Appendix 1 Details of Interviewees

A p p e n d i x 1

Details of Interviewees

A r g e n t i n a (All interviews held in Buenos Aires)

• Carlos H. Acu ñ a, Instituto Interdisciplinario de Economí a Polí tica de Buenos Aires (IIEP), Universidad de Buenos Aires, September 18, 2008; • Ra ú l Alfons í n, president of Argentina (1983–1989), e-mail interview, November 7, 2008; • Asociaci ó n de Ex-Detenidos Desaparecidos , organization of survivors of disappearances, September 22, 2008; • Asociaci ó n Madres de Plaza de Mayo, organization of mothers of victims who disappeared, August 30, 2007; • Buena Memoria Asociaci ó n Civil , human rights organization, August 30, 2007; • Memoria Abierta, human rights organization, August 23, 2007 and September 12, 2008; • Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales, human rights organization, August 30, 2007; • Emilio Crenzel, professor of Sociology at the Universidad de Buenos Aires and Researcher at the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient í ficas y T é cnicas, CONICET), August 18, 2007; • Andr é s D’Alessio , judge of the 1985 Trial of the Commanders, September 17, 2008; • Familiares de Desaparecidos y Detenidos por Razones Pol í ticas , organization of relatives of victims who disappeared or were under political detention, September 18, 2008; • Graciela Fern á ndez Meijide, CONADEP Secretariat of Denunciations and Member of the Council of Presidency of APDH, August 17, 2007 and September 12, 2008; 232 Appendix 1

• Equipo Argentino de Antropolog í a Forense , organization of forensic anthropology, August 24, 2007; • Ricardo Gil Lavedra, judge of the 1985 Trial of the Commanders, August 22, 2007; • Hijos por la Identidad y la Justicia contra el Olvido y el Silencio , organization of sons and daughters of victims who disappeared, survivors, political prisoners, and exiles, September 1, 2007, September 16, 2008, and December 3, 2009; • Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo , organization of grandmothers of missing children, September 3, 2007 and September 11, 2008; • Federico Lorenz , historian and researcher at CONICET, September 8, 2008; • Daniel Lvovich, historian, Universidad Nacional de General Sarmiento and Researcher at CONICET, September 19, 2008; • Madres de Plaza de Mayo—Linea Fundadora, organization of mothers of victims who disappeared, August 25, 2007 and September 22, 2008; • Jaime Malamud Goti, senior presidential advisor (1983–1987) and law professor at the Universidad de Palermo, September 3, 2007; • Marcos Novaro , researcher at Instituto de Investigaciones Gino Germani, Universidad de Buenos Aires, September 10, 2008; • Vicente Palermo , principal researcher at CONICET, September 5, 2008; • Catalina Smulovitz , director, Department of Political Science and International Studies, Universidad Torcuato di Tella, September 23, 2008.

U r u g u a y (All interviews held in Montevideo)

• Amnist í a Internacional Uruguay, human rights organization, September 2, 2008 and March 19, 2012; • Laura B á lsamo, Servicio Paz y Justicia’s Documentation Centre, human rights organization, September 7, 2007 and March 21, 2012; • Gerardo Bleier, journalist, writer, and consultant in strategic communication, August 29, 2008; • Gerardo Caetano, historian, Instituto de Ciencia Polí tica, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de la Repú blica, September 4, 2008 and March 21, 2012; • Jorge O. Chediak, judge of the Suprema Corte de Justicia, November 5, 2009 and March 19, 2012; • Carlos Demasi , historian, Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios Uruguayos, Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educació n, Universidad de la Rep ú blica, August 28, 2008, October 30, 2009, and March 15, 2012; • CRYS@L Asociaci ó n de ex Pres@s Pol í tic@s de Uruguay , organization of victims who were former political prisoners, September 11, 2007 and March 20, 2012; Appendix 1 233

• Oscar Destouet, professor of Contemporary History at the Instituto de Profesores Artigas and until 2010 responsible for Memory, Human Rights Directorate, Ministry of Education and Culture, September 17, 2007, November 3, 2009, and March 15, 2012; • Pilar Elhordoy Arregui , human rights lawyer particularly working on trials for state terrorism such as Automotores Orletti (Segundo Vuelo), Nuble Yic, and Amaral Garc í a y Fusilados de Soca (Vuelo Cero), September 11, 2007; • Elbio Ferrario, former political prisoner and director of the Centro Cultural y Museo de la Memoria—MUME, September 2, 2008; • Juli á n Gonz á lez Guyer , Instituto de Ciencia Polí tica, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de la Rep ú blica, August 29, 2008; • Luis Alberto Heber , senator, Blanco party, September 3, 2008; • Alfonso Lessa, political journalist and writer, Tele Doce, September 17, 2007; • Vania Markarian , Archivo General—Universidad de la Rep ú blica, August 27, 2008; • Felipe Michelini , national representative for Montevideo, Frente Amplio party, professor of Human Rights in the Law Faculty, Universidad de la Rep ú blica, September 11, 2007, November 11, 2009, and February 15, 2012 (the 2012 interview took place in Oxford, UK); • Rafael Michelini , senator, Frente Amplio party, September 3, 2008; • Javier Miranda , lawyer, victim relative, member of Madres y Familiares , and currently government’s secretary for human rights (2010 till date), August 29, 2008 and March 15, 2012; • Madres y Familiares de Uruguayos Detenidos Desaparecidos , organization of relatives of victims who disappeared, September 1, 2008 and March 22, 2012; • Ra ú l Olivera, human rights activist and advisor for the national confederation of trade unions PIT-CNT, August 30, 2008, November 11, 2009, and March 14, 2012; • Roger Rodr í guez, investigative journalist formerly at La Rep ú blica newspa- per and currently at Caras&Caretas magazine, November 4, 2009. • Julio Maria Sanguinetti, president of Uruguay (1985–1990 and 1995– 2000), September 21, 2007; • Servicio de Rehabilitaci ó n Social , human rights organization, September 19, 2007.

A p p e n d i x 2

Abbreviations

Abuelas Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo (Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo, victims organization, Argentina). Alianza Alianza para el Trabajo, la Justicia y la Educaci ó n (Alliance for Work, Justice and Education, Argentine coalition party). A P D H A s a m b l e a P e r m a n e n t e p o r l o s D e r e c h o s H u m a n o s (Permanent Assembly for Human Rights, human rights organization, Argentina). Asociaci ó n Madres A s o c i a c i ó n M a d r e s d e P l a z a d e M a y o ( M o t h e r s o f M a y Square Association, victims organization, Argentina) Blanco Partido Blanco or Partido Nacional, traditional Uruguayan political party historically linked to rural sectors, farming and the land; it traditionally encompassed various ideological positions, ranging from right to center. CELS Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales (Centre for Legal and Social Studies, Argentina). CGT Confederaci ó n General del Trabajo de la Rep ú blica Argentina (General Confederation of Labour of the Argentine Republic). Colorado Partido Colorado, traditional Uruguayan political party, historically a liberal and republican party representing commercial urban sectors, nowadays it encompasses right and center-right groups. C O N A D E P C o m i s i ó n N a c i o n a l s o b r e l a D e s a p a r i c i ó n d e P e r s o n a s (National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons, Argentina). CONADI Comisi ó n Nacional por el Derecho a la Identidad (National Commission for the Right to Identity, Argentina). 236 Appendix 2

C R Y S O L Centro de Relaciones y Soluciones Laborales (Orga- nization of former political prisoners, Uruguay). E A A F E q u i p o A r g e n t i n o d e A n t r o p o l o g í a F o r e n s e ( A r g e n t i n e Forensic Anthropology Team, Argentina). E S M A E s c u e l a d e M e c á n i c a d e l a A r m a d a ( N a v y M e c h a n i c s School, Buenos Aires). Familiares Familiares de Detenidos y Desaparecidos por Razones Polí ticas (Relatives of Detainees and Disappeared for Political Reasons, victims organization, Argentina). F r e n t e A m p l i o Established in February 1971, a broad coalition of several left-wing parties now encompassing the Communist and Socialist parties, the New Space, and the Popular Participation Movement of the former Tupamaros (Uruguay). F p V Frente para la Victoria (Front for Victory, peronist party political alliance, Argentina). F R E J U L I F r e n t e J u s t i c i a l i s t a d e L i b e r a c i ó n ( J u s t i c i a l i s t Liberation Front, Argentine party). FREPASO Frente Paí s Solidario (Front for a Country in Solidarity, Argentine coalition party). H.I.J.O.S. Hijos por la Identidad y la Justicia contra el Olvido y el Silencio (Sons and Daughters for Identity and Justice against Forgetting and Silence, Argentine victims organization). HIJOS Uruguay HIJOS de Detenidos Desaparecidos en Uruguay (Sons and Daughters of Disappeared Detainees in Uruguay, victims organization). IACHR Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. I A C t H R I n t e r - A m e r i c a n C o u r t o f H u m a n R i g h t s . I E L S U R Instituto de Estudios Legales y Sociales del Uruguay (Uruguayan Institute of Legal and Social Studies). Linea Fundadora Madres Madres de Plaza de Mayo Linea Fundadora (Mothers’ of May Square Founding Line, victims organization, Argentina). Madres Terms used to refer to mothers of the missing; when citing members of specific associations the terms Asociaci ó n Madres or Linea Fundadora Madres are used. Madres y Familiares M a d r e s y F a m i l i a r e s d e U r u g u a y o s D e t e n i d o s Desaparecidos (Mothers and Relatives of Uruguayan Disappeared Detainees, victims organization, Uruguay). Appendix 2 237

MPP Movimiento de Participació n Popular (Popular Participation Movement, Uruguayan political party). MPS Medidas Prontas de Seguridad (Prompt Security Measures, MPS), form of emergency powers granted by the 1967 Uruguayan Constitution (article 168) that were used in the 1960s to repress strikes, counter the guerrillas, and restrict the rights to hold meet- ings, to judicial due process, habeas corpus, and freedom of speech. N S D N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y D o c t r i n e . SCAAFF Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (Argentina). SERPAJ Servicio Paz y Justicia (Peace and Justice Service, human rights organization, Uruguay). S E R S O C S e r v i c i o d e R e h a b i l i t a c i ó n S o c i a l ( S o c i a l R e h a b i l i t a t i o n S e r v i c e , human rights organization, Uruguay). U N H R C U n i t e d N a t i o n s H u m a n R i g h t s C o m m i t t e e . PDC Partido Dem ó crata Cristiano (Christian Democratic Party, Argentine party). PJ Partido Justicialista (Justicialist Party, Argentine party). PI Partido Intransigente (Intransigent Party, Argentine party). P I T - C N T P l e n a r i o I n t e r s i n d i c a l d e T r a b a j a d o r e s - C o n v e n c i ó n N a c i o n a l Trabajadores (Inter-trade Workers Plenary-National Workers Convention, national confederation of trade unions, Uruguay). T J T r a n s i t i o n a l J u s t i c e . Tupamaros Movimiento de Liberaci ó n Nacional-Tupamaros, originally the armed wing of the Socialist Party, it became Latin America’s most successful urban guerrilla movement (Uruguay). U B A U n i v e r s a d d e B u e n o s A i r e s . U C e D é U n i ó n d e l C e n t r o D e m o c r á t i c o ( U n i o n o f t h e D e m o c r a t i c C e n t r e , Argentine party). UCR Uni ó n C í vica (Radical Party, Argentine party). N o t e s

1 Theoretical Framework

1 . “T h e T r a n s i t i o n a l J u s t i c e B i b l i o g r a p h y ” c o m p i l e d b y A n d r e w G . R e i t e r l i s t s 2,475 entries. Accessed September 12, 2012. https://sites.google.com/site/ transitionaljusticedatabase/transitional-justice-bibliography . 2. Huntington (1991) uses replacement, transplacement, and transformation; Nino ( 1996 ) and Calhoun ( 2004 ) rupture, negotiated (pacted) and transformation. 3 . The work of this Guatemalan NGO can be seen in the 2011 movie “Granito: How to Nail a Dictator” by Skylight Pictures.

2 The Downward Spiral toward Dictatorship

1 . All translations from Spanish in this chapter and all subsequent ones are mine, unless otherwise indicated. 2 . In Argentina, well-known examples are: the January 1919 Tragic Week, when the army killed over 100 workers in a mass uprising in Buenos Aires and the 1921–22 Patagonian Rebellion, when soldiers killed 1500 workers who had revolted against British and Argentine sheep ranchers (Nino 1996 ). 3 . The traditional two-party—Blanco and Colorado—system dates back to the 1836 Battle of Carpinter í a when warring factions differentiated themselves by wearing colored hatbands, white for the Blancos and red for the Colorados. These two parties dominated Uruguay’s political life until 1971, when a third party, the left wing Frente Amplio coalition, was established. The Colorado traditionally represented commercial urban sectors while the Blanco championed rural interests. 4. T h e Tupamaros were founded in 1963 by Ra úl Sendic, a law student that, since 1961, had been organizing the syndicate of sugarcane workers in Bella Uni ó n department, Uruguay. Between 1963 and 1969 (so-called Robin Hood phase), the Tupamaros ’ tactics were designed for self-advertisement, stealing food to give it to marginalized population, denouncing corruption, and ridiculing the police. Between 1969 and 1972, the Tupamaros entered a more deadly “Samurai” phase, with rising kidnappings and assassinations. Once Sendic was captured in September 1972, the Tupamaros were destroyed and unable to regroup; 2,000 members were held in Libertad prison (Arteaga 2000; Kaufman 1978 ). Other minor armed groups 240 Notes

in Uruguay included: the Popular Revolutionary Organisation 33 and the Oriental Revolutionary Armed Forces (Lessa 2002 ). 5 . H . I . J . O . S . i n t e r v i e w . 6. S E R P A J i n t e r v i e w . 7. Later research suggested that 167 adults disappeared, 32 in Uruguay, 125 in Argentina, 8 in Chile, 1 in Colombia and 1 in Bolivia; 3 minors, kidnapped in Argentina, continue to be disappeared and there were 26 extrajudicial executions (Rico 2008 ). But the numbers remain contested. 8 . A l f o n s o L e s s a i n t e r v i e w . 9 . I b i d . 1 0. C a r l o s D e m a s i i n t e r v i e w . 1 1. L u i s A l b e r t o H e b e r i n t e r v i e w . 1 2 . J u l i o M a r í a S a n g u i n e t t i i n t e r v i e w . 1 3 . J u l i á n G o n z ál e z G u y e r i n t e r v i e w . 1 4. I b i d . 1 5. L e s s a i n t e r v i e w . 1 6. G e r a r d o B l e i e r i n t e r v i e w . 17 . CONAPRO also included the national confederation of trade unions PIT-CNT, the student organization, cooperatives, and human rights organizations (Finch 1 9 8 5 ) .

