Gourd and squash artifacts yield starch grains of feasting foods from preceramic

Neil A. Duncan1, Deborah M. Pearsall, and Robert A. Benfer, Jr.

Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211

Edited by Michael E. Moseley, University of , Gainesville, FL, and approved June 8, 2009 (received for review March 26, 2009) In a study of residues from gourd and squash artifacts, we recov- remains, a few mussel shells, and some small fish remains. ered starch grains from manioc (Manihot esculenta), potato (Sola- Abundant food remains, including seeds of chili peppers (Cap- num sp.), chili pepper (Capsicum spp.), arrowroot ( arundi- sicum sp.), guava (Psidium guayaba), lucuma (Pouteria lucuma), nacea), and algarrobo (Prosopis sp.) from feasting contexts at the and squashes ( maxima, C. moschata, and C. ficifolia) Buena Vista site, a central Peruvian preceramic site dating to Ϸ2200 and rind fragments of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), manioc calendar years B.C. This study has implications for the study of (Manihot esculenta), and potato (Solanum sp.), were recovered food use wherever gourds or squashes are preserved, doc- with the remains of nonfood such as cotton (Gossypium uments the earliest evidence for the consumption of algarrobo and barbadense), grass, fragments of agave leaves (Furcraea andina), arrowroot in Peru, and provides insights into foods consumed at and partially burnt twigs and charcoal. Faunal remains are much feasts. less abundant and limited primarily to mussel shells and small fish vertebrae. Charcoal from separate stratigraphic levels within Ϸ n enhanced understanding of the use of bottle gourds in the pit provided two radiocarbon dates, both 2200 calendar Aaceramic cultures through the examination of starch resi- years B.C. (Table 1), suggesting that the pit was filled in a short dues on the gourds’ interior surfaces provides us with a potential period. The sequence of burial began with what might be pathway to understanding behavioral, economic, symbolic, and described as an ‘‘organic protective layer’’ similar to that de- ritual contexts in which these artifacts are found. The myriad scribed in the temple entombment at Huaca Soledad (12), a 5- uses for the shells of bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) and to 10-cm-deep layer of grass and fine silt that covered the bottom squash (Cucurbita sp.) in the archaeological record for both tools of the pit, atop which commingled organics, grass, leaves, and and, for squash, food complicates determination of the precise food remains were placed. Small round cobbles and gravel use of these materials without direct contextual information, topped this layer, followed by more mixed organic material, then such as gourd fishing floats attached to nets (1), or encountering capped with small angular gravel. The surrounding room was whole or partial gourd artifacts from which one can infer their then filled with large rocks, some as large as 60 cm in diameter, use through ethnographic analogy (2). In this study, we extracted to the level of the top of the platform. Last, the entire room was starch from the residues of fragmented squash (Cucurbita) and filled with shicra, cane bags filled with rock. gourd (L. siceraria) serving vessels deposited in a ritual context Archaeological starch grain research has contributed greatly at the Buena Vista site in central Peru, located Ϸ35 km inland to the study of plant use and consumption by humans (13–15). (11°43Ј51.72ЉS, 76°58Ј5.45ЉW) from the mouth of the Chillo´n However, this is the first study to analyze residue from bottle River (Fig. 1). Overlooking the valley floor, Buena Vista con- gourd or squash artifacts. One cannot underestimate the signif- tains monumental late preceramic architecture. Its large, elab- icance of squash and bottle gourds to humans. Utilitarian bottle orate, isolated space with uniquely patterned astronomical align- gourds and edible squashes are among the first cultivars in the ments (3) suggest that it served as a small ceremonial center in Americas (16, 17). On the Peruvian coast, bottle gourds are the central Chillo´n Valley. The starch residues of edible plants common in preceramic contexts and closely associated with found on the artifacts and the special archaeological context maritime subsistence as net floats (1). However, their use also from which these artifacts were recovered suggest that the enters the realm of the sacred as symbolic containers (18) and artifacts were used in a ritual setting for the serving and for serving ritual libations. As demonstrated here, residue production of food. Among archaeologists, there is tremendous analysis can help to determine use. interest in the examination of feasting, defined loosely as the Results sharing of food or drink in a special context or for a special Starch grains were recovered from squash and gourd artifacts by purpose (4), in understanding the social relationships between employing a method similar to that used to recover microfossils emergent elites and commoners. The use of food, particularly from stone tools and ceramics (see SI Materials and Methods). chicha (maize beer), in traditional Andean systems in the First, the artifact is placed in a sonicating water bath to loosen materialization of public labor is well documented (5, 6); how- and remove adhering residue, which is collected as Sediment 1. ever, the prehistoric use of food in religious, social, or economic Then, the artifact’s interior surface is lightly brushed to remove rituals in the Andes is less understood (7, 8). any remaining residue, collected as Sediment 2. Starch grains are Gourd and squash artifacts for this study were recovered from then isolated from each of these sediments (Tables 2 and 3). a central feature in the Fox Temple at Buena Vista, named after The artifacts in this study are well-preserved, desiccated an incised stylized drawing of a fox in the doorway. At the top specimens recovered under conditions of exceptional preserva- of the temple mound, a large room (Ϸ15 ϫ 7 m) contained an elevated platform within which there was a sunken niche-walled pit (Fig. 2 A and B) from which the materials in this study were Author contributions: N.A.D. and D.M.P. designed research; N.A.D. and R.A.B. performed recovered. The temple was intentionally interred, as is consistent research; D.M.P. contributed new reagents/analytic tools; N.A.D. analyzed data; and N.A.D. with the ritual entombment of monumental architecture at other wrote the paper. Andean sites, particularly at Kotosh (9–11), which shares similar The authors declare no conflict of interest. architectural features with Buena Vista. The room itself was This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. found clean of refuse, save for a single tree trunk lying adjacent 1To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: [email protected]. to the platform in the center. Within the platform, the sunken pit This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/ contained well-stratified and abundant food and other plant 0903322106/DCSupplemental.

