Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin

Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned fromLandscape-Scale ConservationintheCongoBasin:LessonsLearned CentralAfricanRegionalProgram fortheEnvironment Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin Lessons Learned from the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) Edited by David Yanggen, Kenneth Angu and Nicodème Tchamou (CARPE)

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Citation: Yanggen, D., Angu, K. and Tchamou, N. (Eds) (2010). Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned from the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. xiv + 262pp.

ISBN: 978-2-8317-1288-8

Photos: Cover photo: © Nick Nichols; Page 2: © IUCN/Jim Thorsell; Page 40: © Flikr/Susan Renee; Page 76: © IUCN/Christian Laufenberg; Page 102: © IUCN/Intu Boedhihartono; Page 126: © IUCN/Christian Laufenberg; Page 162: © IUCN/Intu Boedhihartono; Page 196: © IUCN/Intu Boedhihartono; Page 220: © IUCN/Christian Laufenberg; Pages 255–257: © Nick Nichols; Page 258–259: © Fiona Maisels. All other photos as well as maps, charts and tables were created within the framework of the USAID sponsored overall CARPE Program; all of the contributors are CARPE Partners who have accepted to share their work and experience under CARPE Funds.

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The text of this book is printed on FSC-mixed paper. List of Authors

Agnagna, Marcelin Congo-Brazzaville Focal Point Manager, CARPE/IUCN Program

Akwa, George Consultant, WWF-World Wide Fund For Nature

Allogo, Constant Gabon Focal Point Manager, CARPE/IUCN

Altstatt, Alice Faculty Research Assistant, Department of Geography, University of Maryland

Angu, Kenneth Regional Program Manager for Central Africa, CARPE/IUCN

Beck, Jim Central Africa Program Specialist, USDA Forest Service International Programs

Bwebwe, Florence GIS Ofﬁ cer, African Wildlife Foundation (AWF)

Chendjou, Claude Coordinator, CERFI

Clark, Connie Research and Education Coordinator PROGEPP (Projet de Gestion des Écosystèmes Périphériques au Parc National Nouabalé-Ndoki, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS))

Curran, Bryan Congo Country Director, WCS

Davies, Diane Consultant, Trigg-Davies Consulting

Defo, Louis Collaborative Management Advisor, WWF

Degrande, Anne Senior Researcher, World Agro-Forestry Centre

De Marcken, Paya CBFP Landscapes Technical Manager, WWF

Dkamela, Guy Patrice Technical Assistant to the Cameroon Focal Point Manager, CARPE/IUCN

Dongmo, Zacharie Nzooh Jengi Program Scientiﬁ c Advisor, WWF

Doremus, Jacqueline Research Assistant, University of Michigan

Dupain, Jef Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Landscape Leader, AWF

Ellen, Brown Okapi Faunal Reserve Project Director, WCS

Elliott, Joanna Vice President for Program Design and Knowledge Management, AWF

Eyébé, Antoine Cameroon Focal Point Manager, CARPE/IUCN

Habiyambere, Thaddée Rwanda Focal Point Manager, CARPE/IUCN

Justice, Chris Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Maryland

v Kaddu, Sebunya Director of Program Technical Design, AWF

Lindquist, Erik Forestry Ofﬁ cer (Remote Sensing), FAO Global Forest Assessment and Reporting Team

Makambo, Emola Focal Point, Pact Congo

Maisels, Fiona Surveys and Monitoring Advisor; Conservation Scientist; Central African Region, WCS

Makana, Jean-Remy DRC Forestry Project Director, WCS

Mauvais, Geoffroy Regional Protected Area Coordinator for Central and West Africa, IUCN-PACO

Mehlman, Patrick Senior Director, Central Africa Program, Conservation International (CI)

Méthot, Pierre Senior Fellow, World Resources Institute (WRI)

Minlol, Adonis Coordinator, Voluntary Partnership Agreement, IUCN

Nackoney, Janet Researcher, PhD Candidate, University of Maryland

Ndikumagenge, Cléto Regional Forest Coordinator for Central and West Africa, IUCN-PACO

Ngniado, Alphonse Senior Forest Ofﬁ cer, WWF

Poulsen, John Director of PROGEPP, WCS

Osodu, Serge Democratic Republic of Congo Focal Point Manager, CARPE/IUCN

Rainey, Hugo Lac Télé-Lac Tumba Landscape Leader and Director, Lac Télé Community Reserve Project, WCS

Steel, Lisa Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape Leader, WWF

Steil, Matthew Associate, WRI

Tchamou, Nicodème Regional Coordinator for Central Africa, CARPE/USAID

Twagirashyaka, Felin Lac Télé-Lac Tumba Landscape Assistant Leader, WCS

Usongo, Leonard Sangha Tri-National Landscape Leader, WWF

Williams, David Director of Conservation Geography, AWF

Wong, Minnie Faculty Research Assistant, Department of Geography, University of Maryland

Yanggen, David Deputy Director, CARPE/USAID

Yoko, Alfred Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru, Assistant Landscape Leader, WWF vi Table of Contents

Introduction xiv Why lessons learned? xiv Structure of the CARPE lessons learned publication xiv

Section one: Land-use planning 1

Chapter 1 Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale: Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) 3

1. Introduction 3 1.1 Overview 3 1.2 Purpose of landscape planning 3 1.3 Landscape planning in the CARPE context 4 1.4 Governance and management authority 5

2 A review of the landscape land-use planning case studies 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Sangha Tri-National Landscape case study 5 2.2.1 Planning activities implemented 5 2.2.2 Lessons learned 6 2.3 Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Landscape case study 6 2.3.1 Planning activities implemented 6 2.3.2 Lessons learned 7 2.4 Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Landscape case study 7 2.4.1 Planning activities implemented 7 2.4.2 Lessons learned 8

3 Conclusions and recommendations 8 3.1 Lasting LUP requires signiﬁ cant investment of time and resources 8 3.2 Engage stakeholders early and often for successful LUP 9 3.3 Successful LUP requires certain basic capacities and therefore investments in technical capacity building are important 9 3.4 Effective LUP depends on functional and broadly supported governance and management structures 9 3.5 The Landscapes’ contexts (social, political, economic, biological, etc.) are dynamic and therefore the plans should be as well 9

Case Study 1 Lessons Learned from the Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Landscape 10

Case Study 2 Lessons Learned from the Sangha Tri-National Landscape 21

Case Study 3 Lessons Learned from the Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Landscape 30

vii Chapter 2 Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas: Examples and Lessons Learned 41

The CARPE approach to land-use planning of protected areas: an overview of three case studies 42 One philosophy, three contexts 42

First tangible outputs 43

Key lessons learned 44 Some local lessons … 44 …And some general lessons 45

Conclusion 46

Case Study 1 Okapi Faunal Reserve, Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape, Democratic Republic of Congo 48