3 Transitional Justice in Argentina (1983–2012)

1 . Ricardo Gil Lavedra interview. 2. C E L S i n t e r v i e w . 3. E A A F i n t e r v i e w . 4. C a t a l i n a S m u l o v i t z i n t e r v i e w . 5. G i l L a v e d r a i n t e r v i e w . 6 . M e m o r i a A b i e r t a i n t e r v i e w . 7. M a r c o N o v a r o i n t e r v i e w . 8. A n d r é s D ’ A l e s s i o i n t e r v i e w . 9 . Smulovitz; Graciela Fern á ndez Meijide interviews. 1 0. G i l L a v e d r a i n t e r v i e w . 11 . Ra ú l Alfonsí n, e-mail interview; Gil Lavedra similarly underscored how the civilian government did not have the ability to try all human rights violators as many were still on active duty and commanding troops and arms (interview). 1 2 . J a i m e M a l a m u d G o t i i n t e r v i e w . 1 3 . A b u e l a s i n t e r v i e w . 1 4. A s o c i a c i ó n M a d r e s i n t e r v i e w . 1 5. F e r n á n d e z M e i j i d e i n t e r v i e w . 16. Argentina has a long tradition of human rights organizations, dating back to the 1930s (Jelin 1994 ). During the 1970s, new organisations were founded; CELS and APDH followed a legalist approach and appealed to universal principles and Notes 241

legal norms; the so-called afectados, the relatives of disappeared people, including Madres, Abuelas, and Familiares, through highly symbolic protest like weekly vigils and marches, exposed the crimes perpetrated (Brysk 1994a ). All groups— despite their heterogeneity—disseminated information and denounced atrocities nationally and internationally, also establishing networks of solidarity and support for victims and relatives (Jelin 1994 ). 1 7. F e r n á n d e z M e i j i d e i n t e r v i e w . 1 8. E m i l i o C r e n z e l i n t e r v i e w . 1 9 . D ’ A l e s s i o i n t e r v i e w . 2 0 . M e m o r i a A b i e r t a ; H . I . J . O . S . i n t e r v i e w s . 2 1. A s o c i a c i ó n M a d r e s i n t e r v i e w . 2 2 . A b u e l a s i n t e r v i e w . 2 3 . M a l a m u d G o t i i n t e r v i e w . 2 4. C E L S i n t e r v i e w . 2 5. D ’ A l e s s i o i n t e r v i e w . 2 6 . M e m o r i a A b i e r t a i n t e r v i e w . 2 7. M a l a m u d G o t i i n t e r v i e w . 2 8. I b i d . 2 9. A l f o n s í n e - m a i l i n t e r v i e w . 3 0 . A b u e l a s i n t e r v i e w . 3 1. G i l L a v e d r a i n t e r v i e w . 3 2 . M a l a m u d G o t i i n t e r v i e w . 3 3. A b u e l a s i n t e r v i e w . 3 4 . M e m o r i a A b i e r t a i n t e r v i e w . 35. Interview with Professor of Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET Researcher, September 17, 2008. 3 6 . C a r l o s A c uñ a ; M a r c o s N o v a r o i n t e r v i e w s . 37 . The UN Human Rights Committee also expressed its concern in 1995 and 2000 that amnesties and pardons impeded investigations into allegations of crimes committed by members of the security services, highlighting the atmosphere of impunity enjoyed by perpetrators in Argentina (UNHRC 2000 ). 38 . For more details see Guembe 2006 . 3 9. S m u l o v i t z i n t e r v i e w . 4 0. A s o c i a c i ó n M a d r e s i n t e r v i e w . 4 1 . L i n e a F u n d a d o r a M a d r e s i n t e r v i e w . 4 2 . A s o c i a c i ó n d e E x - D e t e n i d o s D e s a p a r e c i d o s i n t e r v i e w . 4 3 . F a m i l i a r e s i n t e r v i e w . 4 4 . I b i d . 45 . Memoria Abierta; Asociaci ó n de Ex-Detenidos Desaparecidos interviews. 46 . The right to truth is an emerging principle of international human rights law, especially significant in cases of disappearances. It entitles victims and/or relatives to know the totality of circumstances surrounding violations, imposing an obligation to investigate on states (EAAF 2002 ). 4 7 . S m u l o v i t z i n t e r v i e w . 4 8. I b i d ; D ’ A l e s s i o i n t e r v i e w . 49. Interview with Professor of Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET Researcher, September 17, 2008. 242 Notes

5 0 . A c u ñ a i n t e r v i e w . 5 1 . T h e w o r d escrachar , from Italo-Argentine slang, means uncovering, “bringing to light something that has remained hidden” (Thomas 2005 , 92). 5 2. H . I . J . O . S . i n t e r v i e w . 5 3 . I b i d . 5 4. A b u e l a s i n t e r v i e w . 5 5 . C E L S i n t e r v i e w . 56 . Cr í menes del terrorismo de Estado—Weblogs de las causas, accessed December 3, 2012. http://www.cels.org.ar/wpblogs/ 57 . For details see Guembe 2006 . Proposals to compensate people forced into exile have been under discussion since 2004 but no progress has been made (Smulovitz 2008 ). 5 8 . A s o c i a c i ó n M a d r e s i n t e r v i e w . 59 . Linea Fundadora Madres interview. 6 0. F e r n á n d e z M e i j i d e i n t e r v i e w . 6 1 . D a n i e l L v o v i c h i n t e r v i e w . 62 . Asociaci ó n de Ex-Detenidos Desaparecidos interview. 63. Vicente Palermo interview. 6 4. I b i d . 65 . Cristina Ferná ndez de Kirchner is the 55th and current President of Argentina— since 2007—and the widow of former President N é stor Kirchner. 6 6 . F e d e r i c o L o r e n z i n t e r v i e w . 6 7 . N o v a r o i n t e r v i e w . 68 . Interview with Professor of Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET Researcher, September 17, 2008. 6 9. I b i d . 7 0 . C E L S J u i c i o s , E s t a d i s t i c a s , A c c e s s e d D e c e m b e r 3 , 2 0 1 2 . h t t p : / / w w w . c e l s . o r g . a r / wpblogs/estadisticas/ 71 . In parallel, important sentences were dictated abroad. In March 2007, the Rome Corte D’Assise concluded the ESMA trial, condemning in absentia five military officers to life imprisonment for the kidnapping, torture, and death of three people of Italian descent (Repubblica 2007 ). Scilingo was also found guilty in April 2005 by a Spanish Court of crimes against humanity and condemned to 640 years for thirty murders (BBC News 2005 ). Lastly, Argentine Ricardo Cavallo was extradited from Mexico to Spain where, in July 2007, the Audiencia Nacional established that he could be tried for crimes perpetrated while he was integrating ESMA’s infamous 3.3.2 grupo de tarea ( B B C N e w s 2 0 0 7 ) . 7 2 . H . I . J . O . S . i n t e r v i e w . 7 3 . A b u e l a s i n t e r v i e w . 7 4 . A s o c i a c i ó n E x - D e t e n i d o s D e s a p a r e c i d o s . 7 5 . I b i d . 7 6. I b i d . 7 7. S m u l o v i t z ; M a l a m u d G o t i i n t e r v i e w s . 7 8 . A l f o n s í n e - m a i l i n t e r v i e w . 7 9. D ’ A l e s s i o i n t e r v i e w . 8 0 . N o v a r o i n t e r v i e w . 8 1. I b i d . Notes 243

8 2 . F e r n á n d e z M e i j i d e i n t e r v i e w . 8 3 . A b u e l a s i n t e r v i e w . 8 4. F e r n á n d e z M e i j i d e i n t e r v i e w . 8 5 . I b i d . 8 6 . A c u ñ a i n t e r v i e w . 8 7. L o r e n z i n t e r v i e w . 8 8. H . I . J . O . S . ; A b u e l a s i n t e r v i e w s . 8 9 . E A A F i n t e r v i e w . 90 . Fern á ndez Meijide; Memoria Abierta interviews.

4 Reconciliation versus Justice

1 . Cited in (La Naci ó n 2008b ) and Discurso de Juan Gelman, abril 2008, Accessed December 11, 2012, http://www.uah.es/universidad/premio_cervantes/ documentos/discurso_gelman.pdf. 2 . H.I.J.O.S.; Familiares; Federico Lorenz interviews. 3 . Buena Memoria interview. 4. E A A F i n t e r v i e w . 5 . Mensaje del General Videla a FAMUS. Abril de 1984, Accessed September 4, 2012, http://nuestrahistoria70.blogspot.co.uk/2009/02/b110-mensaje-del- general- videla-famus.html 6 . I b i d . 7 . Federico Lorenz interview. 8 . Mensaje del General Videla a FAMUS. 9 . Asociaci ó n Madres interview. 10. Linea Fundadora Madres interview 1 1. F a m i l i a r e s i n t e r v i e w . 1 2 . I b i d . 13. Linea Fundadora Madres interview. 14. Asociaci ó n Madres interview. 15 . Palabras del Presidente de la Nació n, Doctor Né stor Kirchner, en el Colegio Militar de la Naci ó n, 24 de marzo de 2004, Accessed July 20, 2012, http://www. presidencia.gob.ar/discursos-2007/11154 16. Palabras del Presidente Né stor Kirchner, en el Acto de Conmemoració n del “Dí a Nacional de la Memoria por la Verdad y la Justicia”, celebrado en el Colegio Militar de la Naci ó n, 24 de marzo de 2006, Accessed July 20, 2012, http://www. presidencia.gob.ar/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11501& catid=28:discursos-ant 1 7. I b i d . 18. Interview with Gotan Project band member, July 29, 2009. 19 . Asociaci ó n de Ex-Detenidos Desaparecidos interview. 2 0 . A s o c i a c i ó n M a d r e s i n t e r v i e w . 2 1. A b u e l a s i n t e r v i e w . 2 2 . I b i d . 2 3 . F a m i l i a r e s i n t e r v i e w . 244 Notes

2 4 . H . I . J . O . S . i n t e r v i e w . 25 . Acto de firma del convenio de la creació n del Museo de la Memoria y para la Promoció n y Defensa de los Derechos Humanos, 24 de marzo de 2004, Accessed July 5, 2011, http://www.mindef.gov.ar/discursos_discurso_kirchner.asp?Id=762 26 . Acto de Conmemoració n del “Dí a Nacional de la Memoria por la Verdad y la Justicia” of 2006; this theme also appeared in Kirchner’s discourses in 2004. 27 . E-mail from Argentine human rights activists, September 1, 2012. 28 . H.I.J.O.S. Vení y ponete la camiseta por el juicio y castigo, Accessed September 4, 2012, http://www.hijos-capital.org.ar/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=555:veny-ponete-la-camiseta-por-el-juicio-y-castigo& catid=1:comunicados&Itemid=396 29 . Decreto 157/1983 del Poder Ejecutivo Nacional, Bolet í n Oficial de la Rep ú blica Argentina, 15/12/1983-ADLA 1984—A, 131. 30 . Decreto 158/1983 del Poder Ejecutivo Nacional, Bolet í n Oficial de la Rep ú blica Argentina, 15/12/1983-ADLA 1984—A, 132. 3 1. A l f o n s í n e - m a i l i n t e r v i e w . 3 2 . I b i d . 33 . Indultos, Decreto 1002/89, Bolet í n Oficial de la Rep ú blica Argentina, 10/10/1989, N. 26.736, page 4. 3 4 . I b i d . 35 . Ibid. Extracts cited are from decree 1002/89; the language of the other decrees is very similar. See Decretos 1003, 1004, 1005/89 Boletí n Oficial de la Rep ública Argentina, 10/10/1989, N. 26.736, pages 4 to 8; and Indultos, Decretos 2741, 2742, 2743, 2744, 2745, 2746/90, Bolet í n Oficial de la Rep ú blica Argentina, 03/01/1991, N. 27.044, pages 9 to 11. 3 6 . A l f o n s í n e - m a i l i n t e r v i e w . 37 . Hebe Berdina is the mother of military sublieutenant Rodolfo Berdina killed in 1975 during antiguerrilla operations in Tucum á n province.

5 Transitional Justice in Uruguay (1985–2012)

1 . Carlos Demasi; Javier Miranda interviews. 2 . Pilar Elhordoy Arregui interview. 3 . Gerardo Caetano interview. 4 . Vania Markarian interview. 5 . Julio Marí a Sanguinetti interview. 6 . Former political prisoner, CRYSOL Association of Former Political Prisoners interview. 7. S a n g u i n e t t i i n t e r v i e w . 8 . Interview with an historian, Departamento de Ciencia Pol í tica de la Universidad de la Rep ú blica, August 26, 2008, Montevideo. 9. C a e t a n o i n t e r v i e w . 10 . Demasi interview; Interview with Observatory of Public Policies of Human Rights in the MERCOSUR, Montevideo, September 19, 2007; Notes 245

1 1. S a n g u i n e t t i i n t e r v i e w . 1 2 . I b i d . 13 . Human rights activist, SERPAJ, interview, September 7, 2007 . 14. Luis Alberto Heber interview. 15 . Interview with member of Ministry of Education and Culture, Human Rights Department, September 21, 2007. 16. Gerardo Bleir interview. 17 . Text of Amnesty Law N. 15.737. Accessed February 26, 2012. http://www0. parlamento.gub.uy/leyes/AccesoTextoLey.asp?Ley=15737&Anchor . 18 . This peculiar situation generated the legend of Medina’s safe, in which court citations were supposedly stored. Historian Carlos Demasi told me in our interviews that in reality no such safe existed; yet it “had absolute symbolic reality, it was so solid as if it were real and was central to the events that unfolded.” 19 . Alfonso Lessa interview. 2 0 . H e b e r i n t e r v i e w . 21 . Text of Ley de Caducidad N. 15.848. Accessed February 26, 2012. http://www0. parlamento.gub.uy/leyes/AccesoTextoLey.asp?Ley=15848&Anchor . 2 2 . J a v i e r M i r a n d a i n t e r v i e w . 23 . Human rights organizations developed rather late in Uruguay (Loveman 1998 ; Markarian 2005 ). SERPAJ was set up in 1981 while Madres y Familiares in 1983, when the military regime was loosening its grip on power and negotiating with politicians (Demasi and Yaff é 2005 ). 2 4. M i r a n d a i n t e r v i e w . 25 . Supreme Court of Justice of Uruguay, 1988 Constitutionality Sentence, May 2, 1988, section VIII, on file with the author. 26 . Elhordoy Arregui interview. 27 . Resultados, Refer é ndum sobre la “Ley de Caducidad” 16 de abril de 1989. Accessed December 13, 2012, http://www.uc.org.uy/d0401p.htm . 28 . Ra ú l Olivera interview. 2 9. Servicio de Rehabilitaci ó n Social (SERSOC) interview. 30 . MP for Nuevo Espacio-Frente Amplio of Montevideo, September 13, 2007. 3 1. R a f a e l M i c h e l i n i i n t e r v i e w . 3 2 . I n t e r v i e w w i t h j o u r n a l i s t f r o m Brecha magazine, November 2, 2009. 33 . Olivera interview. 3 4 . M i r a n d a i n t e r v i e w . 3 5. C a e t a n o i n t e r v i e w . 36 . Where are they? Where is Sim ó n? Where is Mariana? Mariana Zaffaroni was kidnapped together with her parents in March 1975 when she was eighteen months; she was located in Buenos Aires, recovering her identity in 1992 (Demasi and Y a f f é 2 0 0 5 ) . 37 . MP for Nuevo Espacio-Frente Amplio. 3 8 . A m n i s t í a I n t e r n a c i o n a l U r u g u a y i n t e r v i e w . 3 9. R a f a e l M i c h e l i n i i n t e r v i e w . 40 . Laura Bá lsamo interview. 41 . MP for Nuevo Espacio-Frente Amplio. 42 . Interview with member of Ministry of Education and Culture. 4 3 . O l i v e r a i n t e r v i e w . 246 Notes

4 4 . E l h o r d o y A r r e g u i ; Madres y Familiares interviews. 45 . Interview with a member of the Human Rights Commission of the PIT-CNT, September 9, 2007. 4 6 . D e m a s i i n t e r v i e w . 4 7 . C a e t a n o i n t e r v i e w . 48 . Elhordoy Arregui interview. 4 9. T h e recurso de amparo is a remedy for the protection of rights and freedoms that exists in many Latin American countries; “Almeida de Quinteros Maria del Carmen C/Poder Ejecutivo (Ministerio De Defensa Nacional) A M P A R 0. Ficha 216/99. Sentence of May 10, 2000, accessed September 20, 2011, http:// elenaquinterospresente.blogspot.co.uk/2000/05/100500-fallo-de-la-jueza-stella- jubette.html 50 . In the same Quinteros case, Prosecutor Guianze also faced possible transfer to civil competence in 2003 (Guianze 2011 ). Similarly, Judge Alejandro Recarey, who had made significant progress while covering for Judge Cavalli, was suspended in December 2003 because Cavalli surprisingly resumed his duties before the end of his sick leave (Chargo ñ ia 2011 ). 51 . For details on the Quinteros case, see Raú l Olivera and Sara Mé ndez. 2003. Secuestro en la Embajada: El caso de la maestra Elena Quinteros , accessed September 20, 2011, http://descentralizacioncanaria.blogspot.com/ 52. For instance, former dictator General Gregorio Á lvarez was accused of abduction, torture, kidnapping of minors and identity change in France in 1998 regarding the disappearance of French-Uruguayan Roger Julien and his family in Argentina in 1976 (Algañ araz 1998 ). 5 3 . M i r a n d a ; Madres y Familiares interviews. 5 4. M i r a n d a i n t e r v i e w . 5 5 . I b i d . 5 6 . E l b i o F e r r a r i o i n t e r v i e w . 5 7. C a e t a n o i n t e r v i e w . 58 . Elhordoy Arregui interview. 5 9. B á l s a m o i n t e r v i e w . 6 0. S E R S O C i n t e r v i e w . 61 . Elhordoy Arregui interview. 6 2 . O l i v e r a i n t e r v i e w . 63. “Discurso Del Presidente De La Repú blica, Tabaré Vá zquez, En El Acto Realizado En El Palacio Legislativo,” March 1, 2005. Accessed Septembre 16, 2011, http:// archivo.presidencia.gub.uy/_Web/noticias/2005/03/2005030111.htm. 64 . Pablo Chargoñ ia, e-mail message to author, September 16, 2011 . 6 5 . I b i d . 66 . Bordaberry subsequently died while under house arrest on July 17, 2011. 6 7 . M a r k a r i a n i n t e r v i e w . 68 . In June 2007, a declassified US State Department document confirmed a third flight in 1978 of twenty Uruguayan exiles kidnapped in Argentina in December 1977 (R. Rodrí guez 2007 ). 6 9. L e s s a i n t e r v i e w . 7 0 . C a e t a n o i n t e r v i e w . 7 1 . I b i d . Notes 247

