Handbook of Research on Student Engagement

Sandra L. Christenson • Amy L. Reschly Cathy Wylie Editors

Handbook of Research on Student Engagement Editors Sandra L. Christenson Amy L. Reschly Department of Educational Psychology Department of Educational Psychology University of Minnesota and Instructional Technology Minneapolis, MN, USA University of Georgia Athens, GA, USA Cathy Wylie New Zealand Council for Educational Research Wellington, New Zealand

ISBN 978-1-4614-2017-0 e-ISBN 978-1-4614-2018-7 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011944509

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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface

Who are engaged students? And why are students engaged? What are the antecedents and outcomes of engaged students and engaging contexts? How do engaging contexts (schools, families, peers) affect students and, in turn, student outcomes? What is the relationship between engagement, learning, achievement, and other long-term outcomes, such as high school completion and college attendance? What conditions foster reengagement of students who are no longer invested in learning or school? Questions such as these have captured the interest and curiosity of international researchers from a range of disciplines, including educational psychology, developmental psychology, public health, and teacher education for the past two decades. Active research on student engagement has occurred primarily in the past 25 years, advancing with an article in 1985 by Mosher and McGowan. There are questions and unresolved issues related to engagement, which this volume explores; however, there is also general consensus regarding a number of facets of engagement theory and research, such as: ¥ Student engagement is considered the primary theoretical model for understanding dropout and promoting school completion, defi ned as graduation from high school with suffi cient academic and social skills to partake in postsecondary educational options and/or the world of work (Christenson et al., 2008; Finn, 2006; Reschly & Christenson, 2006b). ¥ Engaged students do more than attend or perform academically; they also put forth effort, persist, self-regulate their behavior toward goals, chal- lenge themselves to exceed, and enjoy challenges and learning (Klem & Connell, 2004; National Research Council and the Institute of Medicine [NRC and IoM], 2004). ¥ Student engagement, irrespective of the specifi city of its defi nition, is gen- erally associated positively with desired academic, social, and emotional learning outcomes (Klem & Connell, 2004). ¥ Engagement is a multidimensional construct Ð one that requires an understanding of affective connections within the academic environment (e.g., positive adult-student and peer relationships) and active student behavior (e.g., attendance, participation, effort, prosocial behavior) (Appleton, Christenson, & Furlong, 2008; Newmann, Wehlage, & Lamborn, 1992). ¥ The role of context cannot be ignored. Engagement is not conceptualized as an attribute of the student but rather as an alterable state of being that is highly infl uenced by the capacity of school, family, and peers to provide

v vi Preface

consistent expectations and supports for learning (Reschly & Christenson, 2006a, 2006b). Engagement is an active image (Wylie, 2009) depicting effortful learning through interaction with the teacher and the classroom learning opportunities. In short, both the individual and context matter. ¥ Student engagement reinforces the notion that effective instruction explicitly considers and programs for the role of student motivation on learning outcomes (NRC and IoM, 2004; Russell, Ainley, & Frydenberg, 2005). ¥ The increase in student engagement measures with adequate psychometric properties has cemented the power and value of student engagement as a useful variable for data-driven decision-making efforts in schools (Appleton, Christenson, Kim, & Reschly, 2006; Betts, Appleton, Reschly, Christenson, & Huebner, 2010; Darr, 2009; Fredricks et al., 2011). ¥ There is an emerging intervention database that suggests evidence-based or promising strategies for educators to employ to enhance student engagement (Christenson et al., 2008). This volume seeks to address a number of the “unknowns” that character- ize theory and research on student engagement. These unknowns, or in some cases controversies in the fi eld, affect the advancement of research on student engagement and, consequently, our knowledge base for improving student learning outcomes. We offer the following: ¥ Some researchers consider student engagement a “metaconstruct” or an organizing framework Ð one that integrates such areas as belonging, behavioral participation, motivation, self-effi cacy, school connectedness, and so forth (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004), while others disagree, believing that engagement must have clearly defi ned boundaries (Finn & Kasza, 2009). ¥ Although researchers have reached consensus that student engagement is multidimensional, agreement on the multidimensionality differs from agreement on the number and types of engagement dimensions, which ranges from two to four. It may be that consensus only will be achieved with respect that student engagement is multidimensional, and, if so, researchers will need to defi ne clearly their conceptualization in each study. ¥ Other methodological considerations (e.g., selection of informants, validity of self-report, common agreement of items within dimensions, development of instruments with strong psychometric properties) must be addressed if the construct and application of student engagement to practice will be advanced. ¥ The relationship between and/or differentiation of engagement and motivation is subject to debate (Appleton et al., 2006, 2008). What is the relationship between these two constructs? Are motivation and engagement separate? Can one be motivated but not actively engaged in a task or goal accomplishment? Recently, there has been a proliferation of defi nitions of student engagement. Defi nitions of the terms of engagement, student engagement, school engagement, engagement in schoolwork, and academic engagement have Preface vii