Case Study 2 Lessons Learned in the Lobéké National Park, South-East Cameroon 53

Case Study 3 The Tayna Community-Managed Nature Reserve in Democratic Republic of Congo: A Grass-roots Approach to Conservation and Resource Management 61

Chapter 3 Forest Concession Land-Use Planning: Lessons Learned 77

1. Introduction 77

2. Development of forest management from the colonial period to the present 77 2.1 From mining management to sustainable management of forest 77 2.2 Progress made on certiﬁ cation 78

3. Major challenges in forest concession management 78 3.1 Forest concessions and land tenure 78 3.2 Challenges of biodiversity conservation in production forests: 10 commandments for managing wildlife 78 3.3 How to reconcile the landscape approach with the management of forest concessions? 79 3.4 Emerging issues 79 Importance of large plantations and their impact on forest concessions 79 Impact of the UN-REDD Programme on the management of forest concessions 80

4. Synthesis of main lessons learnt from on-going experiences 80 4.1 Experiences may vary but some common lessons can be learned 80 4.2 Act locally and think globally to inﬂ uence policies at national and regional levels 80 4.3 Promote the landscape approach and multi-actor partnerships 80 4.4 Acknowledge traditional land-use systems and the immediate interests of local communities 81 4.5 Increasing role of South-South dialogue and sharing between landscapes 81 4.6 Role of science and new tools and methods to monitor landscapes 81

5. Conclusions 81

Bibliography 82

viii Case Study 1 The Process of Gazettement and Management of Forest Concessions in the Cameroon Segment of the Sangha Tri-National Landscape 83

Case Study 2 ENRA Forest Concession Land-Use Planning in the Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape, Democratic Republic of Congo 91

Case Study 3 A Multi-Organizational Model of Land-Use Planning to Conserve Wildlife and Forest Resources in Forestry Concessions 96

Chapter 4 Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning: Lessons Learned 103

Community forestry: A priority for CARPE and its partners 103

Involvement of communities in the management of renewable resources: Analysis of recent developments 103 Who should join forces with whom? 103 Voluntary or imposed participation? 104 Actors with divergent interests 104

Lessons learned 104

Bibliography 105

Case Study 1 Community Land-Use Planning in the Lac Télé Community Reserve (Lac Télé-Lac Tumba Landscape) 106

Case Study 2 The Process of Allocating and Managing Community Forests in Cameroon: Case Studies from the Sangha Tri-National and the Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National Landscapes 113

Case Study 3 Lessons Learned from the Monkoto Corridor Community-Based Natural Resource Management Zone in the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape 119

Chapter 5 Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation: A Case Study in Creating a Community-Managed Conservation University 127

1. Introduction 127 1.1 Overview 127 1.2 Background 128 1.3 Formalizing a people-centred approach to conservation 128 1.4 Conservation vs development: a false dichotomy 129 1.5 A typology of livelihood-conservation linkages 130

ix 2. A review of the livelihood-conservation case studies 131 2.1 Introduction 131 2.2 The Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape case study 131 2.3 The Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Landscape case study 132 2.4 Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Landscape case study 133

3. Conclusions and recommendations 133

Bibliography 135

Case Study 1 A Case Study in Creating a Community-Managed Conservation University 136

Case Study 2 The Role of “Alternative Livelihoods” in Achieving a People-Centred Approach to Conservation 144

Case Study 3 Lessons Learned from the Lokolama Area of the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape 152

Section two: Environmental policy and governance 161

Chapter 6 The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development: Lessons Learned 163

1. Introduction 163 1.1 Overview 163 1.2 The importance of promoting a national policy and governance agenda for conservation 164 1.3 CARPE’s approach to promoting a national policy and governance agenda for conservation 165

2. Review of the policy and governance case studies 166 2.1 Lessons learned from the Democratic Republic of Congo 166 2.2 Lessons learned from the Republic of Cameroon 167 2.3 Lessons learned from the Republic of Congo 168 2.4 Lessons learned from the Republic of Gabon 169

3. Conclusion and recommendations 170

Case Study 1 Lessons Learned on the Promotion of a National Policy and Governance Agenda for Cameroon 172

Case Study 2 Evolution of Gabonese Regulations on Natural Resource Management 180

Case Study 3 Lessons Learned on the Promotion of Policy and Governance in the Conservation of Natural Resources in the Republic of Congo 186

Case Study 4 Lessons Learned on Policy and Governance in the Democratic Republic of Congo 191

x Chapter 7 Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance 197

Introduction 197

What is CARPE? 198

The CARPE approach to small grants 198

On-the-ground impact of the Small Grants Program 199 Civil society mobilization and advocacy for policy reform and good governance 199 The development and promotion of economic growth and social welfare activities within communities 200 Integrating gender considerations into conservation strategies 201

Lessons learned 201 1. Proposal preparation, screening and award procedures 201 Applications for grants should be done in two stages 201 Screening of small grant proposals needs to be transparent 201 Accountability in the use of small grant funds by civil society is greatly improved through close technical support from the Focal Points and scrutiny by the steering committees 201 Providing grants to networks of local or regional NGOs has exponential effects 202 Providing grant applicants with feedback on why their proposals were funded or rejected is crucial for civil society capacity building 202 2. Project implementation 202 Local NGOs implementing small grant activities need coaching and support 202 Tying the Small Grants Program to the CARPE landscape programme has been very important in integrating local associations and CBOs fully into CARPE activities on the ground 202 3. The capacity of small grants to empower civil society 202 Local NGOs’ ability and credibility when addressing subjects of national interest in the realm of environmental protection and natural resource exploitation has increased with “learning-by-doing” experience and expanded institutional capacity 202 4. The capacity of small grants to mobilize civil society for advocacy 202 Experience of local NGOs in implementing projects and mobilizing public opinion has increased their capacity for more structured advocacy efforts 202 Governments have grown to respect the voices of NGOs in making development decisions with environmental impacts 202 Strengthened NGOs can play an important role in promoting the “rule of law” by educating citizens on legal requirements and the impacts of illegal NRM activities 203

Bibliography 203

Case Study 1 The Use of Small Grants to Build Civil Society Capacity to Support Conservation in Cameroon 204

Case Study 2 The Use of Small Grants to Build Civil Society Capacity to Participate in the Conservation of Natural Resources in Rwanda 207

Case Study 3 The Use of Small Grants to Build Civil Society Capacity to Support the Conservation of Natural Resources in the Democratic Republic of Congo 211

xi Case Study 4 The Use of Small Grants to Build Civil Society Capacity in Advocacy and Promotion of Laws for the Rational Management of Natural Resources: What Can Be Learned from Experiences in Gabon? 215

Section three: Monitoring of natural resources 219

Chapter 8 The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes 221

Case Study 1 USAID’s Monitoring and Evaluation System for CARPE: Lessons Learned from a Large-Scale Regional Environmental Conservation Programme 222

Case Study 2 Lessons Learned on Forest Concession Monitoring in Central Africa 228