72 . This publication was updated in November 2011 and can be accessed online here http://www.presidencia.gub.uy/wps/wcm/connect/presidencia/ portalpresidencia/ comunicacion/informes/investigacion-historica-sobre-detenidos-desaparecidos 73 . This publication is available at the above website. 74 . Text of Law N. 17.894. Accessed January 30, 2013. http://www0.parlamento. gub.uy/leyes/AccesoTextoLey.asp?Ley=17894&Anchor= 75 . The law covered also political prisoners, those forced to live in clandestinity or leave the country. Text of Law N. 18.033. Accessed January 30, 2013. http:// www0.parlamento.gub.uy/leyes/AccesoTextoLey.asp?Ley=18033&Anchor= 76 . This law has been subject to much criticism. Article 22, for instance, prohibits victims who accept the reparations provided by the law from filing suits against the state in any jurisdiction—national, foreign, or international. Under the law, the payment of reparations demands an unacceptable waiving of the victims’ right to justice. Text of Law N. 18.596. Accessed January 30, 2013. http:// www0.parlamento.gub.uy/leyes/AccesoTextoLey.asp?Ley=18596&Anchor= 7 7 . L e s s a i n t e r v i e w . 7 8 . B l e i e r i n t e r v i e w . 7 9 . L e s s a i n t e r v i e w . 8 0. B l e i e r i n t e r v i e w . 8 1 . C a e t a n o i n t e r v i e w . 82 . SERPAJ; Elhordoy-Arregui interviews. 8 3 . R o g e r R o d r í g u e z i n t e r v i e w . 84 . SERSOC; Elhordoy Arregui; Caetano interviews. 8 5 . C a e t a n o i n t e r v i e w . 86 . Markarian; Observatory of Public Policies of Human Rights interviews. 8 7. M i r a n d a i n t e r v i e w . 8 8 . B l e i e r i n t e r v i e w . 8 9 . D e m a s i i n t e r v i e w . 90 . Olivera interview. 9 1 . R o d r í g u e z ; D e m a s i ; Madres y Familiares ; Felipe Michelini interviews. 9 2 . F e l i p e M i c h e l i n i i n t e r v i e w . 93 . MP for Nuevo Espacio-Frente Amplio. 9 4 . Brecha journalist interview. 9 5 . D e m a s i ; Brecha journalist; Felipe Michelini interviews. 96 . The MPP, established in 1989, gathers several former Tupamaros . As former guerrilleros, they have then been less enthusiastic about revisiting the past and completely opposed it on some occasions. Demasi; Rodr í guez interviews. 9 7 . D e m a s i i n t e r v i e w . 98 . These parties did not campaign against the plebiscite. 9 9 . D e m a s i ; R o d r í g u e z i n t e r v i e w s . 1 0 0 . T h e canto popular (popular song style) Uruguayan band Rumbo released in 1980 the song A Redoblar ; it soon became a protest song during the dictatorship. Written by Mauricio Ubal and Ruben Olivera, the song called for doubling up hope and for the return of happiness, metaphorically referring to the desire and hopefulness for the return of democracy. See “ Canto popular uruguayo :”A redoblar”—Rumbo,” Uruguay Educa, Centro de Recursos. Accessed December 16, 2012. http://www. uruguayeduca.edu.uy/Portal.Base/Web/VerContenido.aspx?ID=203481 248 Notes

101 . “A Redoblar” version 2009. Accessed December 16, 2012. http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=6Mvo2igjzb0 102 . Translation by Soledad Pache. 103 . “Nos sobra una Ley” documentary. Accessed December 17, 2012. http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=kAr361Evhj8. 104 . Nibia was a literature professor and a communist militant who died in military detention in 1974. 105 . Mirtha Guianze, e-mail message to author, July 15, 2011 . 106 . Supreme Court of Justice of Uruguay, Unconstitutionality Sentence no. 365, October 19, 2009. 107 . Supreme Court of Justice Judge Jorge Chediak interview. 1 0 8 . I b i d . 109. C á mara de Representantes, Anexo I al Repartido N. 379, October 2010 , page 4, accessed July 8, 2011, http://www0.parlamento.gub.uy/htmlstat/pl/pdfs/ repartidos/camara/D2010100379–01.pdf 110 . Senators approved a draft that added a declaration on the independence of the judiciary and the jurisdiction of the courts, and clarified that cases archived under the Ley de Caducidad did not constitute res judicata (matter already judged upon). See Cá mara Anexo II al Repartido N. 379, Abril de 2011, accessed June 28, 2011, http://www0.parlamento.gub.uy/htmlstat/pl/pdfs/repartidos/camara/ D2011040379–02.pdf 1 1 1 . F e l i p e M i c h e l i n i i n t e r v i e w . 11 2 . O r i e n t a l R e p u b l i c o f U r u g u a y . R e s o l u t i o n 3 2 3 o f J u n e 3 0 , 2 0 1 1 ; h t t p : / / w w w . p r e s - idencia.gub.uy/wps/wcm/connect/presidencia/portalpresidencia/normativa/ resoluciones/revocase-actos-administrativos-mensajes-emanados-poder- ejecutivo-ley-15894; 113 . Brenda Falero, e-mail message to author, September 23, 2011. 114 . Felipe Michelini interview. 115 . Text of Law N. 18.831. Accessed February 5, 2013. http://archivo.presidencia. gub.uy/sci/leyes/2011/10/cons_min_400.pdf 116 . In December 2010, former political prisoners had also denounced the torture, assassinations, and disappearances perpetrated since 1972 in the Boiso Lanza airbase (Contreras and Touriñ o 2011 ). 1 1 7. R o d r í g u e z i n t e r v i e w . 1 1 8. D e m a s i ; Brecha journalist interviews. 119 . Felipe Michelini interview. 120 . Term used by Chargo ñ ia in (SERPAJ 2011 , 35)

6 Pacification or Impunity?

1. Madres y Familiares interview. 2 . Oscar Destouet interview. 3 . Elbio Ferrario interview. 4 . I would like to thank Mariana Achugar for highlighting this point. Notes 249

5 . Discurso Del Dr. Tabaré Vá zquez ante la Asamblea General. Inglé s, 1 de marzo de 2005. Accessed December 5, 2012. http://www.presidencia.gub.uy/_Web/ noticias/2005/03/2005030107.htm , 2005. 6 . Presidential Resolution 832/006, December 26, 2006. Accessed September 30, 2012. http://www.presidencia.gub.uy/_Web/resoluciones/2006/12/CM246.pdf . 7 . Laura Bá lsamo interview. 8 . Juli á n Gonzá lez Guyer interview. 9 . Bonilla nevertheless attempted exculpatory arguments, highlighting how these acts “were not common” and “did not reflect the armed forces of today or ever” (Subrayado 2011b ). 10 . Text of the speech by the commander, e-mail from Juli á n Gonz á lez Guyer, December 6, 2011. 1 1. C a r l o s D e m a s i i n t e r v i e w . 1 2 . I b i d . 13 . Julio Mar í a Sanguinetti interview. 14 . Gerardo Bleier interview. 1 5. S E R P A J i n t e r v i e w . 16 . Interview with an historian, Departamento de Ciencia Política de la Universidad de la República, August 26, 2008, Montevideo. 17 . Comunicado de Madres y Familiares de Uruguayos Detenidos-Desaparecidos. Asunto:Expresió n ante algunas repercusiones del informe de la Comisi ón para la Paz (21.04.2003). Accessed July 20, 2012, http://www.desaparecidos.org.uy/ Resources/13-familiares-doc.pdf 18. Amnist í a Internacional Uruguay interview. 1 9 . D e s t o u e t i n t e r v i e w . 2 0 . B á l s a m o i n t e r v i e w . 2 1. C R Y S O L i n t e r v i e w . 22 . Text of Resolution 858 of August 9, 2000. Accessed September 2, 2012, http:// archivo.presidencia.gub.uy/noticias/archivo/2000/agosto/2000080912.htm 2 3 . S E R P A J i n t e r v i e w . 2 4. S a n g u i n e t t i i n t e r v i e w . 25. Vania Markarian interview. 2 6 . J a v i e r M i r a n d a i n t e r v i e w . 2 7. M a r k a r i a n i n t e r v i e w . 2 8. Madres y Familiares interview. 2 9. I b i d . 3 0 . S E R P A J i n t e r v i e w . 31 . Convocatoria pú blica de Madres y Familiares de Uruguayos Detenidos Desaparecidos y otras organizaciones. Asunto: Llamado a la Primera marcha del silencio: “Por verdad, memoria y nunca má s marchamos en silencio el dí a 20 de mayo . . . ” (05.1996). Accessed July 20, 2011, http://www.desaparecidos.org.uy/ Resources/08-familiares-doc.pdf. 32 . Petici ó n de Madres y Familiares de Uruguayos Detenidos-Desaparecidos al Poder Ejecutivo. Asunto: Cumplimiento del Derecho de Petició n (16.04.1997). Accessed July 20, 2011, http://www.desaparecidos.org.uy/Resources/09-familiares-doc.pdf . 3 3. D e s t o u e t i n t e r v i e w . 3 4 . I b i d . 250 Notes

3 5 . M i r a n d a i n t e r v i e w . 3 6 . “ A C o n t r a r r e l o j . ” A c c e s s e d D e c e m b e r 1 6 , 2 0 1 2 . h t t p : / / w w w . y o u t u b e . c o m / watch?v=N9Rg0MGvhTA. 37 . Ley N 18.596 de 18 de setiembre de 2009 Repá ranse integralmente a las v í ctimas de la actuació n ilegí tima del Estado en el perí odo comprendido entre el 13 de junio de 1968 y el 28 de febrero de 1985. Accessed September 1, 2012, http:// basejuridica.cgn.gub.uy/WEBAKA/Enlaces/Ley_%2018596.html. 38 . Palabras del Presidente Mujica en acto pú blico del 21 de marzo de 2012. Accessed September 1, 2012, http://www.presidencia.gub.uy/wps/wcm/connect/ presidencia/portalpresidencia/comunicacion/comunicacionnoticias/discurso- mujica-21-de-marzo 39 . Carta p ú blica al Sr. Presidente Mujica, Abril de 2010. Accessed September 28, 2012. http://www.desaparecidos.org.uy/Resources/carta%20publ.%20al%20Sr. %20Presidente%2027.4.pdf . 40 . Convocatoria por la declaraci ó n de nulidad de la Ley de Caducidad. Accessed September 1, 2012, http://www.pvp.org.uy/nulidad.htm . 4 1 . I b i d . 42 . Pilar Elhordoy Arregui interview. 4 3 . I b i d . 44 . Mensaje final de campa ñ a de la Coordinadora por la Nulidad de la Ley de Caducidad. Accessed September 1, 2012, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= E7tPghf9wgk 45 . Murga La Cofradia 2010. Accessed September 1, 2012, min 07:10, http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=XQHLULT26t0 . 4 6 . I b i d , m i n 0 7 : 5 6 . 4 7 . I b i d , m i n 0 9 : 4 0 . 48 . Falta y Resto Murga 2012. Accessed September 1, 2012, min 12:50, http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=LIt3geO86es&feature=related 4 9. I b i d . , m i n 1 3 : 1 0 . 50 . 12–05–2011 Aporte de Familiares, y su profundo y meditado sentir, Accessed September 1, 2012, http://www.desaparecidos.org.uy/Resources/Aportes%20 de%20Familiares%20y%20su%20profundo%20y%20meditado%20sentir.pdf . 5 1. I b i d . 5 2. S a n g u i n e t t i i n t e r v i e w . 53 . La posible anulaci ó n de la Ley de Caducidad en la opini ó n de los Uruguayos, CIFRA, Accessed September 1, 2012, http://www.cifra.com.uy/novedades. php?idNoticia=45 54 . ¿Qu é hacer con la Ley de Caducidad? CIFRA. Accessed September 1, 2012, http://www.cifra.com.uy/novedades.php?idNoticia=137 . 55 . Decree 323, points I, II, and IV. 5 6 . I b i d . , I I I a n d V I . 57. I would like to thank Mariana Achugar for highlighting this point. 58 . Ibid. While in 1986, the pacification narrative was utilized to support the enactment of the Ley de Caducidad, in 2011 it is employed instead to caution against its derogation and the risks of unsettling peace and stability. 5 9. S a n g u i n e t t i i n t e r v i e w . Notes 251

C o n c l u s i o n

1 . “Carta abierta a mi nieto” por Juan Gelman, 12 de abril de 1995. Accessed December 14, 2012, http://prairial.free.fr/gelman/gelmanesp.php?lien=nietogelmanesp 2 . I would like to thank Boris Hau for his careful reading and helpful suggestions on the section about Chile. 3 . For more information on trials and convictions in Chile please refer to the up-to- date analysis and statistics provided by the Observatorio Derechos Humanos of the Universidad Diego Portales, http://www.icso.cl/observatorio-derechos-humanos/ cifras-causas-case-statistics/ 4 . President Bachelet—herself a victim of torture and political detention during the Pinochet regime—negotiated with the opposition the reopening of the Valech Commission to consider any other pending cases of political imprisonment, torture, disappearances, extrajudicial executions, and political violence. In this second phase between 2010 and 2011, the commission was able to confirm 30 new cases of disappearances and 9,795 new cases of victims of political imprisonment and torture, bringing the final total of victims of the 1973–1990 dictatorship to 3,216 dead and disappeared and 38,254 victims of political imprisonment and torture (Lira 2011). 5 . I would like to thank Glenda Mezarobba for her attentive review and useful advice on the section on Brazil. 6. I would like to thank Glenda Mezarobba for articulating this point to me. 7 . See Abr ã o and Torelly (2012) for more details on the Brazilian reparations laws. 8 . See article 6 of Lei N. 12.528, De 18 De Novembro De 2011. Cria a Comiss ã o Nacional da Verdade no â mbito da Casa Civil da Presid ê ncia da Rep ú blica. Accessed December 7, 2012, http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2011- 2014/2011/Lei/L12528.htm .