been offered. These conceptualizations vary further along a number of other dimensions, such as participation, behavior, action, emotion, investment, motivation, and so on (see Appleton et al., 2008). Some studies have considered engagement as a process, while others conceptualize it as an outcome (Appleton et al., 2008; Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, & Kinderman, 2008). We contend that establishing construct validity for student engagement requires common agreement regarding what comprises the engagement construct Ð or what engagement is and what it is not. It demands an understanding of whether engagement is the outcome, a process to other desired outcomes, or plays a dual role. The constancy of the construct across researchers Ð in conceptualization and measurement Ð is a worthy endeavor, one with practical, scientifi c, and policy implications. To date, conceptual clarity and methodological rigor (e.g., use of psycho- metrically sound measures) have not been achieved; they are considered a prerequisite to advance the emerging construct of student engagement and its usefulness in interventions and school programs. A particular concern addressed in this volume is the apparent overlap and confusion of engagement with motivation-to-learn variables. We designed this handbook as a way to create a dialogue among engagement and motivational researchers. To do so, we invited authors to cover their research topic and to respond to the following questions: ¥ What is your defi nition of engagement and motivation? How do you dif- ferentiate the two? ¥ What overarching framework or theory do you use to study/explain engagement or motivation? ¥ What is the role of context in explaining engagement or motivation? ¥ Focusing on the emerging construct of student engagement, what are nec- essary advances in theory, research, and practice to propel this construct forward? The 34 chapters were placed into one of these 5 parts: (1) What Is Student Engagement? (2) Engagement as Linked to Motivational Variables, (3) Engagement and Contextual Infl uences, (4) Student Engagement: Determinants and Student Outcomes, and (5) Measurement Issues, Instruments, and Approaches. We also solicited an expert commentary for each of the above parts, for a total of 39 chapters. As coeditors, we are grateful to both the chapter and commentary authors. Engagement is thought to be especially important for apathetic and dis- couraged learners (Brophy, 2004) and those at high risk for dropping out, but the primary appeal of the engagement construct is that it is relevant for all students. The universal appeal of engagement is underscored by high school reform efforts that explicitly address students’ motivation to learn and engagement with school (NRC and IoM, 2004). Thus, student engagement underlies school reform Ð or what we seek to engender for all students through the school environment, teaching, and coursework. In addition, indicators of engagement may be used for screening and early detection of disengagement; these indicators provide links to intervention targets to reengage students at school and with learning. viii Preface

Establishing construct validity for student engagement is integral to its utility in classrooms and the value of future scientifi c studies. The authors in this volume provided defi nitions for student engagement, offered their perspective on engagement and motivation, underscored the role of contextual infl uences, and proposed a range of future research directions. It is our hope, as coeditors, that this comprehensive volume stimulates the quality of student engagement research and advances the fi eld. Let the dialogue begin.

Minneapolis, MN, USA Sandra L. Christenson Athens, GA, USA Amy L. Reschly Wellington, New Zealand Cathy Wylie

References

Appleton, J., Christenson, S. L., Kim, D., & Reschly, A. (2006). Measuring cognitive and psychological engagement: Validation of the Student Engagement Instrument. Journal of School Psychology , 44 , 427Ð445. Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008). Student engagement with school: Critical conceptual and methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the Schools , 45 , 369Ð386. Betts, J., Appleton, J. J., Reschly, A. L., Christenson, S. L., & Huebner, E. S. (2010). A study of the reliability and construct validity of the Student Engagement Instrument across multiple grades. School Psychology Quarterly, 25 , 84Ð93. Brophy, J. (2004). Motivating students to learn (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Christenson , S. L., Reschly, A. L., Appleton, J. J., Berman, S., Spanjers, D., & Varro, P. (2008). Best practices in fostering student engagement. In A. Thomas, & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology (5th ed.). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Darr, C. (2009). The me and my school survey. In J. Morton (Ed.), Engaging young people in learning: Why does it matter and what can we do?: Conference proceedings (pp. 85Ð100) . Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Finn, J. D. (2006). The adult lives of at-risk students: The roles of attainment and engagement in high school (NCES 2006Ð328). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Finn, J. D., & Kasza, K. A. (2009). Disengagement from School. In Engaging young people in learning: Why does it matter and what can we do? (pp. 4Ð35). Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Fredricks, J., McColskey, W., Meli, J., Mordica, J., Montrosse, B., & Mooney, K. (2011). Measuring student engagement in upper elementary through high school: A description of 21 instruments (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2011ÐNo. 098). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southeast. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74 , 59Ð109. Klem , A. M., & Connell, J. P. (2004). Relationships matter: Linking teacher support to student engagement and achievement. Journal of School Health, 74 (7), 262Ð273. Mosher, R., & McGowan, B. (1985). Assessing student engagement in secondary schools: Alternative conceptions, strategies of assessing, and instruments. University of Wisconsin, Research and Development Center (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 272812). National Research Council and the Institute of Medicine [NRC and IoM] (2004). Engaging schools: Fostering high school students’ motivation to learn. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Preface ix