Case Study 3 The Use of Satellite Mapping and GIS to Support Large-Scale Conservation: Lessons Learned 238

Case Study 4 Monitoring of Wildlife Populations: Lessons Learned 255

xii Preface

This publication is, in fact, the second volume of CARPE Lessons Learned. The ﬁ rst volume was based on early experiences and constituted a preliminary assessment of the state of the environment in the region. Now, after more than ten years of CARPE implementation, it seemed timely to provide the conservation community with lessons learned concerning CARPE’s applied conservation approaches. The Central African Regional Program for the Environment is an ambitious program operating in nine countries spanning the entire Congo Basin. The 12 prioritized landscapes where CARPE partners implement improved natural resource management activities cover over 80 million hectares, an area substantially larger than the US State of Texas. CARPE partner institutions have used satellite imagery to map forest cover and deforestation over the entire Congo Basin. Given the vast scope of the program, it was inevitable that a “Lessons Learned” publication would likewise be ambitious in scope. This publication contains 27 case studies of applied conservation as well as seven overview articles synthesizing the results of the groups of case studies, which cover different thematic areas. The publication’s case studies are organized into three sections: land-use planning, environmental policy and governance, and monitoring of natural resources, which parallel the structure of CARPE’s three core components. The case studies therefore present a comprehensive review of the program’s activities. The emphasis on case studies and overview articles is intended to provide direct insights from the actual experiences of CARPE’s partner institutions. This publication is therefore an authentic and practical guide to implementing conservation program in the Congo Basin. The emphasis on lessons learned is aimed at synthesizing for the reader the key pieces of advice the authors can provide to others concerning the best practices for implementing conservation projects in the region. As such, this publication presents the sum accumulated knowledge of CARPE partner institutions acquired during the implementation of the program. It is hopefully a rich and practical guide to carrying out applied conservation that we believe will be of immeasurable utility for conservationists in the Congo Basin and around the world.

John Flynn Aimé Nianogo CARPE Director IUCN Regional Director for USAID, Kinshasa, DRC Central and West Africa

xiii Introduction

David Yanggen, Kenneth Angu and Nicodème Tchamou

Why lessons learned?

To introduce this collection of studies, a logical ﬁ rst question to ask is why produce a “lessons learned” publication? The initial impetus for this initiative was an observation by an external evaluation of CARPE that there was relatively little sharing of information within the programme between numerous actors and sites concerning the conservation strategies undertaken and the results achieved (Weidemann Consortium, 2006).1 The evaluation concluded that this lack of information exchange was a threat to the success of CARPE as a large-scale regional programme, a view that was conﬁ rmed by programme partners during the CARPE Phase IIB Inception workshop that was held in Yaoundé in February 2007.

CARPE is a large and complex programme. It has a regional mandate which covers nine countries of the Congo Basin (Cameroon, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Rwanda, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Burundi, and Sao Tomé and Principe) and involves ﬁ eld-based conservation activities in 12 remote and geographically dispersed landscapes. The 12 landscapes cover over 80 million hectares – roughly the size of the US State of Texas – and include 37 protected areas, 68 community zones and 43 extractive zones (predominantly forest concessions). To add a further layer of complexity, CARPE has directly involved 27 different partner institutions. Finally, communications and the transportation infrastructure in Central Africa are arguably less developed than in any other major world region.

In this context, it is often diffi cult for participants, both individuals and institutions, to share the results of their activities as well as to learn from the experiences of others. This lessons learned initiative is therefore important because it provides a feedback mechanism so that all the programme’s participants can benefi t from one another’s experiences and thereby improve their respective conservation interventions. In addition, the generation of lessons learned encourages the CARPE partners themselves to engage in an analytical refl ection concerning their own activities and thus encourages a process of learning and adaptation during the implementation of the programme.

However, the target audience for these lessons learned is not uniquely direct CARPE participants. Documenting lessons learned will also allow other institutional actors operating in the Congo Basin to learn from these experiences. CARPE partners work in close collaboration with national government institutions. A goal of the programme is to prepare an exit strategy whereby national government institutions and civil society organizations progressively take over activities led by CARPE partners. These lessons learned, by documenting the experiences of the programme, are a part of that exit strategy to help ensure that national institutions can carry on and build upon the work of CARPE after the programme ends. Finally, the editors of this publication believe that many of the lessons learned will be useful to the broader international conservation community as many of the issues faced in the Congo Basin are found worldwide.

Structure of the CARPE lessons learned publication

The structure of the publication parallels that of the programme itself. The overall objective of CARPE is to reduce the rate of forest degradation and loss of biodiversity. In order to achieve this objective, CARPE is structured into three integrated components called “intermediate results” (IRs). These are as follows: IR1 – sustainable management of natural resources, IR2 – natural resource governance, and IR3 – natural resource monitoring. These three components correspond to the three sections of the Lessons Learned book.

All three sections are composed of case studies. Each case study follows a similar basic three-part structure: introduction to the zone and/or thematic area, methodological/strategic approach, and lessons learned. This publication is not a theoretical

1 Weidemann Consortium. 2006. “Mid-Term Assessment of the Central African Regional Program for the Environment: Final Report”, (available online at http://carpe.umd.edu/resources/ Documents/Weidemann_CARPE_Eval_17Feb06.pdf/view?set_language=en). xiv discussion of approaches to conservation. Each case study is based on the empirical experience of CARPE partners implementing applied conservation activities on the ground.

IR1, also known as the CARPE Landscape Programme, corresponds to ﬁ eld-based sustainable natural resource management in 12 prioritized landscapes. The fundamental approach to improved natural resource management for IR1 involves land-use planning, i.e., the design and implementation of management plans for each landscape as well as for protected areas, forest concessions and community zones within each landscape.

Section one is therefore divided into four sub-sections: land-use planning for landscapes, protected areas, forest concessions and community zones. Each of these sub-sections is comprised of three case studies plus a “synthesis article”. Each synthesis article discusses the speciﬁ cities of land-use planning in the category of zone in question and then synthesizes the commonalities found within the three case studies in order to draw some general conclusions. A ﬁ fth cross-cutting sub-section is included in this section and involves strategies for promoting livelihoods as a means of supporting conservation objectives. This livelihoods sub-section also includes three case studies and a synthesis article.

CARPE’s natural resource governance programme (IR2) has two principal components: environmental policy and legal reform, and a programme of small grants to civil society actors to engage in conservation activities. Section two of the publication is therefore divided into two sub-sections addressing these two components. As in Section one, each sub-section is divided into a series of case studies and a synthesis article.

The last section corresponds to CARPE IR3 and involves the monitoring of natural resources. This section is different from the other two in that it involves four cross-cutting non-site-speciﬁ c case studies on different aspects of natural resource monitoring. Non-site-speciﬁ c means that they are pertinent to the entire programme and therefore there is only one case study for each and no synthesis article. These studies include: GIS and satellite mapping of forest cover, forest concession monitoring, wildlife monitoring, and USAID’s monitoring and evaluation system for CARPE itself.

