination by Coal Slurry Impoundments……….……...27 Coal Combustion Residues…………………………………………………….…..29 Underground Backfilling of Coal-Related Waste……………………………....31 Injection of Coal-Cleaning Waste……………………………………….………...33 Transport and Mobility of Coal-Associated Contaminants……………..………35 General Considerations………………………………………………….…..……..35 ii Coal Slurry Injection Considerations………………………………….……..…..37 Microbiology of Coal-Related Compounds………………………………..………..38 Summary…………………………………………..……………………………………...39 Toxic Components of Coal, Coal Refuse, and Coal Combustion Products…..40 Toxicity and Environmental Impact of Coal and Coal-Related Compounds….40 Transport and Mobility of Coal-Associated Contaminants……………………...42 Analysis of Phase I Data…………………………………………………..………..…43 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..….43 Southern Minerals……………………………………………………………..…….43 Loadout…………………………………………………………………………….….43 Panther……………………………………………………………………..…….……43 Power Mountain………………………………………………………………………44 Coresco…………………………………………………………………………...……44 Marfork…………………………………………………………………………..….….44 Relationship of Well Water, Surface Water, and Supply Water Chemicals to Groundwater Content .........................................................................................45 Selection of Chemicals to be Reviewed……………….………….………..……….46 Exposure Pathway Analysis in Human Risk Assessment……..………..……….50 Uncertainties of Pathway Exposure…………………………………………………51 Identification of Potential and Completed Exposure Pathways in Humans.…52 Ingestion of and Dermal Exposure to Chemicals in Water – Completed Pathways for the Past, Present, and Future.................................……….…... 52 Summary………………………………………………………………..…………...…....54 Relationship of Well Water, Surface Water, and Supply Water Chemicals to Groundwater Content………………………………………………………………......55 Selection of Chemicals to be Reviewed…………………………..…………..…55 Summary of Exposure Pathway Analysis in Human Risk Assessment……56 Human Exposure Analysis: Chemicals to be Reviewed…..………..………...56 Estimating Exposure Doses….…………………………………………..............57 Selection of Chemicals to be Reviewed for Non-Carcinogenic Effects…..58 Selection of Chemicals to be Reviewed for Carcinogenic Effects……..…...58 The Precautionary Principle in the Context of Underground Injection of Coal Slurry…………………………………………………….………..….61 Coal Slurry Chemical Risk Assessment………………………………………....64 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………....64 Summary of Assumptions and Limitations………………………………………65 Metals and Non-Metallic Elements Adjacent to Coal Soils: A Problem of Tracking Sources ………………………….……………………..……………………..66 Aluminum………………………………………………………………………...……68 Antimony……………………………………………………………………………....73 Arsenic……………………………………………………………………………..…..75 iii Barium………………………………………………………………………………….82 Cadmium……………………………………………………………………………....86 Chromium…………………………………………………………………………..….88 Diesel…………………………………..……………………………………………….92 Fluoride…………………………………………..…………………………………….94 Iron…………………………………………………………..………………………...100 Lead…..…………………………………………………………….…………………103 Manganese…………………………………………………………………………...111 Molybdenum……………..…….…………………………………………………….119 Nitrate……………………………………..…………………………………………..121 Selenium………………………………………….…………………………………..127 Silicon…………………………………………………….…………………………..132 Sodium…………………………………………………………….………………….135 Strontium………………………………………………………………….………….141 Sulfates……………………………………………………………………………….143 Total Dissolved Solids………………………………………………………….….146 Summary of Health Effects…….…………………………………………………….149 Comparison of Drinking-Water Sampling Frequencies to Potential Health Hazards…………………………………………………………………………151 Coal Slurry Underground Injection Control Data Evaluation…………..152 Coal Slurry Production……………….……………………………………………….152 Coal Processing……………………………..…………………………………….152 Factors That Affect Slurry Chemistry…………………..………………………….155 Coal Slurry Matrices Considered……………………………………………….156 Aqueous Phase…………………………………………………..………………..156 Solid Phase……………………………………………………………….………..158 Slurry Physical Characteristics……………………………………………………..161 Exposure Pathways in the Environment…………………………………………..162 Southern West Virginia Streams……………….……………………………………162 Background Chemistry of Mined Watersheds……………………………….162 Background Chemistry of Unmined Watersheds………………………..….167 Other Related Studies…………………………………………………………………168 Southern West Virginia Groundwater……………………….……………………..170 Acidic Mine Pool Water Background Chemistry………………...…………..172 Alkaline Mine Pool Water Background Chemistry………………………..…173 Mass Balance Model…………………………………………………………………..183 Underground Mine Pools……………….………………………………………..183 Surface Water…………………………………….………………………………..187 Effects of Coal Slurry Injection…………………………….……………………….188 Groundwater……………………………………………………...………………..188 Surface Water………………………………………………………….…………..191 Comparison of Contaminant Concentrations with Water Quality Standards.193 Primary Drinking Water Standards………………………...…………………..193 iv Secondary Drinking Water Standards…………………………….…………..194 Summary and Conclusions……………………………………………………….....195 Groundwater……………………………………………………………………….195 Surface Water………………………………………………………………………196 Recommendations…………………………………………………….……………….198 How the Known or Suspected Hazards of Injection Compare to Other Means of Dealing with Slurry from Coal Operations….………….199 Background of Coal Refuse…………………………………………….…………....199 Coarse Coal Refuse (CCR)………………………………………….…..……….199 Fine Coal Refuse (FCR)………………………………….………….……………200 Existing Methods for Disposal of Coal Waste…………………………………….200 Impounding Facilities…………………………………………………………………201 Coal Waste Impoundments………………………………………………...……201 Incised Impoundments…………………………………………………………...203 Non-impounding Facilities………………………………………………………...…203 Coarse Refuse Embankments and Piles…………………………………...…204 Combined Refuse Piles…………………………………………………………..204 Slurry Cells…………………………………………………………………...…….204 Underground Injection…………………………………………………………….….205 Controlled Flushing……………………………………………………………....205 Blind Flushing……………………………………………………………………..206 Exposure Characterization of Existing Coal Waste Systems………………….207 Slurry Seepage from Impounded Facilities into Basin Geology…….……207 Subsidence………….……………………………………………………………...208 Slurry Infiltration & Mobilization from Impounded Facilities Into Coal Mine Workings………………………………………………………...…….209 Failure of Sealed Underground Mine Openings………………………….….209 Slurry Distribution From Underground Injection…..…………………….….210 Summary and Conclusions…………………………………………………………..211 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………….212 Monitoring Plan for Slurry Injection Programs………………………………213 References…………………………………………………………………..………..…...217 Appendices A. Tables…………………………………………………………………………………244 B. Figures………………………………………………………………….………….…327 C. Preparers of Report………………………………………………………………...351 v Foreword This document summarizes public health concerns related to the injection of coal slurry into underground mine voids. This is Phase II of a two-part effort. The primary report data, Phase I,
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