Newmann, F. M., Wehlage, G. G., & Lamborn, S. D. (1992). The signiﬁ cance and sources of student engagement. In F. M. Newmann (Ed.), Student engagement and achievement in American secondary schools (pp. 11Ð39). New York: Teachers College Press. Reschly, A., & Christenson, S. L. (2006a). Prediction of dropout among students with mild disabilities: A case for the inclusion of student engagement variables. Remedial and Special Education , 27 , 276Ð292. Reschly, A., & Christenson, S. L. (2006b). Promoting school completion. In G. Bear, & K. Minke (Eds.), Children’s needs III: Understanding and addressing the developmental needs of children . Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Russell, V. J., Ainley, M., & Frydenberg, E. (2005). Schooling issues digest: Student motivation and engagement. Retrieved November 9, 2005, from http://www.dest.gov.au/ sectors/school education/publications resources/schooling issues digest/schooling issues digest motivation engagement.htm Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kinderman, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffec- tion in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology , 100 , 765Ð781. Wylie, C. (2009). Introduction. J. Morton (Ed.), Engaging young people in learning: Why does it matter and what can we do?: Conference proceedings (pp. 1Ð3). Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.

About the Editors

Sandra L. Christenson is the Birkmaier professor of Educational Leadership, professor of Educational Psychology, and faculty member in the School Psychology Program at the University of Minnesota. Her research focuses on interventions that enhance engagement at school and with learning for mar- ginalized students with and without disabilities. She is particularly interested in the identiﬁ cation of contextual factors that facilitate student engagement and increase the probability for student success in school and the identiﬁ cation of the effect of family-school partnership variables. Amy L. Reschly is an associate professor and training director in the School Psychology Program, Department of Educational Psychology & Instructional Technology, at the University of Georgia. Her areas of expertise include engagement and dropout prevention, working with families and schools to promote student success, and curriculum-based measurement (CBM) and problem solving. Cathy Wylie is a chief researcher with the New Zealand Council for Educational Research. She has led the longitudinal Competent Learners project since 1993. Her research interests include the interaction between experiences and student development and identifying policies that best support school capability to provide engaging and productive learning. Her research into policy includes the impact on schools and students of New Zealand national policies, including the shift to self-managed schools since 1989.

Contents

Part I What Is Student Engagement?

1 Jingle, Jangle, and Conceptual Haziness: Evolution and Future Directions of the Engagement Construct ...... 3 Amy L. Reschly and Sandra L. Christenson 2 Developmental Dynamics of Student Engagement, Coping, and Everyday Resilience ...... 21 Ellen A. Skinner and Jennifer R. Pitzer 3 Engagement Across Developmental Periods ...... 45 Duhita Mahatmya, Brenda J. Lohman, Jennifer L. Matjasko, and Amy Feldman Farb 4 Ethnicity and Student Engagement ...... 65 Gary E. Bingham and Lynn Okagaki 5 Student Engagement: What Is It? Why Does It Matter? ...... 97 Jeremy D. Finn and Kayla S. Zimmer 6 Part I Commentary: So What Is Student Engagement Anyway? ...... 133 Jacquelynne Eccles and Ming-Te Wang

Part II Engagement as Linked to Motivational Variables

7 A Self-determination Theory Perspective on Student Engagement ...... 149 Johnmarshall Reeve 8 Achievement Goal Theory, Conceptualization of Ability/Intelligence, and Classroom Climate ...... 173 Eric M. Anderman and Helen Patrick 9 School Identiﬁ cation ...... 193 Kristin E. Voelkl

xiii xiv Contents

10 Self-Efﬁ cacy as an Engaged Learner ...... 219 Dale H. Schunk and Carol A. Mullen 11 A Cyclical Self-Regulatory Account of Student Engagement: Theoretical Foundations and Applications ...... 237 Timothy J. Cleary and Barry J. Zimmerman 12 Academic Emotions and Student Engagement ...... 259 Reinhard Pekrun and Lisa Linnenbrink-Garcia 13 Students’ Interest and Engagement in Classroom Activities ...... 283 Mary Ainley 14 Part II Commentary: Motivation and Engagement: Conceptual, Operational, and Empirical Clarity...... 303 Andrew J. Martin

Part III Engagement and Contextual Inﬂ uences

15 Parental Inﬂ uences on Achievement Motivation and Student Engagement ...... 315 Janine Bempechat and David J. Shernoff 16 Families as Facilitators of Student Engagement: Toward a Home-School Partnership Model ...... 343 Jacquelyn N. Raftery, Wendy S. Grolnick, and Elizabeth S. Flamm 17 Teacher-Student Relationships and Engagement: Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Improving the Capacity of Classroom Interactions ...... 365 Robert C. Pianta, Bridget K. Hamre, and Joseph P. Allen 18 The Role of Peer Relationships in Student Academic and Extracurricular Engagement ...... 387 Jaana Juvonen, Guadalupe Espinoza, and Casey Knifsend 19 Understanding Student Engagement with a Contextual Model ...... 403 Shui-fong Lam, Bernard P.H. Wong, Hongfei Yang, and Yi Liu 20 Allowing Choice and Nurturing an Inner Compass: Educational Practices Supporting Students’ Need for Autonomy ...... 421 Avi Assor 21 The Engaging Nature of Teaching for Competency Development ...... 441 Rosemary Hipkins 22 Assessment as a Context for Student Engagement ...... 457 Sharon L. Nichols and Heather S. Dawson Contents xv