A last critical element of this Lessons Learned publication is the involvement of people. CARPE explicitly promotes a “people- centred approach to conservation”. Given the widespread and acute poverty prevalent in the Congo Basin, conservation can only succeed if populations ﬁ nd viable alternatives to current natural resource use patterns that degrade the environment.

There is no speciﬁ c section on people; rather, the involvement of people in conservation is systematically incorporated throughout the entire publication. A few of the most salient examples are as follows. The community zone land-use planning sub-section discusses methods to support local populations’ efforts to use forest resources sustainably. Similarly, the forest concession sub-section presents strategies for reconciling the economic development potential of logging for local communities and the private sector with conservation goals. The livelihoods case studies likewise present strategies for promoting alternative economic activities that improve local communities’ welfare while reducing negative impacts on the environment. The sub-section on small grants discusses how the provision of funding to national and local NGOs and community-based organizations (CBOs) to undertake environmental projects can enhance the capacity of civil society in Central Africa to promote conservation. Finally, land-use planning at all levels must include an explicit public participation strategy that includes pertinent stakeholders such as local communities, traditional authorities, local government, NGOs, CBOs and national government.

A ﬁ nal point relates to the strategy for disseminating this publication. A lesson learned is only truly learned by others in so much as it is available and read or otherwise communicated to interested parties. There are three key constraints to a

xv widespread and effective dissemination strategy. The ﬁ rst is the high cost of printing and distributing large numbers of hard copies of this publication to programme partners and other interested stakeholders across Central Africa and other countries. This publication strategy will therefore take a dual approach of both printed copies as well as a strong emphasis on publication on the CARPE and other related websites. A second constraint involves language. In order to facilitate the widest possible distribution, the Lessons Learned has been published in both French and English.

The third and ﬁ nal constraint involves the very length of the publication (several hundred pages). Most potential readers will not have the time to read this entire publication from cover to cover and in some cases, particularly in the Central African region, may have internet access constraints to downloading the entire publication. It is therefore designed in a modular fashion. This implies that all the individual components are not only coherent parts of an overall whole, but are also stand-alone documents in their own right. Readers with a particular interest in conservation related to ﬁ eld-based natural resource management, governance or monitoring can read just that relevant section; or, for example, in the case of Section one, a reader can read only about land-use planning for a particular category of zone, an individual case study or a synthesis article. This multi-tiered stand-alone modular structure facilitates readers’ ability to read only the amount and thematic area they are directly interested in and therefore provides greater access to the lessons learned pertinent for their work.

xvi SECTION ONE: LAND-USE PLANNING

Chapter 1

Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale: Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE)

James P. Beck

1. Introduction1

1.1 Overview This chapter provides an overview of landscape-scale land-use planning and lessons learned from the implementing partners of the US Agency for International Development (USAID)/Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) in the development and implementation of Integrated Land-use Plans for the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) Landscapes.

The CARPE programme works closely with its partners to improve Central African natural resource management capacities, contributing to national and regional objectives. Field efforts are concentrated on 12 landscapes, chosen and delineated across the Congo Basin as CBFP/CARPE areas of focus due to their particular importance and unique value to forest and biodiversity conservation. Actions are guided by participatory land-use planning (LUP). Landscape LUP is an integrated process composed of discrete parts (land management plans, macro-zone plans, annual work plans) joined to form a rational, logical management approach.

The landscape LUP framework promoted by CARPE prioritizes three types of zones (macro-zones) to be delineated within the landscapes: Protected Area (PA), Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM), and Extractive Resource Zones (ERZ). Each macro-zone should benefi t from a management plan. These macro-zone plans link directly to the overall landscape plan and must articulate how they refl ect, support and will contribute to the landscape’s desired conditions and objectives, as well as how they will address site-specifi c issues and needs. The objectives of the three macro-zones of a landscape should therefore be harmonized, and not in confl ict, with the objectives of the overall landscape.

1.2 Purpose of landscape planning Landscape planning seeks to outline and implement planning processes so that: 1) the long-term ecosystem function of the forest and biodiversity present within landscapes is ensured; 2) the supply of products and income sources that local communities in the landscape have traditionally depended upon continues; 3) extractive zones within landscapes are contributing to the country’s economy without negatively inﬂ uencing local populations or the health of the ecosystem; and 4) in-country natural resource management capacity is strengthened.

1 Adapted from: US Forest Service. 2008. “US Forest Service Guide to Integrated Landscape Land Use Planning in Central Africa”. Washington, DC: USFS. http://carpe.umd.edu/Plone/resources/carpemgmttools.

3 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Planning is the process in which Plans around the world vary health is needed through analysis stakeholders (community members, substantially in their content, level of of impacts, trends and infl uences. scientists, government representatives, detail, and complexity. When working Using landscapes will enable not only private businesses, non-governmental through the planning process, it is the development of comprehensive organizations (NGOs), traditional important to keep in mind that, often, plans for the conservation of species authorities, etc.) come together to simpler plans are more effective plans. and ecosystems, but also allow the debate and discuss how to manage The likelihood that the plan will be more cumulative effects of current and future lands for the benefi t of current and widely read and understood by local management actions to be measured. future generations, and to ensure stakeholders, as well as the likelihood ecological sustainability of lands and of their engagement in the process, 1.3 Landscape planning in the resources. The purpose of planning is to will increase if the plan is relatively CARPE context develop management and governance concise, focuses on what is important Integrated landscape land-use plans strategies that respond to a scientifi c for resource conditions, and is light on developed for the CARPE programme understanding of natural and social jargon, both scientifi c and legal. demonstrate how CARPE implementing systems as well as changing societal partners have: 1) assessed and conditions and values. Effective Landscape-level planning differs from analyzed activities, resources and uses planning processes promote decisions macro-zone planning in that it plans at on the entire landscape; 2) developed that are informed, understood, accepted a larger, spatial scale and can assess and formulated long-term desired and able to be implemented. broader, wide-ranging trends, infl uences conditions and objectives for the and impacts. A broad, wide-ranging landscape; 3) identifi ed current planning Planning can be complex depending perspective is needed to adequately and resource protection priorities and upon the number of issues internal and understand and assess ecological future trends; 4) consulted, collaborated external to the planning area. Planning sustainability and to identify resource and integrated stakeholders in requires risk assessments and forecasts use opportunities that contribute to plan development; and 5) focused about anticipated and uncertain future economic and social sustainability. management activities to achieve events and conditions. Consequently, Experience has demonstrated that desired conditions and priority even the best plan will need to be planning for ecological sustainability objectives. These plans are meant to altered to adjust to improving data and requires larger areas. For example, promote stakeholder collaboration information; changing social, economic wide-ranging wildlife species often across the landscape, focus efforts or other conditions; evolving threats; do not confi ne themselves to on prioritizing land use, and stimulate or feedback from monitoring efforts. particular geopolitical boundaries land-use planning processes Therefore, plans are adaptive in nature, and therefore in order to plan for throughout the region. The generalized and amendments or entire revisions the conservation of such species, a steps involved in landscape LUP are will be an outcome of monitoring and broader understanding of ecological included in Box 1. evaluation efforts.