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Index

Note: page numbers with italicized f or n indicate figures or notes respectively. “A” classification of political loyalty memorials and, 79 and reliability, Uruguay, 39 pressure on government by, 129 A Redoblar (Uruguayan popular song), in Uruguay 153, 247n100 justice and impunity narratives ABO detention centers, Argentina, 75 used by, 183, 184 Abreu, Julio, 155 pushing government for Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo, Argentina answers, 213 on CONADEP truth commission referendum aftermath and, inadequacies, 54 198–199 on ESMA as memorial, 78 Sambucetti’s 1987 investigation on Full Stop and Due Obedience on disappeared and, 137–138 laws, 59 Agazzi, Ernesto, 207 on missing grandchildren, 65–66 Agosti, Orlando, 55, 60 opposition to Full Stop law by, 108 Aguerre, Pedro, 173 protesting sentencing of Argentine Aguirre, Gonzalo, 191, 192, 194 military commanders (1986), 55 Alasino, Augusto, 120 on reopening of trials, 75 Alfonsín, Raúl on Scilingo’s confession, 62–63 CONADEP and trials fulfilling truth projects as opposition electoral promises of, 55–56 moments by, 25 on Due Obedience law, 59 work of, 241n16 election of (1983), 50, 83, 103, 128 academic centers on transitional on Full Stop law, two demons justice, 10 narrative and, 107–108 Acholi (Luo) reconciliation Holy Week uprising (1987) and, 58 mechanism, Uganda, 12 impunity laws adopted by, 68 Acosta, Jorge “El Tigre,” 62, 66, 74 justice narrative used by, 100, 101 adoptions, illegal, of Argentine legal approach to justice under, disappeared, 1, 40, 180, 52–53 245n36 on Menem’s pardons, 101, 118 afectados. See also victim groups on post-military rule democracy, 49 in Argentina, 241n16 presidency of, 51–52 disappeared and, 97–98 on reconciliation gestures, 94 284 Index

Alfonsín, Raúl—Continued rejected by human rights activists reconciliation narrative used by, 219 and victim groups, 100–101 on reopening of trials, 75 unconstitutionality of, 66–67, 216 resignation of, 59 balancing justice demands state terrorism narrative used by, 99 with impunity requests by truth and justice agenda of, 223 perpetrators using, 12–13 two demons narrative used by, 92, in Brazil, 227–228 105–107, 218 in Chile, 226 Alianza Anti-Comunista Argentina international human rights (Argentine Anti-Communist organizations and, 27 Alliance), 33 memory narratives and justification Almagro, Luis, 156 for, 21–22, 115 Almeida de Quinteros, María del in Uruguay Carmen (“Tota”), 145 legislative bills on, 136 Alonso, Nelson, 195–196 Ley de Caducidad and, 212 Alsogaray, Álvaro, 110, 115, 117, military, Sanguinetti on, 187–189 119–120 military rejection of, 186–187 Alsogaray, María Julia, 109, 110, 115 National Pacification Project Álvarez, Gregorio, 46, 149, 246n52 and, 135 Álvarez Petraglia, Federico, 158, 159 for political prisoners, Amado, Fernando, 201 CONAPRO and, 47 Amaral. See García, Amaral unconstitutionality of, 216–217 Amarilla, Gerardo, 210 Amnesty Commission, Brazil, 227 American Convention on Human Amnesty International, 158 Rights Amorín, José, 208–209 IACHR on Argentina’s impunity APDH (Asamblea Permanente laws as incompatible with, 61 por los Derechos Humanos Ley de Caducidad as incompatible (Permanent Assembly for with, 142, 155, 158 Human Rights)), Argentina, Peru’s 1995 amnesties lacking legal 51, 52, 240n16 effect under, 27 Arancio de Beller, Lylia, 123 Uruguay’s decree CM/323 Araújo, José Germán, 195, 196 indicating commitment to, 204 Areco, Pacheco, 35 victim petitions on humans rights Arendt, Hannah, 1 violations in Uruguay and, 142 Argentina. See also Buenos Aires American Declaration of the Rights Federal Appeals Court; and Duties of Man, 61, 142 critical junctures; disappeared; Americas Watch, 142 memory narratives amnesties Alfonsín’s presidency, 51–52 in Argentina Alfonsín’s resignation, 59 Full Stop and Due Obedience carapintadas rebellions (1987–1990), laws as, 59 58, 61, 83 by perpetrators, nullification of, 53 as case study of TJ and memory, 4 Index 285 constitutional reform incorporating return of prosecutions and memory, international treaties, 69 69–80 courts and human rights cases in, Revolution in, as bureaucratic 72–76 authoritarianism, 32–33 creativity of human rights activists right to truth in, 64 in, 63 Scilingo’s confession, 62–63, 69, 83, crisis of 2001–2002, 68–69 128–129, 220 critical junctures in, summary of, tentative speculations on future in, 228 217–218 tracing memory narratives and from democracy to dictatorship in, transitional justice in, 103–127 31–34 as transitional justice innovator, Due Obedience law enacted, 57, 216–217 58–59 transitional justice phases, memory end of dictatorship in, 43–45 narratives and critical escraches (public shaming events) in, junctures in, 221, 222f, 223 63, 64–65, 219, 242n51 truth and limited justice first truth commission in, 53–54 (1983–1985) in, 50–56 foreign trials as challenge to truth projects as opposition impunity in, 67 moments in, 25 Full Stop law enacted, 57 turn toward impunity in, 56 impunity laws and pardons unconstitutionality of amnesty (1986–2002) in, 57–69 laws, 66–67 Kirchner as unexpected ally in, Uruguayan disappearances in, 146, 70–72 149–150, 246n68 limited justice in, 52–53, 241n11 Uruguay’s relationship with, 132 memorialization initiatives in, 76–80 Argentine Forensic Anthropology Menem’s pardons in, 59–60, 68, 73, Team (Equipo Argentino de 101, 118 Antropología Forense), 26 military commanders on trial in, Argentinos por la Memoria Completa 54–56, 105, 106–107 (Argentines for Complete missing grandchildren in, 65–66 Memory), 92 missing Uruguayans returned to Arlington, clandestine Uruguayan Montevideo from, 212 cemetery, 159 Operación Cóndor indictments, 68 armed forces. See military peculiar collapse of military regime artistic expression, censorship of, 37 in, 50–51, 83, 103 Asamblea Permanente por los Derechos presidents with truth and justice Humanos (Permanent agendas in, 223 Assembly for Human Rights, prior to dictatorship, 31 APDH), Argentina, 51, 52, Process of National Reorganization 240n16 in, 36 Asamblea Uruguay, 156 reparations controversy, 61–62 Asociación de ex Pres@s Polític@s de repression in, 38 Uruguay. See CRYSOL 286 Index

Asociación Ex-Detenidos Desaparecidos B1 Vitamina para la Memoria (Association of Former (Vitamin B1 for Memory), Disappeared Detainees), Argentina, 92–93 Argentina, 71, 75, 78, 100–101 babies Asociación Madres de Plaza de Mayo Argentine, abduction of, 74 (Mothers of May Square as Argentine disappeared, 40 Association), Argentina Bachelet, Michelle, 226, 251n4 Cultural Space Our Child Bagnasco, Adolfo, 66 (ECuNHI) project of, 79 Balbela, Jacinta, 154 on Kirchner as president, 71, 72 Balbi, Álvaro, 157 Parque de la Memoria and, 77 Baldomir, Alfredo, 34 profile of disappeared and, 99 baldosas (memorial plaques), protesting sentencing of Argentine Argentina, 77, 78f military commanders Balza, Martín, 63, 90, 95 (1986), 55 El Banco detention center, Argentina, on reconciliation in Argentina, 96 6, 75 on reparations for disappeared, 62 Bango, Julio, 206 Asociación para la Recuperación de la Barahona de Brito, Alexandra, 2–3, 9 Memoria Histórica (Association Barredo, Rosario, 149 for the Recovery of Historical Barreiro, Ernesto, 58 Memory), Spain, 26 Barrios Altos case (2001), 27, 73 asphyxiation, progressive, as torture, 43 Barrios Anza, Javier, 194–195 Astiz, Alfredo, 63, 67, 74 Barrios x Memoria y Justicia Astori, Danilo, 152 (Neighborhoods for Memory authoritarian regimes. See also and Justice), Argentina, 77 Argentina; Uruguay Batalla, Hugo, 192 transformation into democracies of, Batlle, Jorge, 144, 145–147, 175, 177, 178 24–25 Batlle Park, Montevideo, 1983 Automotores Orletti detention center, demonstration at Obelisk in, 46 Buenos Aires, 42f Baudizzone, Lestard, Varas Studio, children born in, 66 and associates, 77 reclaimed as memorial, 78 Bauer Pegoraro, Evelin, 74 sentencing for human rights crimes Bautista Belarrinaga, Juan, 117 in, 75 Becker, David, 19 trial for human rights violations Belgium, universal jurisdiction claims in, 74 by courts of, 13 Uruguayan exiles held in, 41 Bella Unión department, Uruguay, visits to, 5 239n4 Auyero, Carlos, 114 Bendini, Roberto, 95–96 Avalos, Ignacio, 109, 111 Benedetti, Mario, 163 Aylwin, Patricio, 225–226 Berdina, Hebe, 244n37 Berdina, Rodolfo, 244n37 “B” classification of political loyalty Berhongaray, Antonio, 108, 114 and reliability, Uruguay, 39 Bernini, Gustavo, 206 Index 287

Berríos, Eugenio, 141 critical junctures framework applied bicameral truth commission, to, 227–228 Argentina, consideration of, 54 human rights repression using Bignone, Reynaldo, 44, 51 counterinsurgency techniques Blanco, Juan Carlos, 141, 145, 149, 161 of, 37–38 Blanco, Ricardo, 161 Brazilian Bar Association, 227 Blanco party, Uruguay Brigade of Resistance Investigations, amnesty and limited justice bills Chaco province, Argentina, and, 136 reclaimed as memorial, 78 on annulling Ley de Caducidad, 139 Brizuela, Guillermo, 111 first critical juncture and, 186 Brovetto, Jorge, 159 history of, 239n3 Bruno, Ángel, 115, 116 investigative commissions and, 135 Buadas, Manuel, 47 Ley de Caducidad as compromise Buenos Aires Federal Appeals Court, by, 196 54–56, 64, 66, 106–107 as Ley de Caducidad sponsor, 193–194 Buenos Aires Federal Tribunal Five, 73 on military amnesties proposed by bureaucratic authoritarianism, Sanguinetti, 188 Argentine Revolution as, 32–33 plebiscite (2009) on Ley de business, big, role in producing and Caducidad and, 153 sustaining dictatorship, 229 referendum on Ley de Caducidad Bussi, Antonio Domingo, 74, 88 and, 139 Bussi, Ricardo, 122, 123 re-legalization of, 46 two demons narrative used by, 174 “C” classification of political loyalty Boiso Lanza airbase, Uruguay, and reliability, Uruguay, 39 248n116 Caceres, Isidro, 89–90, 95 Boiso-Lanza Pact (Uruguay, 1973), 35 Cafiero, Antonio, 114–115, 116, 120 Bolivia Cafiero, Juan Pablo, 119, 120 disappeared in, 240n7 Cafiero, Mario, 125 truth commission (1982) in, 14 Calhoun, Noel, 239n2 Bonelli, Enrique, 178 cambio en paz (peaceful change), Bonilla, José, 156, 173, 249n9 Uruguay, 134–135, 144 Bonnet, Martín, 118 campo crisis (Argentina, 2008), 72 books, censorship of, 37 Campo de Mayo detention center, Bordaberry, Juan María, 35, 45, 149, Argentina, 66 167, 246n66 Cámpora, Héctor, 33, 38 Bordaberry, Pedro, 203, 208 Camps, Ramón, 56, 86–87 Bordenave, Marcela, 123, 125 canto popular. See songs, popular Bottino, Cecilia, 207–208 Cantón, Mario, 193 Brasesco, Luis, 109 Capitanich, Jorge, 124, 126 Brasil: Nunca Mais report (1985), 25 Cappelleri, Pascual, 123 Bravo, Alfredo, 119, 120 Carámbula, Gonzalo, 194 Bravo, Horacio, 110 carapintadas rebellions, Argentina, 58, Brazil 61, 83 288 Index

Cardoso, José Carlos, 201 Chamber of Deputies, Argentina, Caridi, José, 86, 87 derogation of amnesty laws Carlotto, Estela, 120 by, 66 Carrió, Elisa, 121 Chargoñia, Pablo, 145, 157, 213 Carroll, Lewis, 16–17 Cháves Sosa, Ubagésner, 149, 181 Caruso, Lille, 157, 184 Chialanza, José, 154 Casa de la Militancia, Argentina, children. See also Gelman, Macarena; ESMA memorial and, 79 Riquelo, Simón; Zaffaroni, Cassina, Carlos, 194 Mariana Castro, Alicia, 124 as Argentine disappeared, 40 Castro, Julio, 159, 161, 173 kidnapped, in Argentina, 1, 74, 143, Catholic Peronist Youth, 33 245n36 Cavalli, Eduardo, 246n50 kidnapped, Peace Commission, Cavallo, Gabriel, 67 Uruguay on, 146 Cavallo, Ricardo, 120, 242n71 missing Argentine, identifying and Celiberti, Lilián, 157 reuniting, 65–66, 68 CELS. See Centro de Estudios Legales y missing Argentine, search for, 61 Sociales missing in Uruguay, state terrorism censorship, in Argentina and Uruguay, narrative and, 180 36–37 reappearance of, as critical junctures Center for Justice and International changing power balances, 26 Law, 155 Chile. See also Pinochet, Augusto Centre for Memory Studies, Berríos and secret police of, 141 University of Warwick, 15 critical junctures framework applied Centre for the Study of Cultural to, 225–226 Memory, University of disappeared in, 240n7 London, 15 transition to democracy in Uruguay Centro de Altos Estudios Nacionales vs., 133 (CALEN), 161 truth projects as opposition Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales moments in, 25 (Centre for Legal and Social Uruguayan disappearances in, 146 Studies) church, role in producing and Alfonsín’s selection of legal strategy supporting dictatorship, 229 and, 52 Civic Union (Union Cívica) party, on ESMA as memorial, 78 Uruguay, 46, 47, 190, 194 legalist approach using universal civil society. See also afectados; principles and legal norms by, human rights activists and 240n16 organizations; victim groups on problems with reopened as advocates of change, 228 trials, 76 in Argentina right to truth and, 64 on impunity measures of late on unconstitutionality of amnesty 1980s and early 1990s, 128 laws, 66–67 memorials and, 79, 80 Cersósimo, Gustavo, 201, 208, 209 on Menem’s pardons, 60 Index 289

truth and justice agenda of, 223 Uruguayan exiles held in, 41 two demons narrative and, 91, 93 visits to, 5 favorable opposition moments and, 25 Club Naval pact, Uruguay, 47, memory narratives and, 21–22 133–134, 190, 196 in Uruguay Code of Military Justice, Argentina, first critical juncture and, 186 53, 76 justice and impunity narratives La Cofradia murga (2010), used by, 183 Uruguay, 183 lobbying and defending Cold War. See also Communism; international law by, 160 National Security Doctrine momentum for accountability CONADEP truth commission and, 229 and commanders’ trials in new denunciations for past Argentina and, 56 atrocities (2011), 159 war narratives in Southern Cone on nullification of Ley de and, 168 Caducidad, 151, 153 Collazo, Ismael, 181 reaction to Ley de Caducidad collective memory. See also memory; and, 131 memory narratives two demons narrative used by, 174 definition of, 2 civilians, trials for human rights social networks and, 18 violations in Argentina of, 74 truth commissions and, 22–23 clandestine detention centers. See Collier, David, 23 also detention centers; specific Collier, Ruth Berins, 23 centers Colombia, disappeared in, 240n7 in Argentina Colorado party, Uruguay. See also Comodoro Py tribunals (2009) Sanguinetti, Julio María for crimes committed at, 103 amnesty and limited justice bills CONADEP’s identification and and, 136 inspection of, 54 election of 1984 and, 132 details publicized about, 82 first critical juncture and, 186 for disappeared, 40, 41f history of, 239n3 as memory spaces, Kirchner Pacto del Club Naval negotiations and, 70 and, 47 reclaimed as memorials, 77–78 plebiscite (2009) on Ley de sentencing for human rights Caducidad and, 153 crimes in, 74–75 Quinteros disappearance and, 141 in Uruguay, 43 referendum on Ley de Caducidad El Club Atlético clandestine detention and, 139, 140 center re-legalization of, 46 Comodoro Py tribunals (2009) for salida pactada (negotiated exit) with crimes committed at, 103 military and, 133 reclaimed as memorial, 78 two demons narrative used by, trial for human rights violations in, 174–175 6, 75 war narrative used by, 167 290 Index