23 Part III Commentary: Socio-Cultural Contexts, Social Competence, and Engagement at School ...... 479 Kathryn Wentzel

Part IV Student Engagement: Determinants and Student Outcomes

24 The Relationship Between Engagement and High School Dropout ...... 491 Russell W. Rumberger and Susan Rotermund 25 High School Reform and Student Engagement ...... 515 Marcia H. Davis and James M. McPartland 26 The Power of Mindsets: Nurturing Engagement, Motivation, and Resilience in Students ...... 541 Robert Brooks, Suzanne Brooks, and Sam Goldstein 27 The Relations of Adolescent Student Engagement with Troubling and High-Risk Behaviors ...... 563 Amy-Jane Grifﬁ ths, Elena Lilles, Michael J. Furlong, and Jennifer Sidhwa 28 Trajectories and Patterns of Student Engagement: Evidence from a Longitudinal Study ...... 585 Cathy Wylie and Edith Hodgen 29 Instructional Contexts for Engagement and Achievement in Reading ...... 601 John T. Guthrie, Allan Wigﬁ eld, and Wei You 30 A Self-regulated Learning Perspective on Student Engagement ...... 635 Christopher A. Wolters and Daniel J. Taylor 31 Classroom Strategies to Enhance Academic Engaged Time ...... 653 Maribeth Gettinger and Martha J. Walter 32 Deep Engagement as a Complex System: Identity, Learning Power and Authentic Enquiry ...... 675 Ruth Deakin Crick 33 Part IV Commentary: Outcomes of Engagement and Engagement as an Outcome: Some Consensus, Divergences, and Unanswered Questions ...... 695 Michel Janosz

Part V Measurement Issues, Instruments, and Approaches

34 Measuring Student Engagement: The Development of a Scale for Formative Use...... 707 Charles W. Darr xvi Contents

35 Systems Consultation: Developing the Assessment-to-Intervention Link with the Student Engagement Instrument ...... 725 James J. Appleton 36 Finding the Humanity in the Data: Understanding, Measuring, and Strengthening Student Engagement ...... 743 Ethan Yazzie-Mintz and Kim McCormick 37 The Measurement of Student Engagement: A Comparative Analysis of Various Methods and Student Self-report Instruments ...... 763 Jennifer A. Fredricks and Wendy McColskey 38 Issues and Methods in the Measurement of Student Engagement: Advancing the Construct Through Statistical Modeling ...... 783 Joseph Betts 39 Part V Commentary: Possible New Directions in the Measurement of Student Engagement ...... 805 Karen M. Samuelsen

Epilogue ...... 813

Index ...... 819 Contributors

Mary Ainley is an associate professor in Psychological Sciences at the University of Melbourne, Australia. Her experience and research interests are in developmental and educational psychology. Most recently, these interests have been applied to investigating the experience of interest and exploring the psychological processes that are involved when students engage with (and disengage from) achievement tasks. This has resulted in the development of software for tracking students’ choices and affective responses as they are tackling specifi c reading and problem-solving tasks. The goal of this research is to understand how to support positive educational experiences for students of all ages. Joseph P. Allen is professor of psychology at the University of Virginia and director of the clinical psychology doctoral program in the Department of Psychology. His interests include adolescent and young adult social development and interventions to enhance behavioral and academic outcomes for adolescents. Eric M. Anderman is a professor in the School of Educational Policy and Leadership at the Ohio State University. His research examines academic motivation. His studies have focused specifi cally on school transitions, prevention of risky behaviors, and academic cheating. James J. Appleton is employed within the Research and Evaluation Offi ce of Gwinnett County Public Schools, GA (a district of around 160,000 students). His publications include the area of student engagement with school, a pathway for dropping out, and he presents and consults nationally on this topic. Dr. Appleton has research and evaluation experience in district advisement and graduation coach programs, school initiatives, accountability metrics, and nested data. He has work experience in research and consultation within large urban and small rural school districts. Dr. Appleton has also served as mentor and researcher within the Check & Connect school completion intervention. He has codeveloped the Student Engagement Instrument (SEI). Avi Assor is professor and former head of the Educational and School Psychology Program in Ben Gurion University, Israel. His research focuses on processes affecting children’s autonomous internalization of values and practices that affect students’ and teachers’ motivation. In addition, he is involved in the development and assessment of school reforms aimed at