Central to planning is the recognition Box 1. Steps in a landscape planning process that in most cases not all of the desired data on the landscape and its The following steps form the basis of the landscape land-use planning process: resources will be available in detail. This 1. Identify planning team members and defi ne individuals’ specifi c roles; is true around the world, regardless 2. Identify existing and needed ecological, social and economic information on the of the fi nancial and human resources landscape; available to the management authority. 3. Create a Public Participation Strategy (PPS); 4. Landscape plan development: Nevertheless, landscape planning must • Describe the landscape’s unique value; proceed with the view that the plan can • Describe characteristics of the landscape; call for additional data collection and • Develop landscape desired conditions; be revised with that newly acquired • Develop landscape objectives which refl ect and address the desired conditions data to make better informed decisions. for the landscape; Therefore, it is important not to delay • Develop and map macro-zones, taking into consideration already legally plan development due to a perceived designated areas, concessions and contracts; lack of complete data. • Defi ne landscape-wide guidelines (optional); • Outline a work plan and activity implementation schedule; and • Design a monitoring and evaluation system and schedule.

4 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

Box 2. CARPE management approach to the land-use planning process* Sangha Tri-National Landscape, 2) the Both entire landscapes and macro-zones follow a four-stage land-use planning process, Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Landscape, with the degree of completion of each step being characterized by a percentage and 3) the Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega benchmark. Landscape. This section highlights and synthesizes the key lessons from each XX% Planning XX% Planning case study as identifi ed by the authors. Process Convened Process Designed XX% Management XX% Management (Strategy Document (Management Plan “Plan” adopted Plan implemented completed) completed) 2.2 Sangha Tri-National Landscape case study2 A land-use planning process is “convened” when a fi nished, written Strategy Document has been prepared which stipulates and defi nes the tasks and responsibilities necessary 2.2.1 Planning activities implemented to produce a Management Plan. After the macro-zone or landscape reaches the convened The Sangha Tri-National (Tri-National stage, the partner will then proceed with the steps outlined in the Strategy Document de Sangha – TNS) Landscape includes, to produce the Management Plan. Finally, an “Adopted land-use Plan” is recognized by broadly speaking, a transboundary the legal controlling authorities that govern the specifi c land-use types (Parks Services, core protection zone and a peripheral Forestry Ministry, etc.). Implementation of a land-use plan indicates that the activities zone. The core protection zone is specifi ed in the management plan are being executed. managed such that human activities *Source: http://carpe-infotool.umd.edu/IMT/. are either forbidden or controlled and consists of the National Parks of Lobéké (Cameroon), Dzanga-Ndoki (Central The guidance and activities outlined community entities depending on the African Republic) and Nouabalé-Ndoki in the landscape plans and the national legal framework and structures (Republic of Congo). The peripheral subsequent macro-zone plans in place. As government capacity zone is managed for participatory and aim to contribute to the long-term and presence in the landscapes sustainable management of wildlife management, benefi t and sustainability varies widely throughout the region, and forest resources and includes of forest resources in the region and engagement and policy infl uence production forests, sport hunting thereby contribute to the development is challenging at best. In order to concessions, community hunting zones of sustainable livelihood strategies and infl uence the development of good and agro-forestry areas. economic development activities for governance practices and structures those dependent upon these resources. on the ground, CARPE partners can Land-use planning in the TNS strategically use the management plan Landscape has existed in one form or As a precursor and in order to orient development process to engage local another for many years: the development of more formal communities, government agency 1. Planning, or more accurately management plans at multiple levels, representatives, concession holders de facto zoning, for parts of CARPE implementing partners have and other stakeholders. This critical the TNS Landscape date back produced a Strategy Document (SD) stakeholder engagement process to the colonial era with large for each management unit. Each SD requires signifi cant investment of time rubber exploitation concessions describes how CARPE implementing and resources in order to support the and more recently with logging partners will develop a landscape plan, various stakeholders in developing concessions in the mid twentieth what is needed to develop the plan, an integrated landscape plan and century. More “conscious” and how much time and resources it subsequent institutional capacity to planning was initiated in the mid will take. The elements and analysis meet concomitant needs for resource 1980s with a series of biological needed to develop the SD are part of use and conservation. and socio-economic surveys of the landscape planning process. Box 2 the region to better understand outlines the CARPE management its biodiversity conservation approach to landscape LUP. 2. A review of the landscape importance and pressures. land-use planning case 1.4 Governance and management studies 2. The Yaoundé Declaration was authority then signed in 1999 along with CARPE landscape partners do not, and 2.1 Introduction the forming of the Central African will not, have a mandate to exercise This review of lessons learned from governance authority. This authority the CARPE experiences in landscape 2 See Usongo, L., 2010, «Lessons Learned from the Sangha lies rather with national, local and LUP includes three case studies: 1) the Tri-National Landscape», Case Study 2 in Chapter 1 of this volume.