Comisión Nacional sobre la Concertación Nacional Programática Desaparición de Personas (CONAPRO), Uruguay, 47, (National Commission on 186, 240n17 the Disappearance of Persons, constructive acts, memories as, 17–19 CONADEP), Argentina. See contagion effect, TJ in Argentina vs. also Nunca Más report Uruguay and, 132 as Alfonsín tool fulfilling his A Contrarreloj (Collazo song), 181 electoral promises, 55–56 Contreras, Manuel, 68, 226 creation and work of, 53–54 Convention on the Non-Applicability critical juncture and, 83 of Statutory Limitations to on disappeared returning alive, 82 War Crimes and Crimes political moment for, 50 against Humanity, 71, 204 profile of disappeared and, 98–99 Coordinadora Nacional de Derechos shift in memory narratives and, 128 Humanos, Peru, 26 two demons narrative and, 218 Cordobazo (general strike), Argentina commemorations, 6. See also (1969), 33 memorials Corriente de Acción y Commission for Historical Pensamiento–Libertad Clarification, UN-sponsored, (CAP-L), Uruguay, 156 Guatemala, 25 Corsi, Enrique, 74 Commission on Political Affairs, counter-memories, characteristics of, 20 Uruguay, 45 Courel, Carlos, 122–123 Commission on Political Crespo, Ernesto, 95 Imprisonment and Torture, crimes against humanity. See also Chile, 226. See also Valech disappeared; executions; Commission, Chile torture Communism. See also Cold War in Argentina during 1976–1983 Argentine narratives to explain, dictatorship, 1 85–86, 88–89 in Uruguay Latin American National Security excesses of war narrative used Doctrine on, 32–33 for, 173 Uruguayan narratives to explain, 168 Law 18.831 on state terrorism as, Communist Party, Uruguay, 39, 42, 159, 191, 207–208 153, 156 criminal prosecutions. See trials Comodoro Py tribunals (2009), Cristina. See Fernández de Kirchner, 103, 103f Cristina compensation, material reparations critical junctures as, 15 applied to transitional justice and CONADEP truth commission, memory, 9–10, 23–29 Argentina. See Comisión in Argentina Nacional sobre la Desaparición first (of 1980s), democracy and, de Personas 104–107 Concertación de Partidos por la memory narratives in Argentina Democracia, Chile, 225–226 and, 83–84 Index 291

with reaction phases, 49–50 D’Alessio, Andrés, 75 second, consolidation of Dalmao, Miguel, 154 impunity and, 107–119 Daners, Carlos, 177 shift in memory narratives and, Daverede, Julio, 195 128–129 de Beller, Arancio, 124 third, unresolved justice demands de Bonafini, Hebe, 79, 96, 100, 120 and, 119–127 de la Rúa, Fernando, 68, 114 transitional justice phases, de la Sota, José, 117 memory narratives and, 221, death flights (vuelos de la muerte) 222f, 223 for Argentine disappeared, 41 in Brazil, 227–228 Parque de la Memoria and, 77 categories of, 3 public opinion in Uruguay on, 143 in Chile, 225–226 Scilingo’s confession on, 62–63, 69, evidentiary moments and, 26 83, 128–129, 220 international moments and, 26–27 death penalty. See also executions; interrelationship between memory murder narratives, TJ policy and, for Argentine disappeared, 40–41 27–29, 217 Decree (Pardon Decree) 1002/89, opposition moments and, 25–26 Argentina, 61 political moments and, 24–25 Decree 1.581 (2001), Argentina, 68, 71 in Uruguay Decree 70/91 (1991), Argentina, 61 Ley de Caducidad and, 131–132 Decree 157 (1983), Argentina, 105 looming shadows of impunity Decree 158 (1983), Argentina, 105 and, 165 Decree 2726/83, Argentina, 45 struggling for justice and, Decree CM/323, Uruguay, 157, 204 185–189 Dellepiane, Elisa, 138 transitional justice phases, democracia tutelada (guarded memory narratives and, 221, democracy), Uruguay, 133 222f, 223 democracy cronograma (timetable), end of under Alfonsín in Argentina, dictatorship in Uruguay under, human rights and, 103–104 45–46 under Alfonsín in Argentina, CRYSOL (Centro de Relaciones y two demons narrative and, Soluciones Laborales), 143, 104–107 159, 182 Uruguay’s transformation from Cultural Centre “Haroldo Conti,” dictatorship to, 31, 34–35, Argentina, 79 132–133 Cultural Space Our Child (ECuNHI) democradura (hybrid of dictatorship project of Asociación Madres, 79 and democracy), Uruguay, culture of fear, Uruguay, 39 132–133, 185–189 curandeiros (healers), for communal demons narrative. See two demons justice in Mozambique, 12 narrative customary communal justice practices, detention centers. See clandestine examples of, 12 detention centers 292 Index el día del Nunca Más (day of Never enforced, judiciary on Ley de Again), Uruguay, 170, 178 Caducidad and, 158 Díaz, José, 121 identification of, as evidentiary dirty wars moments, 220 Argentine justification for, 86–87 investigation of (1987), 137–138 Asociación Madres on changing isolation of relatives of, 179–180 discourse on, 96–97 justice and impunity narratives in late 1980s, Argentina, 58 and, 182–183 Medina on, 172 military investigations on, Menem on leftists and, 87–88 149–150 military narratives on war and Peace Commission on, 146 excesses and, 221 popular songs written about, 143, disappeared (desaparecidos). See also 245n36 excavations in Uruguay; silence surrounding, 134 political prisoners state terrorism narrative and, in Argentina 178–181 children as, identifying and statistics on, 240n7 reuniting, 65–66 writers and editors as, 36 CONADEP truth commission domestic trials. See trials on, 53–54 due obedience, in limited justice controversy on definition for, trials of Argentine military, 61–62 52, 53 under dictatorship (1976–1983), 31 Due Obedience law, Argentina under grupos de tareas, 40–41, afectados and activists protests 41f, 240n7 over, 101 horror of publicity on fates of, bill nullifying (2003), 121 82–83 child stealing not covered by, 66 as inevitable excesses of war, debate on, memory narratives and, military on, 89–90 113–117 Nunca Más report on, 105–106, 127 derogation (1998) of, 119 Uruguayan disappearances enactment of (1987), 50, 58–59 compared to, 39 as infringing on rights to judicial of Uruguayans, prosecutions for, protection and fair trial, 148–149 IACHR on, 61 in Chile, 226, 251n4 nullification (2003) of, 70–71, 221 identifying human remains of, as opposition moment and, 83 evidentiary critical junctures, 26 reconciliation narrative and, 128, 219 state terrorism narrative and, 96–99 teachers and students as, 37 East Timor, dispute resolution of in Uruguay unrolling the mat in, 12 Argentine disappearances economic development, transitional compared to, 39 justice and, 10 as cover up of death of economy, Argentine, 33, 37, 51, prisoners, 41 120–121 Index 293 economy, Uruguayan, 34–35, 37 in Uruguay education, military supervision of, 37 examples of, 160 Ejercito Revolucionario del Pueblo second phase of transitional (People’s Revolutionary Army, justice and, 132, 147, 165–166, ERP), 33–34, 40–41, 88 185, 212–213 elections, free, in Argentina, 51 shift toward accountability and, Electoral Court, Uruguay, 139, 151 199–200 electric shocks (picana electrica) as excavations in Uruguay. See also mass torture, 43 graves in Argentina Elster, Jon, 4 evidentiary moments and, 160, emblematic memory, 20–21 212, 220 emblematic moment, military at 14th Battalion of Toledo, 159 commanders on trial in ordered by Vázquez, 149 Argentina as, 55 second phase of transitional justice empirical tools, large-N datasets for and, 132 testing TJ mechanisms, 12 state terrorism narrative and, 181 Enseñat, Valentín, 183 excesses of war narrative Época (song), state terrorism narrative in Argentina symbols in, 99 in debate on derogation of Equipo Argentino de Antropología impunity laws, 119 Forense (Argentine Forensic in debate on Due Obedience Anthropology Team), 26 law, 115 Esaín, Daniel, 124 in debate on Full Stop law, escraches (public shaming events), in 110–111 Argentina, 63, 64–65, 129, in debate on nullifying impunity 219, 242n51 laws, 122 ESMA (Escuela de Mecánica de la Due Obedience law and, 117 Armada) detention center military on errors as inevitable Parque de la Memoria near, 77 with, 89–90 reclaimed as memorial, 78–79, 79f overview of, 89–91 sentencing for human rights crimes prosecutions for atrocities in, 242n71 committed and, 228 Uruguayan Marine Corps Unit shift to two demons narrative and, 149 from, 128, 218 visits to, 5 in Uruguay Espinoza, Pedro, 226 in debates on interpretative Etchecolatz, Miguel, 73, 76 law, 211 evidentiary moments (critical in debates on State Punitive junctures) Capacity bill, 207 in Argentina, 50, 119 human rights crimes as, 212 in early 2000s, 128 Ley de Caducidad enactment transitional justice and, 79–80, 83 debates and, 190 changing power balances, 3, 26, 220 momentum for accountability in Chile, 226 and, 229 294 Index excesses of war narrative—Continued Fernández Lecchini, Juan Carlos, 158, overview of, 170–173 160, 161 Sanguinetti on military Fernández Meijide, Graciela, 71, 75–76 amnesties and, 187–188 Ferreira, Juan Raúl, 192 executions. See also death flights; Ferreira Aldunate, Wilson, 46, 133, death penalty; murder 135, 188, 190 extrajudicial, in Argentina, 39, 240n7 Final Document on the Struggle extrajudicial, in Uruguay, 39 against Subversion and simulated, as torture, 43 Terrorism (1983), Argentina, exiles, returning 89, 94, 97 Uruguay’s CONAPRO agreement Firmenich, Mario Eduardo, 60, 87, 118 on, 47 Flores Silva, Manuel, 192 Uruguay’s National Pacification Fontana de Heber, Cecilia, 135 Project on, 135 Ford Falcons, Argentine task force cars extradition requests, Argentine, for without license plates, 40, 41f Uruguayan military, 136 foreign trials. See also trials eyes at the back of your head, as challenge to Argentine impunity, Sanguinetti on not having, 67, 83, 220 176, 219 as challenge to human rights violations, 13 Falcó, Luis, 123 as challenge to Uruguayan Falklands War (1982), 43–44, 51, 100 impunity, 145 Falsone, José, 117 important sentences dictated in, Falta y Resto murga (2012), Uruguay, 242n71 183–184 Kirchner’s cooperation with Familiares de Asesinados por Razones extradition requests for, 70 Políticas, Uruguay, 143, 184 forgetting, selective remembering Familiares de Detenidos y Desaparecidos and, 18 por Razones Políticas (Relatives fractures of memory, political terror of Detainees and Disappeared and, 164 for Political Reasons), France Argentina, 62–63, 241n16 Argentine criminal cases tried in, Familiares y Amigos de los Muertos 67, 129 por la Subversión (FAMUS), human rights repression using Argentina, 94, 119 counterinsurgency techniques Fau, Yamandú, 194 of, 37–38 Faulkner, William, 17 passive personality principle used by Favole, Luis, 74 courts of, 13 Febres, Héctor, 66 Frente Amplio political coalition, Federal Supreme Court, Brazil, 227 Uruguay. See also Vázquez, Feris, Gabriel, 115 Tabaré Fernández de Kirchner, Cristina, 72, crimes against humanity bills 79, 120, 242n65 and, 159 Fernández Huidobro, Eleuterio, 156, decree CM/323 and, 157 165, 170, 204, 224 first critical juncture and, 186 Index 295

formation of, 239n3 gacaca courts of communal justice, in interpretative law for Ley de Rwanda, 12 Caducidad and, 156 Galeano, Eduardo, 178 investigative commissions and, 135 Gallo Imperiale, Luis José, 206, 207 limited justice bill and, 136 El Galpón theater, Montevideo, on military amnesties proposed by Uruguay, 37 Sanguinetti, 188, 190 Galtieri, Leopoldo, 44, 54–55 opposition to Ley de Caducidad by, Gandini, Jorge, 209 194, 221 García, Alem, 194 plebiscite (2009) on Ley de García, Amaral, 155, 180, 183 Caducidad and, 151, 152–153 García Hernández, Amaral and prosecutions under Ley de others case, Uruguay (2010), Caducidad and, 132 154 –155 Quinteros disappearance and, 141 García Otero, Nelson, 154 referendum on Ley de Caducidad García Pintos, Diego, 175 and, 139 García Rivas, Hugo, 42 re-legalization of, 46 Gargano, Reinaldo, 191, 195 repudiation of reconciliation and two Garzón, Baltasar, 67 demons narratives and, 199 Gass, Adolfo, 114 two demons narrative and 2007 Gavazzo, José “Nino,” 137, 170, 190 draft compensation bill by, 175 Gelman, Juan, 81, 144, 155, 215 war narrative used by, 167 Gelman, Macarena Fujimori, Alberto, 13 appearance of, 146 Full Stop law (1986), Argentina identification of, 212 afectados and activists protests kidnapped and illegally over, 101 adopted, 180 bill nullifying (2003), 121 Ley de Caducidad and judicial critical juncture 2 and, 50, 107 proceedings by, 155 deadlines for summoning human mother’s burial site information rights offenders and, 57 for, 150 debate on, memory narratives and, plaque honoring detention center 108–112 of, 161 derogation (1998) of, 119 recuperation of, 144, 160, 220 as infringing on rights to judicial reunited with her grandfather, 215 protection and fair trial, Gelman, María Claudia, 147, 155, IACHR on, 61 159, 161 nullification (2003) of, 70–71, 221 Gelman case, Uruguay opposition moment and, 83 international pressure regarding, 148 passage of (1986), 112–113 two demons narrative and, 175 reconciliation narrative and, Gelman sentence by IACtHR 128, 219 decree CM/323 and, 157 Fundación de Antropología Forense derogation of Ley de Caducidad de Guatemala (Guatemalan and, 199 Forensic Anthropology failure of interpretative law and, 204 Foundation), 26 Mujica’s resistance to, 161 296 Index

Gelman sentence by Cámpora’s amnesty (1973) IACtHR—Continued freeing, 38 as tool for human rights left-wing, La Tablada infantry advocates, 155 base attack by, 59 gender studies, transitional justice two demons narrative and, and, 10 91–93, 93f genocide. See also death flights; role in producing dictatorship, 229 executions; murder in Uruguay, 34–35 Spanish charges on terrorism and, 67 two demons narrative of, trials in Argentina for, 73–74 173–176 Gerardi, Juan José, 25 war narrative due to organizing Gerez, Luis Ángel, 76 actions by, 169 Germany, Argentine criminal cases Guglielminetti, Raúl, 74 tried in, 67 Guianze, Mirtha, 153–154, 213, Gestido, Oscar, 193 246n50 Gillis, John, 19 Gutiérrez, Francisco, 125 Godoy, Jorge, 95 Gutiérrez Ruiz, Héctor, 135, 138, Goñi, Héctor, 191 148, 149 Gotan Project (electrotango band), 99 Guzmán, Juan, 226 Grass, Günter, 144 grassroots communal justice practices, habeas corpus, suspended by military examples of, 12 governments, 37 Greece, ancient, confronting human Halbwachs, Maurice, 18 rights violations in, 2 Heber, Luis Alberto, 134, 137, green vote (voto verde), Uruguay, 194, 208 139, 140 hegemonic memory narratives, 20. See Grupos de Acción Unificadora also memory narratives (Unifying Action Groups), Hermes Brusa, Víctor, 74 Uruguay, 41 HIJOS de Detenidos Desaparecidos en grupos de tareas (task forces), Uruguay (HIJOS Uruguay) Argentine, 39–40, 62–63, on complying with Gelman 242n71 verdict, 159 Guatemala, truth projects as formation of, 143 opposition moments in, 25 justice and impunity narratives used Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology by, 183 Foundation (Fundación petition on judicial investigations de Antropología Forense de by, 157 Guatemala), 26 plebiscite (2009) on Ley de Guerrilha do Araguia movement, Caducidad and, 153 Brazil, 227 state terrorism narrative used by, 181 guerrilla groups Hijos por la Identidad y la Justicia in Argentina, 33–34 contra el Olvido y el Silencio Alfonsín’s legal approach to (Sons and Daughters for prosecution of, 52–53 Identity and Justice against Index 297

Forgetting and Silence, as advocates of change, 228 H.I.J.O.S.), Argentina, 64–65 in Argentina, 240–241n16 escraches (public shaming events) CONADEP truth commission by, 219 and, 54 on ESMA as memorial, 78 on Full Stop and Due Obedience ESMA memorial and, 79 laws, 59 juicio y castigo campaign by, 103, 103f on memory of state action on Parque de la Memoria and, 77 disappeared, 83 profile of disappeared and, 99 on Menem’s pardons, 118 on reopening of trials, 75 opposition moments and, Historical Investigation on Disappeared- 219–220 Detainees (University of the opposition to Due Obedience law Republic), Uruguay, 150 by, 113 Historical Investigation on the Dictatorship opposition to reconciliation and State Terrorism in Uruguay by, 129 (1973–1985) (University of the protesting sentencing of military Republic), Uruguay, 150 commanders (1986), 55 Hlaczik, Getrudis, 66 reaction after Dec. 1990 Holocaust, study of remembrance of, 15 rebellion, 61 Holy Week uprising (Argentina, rejection of amnesties and 1987), 58, 113 pardons by, 100–101 hoods, wearing of, as torture, 43 state terrorism narrative used by, horrors of war 96–99 excesses of war narrative explaining, international, peace agreements, 27 90–91 transnational, norm diffusion by, 27 publicity on fates of Argentine in Uruguay disappeared as, 82–83 development of, 245n23 human rights first critical juncture and, 186 abuses in Argentina, international momentum for accountability denunciation of, 51 and, 229 democracy under Alfonsín in opposition moments and, Argentina and, 103–104 219–220 Fernández de Kirchner’s record on, on Peace Commission, 146 71, 72 pushing government for Kirchner’s record on, 71–72 answers, 213 state terrorism narrative in Argentina referendum aftermath and, and language of, 98–99 198–199 state terrorism narrative in Uruguay referendum on Ley de Caducidad using language of, 179 and, 138–140 transitional justice and, 10 Sambucetti’s 1987 investigation Uruguay’s CONAPRO agreement on disappeared and, 137–138 on, 47 state terrorism narrative used by, human rights activists and 178–179 organizations truth and justice agenda of, 223 298 Index