xvii xviii Contributors enhancing students’ and teachers’ basic psychological needs, intrinsic motivation, and caring for others. He has published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Child Development, the Journal of Educational Psychology, the Journal of Personality, the Journal of Educational Administration , and Learning and Instruction . Janine Bempechat is an associate professor in the Department of Human Development at Wheelock College. Her research interests include the achievement motivation of low-income students, school and family inﬂ uences in achievement motivation, and ethnic and cultural inﬂ uences in the development of achievement beliefs. Joseph Betts is the director of research and principal research scientist at Riverside Publishing. He also serves as the senior research consultant for the Center for Cultural Diversity & Minority Education. Joe has participated in the development of computerized adaptive tests and worked as a practicing psychologist. In addition to student engagement, his research interests involve the applications of latent variable models to various educational research and assessment issues. The study of children’s early literacy and mathematics developmental trajectories has been an area of research for a number of years, and he has recently developed growth norms for use in progress monitoring in the areas of reading, mathematics, and early literacy. Gary E. Bingham is an assistant professor in the Department of Early Childhood Education in the College of Education at Georgia State University. He received his Ph.D. from Purdue University with an emphasis in early childhood education and child development. His research examines how children’s early experiences within multiple contexts (i.e., home environment and early childhood educational settings) impact their language, literacy, and social development. As a result of this focus, much of his research seeks to understand the connection of culture to family and educational processes, particularly in relation to the engagement and achievement patterns of ethni- cally and economically diverse children and youth. Robert Brooks is an assistant clinical professor of psychology at Harvard Medical School and former director of the Department of Psychology at McLean Hospital. He is the author or coauthor of 14 books and dozens of chapters and peer-reviewed articles. His interests pertain to topics of resilience, motivation, school climate, and the mindset and strategies of effective students, educators, and other professionals. Suzanne Brooks is a clinical and school psychologist. In addition to working as a school psychologist in the Weston, MA Public Schools, she also has a part-time private practice in which she sees children, adolescents, and families. She has a special interest in assessing and treating students with learning and behavior problems and collaborating with teachers to develop effective classroom interventions for these youngsters. Timothy J. Cleary is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Psychology and the training director of the School Psychology Program at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. His research interests include developing Contributors xix

alternative assessment tools targeting student motivation and self-regulation, developing and evaluating effi cacy of self-regulation interventions in math and science, and examining trends in school psychology and education. Ruth Deakin Crick is a reader in education at the Graduate School of Education in the University of Bristol and conjoint professor of education at the University of Newcastle in Australia. Her research interests include the theory and practice of learning power, pedagogies for deep engagement, systems learning and leadership, and approaches to engagement and social enterprise which integrate research, policy, practice, and enterprise. Charles W. Darr is a senior researcher at the New Zealand Council for Educational Research and manager of the Assessment Design and Reporting Team. Charles’ research interests include the measurement of student engagement, the development of assessment tools across the curriculum, and the application of computer technologies to administer assessments, and report and analyze assessment data. Marcia H. Davis is an associate research scientist at the Center for Social Organization of Schools, Johns Hopkins University. She holds a doctorate in educational psychology from the University of Maryland and a master’s degree in educational statistics. Her research interests include reading comprehension measurement, reading motivation, and school engagement as it relates to dropout prevention. Heather S. Dawson is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Educational Policy and Leadership at the Ohio State University. Her research interests include examining the relationship between education policy and teacher and student motivation. Dr. Jacquelynne Eccles (McKeachie/Pintrich Distinguished University professor of psychology at the University of Michigan) received her Ph.D. from UCLA in 1973. She was chair of the MacArthur Foundation Network on Successful Pathways through Middle Childhood, chair of the NAS Committee on After School Programs for Youth, and president of both the Society for Research on Adolescence and Division 35 of APA. She is currently editor of Developmental Psychology and is past editor of the Journal of Research on Adolescence. Her awards include the Spencer Foundation Fellowship for Outstanding Young Scholar in Educational Research, the Sarah Goddard Power Award for Outstanding Service from the University of Michigan, the APS Cattell Fellows Award for Outstanding Applied Work in Psychology, SPSSI’s Kurt Lewin Award for outstanding research, the Distinguished Career Awards from SRA and Division 15 APA, and the University of Michigan Faculty Recognition Award for Outstanding Scholarship. Her research ranges from gender-role socialization, teacher expectancies, and classroom infl uences on student motivation to social development in the family and school context. Guadalupe Espinoza is doctoral student in developmental psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles. Her research interests include examining how social contexts impact school functioning and peer relationships (e.g., xx Contributors bullying) within the school and online context, particularly among Latino adolescents. Amy Feldman Farb is an evaluation specialist with the Offi ce of Adolescent Health in the US Department of Health and Human Services. She manages federal evaluations of teen pregnancy prevention programs and development of performance measures and participates in an ongoing evidence review. Prior to this position, Dr. Farb was a research scientist with the US Department of Education, where she managed a contract conducting methodological investigations to advance the fi eld of education research and a technical peer review process for the Regional Educational Laboratory program. Jeremy D. Finn is professor of education (quantitative methods) at the State University of New York at Buffalo. His research interests include issues of educational equity that are affected by school policies and practices: class size reduction, educational risk and resilience, gender differences in behavior and performance, and student disengagement and dropping out. He has con- ducted a number of long-term studies of student attitudes and performance. Elizabeth S. Flamm is a doctoral student in the Clark University Clinical Psychology Program. Her research explores the social and environmental contexts that facilitate motivation, achievement, and well-being in children and adolescents. Jennifer A. Fredricks is an associate professor of Human Development at Connecticut College where she teaches courses in adolescence and child and family policy. Her research interests include school engagement, motivation, organized activity participation, youth sports, and adolescent development. Michael J. Furlong is a professor in the Counseling, Clinical, and School Psychology Department at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He is the director of the Center for School-Based Youth Development and the editor of the Journal of School Violence . Maribeth Gettinger is a professor in the School Psychology Program, Department of Educational Psychology, at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Her research focuses on classroom environments that support academic success and evidence-based practices to promote skill development among high-risk children. Sam Goldstein is an assistant clinical professor at the University of Utah School of Medicine. He is the clinical director of the Neurology, Learning and Behavior Center in Salt Lake City, Utah. Dr. Goldstein has authored 32 books and dozens of chapters and peer-reviewed research articles. He also serves as editor in chief of the Journal of Attention Disorders and coeditor in chief of Encyclopedia of Child Development . Amy-Jane Griffi ths is the assistant director at The Help Group’s residential treatment center for adolescents with social, emotional, and behavioral challenges. Her research interests include empirically supported interventions for children engaging in high-risk behaviors, system level change, and positive school adaptation. Contributors xxi