13202–13206 ͉ PNAS ͉ August 11, 2009 ͉ vol. 106 ͉ no. 32 www.pnas.org͞cgi͞doi͞10.1073͞pnas.0903322106 Downloaded by guest on October 1, 2021 Fig. 2. The sunken pit and platform in the Fox Temple. (A) Photograph of sunken pit facing east. (B) Stratigraphic profile of the pit contents from which artifacts were studied.

Fig. 1. Location of Buena Vista on the central coast of Peru. (Inset) Location of Buena Vista in the Chillo´n Valley. produced only three transient starch grains, all from Level 200, above the levels containing the starch-bearing gourd and squash fragments (Table 1). Starch identifications were aided by a tion (Fig. S1). Squash and gourd fragments can be distinguished collection of Ͼ250 comparative neotropical starch specimens easily by cross-section (19). One Cucurbita sp. fragment was and regional starch reports and keys (13, 21–23). Given the studied and yielded several noncucurbit starch grains, indicating potential for variation within a taxon, multiple criteria must be that Cucurbita fruits also were used as food containers or serving used to identify an individual grain (24). Our identifications are vessels (Table 2). Seven of the 10 artifacts yielded starch. As conservative. We securely identified five taxa: M. esculenta expected, we identified starch from the mesocarp of the artifact (manioc), Solanum (potato), Maranta arundinacea (arrowroot), itself. There is no significant difference in the number of Prosopis (algarrobo), and Capsicum (chili pepper). Cucurbitaceae starch grains between Sediment 1 (sonicated) Manioc starch occurs on three artifacts. One grain (Fig. 3B) and Sediment 2 (brushed) samples. However, non-Cucurbita- is a relatively large (28 ␮m in diameter) sphere with two basal ceae starch grains occurred in a higher number in the Sediment facets and a large stellate-shaped fissure. Grain size is in the 1 samples. Thus, the non-Cucurbitaceae starch grains appear to upper range of domesticated manioc starch and likely too large occur in greater concentration in the food residue adhering to to be wild (25). Other hemisphere-shaped grains with two basal the outermost interior surface of the artifact’s surviving meso- facets are consistent with manioc but not diagnostic on their carp. A strong case can be made that non-Cucurbitaceae eco- own. Facet morphology is distinct from similar grains in Cucur- nomic starch grains in both Sediment 1 and Sediment 2 represent bitaceae and I. batatas (sweet potato); thus, they were identified residues from artifact use and not transfer of starch from soils as M. esculenta. Another grain identified as M. esculenta is adjacent to the artifacts (20). Analysis of soils in the sunken pit spherical with a depressed linear fissure and a regular extinction

Table 1. Artifacts and radiocarbon dated contexts Artifact nos. Context Radiocarbon years B.P. Date in calendar years B.C.