Human Rights Observatory Luz report 28/92 on Argentina’s Ibarburu, Uruguay, 160 impunity laws, 61 Human Rights Organizations case victim petitions on humans rights (2010), Uruguay, 154 violations in Uruguay and, 142 Huntington, Samuel P., 239n2 Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons, 155 Ibáñez, Manuel Leandro y otros case, Inter-American Court on Human Argentina, 74 Rights (IACtHR) Ibarburu, Luz, 179 condemnation of Brazil in Gomes Ibarra, Vilma, 124, 125–126 Lund case by, 227 Iguales y Punto (Equals and Full Stop), on legal effect of amnesties, 73, 154 Uruguay, 153, 159 on Ley de Caducidad and human immediate transitional justice, second- rights cases in Uruguay, 155, wave justice compared to, 4 156, 159, 200 imprisonment on Peru’s 1995 amnesties lacking long-term, as torture, 43 legal effect, 27 in Uruguay Inter-American Human Rights arbitrary, 134 System, 27 fractures of memory about, 164 International Center for Transitional Peace Commission on, 146 Justice (New York City), 10 impunity narrative. See justice and International Covenant on Civil and impunity narratives Political Rights, 142 individual memories. See also memory; International Criminal Court memory narratives (ICC), 13 social setting of recounting and international critical junctures. See listening to, 18 international moments individual reparations, definition of, 15 International Day of the Victims of Infantry School of Campo de Mayo, Enforced Disappearances Buenos Aires, 58 (August 30), 6, 181 Infierno Grande detention center, International Journal of Transitional Uruguay, 224 Justice, 10 Instituto de Estudios Legales y Sociales international moments (critical del Uruguay (Uruguayan junctures) Institute of Legal and Social Argentina and, 50 Studies, IELSUR), 141, 142 changing power balances, 3, Inter-American Commission on 26–27, 220 Human Rights (IACHR) transitional justice in Argentina condemnation of Argentina’s and and, 79–80, 83, 119, 128 Uruguay’s impunity laws in Uruguay by, 220 Inter-American system and, 160 international pressure by, 27 second phase of transitional justice claims after visit to justice and, 132, 147, 165–166, Argentina by, 100 185, 212–213 Lapacó case and, 64 shift toward accountability and, Ley de Caducidad, Uruguay, and, 154 199–200 Index 299 international trials. See also foreign trials replaced by military governments, 37 as challenge to human rights judiciary violations, 13 in Argentina, international human Inter-trade Workers Plenary- law and, 224 National—Workers in Chile during 1990s, 226 Convention, Uruguay. independence of, in Argentina See Plenario Intersindical constitutional reform (1994) de Trabajadores-Convención and, 69 Nacional Trabajadores curtailed, in late 1980s and early Investigative Commission in the 1990s, 50 Senate relating to the death Full Stop law and, 57 of Cecilia Fontana de Heber independence of, in Uruguay (1986), Uruguay, 135 CONAPRO agreement on, 47 Investigative Commission on interpretative law for Ley de the Kidnapping and Caducidad on, 248n110 Assassination of National Ley de Caducidad enactment Representatives Zelmar debates on, 195 Michelini and Héctor Sanguinetti’s challenge to, 136 Gutiérrez Ruiz in the Chamber in Uruguay, transitional justice role of Representatives (1985), of, 224 Uruguay, 135 juicio y castigo (trial and punishment), Investigative Commission on the in Argentina, 100, 103, 103f Situation of Disappeared Julien, Roger, and family, 246n52 People and Its Causes (1985), Jurios, Carlos, 74 Uruguay, 135 jurisdiction of courts in Uruguay Invidio, Rodolfo, 47, 186–187 for human rights cases, 35, 136 Inzaurralde, Gustavo, 158 interpretative law for Ley de Italy Caducidad on, 248n110 Argentine criminal cases tried in, jurisprudence 67, 129, 242n71 divergent interpretations in passive personality principle used by Uruguay, 161 courts of, 13 as source for research, 5 justice and impunity narratives Jarolavsky, Cesar, 108 in Argentina Jelin, Elizabeth, 2, 19 Alfonsín on Menem’s pardons Jenefes, Guillermo, 125 and, 118 Jewish Human Rights Movement, Alfonsín’s use of, 105 100–101 as challenge to Due Obedience Jews, brutal treatment in Uruguayan law, 116–117 prisons of, 43 civil society of late 1980s and Jobe, Miguel, 122 early 1990s and, 128 Jubette, Estela, 145 in debate on Full Stop law, 111 judges in debate on nullifying human rights training in Uruguay impunity laws, 121, 123, for, 161 124–126 300 Index justice and impunity Lapacó, Alejandra, case of, 64 narratives—Continued large-N datasets, for testing TJ overview of, 99–103 mechanisms, 12 prosecutions for atrocities Larrañaga, Jorge, 203 committed and, 228 Latin America Federation of in Uruguay Associations of Relatives of in debates on interpretative law, Disappeared Detainees, 141 200, 201–203 Latin American state terrorism, study in debates on State Punitive of remembrance of, 16 Capacity bill, 205–206 Laurnaga, María Elena, 203 Ley de Caducidad enactment laws, Argentine debates and, 194–195 Law 22.924 of National Pacification, overview of, 182–184 Argentina, 45, 53, 94 in provisions of Ley de Law 23.040, nullifying self- Caducidad, 210–211 amnesties, 53 referendum on Ley de Caducidad Law 23.049, reforming Code of and, 197–198 Military Justice, 53, 58 replacing reconciliation and Law 23.492 (See Full Stop law demons narratives, 199, (1986), Argentina) 213, 221 Law 23.521 (See Due Obedience replacing war, excesses, and law, Argentina) demons narratives, 229 Law 24.043, granting benefits justice balance theory, on transitional to victims of illegitimate justice, 12 detention, 61 justice cascade, as challenge to human Law 24.321, on Absence by Forced rights violations, 13 Disappearance, 61–62 Law 24.411, on compensation for Kirchner, Néstor families of disappeared, 61 election of (2003), 69–70, 129 Law 25.779, nullifying Full Stop and human rights as priority under, 121 Due Obedience laws, 70–71, 73 justice and impunity narratives used laws, Brazilian, on amnesties, 227–228 by, 102 laws, Chilean, amesty law decree 2.91 Nunca Más report reedition and, (1978), 226 126–127 laws, Uruguayan Parque de la Memoria and, 77 Law 15.737, on amnesty and release of state terrorism narrative used by, 99, political prisoners, 135, 245n17 220–221 Law 15.848 (See Ley de Caducidad truth and justice agenda of, 223 de la Pretensión Punitiva del as unexpected ally, 70–72 Estado, Uruguay) Law 17.894, on reparations for Lacalle, Luis Alberto, 141, 175–176 disappeared, 150 Lagos, Ricardo, 226 Law 18.033, on pensions rights Lamas, Daniel, 193 and reparatory pensions, 150, Lambruschini, Armando, 55, 60 247n75 Index 301

Law 18.596, on reparations, 150, unconstitutionality of, 153–155 181–182, 247n76 unfulfilled pact of, 144–145 Law 18.831, on crimes against Vázquez exclusion of cases from, 148 humanity, 159, 160–161, 185, Ley de Obedencia Debida. See Due 205–208, 248n115 Obedience law, Argentina Law of National Security Ley de Punto Final. See Full Stop law (1972), 187 (1986), Argentina state security law 14.068, on Libertad military prison, Uruguay, 43, military court jurisdiction over 239n4 civilian courts, 35 limited justice left-wing groups. See guerrilla groups; in Argentina, 52–53, 100, 106–107, political parties 241n11 Letelier, Orlando, 226 in Uruguay, Blanco party bill Ley de Caducidad de la Pretensión on, 136 Punitiva del Estado, Uruguay Linea Fundadora Madres, Argentina, Batlle’s application of, 147 62, 71 debate on Full Stop law in local communal justice practices, Argentina and, 108 examples of, 12 decree CM/323 and, 157 López, Jorge Julio, 6, 76, 102–103 derogation of, 199, 200f, 204–211, López Rega, José, 33 217, 221 Lorier, Eduardo, 205, 207 enactment and provisions of, Losada, Mario, 120 137–138 los ojos en la nuca, no hay que tener, enactment of, memory narratives 176, 219 and, 190–196 Luder, Ítalo, 51 as inapplicable to civilians, 145 Lvovich, Daniel, 71 interpretative law for, 155–156, 200–204 Macarena. See Gelman, Macarena justice and impunity narratives and, Madres (Argentina) 182–183, 184 CONADEP truth commission Law 18.831 on, 160–161, 185 and, 54 military disobedience to judiciary on disappeared returning alive, 82 and passage of, 165, 189–190 justice narrative used by, 100–101 nullification of, mural of Mafalda Kirchner and, 70 calling for, 210f on Menem’s pardons, 118 obstructing truth and justice opposition to Full Stop law by, 108 through, 131–132 on reparations for disappeared, 62 pacification and reconciliation truth projects as opposition narrative used for, 176–177, moments by, 25 178, 211–212, 218–219 work of, 241n16 plebiscite (2009) on, 151–153, Madres de Plaza de Mayo Linea 182–183 Fundadora (Mothers’ of referendum (1989) on, 138–140, May Square Founding Line), 196–198 Argentina, 62, 71 302 Index

Madres y Familiares de Uruguayos Marxist subversives. See also Detenidos Desaparecidos Communism (Mothers and Relatives of narratives to explain, 85–86, 88–89 Uruguayan Disappeared mass graves in Argentina. See also Detainees) excavations in Uruguay on Batlle’s use of two demons horror of opening of, 82 narrative, 175 Massera, Emilio on complying with Gelman verdict, excesses of war narrative used by, 89 158–159 indicted on child theft, 66 on disappeared and family life, 180 Menem’s pardon of, 60 establishment of, 245n23 Spanish charges on genocide and justice and impunity narratives used terrorism against, 67 by, 184 trial of, 54–55 meeting with Batlle, 146 on war against terrorism, 87 petition on investigating Matiauda Espino, Graciela, 200–201 disappeared, 144–145 mato oput (Acholi reconciliation plebiscite (2009) on Ley de mechanism), in Uganda, 12 Caducidad and, 152 Mazzeo case (Argentina), 73 referendum aftermath and, 141 media. See also newspapers on remembering the disappeared, 181 plebiscite (2009) on Ley de Scilingo’s confession and call for Caducidad and, 153 action by, 143 Medina, Hugo state terrorism narrative used by, on Club Naval pact provisions, 134 179, 182 Colorado government in 1980s Maglietti, Alberto, 119, 120 and, 133 Maimó Quintela, Julio, 195 excesses of war narrative used by, Malamud Goti, Jaime, 52, 55, 57, 59 171, 172 Mansión Seré clandestine detention insubordination of hard-liners and, center, Argentina, 78 136–137 marchas del silencio (marches of negotiated exit from dictatorship to silence), Uruguay democracy and, 46 author’s participation in, 6 negotiations on guarded democracy first, Michelini and Gutiérrez Ruiz under Sanguinetti by, 185, 186 murders and, 143 Pacto del Club Naval negotiations interpretative law failure (2011) and, 47 and, 157 referendum on Ley de Caducidad power of, 220 and, 197 state terrorism narrative and, 180 safe holding court citations, legend transitional justice since 2005 and, of, 186, 187, 245n18 165–166 Memoria para Armar, Uruguay, 143, 165 Marenales, Julio, 170 Memorial to Disappeared Detainees, Mariana. See Zaffaroni, Mariana Uruguay, 6 Martínez de Hoz, José Alfredo, 37, 60 memorials Index 303

Argentine detention centers as, transitional justice and, 21–23 78–79, 79f in Uruguay Argentine initiatives for, 76–77 critical junctures and as sources for research, 5–6 modifications in, 165–166 memory. See also memory narratives of dictatorship and violence, communication of, 18 167–184 as evolutionary, 2 excesses of war, 170–173 history of term and definition of, 16 justice and impunity, 182–184 political terror and fractures of, 164 Ley de Caducidad enactment studies of, transitional justice debates and, 190–196 and, 10 pacification and reconciliation, memory entrepreneurs, 19 176–178 memory narratives. See also specific referendum on Ley de Caducidad types of memory narratives and, 196–198 aftermath of violence and, 2 state terrorism, 178–182 in Argentina transitional justice phases, critical debate on derogation of impunity junctures and, 221, 222f, 223 laws and, 119–120 two demons, 173–176 debate on Full Stop law and, 108 war, 167–170 debate on nullifying impunity Memory Studies (journal), 15 laws and, 121–122 Méndez, Juan, 11 of dictatorship and violence, Menem, Carlos 84–103 Alfonsín on pardons by, 101 documentation of, 84–85 pardons by, 59–60, 68, 73, 118 excesses of war, 89–91 reconciliation rhetoric of, 95, 219 justice and impunity, 99–103 two demons narrative used by, 92 pacification and reconciliation, war narrative used by, 87–88 94–96 Menem, Eduardo, 110, 115, 117 state terrorism, 96–99 Menéndez, Luciano Benjamín, 74, 88 TJ policy choices and, 83 Ménendez de Ferreyra, Araceli, tracing modifications to, 124–125 103–104 Michelini, Felipe, 143, 159, 201 transitional justice and shifts over Michelini, Rafael time in, 129 justice and impunity narratives used transitional justice phases, critical by, 203, 205, 207 junctures and, 221, 222f, 223 on Ley de Caducidad referendum, two demons, 91–93, 93f 197–198 war, 85–89 marchas del silencio and, 143 characteristics of, 19–21 private investigation for Simón competing, struggles between, 4 Riquelo by, 1 interrelationship between critical Michelini, Zelmar, 135, 138, 148, 149 junctures, TJ policy and, Mignone, Mónica, case of, 64 27–29, 84 Migues, Aramis, 209 304 Index military. See also military governments prosecutions for disappearances in Argentina in Argentina and, 148–149 Alfonsín on prosecution of, 51 referendum on Ley de Caducidad carapintadas rebellions by, 58, and, 139, 140 61, 83 transitional justice role of, 224–225 civilian control over, 76 two demons narrative of, 173–176 on Full Stop law, 108 Vázquez on investigating on human rights crimes by disappeared by, 149–150 guerrillas, 97 war narrative used by, 168, under Kirchner, 70 186–187 Menem’s pardons of, 59–60 military courts in Uruguay, reaction to end of dictatorship jurisdiction for human rights by, 50 cases in, 35, 136 rebellions as opposition moment military governments by, 128 in Argentina, 32 on reconciliation, 94–96 civilian acceptance of, 81–82 reopening of trials and, 75–76 peculiar collapse of, 50–51, 83, 103 transitional justice role of, 224 repression under, 36–43 trials of, 50, 73–74, 83, 219 in Uruguay, 35 two demons narrative of, 91–93, 93f war narrative used by, 169 war narratives to explain coups Millor, Pablo, 193 d’état by, 85–89 Ministry of Defense, Argentina, 76 in Brazil, 227 Miranda, Fernando, 149 in Chile during 1990s, 226 Miranda, Javier, 159 in Uruguay Molina case (2010), Argentina, 74 appeasement of, pacification Molina Pico, Enrique, 90 narrative and, 176–177 Monserrat, Miguel, 109, 112, 116, 117 disobedience to judiciary by, Montaner, Martha, 209 135–136, 165, 186 Monte Caseros mutiny (1988), draft Constitution of early 1980s Argentina, 58 and, 45 Montoneros (Argentine guerrilla excavations on land owned by, group), 33–34, 87 149, 159, 181 moral entrepreneurs, Becker on, 19 excesses of war narrative used by, moral evaluation, façade of transition 170–172, 249n9 and, 25 Ley de Caducidad Moreira, Carlos, 208 unconstitutionality and, Moreira, Constanza, 157, 202, 154 –155 205–206 military power in Argentina vs. Mota, Mariana, 158, 160, 161, 224 power of, 132 Mothers of May Square Association. pacification and reconciliation See Asociación Madres de Plaza narrative used by, 177–178 de Mayo potential coup by (1986), Movimiento de Liberación 136–137, 245n18 Nacional-Tupamaros Index 305