5 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Forest Commission (Commission respective national governments as an important element in the process. des Forêts d’Afrique Centrale for review and approval. Planning for communities’ access and – COMIFAC) to promote sub- use rights happened (or did not) based regional collaboration on natural 2.2.2 Lessons learned on the differing legal frameworks, resource management and The LUP process in the TNS has policies, and on-the-ground realities economic development. evolved over time concurrently with in each country as of the initiation of national policies and the regional conservation activities. Regardless of 3. During the 1990s, land-use plans context. Harmonization of the three the history, it was noted that it is key for various zones/management countries’ legal frameworks vis-à-vis to engage all stakeholders early in the units were developed under the land and resource management would planning process. Indeed, the authors differing policy regimes in each of undoubtedly improve LUP and ease suggest that this approach led to the the three TNS countries. implementation. For a LUP process signifi cant progress in recent years to be successful it is necessary to towards the improved integration of 4. In the early 2000s, several understand that time and resources local communities into natural resource institutional agreements were (technical and fi nancial) are needed management activities. signed and implemented by to gain the necessary trust with the three countries to facilitate the relevant stakeholders. National 2.3 Maringa/Lopori-Wamba and promote transboundary government technical capacity building Landscape case study3 collaboration (e.g., anti-poaching and involvement is critical to successful patrols and free circulation). LUP processes. Lastly, due to the 2.3.1 Planning activities implemented time and effort required to develop a The Maringa/Lopori-Wamba (MLW) 5. Since the late 1990s, technical land-use plan, it is important that the Landscape covers 74,000 km2 in the support from various donors planning team develop and implement a Equateur province of the Democratic and NGOs has been offered work plan for the production of the plan. Republic of Congo (DRC). The for community natural resource MLW Landscape boundaries are management in both forestry and Another key lesson learned presented the watersheds of the Lopori and hunting zones. by the authors concerns the Maringa rivers with forests dominating establishment of a trust fund. The over 90 percent of the Landscape. 6. In late 2005, TNS partners, TNS Landscape team has invested Rural villages, farms and plantations notably World Wildlife Fund signifi cant energy over recent years comprise less than seven percent of the (WWF), Wildlife Conservation developing a trust fund to sustainably Landscape. The Landscape retains high Society (WCS), German fund core management operations biodiversity values despite continued Development Cooperation (GTZ) on the Landscape. For a trust fund to forest conversion, slash–and-burn and national government forest work it was necessary to develop not agriculture, commercial and illegal administration staff from the only a land-use plan for the protected logging, and the bushmeat trade. three countries held meetings to areas but also a business plan. It was discuss thematic issues to be determined that business planning 1. Land-use planning in the MLW captured in the TNS Land-Use required an outside specialized skill Landscape was carried out as Plan. set and therefore the CTPE engaged follows:Prior to 2004, which consultants to develop and harmonize coincided with Phase II of the 7. This led to a process convened the TNS management plans and the CARPE programme of activities, by the TNS planning and broader landscape business plan. very little planning had occurred coordination committee (CTPE – Additionally, the implication of key in the MLW Landscape. There Comité Technique de Planifi cation stakeholders, notably the national was minimal data available on et Exécution) in which over the governments and the technical NGOs, biodiversity, stakeholders, land- course of two years a land- in developing a common vision, use patterns and socio-economic use plan was developed by a objectives and management structure conditions, and discussions consultant in consultation with for the trust fund was also noted as with the government and local geographical information system critical to its success. (GIS) experts and regular reviews 3 See Dupain, J., Degrande, A., De Marcken, P., Elliott, J. and by the CTPE. As of late 2008, a Lastly the authors highlighted lessons Nackoney, J., 2010, “Lessons Learned from the Maringa/ fi nal draft was submitted to the learned in participatory management Lopori-Wamba Landscape», Case Study 3 in Chapter 1 of this volume.

6 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

communities had not been the structure included focal points Lastly, the MLW Consortium found that undertaken. Therefore a “Threats serving as an interface between local satellite data and spatial modelling when and Opportunities Analysis” stakeholders and partners at the central ground-truthed with fi eld data proved workshop was held to identify, in level in Kinshasa. These interlocutors valuable to both planning as well as a participatory manner, site-based proved invaluable as local, traditional monitoring actions. The authors suggest conservation targets and goals and authorities did not always possess the that this sophisticated approach could ensure local ownership of these skills needed to transmit and manage be replicated to support planning efforts goals. information (e.g., communication, elsewhere in the Congo Basin. confl ict resolution, public participation, 2. In 2007 with the initiation of CARPE etc.). Additionally, the Consortium was 2.4 Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Phase IIB, the MLW Landscape structured with both local and national Landscape case study4 Consortium adjusted the approach committees empowered and mandated based on experiences gathered to relay information in both directions 2.4.1 Planning activities implemented since 2004. Changes were centred (local to national, and national to local) The Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega (MTKB) around the following elements: which helped ensure Consortium Landscape in eastern Democratic  Consortium structure; members were not only well informed Republic of Congo covers approximately  Implemention of the African but also working together. 10 million hectares with large blocks Wildlife Foundation’s (AWF) of intact forest that provide many vital Heartland Conservation Process Another key to planning in the MLW ecosystem services (e.g., local climate (HCP) and identifying priority Landscape is promoting ownership of regulation, prevention of soil erosion, activities; the process as early in the process as and water purifi cation, retention, and  Stakeholder consultation and possible. This ownership of the process fl ood control) for eastern central Africa. participation; by local authorities and civil society The MTKB Landscape is also an area  Participatory data collection and should best be guided by a public of signifi cant poverty, where more than analysis; participation strategy to maximize and an estimated one million inhabitants  Zoning based on desired facilitate participation. Challenges were rely heavily on subsistence agriculture, outcomes; and encountered however in engaging local hunting, and collection of forest  Spatial modelling and communities in joint decision making as products. In addition, illegal mining of monitoring. previous participation they had provided gold, casserite, diamonds and other in such processes was characterized as valuable ores is taking place often under 2.3.2 Lessons learned “participation through information giving the control of illegal armed militias, a A summary of the lessons learned and/or consultation”. To surmount legacy of the region’s civil wars. identifi ed by the MLW consortium in the these and other related challenges it MLW Landscape are as follows. The was found to be important that a public Land-use planning in the MTKB AWF HCP fi ts well with the USFS/CARPE participation strategy be fl exible and Landscape has occurred in various landscape LUP framework as there adaptive to respond to shifting political forms over the years: is signifi cant overlap and consistency and social realities. 1. In the course of the three decades between the planning approaches. prior to 2003, signifi cant baseline The authors underlined the value of the investment was made in the The authors highlighted the importance plan being a “living document” through Landscape namely through the and value to the LUP process of the a regular review of the landscape vision, offi cial gazetting of two National proposed MLW Consortium governance objectives and desired conditions Parks (Maiko and Kahuzi-Biega); structure and function. The Consortium to take into account changes in the long-term GTZ support to the was improved as it evolved beyond Landscape over time. Changes such as state wildlife authority from the individual partners focusing on the conversion of old logging titles to Ministry of the Environment, geographically distinct interventions to concessions, changing values for cash the Institut Congolais pour a more integrated planning unit wherein crops, the installation of new private la Conservation de la Nature a technically competent, compatible companies, evolving priorities of the (ICCN) in highland areas of and complementary team of partners national government, and new initiatives the Kahuzi-Biega NP; the Dian was formed with each member bringing of major funding agencies could all have thematic expertise that contributed to a an impact on the strategic direction of 4 See Mehlman, P., 2010, “Lessons Learned from the Maiko holistic approach to planning. Moreover planning and operational interventions. Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Landscape», Case Study 1 in Chapter 1 of this volume.