02, 05, 07 Sunken Pit: Unit 10, Feature 1, Level 300 3,770 Ϯ 80 B.P. (GX-31276) 2460–1980 calibrated 01, 03, 04, 08 Sunken Pit: Unit 10, Feature 1, Level 400 No date Sunken Pit: Unit 10, Feature 1, Level 425 3,790 Ϯ 80 BP (GX-32177) 2470–2020 calibrated 09, 10 Unit 10, Cuad 3, level 100 No date ANTHROPOLOGY Standard radiocarbon date from associated charcoal, 2␴ calibrated result.

Duncan et al. PNAS ͉ August 11, 2009 ͉ vol. 106 ͉ no. 32 ͉ 13203 Downloaded by guest on October 1, 2021 Table 2. Starch grain data from squash and gourd artifacts per sediment sample Artifact no. 1 2* 34567 8 9 10

Sediment no. 1212121212121212 1 2 1 2

Lagenaria siceraria 1 2112111 Cucurbita sp. 4 3 Capsicum sp. 1 Manihot esculenta 1 cf. Manihot esculenta 22 Solanum sp. 1 Maranta arundinacea 11 Prosopis sp. 1 1 Unidentified 1 1 Unidentified root/tuber 1 1 1 Total starch 0183234330221100 0 0 0 0

Sediment 1 was removed from the artifact by sonicating water bath. Sediment 2 was removed by brushing the artifact’s interior surface. *Cucurbita sp. artifact. All others identified as Lagenaria siceraria.

