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POSTCOLONIAL PETE: RACE, MEDIA, AND MEMORY IN THE POLITICS OF DUTCH IDENTITY A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Diantha Y. Vliet December 2020 Examining Committee Members: Dr. Patrick Murphy, Advisory Chair, Media and Communication Dr. Fabienne Darling-Wolf, Media and Communication Dr. Clemencia Rodríguez, Media and Communication Dr. Isabel Awad, External Reader, Erasmus University i ABSTRACT Populism in Europe has heightened racial tensions in many countries, including the Netherlands. Since the early 2010s, the Dutch have been debating whether the traditional blackface character Black Pete is a racist remnant of colonialism and should be changed for modern society. Though many politicians consider Black Pete a “matter for the people”, different agents in meaning-making provide different perspectives and influences. This dissertation explores the Black Pete debate holistically and considers how he is interpreted and changed through multiple entry points. By tracing the historical changes of the image and critically examining the discourses created by politicians, the media, and activists, the analysis shows how Black Pete comes the stand in for Dutch identity and how this gives him political utility. The process of resignifying Black Pete highlights the difficulty of addressing racial inequalities in a postcolonial nation. Each agent uses Black Pete to either maintain or challenge the existing racial hierarchy, but lone agents can neither make change nor stop the demand for it. These agents often only tangentially interact, but each action affects what the others do. Throughout the analysis of each entry point, the connecting role of the news media is shown, as it interprets these actions for the public at large. Colonialism created boundaries around the Dutch identity through violence, capital, and racial classifications, the Black Pete is about moving those boundaries to include those who least benefit from the colonial legacy. ii For Linda Moi-Thuk-Shung-Vliet, who held me close with love and unrelenting faith iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation would not exist without the support of my wonderful advisor, Patrick Murphy. You were endlessly positive even when my doubt got the better of me and the world was exploding around us. Your guidance gave me the confidence to pursue a topic that was close to my heart, and your feedback throughout this process allowed for the work to blossom. I am so appreciative of my committee, Fabienne Darling-Wolf and Clemencia Rodríguez, and my external reader, Isabel Awad. Fab, speaking with you always seemed to put everything into perspective. Without your help it would have taken me much longer to figure out what I actually wanted to do. Clemencia, you provided me with directions I had never considered. Isabel stepped in at the last minute and I’m so grateful for your input on not only the subject matter, but on my future as a Dutch academic. Thank you to the wonderful faculty I have been able to work with over the years, including Carolyn Kitch, Nancy Morris, Sherry Yu, Pablo Vila, and Bruce Hardy, who shaped my approaches to theory and methodology. I am grateful for Brian Creech in particular, who has given me so much support and advice on my work. I want to thank my fellow cohort at CHAT for their feedback and company, and Kimberly Williams for championing me and the humanities. I also know I could not have made it through this program without Kaitlin Pierce and Nicole McKenna in the Grad iv office. You always had all the answers, and you never seemed to mind when I just popped in for a chat, even when you were busy. I could not have done this work without the support of my family. Even though you were far away, you kept me grounded and stable when I felt like neither. My parents, Carla and Iwan, have always trusted I would succeed in whatever I did. I explored so much and they always cheered me on. I’m grateful for my brother Jordy for believing I could do anything even when he didn’t understand why I would. He also gave me my nephews, who brought me so much joy as I was finishing. Thanks to my many cousins, in particular Mallory, Janice, and Valdez, for good times and good company. And my aunt Sharda, who taught me to sew and gave me something to keep me sane. To my Temple friends: thank you for going through this with me. My cohort was full of wonderful people, but I am particularly grateful for Michael Buozis, who let me distract him from his work with silly chats, Nicole Henninger, for always being there when I was in crisis, and Lee Tae Cobb, for giving me the space for joy and for sadness. I will always be appreciative of all my fellow students at Klein and Temple at large. Lastly, I am grateful to the friends from other stages of my life, especially Liz, Jordan, and Sonia. And I have to mention the ladies of my book club: Nichole, Amanda, and Kayla. Laughing with you this past year has, at times, been the only thing that brought me joy. I’m so glad to have met my people. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................ii DEDICATION .............................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... xi LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 Right-Wing Populism on the Rise ........................................................................ 2 Saint Nicholas and Black Pete .............................................................................. 4 Race in the European Context .............................................................................. 7 ‘New’ Racism ........................................................................................ 11 Black Pete and Dutch Racism ............................................................................ 12 Agents of Meaning Making ................................................................................ 20 Research Focus .................................................................................................. 22 Research Questions and Purpose ............................................................ 23 Research Perspective .............................................................................. 25 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................. 27 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW .......................... 34 Postcolonial Theory ........................................................................................... 36 Postcolonial Cultures .............................................................................. 38 vi Social Identities ................................................................................................. 40 Factors in identity formation ................................................................... 41 Building and maintaining a national identity ........................................... 44 Building and maintaining ethnic identities .............................................. 45 Critical Race Theory .......................................................................................... 47 Social Semiotics and Social Memory ................................................................. 50 National iconography and collective memory ......................................... 53 Agents of Social Change .................................................................................... 55 Defining Terms ...................................................................................... 55 Relationships Between Agents of Change ............................................... 57 Social Media Activism ........................................................................... 61 3. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................. 64 Semiotic Analysis .............................................................................................. 65 Critical Discourse Analysis ................................................................................ 67 Online Ethnography ........................................................................................... 71 Setting .................................................................................................... 71 Data Collection....................................................................................... 75 4. MEMORY AND COLONIALISM IN THE RESIGNIFICATIONS OF BLACK PETE ......................................................................................................... 77 1850-1910 .......................................................................................................... 79 Denotative Description ........................................................................... 82 Connotative Analysis.............................................................................. 87 1910-1939 .........................................................................................................
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