(National Liberation narrators of memory. See also memory Movement-Tupamaros), narratives Uruguay. See Tupamaros characteristics of, 18 Movimiento de Participación Popular National Bank of Genetic Data, (MPP), Uruguay, 153, 156, Argentina, 65 247n96 National Commission for the Right Movimiento Todos por la Patria to Identity (CONADI), (Argentine guerrilla Argentina, 65 group), 59 National Confederation of Workers, Mozambique, healers for communal Uruguay, 37 justice in, 12 National Coordinating Committee for Mujica, José the Nullification of the Ley de on accountability, 147–148 Caducidad, Uruguay, 182–183 crimes against humanity bills National Human Rights Secretariat, and, 159 Argentina, 126–127 interpretative law for Ley de National Liberation Movement- Caducidad and, 155–156, 204 Tupamaros, Uruguay. See plebiscite (2009) on Ley de Tupamaros Caducidad and, 152 National Memory Archive, resistance to IACtHR on Gelman Argentina, 79 sentence by, 161 National Pacification Project, state terrorism narrative used by, 182 Uruguay, 135 two demons narrative used by, 175 National Pro-Referendum war narrative used by, 170 Commission, Uruguay, murder. See also death flights; death 138–139 penalty; executions National Reconciliation Law (1996), Alfonsín’s legal approach to Guatemala, 27 prosecution of, 52–53 National Renovating Alliance, human rights violations and, Brazil, 227 Argentine trials for, 74 National Security Council, political, prosecutions in Uruguay Uruguay, 35 for, 149 National Security Doctrine (NSD) Museum of Memory and Human in Argentina and Uruguay during Rights, Chile, 226 Cold War, 4 music. See also songs, popular human rights repression under, censorship in Uruguay of, 37 37–38 musical theater (murgas), Uruguay, as ideological foundation for Latin 143, 183–184 American military regimes, 32 Mutual Support Group, Guatemala, 25 Uruguayan draft Constitution of early 1980s and, 45 nahe biti bot (unrolling the mat), in war as memory narrative due to, East Timor, 12 85, 168 narrative social construction, National Truth and Reconciliation memories as, 17–19 Commission, Chile, 226 306 Index

Navy Club. See Pacto del Club Naval in Argentina (1984), Uruguay in late 1980s and early 1990s, 50, negotiation, as political moment and 57, 83, 107, 128, 219 critical juncture, 24, 239n2 in late 1990s and early 2000s, Neighborhoods for Memory and 119, 128 Justice (Barrios x Memoria y transitional justice and, 79–80 Justicia), 77 changing power balances, 3, 25–26 “Never Again Uruguayans vs. in Chile, 225, 226 Uruguayans,” 170 in Uruguay newspapers. See also media first, of mid-1980s, 185, 218–219 military rule and, 36–37 human rights activists and, 160 Nibia Sabalsagaray case, Uruguay, 153, by military, Ley de Caducidad 248n104 and, 131–132 Nin Novoa, Rodolfo, 156, 204 military antagonism to Nino, Carlos, 1, 52 prosecution, 135–136, 165 Nos sobra una Ley (We have one second phase of transitional law more than we need) justice and, 132, 147, 165–166, (documentary), Uruguay, 153 185, 212–213 Nuevo Espacio, Uruguay, 153, 156 shift toward accountability and, Nunca Más (Never Again) 199–200 el día del, in Uruguay, 170, 178 in Uruguay vs. Argentina, 211 memory preservation and, 16 Orentlicher, Diane, 11 Nunca Más report (CONADEP, 1984) Oriental Revolutionary Armed Forces, conclusions of, 54 Uruguay, 240n4 foreword to, 105–106, 218 Orrico, Jorge, 159 new foreword to, Kirchner Osiel, Mark, 2 administration and, 126–127, Osta, Gustavo, 209 220–221 Núñez, Nicolás, 206, 207 pacification and reconciliation narrative El Olimpo detention center, in Argentina, 94–96 Argentina, 5, 6, 75, 78, 103 in debate on Due Obedience Olivera, Ruben, 247n100 law, 114 Olsen, Tricia, 12 in Uruguay, 176–178 Operación Cóndor (Operation in debates on interpretative law, 200 Condor), 38, 41, 68, 221, 228 in debates on State Punitive Operación Dignidad (1987), Capacity bill, 208–209 Argentina, 58 in Ley de Caducidad derogation Operación Independencia (1975), debates, 210, 250n58 Argentina, 33–34 Ley de Caducidad enactment Operación Zanahoria case (1997), debates and, 190, 191, 193, 196 Uruguay, 144, 145 military on military amnesties opposition moments (critical and, 188 junctures) in 1980s and 1990s, 166 Index 307

referendum on Ley de Caducidad peace agreements, international and, 197 human rights organizations repudiation of, 199 and, 27 Pacto del Club Naval (1984), Uruguay, Peace and Justice Service, 100–101 47, 133–134, 190, 196 Peace Commission (Comisión para la pacts, negotiated, as political moment Paz), Uruguay, 146, 177, 178 and critical juncture, 24–25 peace-building, transitional justice Palermo, Vicente, 71–72 and, 10 Papel Prensa case, Argentina, 74 Perceval, María Cristina, 123 Paraguay, Uruguayan disappearances Pereyra, Aníbal, 201 in, 146 Pereyra, Carlos Julio, 195 Pardon Decree 1002/89, Argentina, 61 Pérez Esquivel, Adolfo, 108 pardons Perón, Isabel, 33–34, 35 in Argentina Perón, Juan Domingo, 32, 33 in late 1980s and early 1990s, 50, Peronism (Justicialismo), in 59–60 Argentina, 32 reconciliation and, 118–119, 128 physical evidence. See also evidentiary balancing justice demands moments with impunity requests by as critical junctures changing power perpetrators using, 12–13 balances, 26 memory narratives and justification Piñeyrúa, Ana Lía, 203–204 for, 21–22 Pinochet, Augusto rejected by human rights activists arrest of, 220 and victim groups, 100–101 human rights movement in Parenti, Pablo, 70 Uruguay and, 144 Parque de la Memoria, Buenos Aires, international warrants for, 68 76–77 plebiscite (1988) and, 225 Parque Hotel talks (1983), Uruguay, 46 regime under, trials against Partido por la Victoria del Pueblo members of, 13 (Party for the Victory of the Spain’s case against, 129 People), Uruguay, 41, 153, 159 steps down as military Pascarelli, Hugo, 86 commander, 226 Pasquet, Ope, 203, 208, 209 Plaza de Mayo. See also Abuelas de Passada, Ivonne, 207 Plaza de Mayo; Asociación passive personality principle, by Madres de Plaza de Mayo; Italian, French, and Swedish Linea Fundadora Madres courts, 13 state terrorism narrative used in, 98 Paulik, Juan, 90 with white and black Paulos, Iván, 169 handkerchiefs, 93f Payne, Leigh, 12 plebiscite(s). See also referendum(s) in Payssé, Daniela, 202 Uruguay Paz Aguirre, Eduardo, 191, 193 in Chile (1988), as political paz de mentiras (peace of lies), moment, 225 Uruguay, 144 in Uruguay 308 Index plebiscite(s)—Continued second phase of transitional on Ley de Caducidad, Uruguay justice and, 132, 147, 165–166, (2009), 6, 151–153, 200 185, 212–213 national (1980), on draft shift toward accountability and, Constitution, 45 199–200 Plenario Intersindical de political parties Trabajadores-Convención in Argentina Nacional Trabajadores end of dictatorship and, 44 (PIT-CNT), Uruguay, 46, on Menem’s pardons, 118 151, 158–159, 182 opposition to Due Obedience law Poblete, Claudia, 66–67, 73 by, 113 Poblete, José, 66 left-wing, banned by military police governments, 37 increased personnel for, 39 in Uruguay in Uruguay, prosecutions for end of dictatorship and, 45 disappearances in Argentina first critical juncture and, 186 and, 148–149 left-wing, disappearances among Police Intelligence Department, members of, 42 Córdoba, Argentina, 78 political prisoners, in Uruguay, Club political constructions, memory as, Naval pact on, 134 18–19 Popular Revolutionary Organisation political critical junctures. See political 33, Uruguay, 240n4 moments (critical junctures) Porras Larralde, Elías, 193 political leaders post-transitional justice, memory in Argentina narratives and, 4 justice and impunity narratives power balances, political critical used by, 102–103 junctures and, 24–25 state terrorism narrative used Pozo de Banfield clandestine by, 99 detention center, Argentina, Uruguay, detention of members 41, 66 of, 39 Pozo de Quilmes clandestine center, political moments (critical junctures) Argentina, 41 in Argentina pregnant women, among Argentine during the 1980s, 50, 56, 83 disappeared, 40 end of dictatorship as, 103–104, Prieto, Baltasar, 195 128, 217–218 private memories, acceptability of Kirchner election of 2003 as, claims of, 17 69–70 Process of National Reorganization shift toward renewed justice for (Proceso), Argentina, 36, 56 past crimes and, 119, 128–129 Prompt Security Measures (MPS), changing power balances, 3, 24–25, Uruguay, 34, 35 220–221 prosecutions. See also trials in Chile, 225 as preference, for transitional justice in Uruguay in the 1980s, 11 Index 309 prosecutors, human rights training in reaction phase(s) Uruguay for, 161 as aftermath of critical junctures, public memories. See also memory; 28–29 memory narratives in Argentina acceptability of claims of, 17 after CONADEP and trials of public opinion military commanders, 56 in Argentina on government after confessions by some policies, 72 military, 63 in Argentina on Kirchner’s debate on nullifying impunity priorities, 121 laws and, 121 in Uruguay, on Scilingo’s in mid- and late 1990s, 69, 119 confession, 143 military opposition to prosecutions in Uruguay on Ley de Caducidad for atrocities and, 50 and past atrocities, 199 military rebellions and, 128 publications, on Uruguay’s reconciliation narratives in 1990s dictatorship, 164–165 and, 128, 219 Pugliese, Juan Carlos, 114 in Chile, 226 Puig, Luis, 182, 202, 205 and critical junctures, TJ policy Punta Carretas prison, 6 modifications and, 217 Punta de Rieles military prison, in Uruguay Uruguay, 43 civil society and, 132 Puthod, Juan Evaristo, 76 during late 1980s and 1990s, 142–143, 147 Quinteros, Elena to Ley de Caducidad, 138–140, first trial for crimes against, 196–198 166, 213 transitional justice since 2005 homicide sentence in case of, 161 and, 165–167, 212–213 investigation on disappearance Recarey, Alejandro, 246n50 of, 141 reconciliation mechanism, Acholi recurso de amparo on information (Luo), in Uganda, 12 about, 145 reconciliation narrative. See also transfers of judges hearing case of, pacification and reconciliation 246n50 narrative Quiroz, Elsa, 126 in Argentina, 94–96 Alfonsín’s use of, 105, 128 Rabanaque, Raúl, 112, 116 in debate on derogation of Rabossi, Eduardo, 52 impunity laws, 119 Radical Party, Argentina, 108–109 in debate on Due Obedience radio. See also media law, 114 military rule and, 36–37 in debate on Full Stop law, 112 Radío, Daniel, 206, 209 in debate on nullifying impunity Raimundi, Carlos, 125 laws, 121–122 ratonera (death trap), Argentine task for Due Obedience law, 113 forces and, 40 for Full Stop law, 108–110 310 Index reconciliation narrative—Continued policies on, 132 Menem’s use of, 128 state terrorism narrative and, validating Menem’s pardons, 118 181–182 in Uruguay two demons narrative on, 175–176 Ley de Caducidad as, 218–219 Vázquez administration and, 150, in 1980s and 1990s, 166 247nn75–76 referendum on Ley de Caducidad Rettig Commission, Chile, 226 and, 197–198 Revista Militar, article justifying “dirty replaced by state terrorism and war” in, 86 justice narratives, 199, 213 Revolutionary Communist Party, Recovery of Historical Memory Uruguay, 42. See also Project, report publication, Communist Party, Uruguay Bishop Gerardi’s murder in Reyes, Alberto, 144, 145 Guatemala and, 25 Rico, Aldo, 58, 113 recurso de amparo, 145, 246n49 Ríos, Gilberto, 195 referendum(s) in Uruguay. See also Ríos Ereñú, Héctor, 92, 94–95, 108 plebiscite(s) Riquelo, Sara, 1, 215 on Ley de Caducidad, 131, Riquelo, Simón 138–140 identification of, 180, 212 aftermath of, 140–143, kidnapped and illegally adopted, 1, 197–198 143, 245n36 popular will expressed in, 200 recuperation of, 144, 160, 215, 220 rules for, 138 Rivas, Jorge, 125 regime collapse. See also Argentina, Riveros, Santiago, 67, 73 peculiar collapse of military Robin Hood phase, of Tupamaros, regime in 239n4 as political moment and critical Rodrigues Curió, Sebastião, 227 juncture, 24, 239n2 Rodríguez, Hugo, 142 Regional Federal Tribunal, Brasilia, Rodríguez, Matilde, 138 Brazil, 227 Rodríguez, Roger, 1 Reiter, Andrew, 12 Rodríguez, Universindo, 157 reparations Rodríguez Camusso, Francisco, 191, 192 in Argentina Rodriguez Saá, Alberto, 109 for Argentines forced into exile, Roman Catholic Church, role in 242n57 producing and supporting economic, 61–62 dictatorship, 229 under Kirchner, 71 Rome. See Italy policies on, 49, 68, 216 Romero, Humberto, 118 balancing justice demands Romero, Juan Carlos, 111 with impunity requests by Rosales, Jorge, 172 perpetrators using, 14–15 Rosencof, Mauricio, 165 in Chile, 226 Roslik, Vladimir, 157 collective, definition of, 15 Rovira, Nelson Lorenzo, 195 in Uruguay Rubeo, Luis, 110 Index 311

Rubio, Enrique, 202 rules out Argentine-style trials, 136 Ruffo, Eduardo, 74 second presidency of, 143 The Rule of Law and Transitional signs Ley de Caducidad into law Justice in Conflict and (1986), 137 Post-conflict Societies (UN transition in Uruguay and, 46–47 Secretary General report), two demons narrative used by, 10–11 174–175, 187–188, 196–197, Rumbo, Uruguayan band, 247n100 218–219 Rwanda, gacaca courts of communal on voluntad popular and Ley de justice, 12 Caducidad, 204 Sanguinetti act (1988), archiving Sabato, Ernesto, 31 human rights cases, 157 Sabato, Jorge, 52 Santa Marina, Edén Melo, 195 Saint Jean, Alfredo, 38 Santana, Nelson, 158 salida pactada (negotiated exit), Saramago, José, 144 Uruguay, 132–134. See also Saravia, Jorge, 156, 204 Pacto del Club Naval(1984), Sarney, José, 227 Uruguay satisfaction, symbolic reparations Salim, Luis, 111 and, 15 Sampallo, María Eugenia (kidnapped Scilingo, Adolfo as child), 74 confession on death flights by, Samurai phase, of Tupamaros, 239n4 62–63, 69, 83, 128–129, 220 Sander, Richard, 208 excesses of war narrative explaining Sanguinetti, Julio María confession by, 90 on Club Naval pact provisions, sentencing of, 242n71 133–134 Uruguayan public opinion on disqualifying investigative confession by, 143, 160, commission’s findings, 1353 165–166, 212 election of, 165, 186 on war against terrorism, 87 excesses of war narrative used by, second-wave justice, immediate 172, 173, 187–188 transitional justice compared Gelman’s lobbying on missing to, 4 relatives to, 144 Seineldín, Mohamed Alí, 58, 61 on Ley de Caducidad and selective memory. See also memory; amnesties, 212 memory narratives opposition to accountability by, 145 forgetting and, 18 pacification and reconciliation self-amnesties. See also amnesties narrative used by, 176, 178, 198 in Argentina, nullification of, 53 Peace Commission and Batlle and, self-judgment (self-purification), of 146–147 Argentine military through peaceful change policy under, prosecutions, 52, 53 134–135 Semproni, Víctor, 156, 204 post-referendum statement on Sendic, Raúl, 239n4 Uruguay’s future by, 140–141 sensory disorientation, as torture, 43 312 Index