cross. This grain lacks basal facets; however, the type appears thousand meters above its natural range, the Waynuna arrowroot with diagnostic grains and faceted hemispheres in comparative represents an imported cultivar. Likewise, wild Maranta is not manioc samples. known from the coast of Peru, making the starch grains identified Manioc macroremains are widespread in coastal preceramic in this study highly unlikely to represent a wild form. With flood- contexts; however, manioc is believed to have been domesticated plain irrigation, arrowroot could have been cultivated easily. Thus, in the southern Amazon (26–27). In Perry’s study (22), starch the most parsimonious explanation for arrowroot starch on these grains from initial period and late precontact manioc specimens gourd artifacts is that it was grown near Buena Vista. from coastal Peru lacked the distinguishing stellate fissure (13) Starch identified as Prosopis (algarrobo) also occurs in the artifact characteristic of lowland Amazonian manioc starch. However, residue (Fig. 3F). Algarrobo starch has a unique appearance, unlike the large stellate fissure consistent with the lowland morphotype anything else in our reference collection. The unusual lobed shape is present in the Buena Vista assemblage. This grain possibly with protuberances and a deeply depressed area at the hilum, along represents an earlier imported Amazonian manioc variety that with a very irregular extinction cross, correspond closely with starch was subject to selection over time, eventually resulting in the produced in Prosopis. This type may be a genus-level indicator of morphotypes seen in later coastal assemblages. Alternatively, starch produced in Prosopis pods. Prosopis consists of several closely this starch grain represents an early lowland variety that ceased related and morphologically similar species with high hybridization to be cultivated or is not related to later coastal forms. Addi- potential; thus, there is considerable confusion in the botanical (33) tional manioc starch from early coastal contexts would help to and archaeological (34) literature regarding its identification. Cur- clarify these issues. rently, the dominant Prosopis on the Peruvian coast is P. pallida, A starch grain from Solanum (potato) tuber was identified with P. chilensis in higher elevations of the south and P. juliflora in (Fig. 3C). Potato has great significance to modern and ancient the northwest (33). Each species produces similar sweet edible pods. Andean populations. Potato macroremains and microfossils are Species similarities are reflected in the pod starch grains. For reported from a number of contemporaneous sites throughout example, a systematic study showed that there are no differences in Peru (28–30). Several potato species and many varieties are and starch between P. chilensis and P. flexuosa (35). Algarrobo is have been cultivated, and many wild forms exist (31). At this ubiquitous in pre-Colombian Peru, most often as wood for fuel or time, we cannot identify this starch grain to a species. construction (30, 36) or more rarely for seeds and edible pods (34). Capsicum (chili pepper) is represented by a single flattened A long history of algarrobo use occurs in Argentina, beginning lenticular starch grain with an indented base and a linear feature 10,000 years ago (35). In Peru, less is understood regarding pre- visible in side view (Fig. 3D). The central linear feature is diagnostic historic consumption of algarrobo pods, which are today ground of starches in this genus (15). Capsicum is reported widely from late into flour to make a syrup, algarrobina, or for drinks, such as preceramic sites on the coast of Peru (32) and in the highlands (15) fermented chicha de algarrobo. To our knowledge, this study and present in macroremains at Buena Vista. presents the first microfossil evidence and earliest evidence of Two grains identified as M. arundinacea (arrowroot) occur on algarrobo consumption in Peru. two gourd fragments (Fig. 3E). Despite its widespread and long Discussion record of use in the neotropics (26), arrowroot is underrepresented in Peruvian contexts. The only other evidence for arrowroot in the Four of the 10 artifacts sampled yielded starch from multiple taxa central Andes comes from microfossils at Waynuna in the southern other than Cucurbitaceae and provide clues to preceramic cuisine. highlands in contexts dating to 2050–1650 B.C. (28). At several Our sample size is small; however, in future research, patterns of cooccurrence of taxa on gourd artifacts will help us to better understand preferences for certain food combinations or certain Table 3. Summary of starch grain data from squash combinations limited to ritual use. Alternatively, the multiple taxa and gourd artifacts on the artifacts may represent repeated use of the containers in both Number of samples ritual and secular contexts. Also, that the containers provide evidence of manioc and algarrobo, both of which can be fermented Sample type Cucurbitaceae starch Other starch Total into alcoholic beverages, may be significant (33, 37). The possibility that these plants could have been used in the production of alcohol Sediment 1 9 (27.3%) 11 (33.3%) 20 during the preceramic should not be overlooked. Sediment 2 8 (24.2%) 5 (15.2%) 13 The presence of these artifacts along with plant foods in a special Total 17 (51.2%) 16 (48.5%) 33 context is highly consistent with an interpretation of feasting (4).

13204 ͉ www.pnas.org͞cgi͞doi͞10.1073͞pnas.0903322106 Duncan et al. Downloaded by guest on October 1, 2021 Fig. 3. Archaeological starch granules recovered from gourd and squash artifacts from Buena Vista. (A) Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) starch hemisphere from Artifact 3. (B) Manioc (Manihot esculenta) from Artifact 7. Note the central stellate fissure. (C) Potato (Solanum sp.) from Artifact 4. (D) Chili pepper (Capsicum sp.) from Artifact 6. Note the central linear feature. (E) Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) from Artifact 6. (F) Algarrobo (Prosopis sp.) from Artifact 3.