Wendy S. Grolnick is a professor of psychology in the Frances L. Hiatt School of Psychology at Clark University. Her research, which has been supported by NIMH, The William T. Grant Foundation, and the Spencer Foundation, has focused on the effects of home and school environments on children’s motivation as well as factors affecting the environments that par- ents and teachers create for their children. John T. Guthrie is the Jean Mullan Professor of Literacy Emeritus in the Department of Human Development at the University of Maryland. He currently directs an NICHD grant on adolescent motivation and achievement in reading, with an emphasis on ethnic variations. The project includes a reading intervention for all seventh-grade students in one school district. Bridget K. Hamre is associate director of the Center for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning at the University of Virginia. Her areas of expertise include large-scale assessment of teacher-student relationships and classroom processes that promote positive academic and social development for children and adolescents. Rosemary Hipkins is a chief researcher at the New Zealand Council for Educational Research. She is interested in educating for competencies and the challenges of transforming curriculum, teaching, and assessment practices to meet “twenty-fi rst century” learning needs. Her expertise is in high school education and science education. Edith Hodgen is the chief statistician at the New Zealand Council for Educational Research, undertaking the analysis for the longitudinal Competent Learners project and for a range of research and evaluation studies, with a focus on analyzing changes over time. Michel Janosz is director of the School Environment Research Group and professor at the School of Psychoeducation, University of Montreal. His research interests concern the etiologies and prevention of school dropout and violence and the specifi c role of school environments. His current work focuses upon (1) the effi cacy of school-level interventions and the effective- ness of large-scale government initiatives to improve school success in disadvantaged populations, (2) the relationship between school climate and practices and student adjustment, and (3) the bidirectional links between internalizing/externalizing problems and school adjustment. Jaana Juvonen is a professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles. She conducts research on school- based peer relationships and school adjustment. Much of her work focuses on bullying in middle schools. Casey Knifsend is a doctoral student in Developmental Psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles. Her research interests include examining social identity development through ascribed (e.g., ethnicity) and achieved (e.g., extracurricular activities) group memberships and, specifi cally, how multiple social identities contribute to adolescent adjustment and intergroup attitudes. xxii Contributors

Shui-fong Lam is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Hong Kong. She is the director of a professional training program for educational psychologists. Her research interests include achievement motivation, parenting, school engagement, instructional strategies, and school-based prevention programs. Elena Lilles is a doctoral candidate student at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Her research interests include early intervention with children ages 0Ð5 to promote academic readiness, social-emotional well-being, and school success. Lisa Linnenbrink-Garcia is an assistant professor of Developmental Psychology in the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, with a secondary appointment in Education, at Duke University. Her research focuses on the development of achievement motivation in school settings and the interplay among achievement motivation, emotions, and learning, especially in the domains of science and mathematics. Yi Liu is an associate researcher in the Urban Community and Mental Health Education Ofﬁ ce at the Yunnan Health Education Institute. She is also a social worker providing services to students and patients. Her research interests include student mental health education in impoverished minority areas, tobacco control, and quitting smoking. Brenda J. Lohman is the director of Graduate Education and an associate professor in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies at Iowa State University. Utilizing a multidisciplinary framework, her research interests focus on the successful academic, psychological, social, and sexual adjustment of adolescents, especially those from economically disadvantaged minority families and communities. Duhita Mahatmya is an assistant professor in the New Century College at George Mason University. Anchored in the ecological theory of human development and a positive youth development framework, her research emphasizes the multicontextual effects of the family, school, and neighborhood on adolescent engagement and well-being. Andrew J. Martin is a professorial research fellow in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney. His research interests include motivation, engagement, achievement, and quantitative research methods. Jennifer L. Matjasko is a an adjunct assistant professor at the University of Texas at Austin and a behavioral scientist in the Division of Violence Prevention at the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control located at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. She received her Ph.D. in Public Policy from the University of Chicago. Her research interests focus on the development of at-risk adolescents and the factors that promote their health and well-being. Her research emphasizes the use of ecological, life- course, and person-centered approaches in understanding the relationship between individual, family, school, and community factors and adolescent functioning in order to inform prevention, intervention, and policy efforts targeted toward at-risk youth. Contributors xxiii