Seregni, Líber, 46, 135 Época, state terrorism narrative Servicio Paz y Justicia (Peace and symbols in Argentina, 99 Justice Service, SERPAJ), on Uruguayan plebiscite on Ley de Uruguay Caducidad, 153 on complying with Gelman Spain verdict, 159 Argentine criminal cases tried in, establishment of, 245n23 67, 129 justice and impunity narratives used universal jurisdiction claims by by, 183 courts of, 13 on Ley de Caducidad, 134 standing for long periods (plantón), as report on atrocities (1972–1985), torture, 43 139–140 state sexual abuse, as torture, 43 obligation to account for past Sí rosado campaign, Uruguay, crimes by, 27 151–153, 152f privileged role in remembrance of, Sigue siendo injusta campaign, 21–22 Uruguay, 154f, 155 State of Internal War declaration Sikkink, Kathryn, 49 (1972), Uruguay, 187 silence. See also marchas del silencio State Punitive Capacity bill (2011), in Argentina, 215 Uruguay, 205. See also laws, blood pact of, among grupos de Uruguayan, Law 18.831 tareas, 39–40, 62–63 state terrorism narrative of majority on state terrorism, in Argentina, 96–99 81–82, 97–98 Alfonsín’s use of, 105 mantle of, in Nunca Más report as challenge to Due Obedience (1984), 106 law, 116–117 in Chile under Pinochet civil society of late 1980s and dictatorship, 226 early 1990s and, 128 in Uruguay, 215 in debate on Full Stop law, 111–112 on military dictatorship, 163–164 in debate on nullifying impunity Sanguinetti’s endorsement of, 219 laws in Argentina, 121, surrounding disappeared, 134 123–124 Silveria, Jorge, 203 Due Obedience law as partial Simón. See Riquelo, Simón endorsement of, 117 Simón, Julio, 63, 73, 87 in Full Stop law, article 5, Singer, Juan, 193 112–113 social construction, memory as, 18–19 Nunca Más report reedition on, social movements. See civil society; 127, 220–221 human rights activists and prosecutions for atrocities organizations committed and, 228 Socialist Party, Uruguay, 156, 159 in Uruguay Solari Yrigoyen, Hipólito, 114 in debates on interpretative law, songs, popular 200, 201–202 about Uruguayan disappeared, 143, in debates on State Punitive 245n36, 247n100 Capacity bill, 207–208 Index 313

Ley de Caducidad enactment Supreme Court of Justice, Argentina, debates and, 191–192, 194 59, 67, 71, 73, 154 overview of, 178–182 Supreme Court of Justice, Uruguay in provisions of Law 18.831, on enforced disappearance 210–211 category, 158 replacing reconciliation and on jurisdiction of civilian demons narratives, 199, 213 judiciary, 136 replacing war, excesses, and justices replaced by military demons narratives, 229 government, 37 Vázquez’s use of, 221 on unconstitutional articles of Ley Stern, Steve J., 20–21 de Caducidad, 154 –155 Stolkiner, Jorge, 117 victims appeal unconstitutionality Strassera, Julio, 54–55, 72 of Ley de Caducidad to, 139 strategic considerations, façade of Supreme Military Tribunal, transition and, 25 Uruguay, 136 Stroessner, Alfredo, 68 Sweden students and student groups Argentine criminal cases tried in, 67 as Argentine disappeared, 40 passive personality principle used by as disappeared, 37, 42 courts of, 13 in Uruguay Switzerland, Argentine criminal cases on complying with Gelman tried in, 67 verdict, 159 opposition to dictatorship by, 46 La Tablada compound, Uruguay, referendum on Ley de Caducidad excavations at, 149, 181 and, 151 La Tablada infantry base, Buenos truth and justice agenda of, 223 Aires, 59 war narrative due to organizing Tarigo, Enrique, 191, 192 actions by, 169 task forces (grupos de tareas), Argentine, Suárez Mason, Carlos Guillermo, 60, 39–40, 62–63, 242n71 67, 75 television. See also media submarino (water-boarding), 43 military rule and, 36–37 subversives. See also Communist plebiscite (2009) on Ley de Party, Uruguay; Marxist Caducidad and, 153 subversives Tellechea, Ana Maria, 154 Argentina’s Final Document on the Terra, Gabriel, 34 Struggle against Terrorism terror, policies on. See also torture; and, 89, 94, 97 violence Argentine narratives to explain, in Argentina 85–86, 88–89 silent majority on, 81–82 neutralization and eradication trials of military commanders policies for, 38 and, 55 Uruguayan narratives to explain, 168 implementation of, 37–38 Supreme Council of the Armed textbooks, censorship of, 37 Forces (SCAAFF), Argentina, three degrees of responsibility in 53, 54, 107 Argentina, 52–53, 113 314 Index

300 Carlos detention center, Uruguay, referendum on Ley de Caducidad 159, 224 and, 139, 151 Through the Looking Glass (Carroll), truth and justice agenda of, 223 16–17 war narrative due to organizing Timerman, Jacobo, 37 actions by, 169 TJ. See transitional justice traditional communal justice Todos y Todas contra la Impunidad practices, examples of, 12 (Everyone against “transfer” (traslado), in Argentina, Impunity), 153 40–41 Toledo Antúnez, Hermes, 206 transformation transitions, as political tort law, reparations and, 14 moment and critical juncture, torture. See also terror, policies on 24, 239n2 in Argentina, 39 Transitional Justice Review, 10 Alfonsín’s legal approach to transitional justice (TJ). See also prosecution of, 52–53 critical junctures; memory human rights violations and trials narratives for, 74 advocates of change and critical as inevitable excesses of war, junctures of, 228 military on, 89–90 amnesties and, 12–13 techniques used for, 43 definition of, 10–11 in Uruguay, 39 as field of policymaking and under Bordaberry, 35 academic discipline, 10–12 fractures of memory about, 164 historical difficulties in confronting, 2 military investigations on, mechanisms pioneered by 149–150 Argentina, 49 Peace Commission on, 146 memory narratives, critical junctures prosecutions for, 149 and policy under, 27–29 refocus on, 159–160 memory narratives and, 21–23 Tota (María del Carmen Almeida de memory studies and, 15–19 Quinteros), 145 phases in Argentina and Uruguay, Tourné, Daisy, 202–203 221, 222f, 223 Tourné, Uruguay, 192, 196 relevant actors in, 223–225 trade unions. See also workers reparations and, 14–15 activities of, prohibited by military trials and, 13 governments, 37 truth commission and, 14 in Argentina, opposition to Due transnational human rights Obedience law by, 113 activists’ networks. See in Uruguay human rights activists and detention of members of, 39, 42 organizations draft Constitution of early 1980s Trelew Massacre (1972), Argentina, 33 on, 45 trial and punishment (juicio y castigo), first critical juncture and, 186 justice narrative and, 100 opposition to dictatorship trials. See also foreign trials; by, 46 international trials Index 315

in Argentina truth trials, in Argentina, 64, 68, 83, criminal, two phases of, 49 129, 216, 219 Due Obedience laws and, 58–59 truth vs. justice dilemma, for first reaction phase and, 56 transitional justice, 11 Full Stop law and, 57 Tupamaros (National Liberation of guerrilla leaders, 105 Movement-Tupamaros), for human rights violations, Uruguay 73–76, 83, 216 detention of members of, 39 of military commanders, 54–56, disappearances of members of, 105, 106–107 42, 43 on right to truth, 64 history and tactics of, 239–240n4 shift in memory narratives MPP and, 247n96 and, 128 testimonial publications by, for state terrorism and antistate 164–165 political violence, 52–53 trial on murders of members of, truth trials, 64, 68, 83, 129, 154 –155 216, 219 two demons narrative used by, 174 balancing justice demands as urban guerrillas, 34–35 with impunity requests by war narrative used by, 167–168, 170 perpetrators using, 13 Tutu, Desmond, 14 in Chile, 226, 251nn3–4 Tutzó, Carlos, 207 collective memory and, 23 TV channels. See television transitional justice in 1980s two demons narrative through, 11 in Argentina in Uruguay Alfonsín as principal articulator acceptance of reparations and loss of, 105–107 of right to, 247n76 Alfonsín on Full Stop law and, in late 2000s, 199 107–108 progress in 2012 with, 160 civil society of late 1980s and victim groups amassing evidence early 1990s and, 128 for, 25–26 in debate on derogation of Trilce (publisher), 164 impunity laws, 119, 120 Tróccoli, Jorge, 169, 175 in debate on Full Stop law, truth cascade, as fashionable during 110, 111 transitions, 14 in debate on nullifying impunity truth commissions. See also laws, 122 CONADEP truth in Full Stop law, 112 commission, Argentina Menem’s pardons as in Argentina, 49 ‘reconciliation’ and, 128 in Brazil, 228 Nunca Más report on, 105–106, collective memory and, 22–23 126–127, 221 human rights violations and, 14 overview of, 91–93, 93f in Uruguay, second phase of prosecutions for atrocities transitional justice and, 165–166 committed and, 228 316 Index two demons narrative—Continued International Criminal Tribunal for in Uruguay Rwanda (ICTR), 13 in debates on interpretative International Criminal Tribunal law, 211 for the former Yugoslavia in debates on State Punitive (ICTY), 13 Capacity bill, 207, 208 universal jurisdiction, Spain and Ley de Caducidad enactment Belgian courts’ claims of, 13 debates and, 190, 193, University of London, Centre for the 195, 196 Study of Cultural Memory, 15 momentum for accountability University of Warwick, Centre for and, 229 Memory Studies, 15 in 1980s and 1990s, 166 Uruguay. See also critical junctures; overview of, 173–176 disappeared; memory narratives referendum on Ley de Caducidad Argentina’s relationship with, 132 and, 197 as case study of TJ and memory, 4 replaced by state terrorism and citizen perception and myths about, justice narratives, 199, 213, 221 163–164 repudiation of, 199 from democracy to dictatorship in, resistance to, 212–213 31, 34–35 Sanguinetti on military dictatorship as faceless junta in, 36 amnesties and, 187–188 essential role of human rights Sanguinetti’s use of, 218–219 activists in, 160–161 examining critical junctures for, 3–4 Ubal, Mauricio, 247n100 Executive Decree 323, 157 Uganda first critical juncture in, 185–189 reconciliation mechanism in, 12 Frente Amplio governments in, truth commission (1974) in, 14 148–151 Ulloa, Roberto, 110, 111, 115 Frente Amplio’s draft law to interpret Unidad Fiscal de Coordinación y Ley de Caducidad, 155–156 Seguimiento de las causas Gelman sentence and, 155 por violaciones a los Derechos government role in transitional Humanos, Argentina, 73 justice for, 223 Union Cívica (Civic Union) party, interpretative law for Ley de Uruguay, 46, 47, 190, 194 Caducidad and, 200–204 Union Cívica Radical (Radical Party, interweaving of memory and UCR), Argentina, 108–109 transitional justice in, 185–211 United Nations introduction to TJ in, 131–132 Commission for Historical irruption of the past in, 143–145 Clarification and, 25 judicial interpretations in, 157–158 Convention on the Rights of the legal action on investigation of Child, 66 disappearances in, 145 Human Rights Committee Ley de Caducidad in, 135–147, (UNHRC), 142, 154, 241n37 189–196 Inter-American Human Rights limited justice and enduring System and, 27 impunity in, 147–161 Index 317

military officers of, international Vegh Villegas, Alejandro, 37 warrants for, 68 Verbitsky, Horacio, 62–63 military regime ends in, 43 Verri, Walter, 201, 203 negotiated exit from dictatorship Vertiente Artiguista, Uruguay, 156, 159 to democracy in, 132–134, El Vesubio detention center, 185–189 Argentina, 75 Parliament of, on human rights, 179 Vicaria de la Solidaridad, Chile, 25 Peace Commission, 145–147 victim groups. See also afectados peaceful change in, 134–135 in Argentina provisions of Ley de Caducidad, opposition moments and, 219–220 137–138 opposition to reconciliation referendum aftermath in, 140–143, by, 129 198–200 state terrorism narrative used by, referendum on Ley de Caducidad 96–99 (1989), 138–140, 197–198 documents and testimony for repression in, 39 criminal proceedings and, restoration of state’s punitive 25–26 capacity, 158–160 in Uruguay, 143 second critical juncture in, 198–200 first critical juncture and, 186 tentative speculations on future in, justice and impunity narratives 228, 229 used by, 184 as transitional justice innovator, on Ley de Caducidad 216–217 unconstitutionality, 139 transitional justice phases, memory opposition moments and, narratives and critical 219–220 junctures in, 221, 222f, 223 on Peace Commission, 146 unconstitutionality of Ley de Videla, Jorge Caducidad, 153 –155 on antisubversive war, 87 war as memory narrative in, 167–170 child stealing charges against, 66 Uruguay: Nunca Más (SERPAJ report, dialogue with political leaders (early 1989), 139–140 1980s), 44 on human rights crimes as Vaillant, Víctor, 194 inevitable excesses of war, 89 Valech Commission, Chile, 226, international warrants for, 68 251n4 on Marxist terrorists, 88 Vanossi, Jorge, 113–114 Menem’s pardon of, 60 Vargas Aignasse, Guillermo, 88 pacification and reconciliation Vázquez, Juan Angel, 201, 209 narrative used by, 94 Vázquez, Tabaré on policies of terror, 38 excavations ordered by, 149 on Process of National human rights policy under, Reorganization in 147–148, 150–151, 213, 221 Argentina, 36 pacification and reconciliation refuting systematic human rights narrative used by, 178 abuses, 97 war narrative used by, 170 sentencing of, 74 318 Index

Videla, Jorge—Continued in Uruguay Spanish charges on genocide and in debates on interpretative law, terrorism against, 67 200–201, 211 on subversives, 85–86 in debates on State Punitive trial of, 54–55 Capacity bill, 207, 208 Villa Martelli uprising (1988), Buenos first critical juncture and shift in, Aires, 58 186–187 Viola, Roberto, 44, 54–55, 60 human rights crimes as excesses violence. See also murder; terror, in, 212 policies on; torture Ley de Caducidad enactment use of memory as political tool after, 2 debates and, 190, 193, 196 Virrey Cevallos detention center, 5 momentum for accountability voluntad popular (popular will), in and, 229 Uruguay, 200, 203–204, 208, in 1980s and 1990s, 166 209–210 overview of, 167–170 Von-Wernich, Christian, 74 pacification and reconciliation voting. See plebiscite(s); referendum(s) narrative and, 178 in Uruguay replaced by state terrorism and voto verde referendum, Uruguay. See justice narratives, 213 referendum(s) in Uruguay state terrorism narrative and, vuelos de la muerte (death flights) 178–179, 221 for Argentine disappeared, 41 water-boarding (submarino), 43 Parque de la Memoria and, 77 Whitelaw, William, 149 public opinion in Uruguay on, 143 Wilde, Alexander, 2 Scilingo’s confession on, 62–63, 69, witness intimidation, reopened 83, 128–129, 220 Argentine trials and, 76 witnessing torture, as form of Walsh, Patricia, 72, 121 torture, 43 war narratives. See also Falklands War women in Argentina as Argentine disappeared, 40 civil society of late 1980s and in Uruguayan prisons, 43 early 1990s and, 128 workers. See also trade unions in debate on derogation of as Argentine disappeared, 40 impunity laws, 119–120 in Uruguay, Prompt Security in debate on Due Obedience Measures used against strikes law, 115 by, 34 in debate on Full Stop law, 110 World War I in debate on nullifying impunity confronting human rights violations laws, 122 during, 2 overview of, 85–89 study of remembrance of, 15 prosecutions for atrocities World War II, study of remembrance committed and, 228 of, 15 shift to two demons narrative written evidence, as critical junctures from, 128, 218 changing power balances, 26 Index 319

Xavier, Mónica, 157 justice and impunity narratives used by, 183 yellow vote (voto amarillo), Uruguay, kidnapped and illegally adopted, 180 139, 140 popular song asking about, 143, Yoma, Jorge, 124 245n36 Yrigoyen, Hipólito, 32 seeking justice not revenge, 203 Yrigoyen, Solari, 116 Zamora, Luis, 124 Zaratiegui, Horacio, 92 Zaffaroni, Mariana Zerubavel, Yael, 20 grandmother of, Ley de Caducidad Zubiri, Balbino, 109, 114 opposition by, 138 Zumarán, Alberto, 192, 194