7 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Fossey Gorilla Fund International where these areas were seen as and subsequent zoning should focus (DFGFI) support of a community buffer zone projects only related to explicitly on supporting the local conservation programme yielding the National Parks”. communities to meet their needs for a land-use plan with local and well managed resources. central level buy-in; and the 4. From 2007 to the present, the work of a federation of local Landscape partnership moved The position of landscape and macro- NGOs called UGADEC5 scaling to adjust the Landscape and zone boundaries matter. If macro- up the DFGFI model to create a macro-zone boundaries to refl ect zone and landscape boundaries community-supported biological the “government administrative follow government administrative unit corridor between the Maiko and units wherever possible (i.e., boundaries as closely as possible, and Kahuzi-Biega National Parks. provincial, territorial, collectivité not just biological criteria, the land-use and groupement boundaries)”. plan will more likely be accepted by 2. From 2003 to 2005, increased The partnership promoted such government authorities at all levels. USAID CARPE funding to the changes thinking that it would Landscape supported the “substantially improve governance Lastly the authors argue that a land- hiring and capacity building of and long-term management of use plan should be a guide for the fi eld and management project natural resources at all levels future sustainable management and staff. Additionally, resources (including local communities) and use of resources throughout the entire were deployed to secure basic would ensure that these units Landscape. As such, with stakeholder equipment for fi eld operations and remained meaningful well into the participation, it should identify macro- to carry out a series of socio- future”. zones for the entire area of the economic and biological analyses. Landscape. The Landscape consortium 2.4.2 Lessons learned directed resources towards these First and foremost the authors suggest basic start-up activities in order to that landscape LUP and zoning 3. Conclusions and enable the subsequent ramping interventions should build upon on- recommendations up of planning efforts. going local initiatives and existing local A number of common themes have contexts and aspirations. emerged from the lessons learned 3. In 2006, more formal LUP over the last fi ve years in these three discussions and consultations Secondly, to maximize the effi cacy Landscapes: were held at the landscape and of limited resources, local capacity macro-zone scale. Notably, should fi rst be strengthened (where 3.1 Lasting LUP requires signifi cant co-management contracts necessary) before attempting broad investment of time and resources were signed and implemented landscape-scale macro-zoning and LUP. The TNS team noted that for a LUP between the ICCN and local Without certain fundamental capacities, process to be successful it is necessary NGOs (UGADEC) for the Tayna planning efforts are unlikely to succeed to understand that time and resources and Kisimba-Ikobo Reserves and might actually be detrimental to (technical and fi nancial) are needed which effectively demonstrated the future conservation and development to gain the necessary trust with the evolution of a formally recognized interventions. relevant stakeholders. The MLW protected area created out of a Consortium suggested that “the process broader CBNRM zone. Moreover Macro-zones within a landscape are of stakeholder consultation is in a sense during this period the Landscape not static entities as they must evolve never-ending, and must be integrated partnership enlarged its vision concurrently with the socio-political into all aspects of intervention design, beyond the protected areas context. Informed planning will take this implementation and monitoring”. towards a more comprehensive into account and adapt as necessary to The MTKB partnership spoke to the vision for the CBNRM zones in the stay current and relevant. realities of LUP in Central Africa and Landscape, effectively refocusing the investment required for success: “attention on the needs of these In order to constructively engage and “It would be disingenuous to suggest communities in these zones, rather gain the support of local communities that at the onset of the programme, than continuing a perspective for natural resource management in the Landscape partnership developed CBNRM macro-zones, these zones a comprehensive land-use plan and

5 Union des Associations de Conservation des Gorilles pour should not simply be viewed as buffer then went forward and implemented le Développement Communautaire à l’Est de la République zones for PAs. Rather CBNRM planning it, including the designation of macro- Démocratique de Congo.

8 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

zones. In reality, this has been very The MTKB team highlighted the value of evolve concurrently with the socio- much an organic process relying on local capacity and that it should fi rst be political contexts. Informed planning inputs and insights from many sources, strengthened (where necessary) before will take this into account and adapt as and perhaps the most important lesson attempting broad landscape LUP. necessary to stay current and relevant. learned is that the process takes time”. 3.4 Effective LUP depends on In conclusion, although land 3.2 Engage stakeholders early and functional and broadly supported management decisions are ultimately often for successful LUP governance and management political, law and best practice dictates The TNS team highlighted the need structures that such decisions can be greatly to engage stakeholders early in The MLW team highlighted the infl uenced by a technical process the planning process and beyond importance and value to the LUP focused on balancing trade-offs through the joint articulation of a process of the proposed MLW between the sometimes opposing co-management vision between Consortium governance structure objectives of conservation and stakeholders.6 Likewise, the MTKB team and functions. The TNS team noted development.7 Landscape LUP is suggested that planning interventions that bringing all parties to develop intended to accomplish just that by should build upon on-going local a common vision, objectives and bringing diverse interests to the table to initiatives and existing local contexts management structure for the trust fund work out the long-term vision leading and aspirations. The MLW team echoed creation and implementation was critical to mutually benefi cial agreement on that early stakeholder engagement is to its successes thus far. the desired conditions and objectives important and moreover that it would for the landscape. This common vision promote the ownership of the process. 3.5 The Landscapes’ contexts and these high-level objectives, once (social, political, economic, biological, articulated, will then orient, through 3.3 Successful LUP requires certain etc.) are dynamic and therefore the annual work planning exercises, what basic capacities and therefore plans should be as well actions are needed in the landscape. investments in technical capacity The MLW team underlined the While the reality of LUP in Central Africa building are important value of the plan being a “living has been very much an organic process, The TNS team observed the key role document” through a regular review the lessons learned to date provide a to be played by the national and local of the Landscape vision, objectives solid foundation going forward to help government authorities in any LUP and desired conditions to take into bring practitioners, policy makers, local process and underscored the need to account changes in the Landscape communities and others together to provide technical capacity building to over time. The MTKB team suggested work constructively to maintain the help ensure their effective participation. that macro-zones within a Landscape ecosystem services critical to human are not static entities as they must wellbeing. ' 6 The overall co-management vision in the TNS landscape “is to ensure greater integration of the surrounding local population in natural resource management processes, facilitate access to resources, support alternative income- generating activities, build strong local management 7 Opposing in the context of the current predominant institutions and facilitate benefi t-sharing mechanisms economic framework that necessarily undervalues for local communities from revenues generated from natural capital and therefore does not adequately the exploitation of wildlife and timber, as well as from incorporate conservation actions as critical to sustainable ecotourism”. development.