Wendy McColskey is a program director with the SERVE Center at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her research interests include student engagement and motivation, formative and classroom assessment processes, and use of research and evaluation by educators. Kim McCormick is a doctoral student in the Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology at the Indiana University School of Education in Bloomington, Indiana. Her research interests include student engagement and gifted and talented education. James M. McPartland is research professor of sociology and codirector of the Center for Social Organization of Schools, Johns Hopkins University. His research specialties include high school reform and scale-up processes, effects of school formal and informal organization on student outcomes, and adolescent literacy innovations and impacts. Carol A. Mullen is professor and chair of the Department of Educational Leadership and Cultural Foundations at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her research interests include mentoring, leadership, and social justice in higher education and KÐ12 settings. Sharon L. Nichols is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Texas at San Antonio. Her research interests include the intended and unintended consequences of high-stakes testing accountability on teachers and teaching and the ways in which test-related practices connect to students’ motivational development. Lynn Okagaki is Dean of the College of Education and Human Development at the University of Delaware. Her research focuses on academic achievement as infl uenced by culture and family values. From 2002Ð2005, she served as the fi rst Deputy Director for Science in the U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences. In December 2005, she was appointed for a six-year term as Commissioner for Education Research at the Institute of Education Sciences. Prior to 2002, she held appointments at Purdue University, Yale University, and the University of Houston. Dr. Okagaki received her bachelor of science degree in applied behavioral sciences from the University of California Davis and her doctoral degree in developmental psychology from Cornell University. Helen Patrick is a professor in the Department of Educational Studies at Purdue University. Her research interests involve student motivation, including classroom processes and contexts that support motivation and engagement. Reinhard Pekrun holds the chair for Personality and Educational Psychology in the Department of Psychology at the University of Munich. His research interests pertain to achievement emotion and motivation, students’ personality development, and educational assessment and evaluation, including international large-scale assessments of student achievement. Robert C. Pianta is Novartis US Foundation professor of education and dean of the Curry School of Education at the University of Virginia. His interests xxiv Contributors include theory, assessment, and intervention focused on teacher-student interactions and relationships, as well as policies that support increased attention to interactions in the classroom. Jennifer R. Pitzer is a graduate student in the Department of Psychology at Portland State University. Her research interests include the infl uence of teacher support (e.g., warmth, structure, and autonomy support) on student reengagement, everyday resilience, and coping. Jacquelyn N. Raftery is a graduate student in the Department of Psychology at Clark University. Her research interests include the development of coping with a special focus on how social contexts facilitate more adaptive coping. Johnmarshall Reeve is a WCU (World Class University) professor in the Department of Education at Korea University in Seoul, Korea. Professor Reeve’s research interests center on the empirical study of all aspects of human motivation and emotion, though he particularly emphasizes student motivation, student engagement, and teachers’ motivating styles toward students. Susan Rotermund is a research associate at MPR Associates in Berkeley, CA. Her research interests include student engagement, school climate, and how these factors can be altered to reduce dropouts. She uses a variety of quantitative methodologies for her research, including factor analysis, struc- tural equation modeling, and latent class analysis. Russell W. Rumberger is the vice provost for Education Partnerships, University of California Offi ce of the President, and professor of Education in the Gevirtz Graduate School of Education at UC Santa Barbara. His research interests include education and work; the schooling of disadvantaged students, particularly school dropouts and linguistic minority students; school effective- ness; and education policy. He recently completed a book on high school dropouts published by Harvard University Press in 2011. Karen M. Samuelsen is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology at the University of Georgia. She holds a doctorate in measurement, statistics, and evaluation from the University of Maryland. Dr. Samuelsen currently teaches graduate courses in measurement and statistics and serves as the director on a federally funded research project examining the effi cacy of a conversational pedagogy for English language learners. Her research interests are in the fi elds of dif- ferential item functioning, latent mixture models, and validity. Before getting her Ph.D., Dr. Samuelsen was a high school science teacher with a certifi cation in physics. Dale H. Schunk is dean in the School of Education and professor of Teacher Education and Higher Education at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. His research interests include social cognitive learning, motivation, and self-regulation. David J. Shernoff is an associate professor in the Department of Leadership, Educational Psychology, and Foundations at Northern Illinois University. His Contributors xxv