Macroremain analysis is ongoing; however, the fragmentary re- research should apply to other areas and time periods in which mains of the plant material, including charred and uncharred wood, gourds and squash rinds are preserved. Gourd and squash artifacts grass, and cotton seeds and fiber, particularly the preponderance of containing starch residues provide direct evidence of the produc- nonedible parts of food plants and broken gourd and squash serving tion and consumption of cultivated or managed plants used for food vessels found in the pit, are counterindicative of offerings but or drink. In addition to manioc, potato, and chili pepper, this study consistent with the refuse of consumption. Common Andean documents the earliest evidence of both algarrobo and arrowroot in offerings of coca leaves are conspicuously absent. Therefore, the Peru. Also, the unique architectural feature from which the artifacts vegetal contents of the pit likely do not represent the original were recovered suggests a special ritual use of food in a feasting intended function or symbolism of the pit, for astronomical obser- context. The social and ritual use of food in emergent complex vation or for ritual offerings of liquid libations such as later ushnu society is not well understood, especially in Peru, and this research (39). Rather, the remains are more likely to be the refuse from enhances our potential for understanding these issues. feasting associated with the ritual entombment of the temple. Ritual entombment of monumental architecture was practiced commonly Methods in the preceramic and later; however, its association with feasting Comparative Squash and Gourd Starch. In studying comparative gourd and as a ritual component or to organize and motivate labor, although squash specimens, we found abundant starch in the dried mesocarp tissue ancient, has been investigated only recently. For example, at the but relatively fewer starch granules in the exocarp. In the archaeological contemporary site of Cerro Lampay (7) on the north central coast, samples, only the outer exocarp layers survive. This may explain the rela- tively few Cucurbitaceae starch granules in the residues. To differentiate multiple small scale construction events were preceded by feasting gourd and squash starch grains from those of other producers, we studied rituals hosted by informal leaders who lacked the social power to modern dried gourds collected in Chiclayo, Peru, and domestically pur- organize large amounts of labor for more massive building events. chased or grown squashes (Fig. S2 and Fig. S3). Although there is some Despite their large size and complexity, many monumental sites overlap in starch morphotypes in Cucurbitaceae, squashes and gourds can constructed in the preceramic could have been built by a small local be distinguished to genus and species based on the diagnostic morphology population organized by emergent leaders who used feasts as ritual of starch grains (38). Starch grains of Cucurbitaceae are also discernable and political tools in materializing labor. from nonrelated taxa. At Buena Vista, feasting event(s) before the entombment of the Fox Temple likely served both political and ritual functions. Polit- Starch Grain Sampling of Squash and Gourd Artifacts. We adapted procedures ically, leaders could have used feasting as a means to cultivate and for extracting microfossil residues from stone tools and ceramics (see SI Materials and Methods), producing two sediment extractions from each tool, Sediments 1 maintain social relationships, whereby labor would be mobilized and 2. To obtain Sediment 1, each artifact was submerged in distilled water toward a communal goal, not unlike in later periods, where feasting within a high-quality, resealable plastic bag, then placed in a sonicating water involving maize beer helped to mobilize labor to maintain canals in bath to release loose residue. To obtain Sediment 2, the interior surface of each the Andes (6). Ritually, feasting before the temple’s entombment artifact was gently brushed to further dislodge loose residue. The sediments may have served also as a symbolic act toward canceling the original obtained were then chemically dispersed using a disodium salt solution, then function of the temple, and the concentration of refuse in the pit lightly oxidized with hydrogen peroxide. Finally, the starch was floated out from suggests a deliberate sequestration of these remains, perhaps as a sediment using a heavy liquid solution of cesium chloride. Slides were mounted final symbolic act of cancellation of the pit before the room’s using distilled water and glycerol and scanned on a Zeiss standard transmitted ϫ ϫ interment. The concentration of feasting remains in the sunken pit light microscope equipped with polarizing light filters at 25 and 40 . may reflect the concentration of symbolic power before its burial. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Excavation in the Fox Temple in 2005 was carried out The potential for understanding plant food consumption and by students in the University of Missouri Field School at Buena Vista and the

production in aceramic contexts is greatly enhanced through an University of Frederico Villareal of Lima. We thank the Peruvian National ANTHROPOLOGY analysis of residues on gourd and squash artifacts. This kind of Institute of Culture for providing the permits to excavate and export archaeo-

Duncan et al. PNAS ͉ August 11, 2009 ͉ vol. 106 ͉ no. 32 ͉ 13205 Downloaded by guest on October 1, 2021 botanical samples to the United States. We are grateful to Dolores Piperno, cucurbit materials. We also thank Jason Fenton and Eliana Duncan, who who provided insightful comments and suggestions regarding comparative provided helpful criticisms on the manuscript.

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13206 ͉ www.pnas.org͞cgi͞doi͞10.1073͞pnas.0903322106 Duncan et al. Downloaded by guest on October 1, 2021