research interests include the motivation and engagement of adolescents in school and after-school contexts, mentoring, early career development, and positive psychology. Jennifer Sidhwa is a graduate student in the Educational Leadership and Organizations program at the Gevirtz Graduate School of Education, University of California, Santa Barbara. Her research interests focus on factors that promote positive organizational climate. Ellen A. Skinner is a professor of developmental science and education in the Department of Psychology at Portland State University. Her research focuses on the dynamics of motivational development and resilience during childhood and adolescence and examines how school contexts and students’ self-system processes shape the development of constructive engagement, coping, and (eventually) the emergence of a sense of purpose and ownership for one’s own progress in school and beyond. In the last several years, she has become very interested in the development of teacher engagement and coping. Daniel J. Taylor is a doctoral student in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Houston. His research interests include student motivation and academic achievement. His most recent empirical work examines motivational factors involved in the effects of stereotype threat in college populations. Kristin E. Voelkl is an associate professor in the Department of Adolescence Education at Canisius College in Buffalo, New York. Her research interests include students’ attitudes toward school and adolescent misbehavior including school-related substance use, academic dishonesty, and aggression in school. She continues to research engagement in school as it relates to other forms of risky and health-related behavior. Martha J. Walter is a graduate student in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Her current research interests include response to intervention, universal screening, and the social and emotional development of preschool children. Ming-Te Wang is a research scientist in the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan and assistant professor of Applied Developmental Psychology at the University of Pittsburgh. He received his doctoral degree in Human Development and Psychology from Harvard University. His research has focused on the impact of school/classroom climate on adolescents’ motivational beliefs and engagement and the effects of multiple ecological systems on the behavioral, social, and emotional development of youth from diverse socioeco- nomic and cultural backgrounds. His work emphasizes the interplay of developmental processes across both academic and social domains in adolescence and situates these processes within family, school, and community contexts. Kathryn Wentzel is a professor in the Department of Human Development at the University of Maryland, College Park. Her research interests focus on par- ents, peers, and teachers as motivators of adolescents’ classroom behavior and xxvi Contributors academic accomplishments. She has published over 100 articles and book chapters based on this work and has coedited books on achievement motivation. She is currently coeditor of the Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology . Dr. Wentzel is past vice president of Division E (Counseling and Human Development, AERA) and a fellow of the American Psychological Association, Division 15, and of the American Educational Research Association. Allan Wigﬁ eld is professor and chair of the Department of Human Development at the University of Maryland. His research interests include the development and socialization of children’s achievement motivation in different areas, and the effects of different kinds of reading comprehension instructional practice on children’s reading motivation and achievement. Christopher A. Wolters received his Ph.D. in Education and Psychology (1996) from the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. He is now a professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Houston. He teaches master’s- and doctoral-level courses that focus on theories of learning, motivation, and self-regulated learning. His research interests focus on the interface of motivational, cognitive, and metacognitive processes and their relation to students’ learning and achievement, especially during adolescence. Bernard P.H. Wong is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Psychology at the University of Hong Kong. His research interests include student engagement and disengagement in school, social-cognitive and identity development during adolescence, school-based intervention, and program evaluation. Hongfei Yang is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences at the University of Zhejiang. He is a graduate advisor of counseling psychology. His research interests include counseling outcome assessment, perfectionism, mental health education, Chinese culture, and mental health. Ethan Yazzie-Mintz was director of the High School Survey of Student Engagement and assistant research scientist at Indiana University from 2005 through 2011. Prior to coming to Indiana University, he worked in a number of large urban school districts Ð including Boston and New York Ð as a leadership trainer, data analysis consultant, and curriculum consultant. His research centers on student engagement, educational leadership and policy, and arts (speciﬁ cally drama) and education. Dr. Yazzie-Mintz is coeditor of The Complex World of Teaching: Perspectives from Theory and Practice and is currently director of the First Light Education Project and an independent consultant based in Denver, Colorado. Wei You is a doctoral student in the Department of Curriculum & Instruction at the University of Maryland. Her research interests include reading motivation and achievement, the interplay between reading engagement and reading comprehension, and measurement issues in reading research. Kayla S. Zimmer is a lecturer in Elementary Education at St. Bonaventure University and a doctoral candidate at the State University of New York at Contributors xxvii

Buffalo. Her research interests include student-generated questions and how preservice teachers can be prepared to create the supportive environment that facilitates question generation and engagement. Barry J. Zimmerman is a distinguished professor of Educational Psychology and head of Learning, Development, and Instruction area at the Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York. He has devoted his career to investigating social cognitive and self-regulatory processes of children and youth in diverse areas of academic functioning, such as mathematics, writing, and science, as well as in sport and health functioning.