9 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Case Study 1 Lessons Learned from the Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Landscape

Patrick Mehlman

Introduction undertaken in partnership with local, (Figures 1 and 2). This landscape, In Libreville, Gabon in 2000, WWF1 national, and regional public and approximately 10 million hectares in convened a scientifi c workshop private stakeholders, is intended to size, contains some of Central Africa’s to determine priority areas for the provide a rational, logical management highest levels of species richness, conservation of terrestrial ecosystems approach to natural resource utilization high numbers of endemic species, within the Guinean-Congolian Forest and conservation that can “…assess and signifi cant numbers of globally Region. This led to the identifi cation broader, wide-ranging trends, infl uences, threatened species, including 95% of of 11 large “Landscape Areas” and impacts in order to more adequately the range of Grauer’s (eastern lowland) that were identifi ed as having the assess ecological sustainability and gorilla. Its large blocks of intact forest highest priority to receive support identify the appropriate management not only regulate the local climate and for biodiversity conservation and strategies to maintain these resources prevent soil erosion, but also play an natural resource management (Figure for the benefi t of all.”6 important role as a water catchment 1). In September, 2002, at the World area in east central Africa.8 The MTKB Summit on Sustainable Development In landscape-level land-use planning, Landscape is also an area of signifi cant in Johannesburg, the United States, as defi ned by the USDA7 Forest poverty, where more than an estimated South Africa and 27 public and private Service (which joined CARPE in 2004), 1,000,000 inhabitants rely heavily on partners launched the CBFP,2 which landscape planning begins with a broad subsistence agriculture, hunting, and focused on these 11 landscapes3 zoning process that identifi es three gathering non-timber forest products. in order to promote economic types of macro-zones: 1) Protected In addition, illegal mining of gold, development, poverty alleviation, Area (PA) zones; 2) Community- casserite, diamonds and other valuable improved governance and sustainable Based Natural Resource Management ores often takes place under the control natural resource management. A year (CBNRM) zones; and Extractive of illegal armed militias, a legacy of the later, in October 2003, the United Resource Zones (ERZ). In the planning region’s civil wars. States, through its USAID CARPE II process, a planning team is expected Program,4 began the fi rst long-term to identify the number and types of Since the inception of CARPE II support for these CBFP landscapes. macro-zones within a landscape, and in October 2003, Conservation then with stakeholders, subsequently International (CI) has led a consortium Central to the Strategic Objective of develop macro-zone management plans of international and in-country CARPE5 is the concept of landscape- that guide sustainable resource use and partners9 to support fi nancially and level land-use planning. This planning, conservation objectives for each of the zones. 8 The characteristics of the Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Landscape are described in full detail in The Forests of the 1 Worldwide Fund for Nature/World Wildlife Fund. Congo Basin: State of the Forest 2006, pp.198–204. 2 Congo Basin Forest Partnership. This chapter describes lessons learned 9 CI international partners are WWF, the Dian Fossey Gorilla 3 The Virunga National Park (and its surrounding buffer relative to the process of identifying and Fund International (DFGFI), the Jane Goodall Institute zones) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo was (JGI), Innovative Resources Management (IRM), and subsequently added as a 12th Landscape Area. designating macro-zones within one of the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). Local partners 4 CARPE is the Central African Regional Program for the the CBFP landscapes: the Maiko Tayna are the state wildlife authority from the Ministry of the Environment (Phase I began in 1995) with Phase II, begun Environment, the Institut Congolais pour la Conservation in 2003, specifi cally designed to support the 11 priority Kahuzi-Biega (MTKB) Landscape in de la Nature (ICCN); a local federation of NGOs involved in landscapes (Figure 1) of the CBFP. CARPE II is divided into eastern Democratic Republic of Congo conservation and development, the Union des Associations CARPE IIa (October 2003–September 2006) and CARPE IIb de Conservation des Gorilles pour le Développement (October 2006–September 2011). Communautaire à l’Est de la République Démocratique de 5 The Strategic Objective of CARPE II is to reduce the rate of Congo (UGADEC); a fl agship NGO that began community forest degradation and loss of biodiversity by supporting 6 US Forest Service Guide to Integrated Landscape Land Use conservation in the region, the Tayna Gorilla Reserve increased local, national and regional natural resource Planning in Central Africa, 2006, p.3. Project; and a community-managed university providing management capacity. 7 United States Department of Agriculture. three-year degrees in conservation biology, the Tayna

10 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

Figure 1. The development of 11 priority areas for the Congo Basin from the WWF-sponsored workshop in Gabon in 2000. These priority areas became formal “Landscapes” (below), and were targeted to receive substantial funding for natural resource management and conservation. The Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Landscape, ﬁ rst as a priority area, then in its Landscape conﬁ guration, is shown on the right.

technically environmental conservation the expertise gained by the US Forest 2001–2003: The pre-CARPE and improved natural resource Service in managing large forested, zoning context for the MTKB management, and to provide capacity multiple-use landscapes in the United Landscape building in natural resource governance. States…., and… [whereby the USFS Some signifi cant baseline work had Fundamentally important to this effort has attempted]… to tailor this guidance occurred in this landscape before the has been the on-going development to the specifi c context of Central Africa inception of CARPE II in October, 2003. of a comprehensive landscape land- and needs of implementing partners and Already in place were two government- use plan, underpinned by a process government agencies in the region”.10 authorized protected area zones, Maiko whereby CI and partners designated In this chapter, through our lessons and Kahuzi-Biega National Parks, which macro-zones for this landscape learned, we describe how the USFS were offi cially gazetted in the early following US Forest Service (USFS) macro-zone methodology has been 1970s, but the civil wars beginning guidelines, which, “…[were based on] adapted to the context of an eastern in 1996 had effectively made “paper DRC landscape. parks” of all of Maiko NP and most of

Center for Conservation Biology (TCCB). The GTZ (Deutsche Kahuzi-Biega NP (the lowland sector, Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit) is also a Figure 3). GTZ9 had supported ICCN partner in the landscape. 10 See note 6.

11 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Figure 2. Evolving modiﬁ cations of the boundary for the Maiko Tayna Kahuzi- Lesson learned 1: Biega Landscape, from the original boundary in 2003 (black) to its most recent Build upon on-going conﬁ guration in 2007 (red). See text for explanation. local initiatives and adapt landscape land- use planning and zoning to existing local contexts and aspirations. In this particular case, resource management zoning was already being conducted by seven local communities who had developed a methodology with an international NGO (DFGFI) with implementation already occurring in a process largely driven by local stake-holders. These community- based groups had organized themselves into a large federation, and by scaling up a successful participatory mapping process from a flagship programme (Tayna) were already in the process of identifying conservation and development zones in their communal areas. This established zoning work was absorbed into the landscape land-use and macro- zone planning.

programme began with the Tayna Gorilla Reserve (Figure 3, orange area), set in motion by Congolese Traditional Chiefs in 1998 during the civil war, and catalyzed by Pierre Kakule Vwirasihikya, a former ICCN Warden. Kakule and two chiefs (Mwami Stuka and Mwami Mukosasenge) made contact and partnered with DFGFI and, with their support, launched an initiative centred on the establishment of a land-use plan for their territories (collectivités of the Batangi and Bamate Nations, Figure 6, area A), which would harmonize conservation and development. In 2002, 13 village chiefs ratifi ed this plan, after participatory mapping delineated a community- based nature reserve and an economic development zone. Their fi rst petition to the government took advantage of the reformed DRC Forestry Code allowing conservation efforts in the highland WCS9 conducted surveys there in the for private reserves. In 2002, the DRC sector of Kahuzi-Biega NP (about 10 early 1990s before the civil war. government offi cially recognized the percent of the park’s surface area) for In addition to these national park Tayna Gorilla Reserve with a Ministry more than two decades, and maintained zones, DFGFI9 had also fi nancially of Environment Declaration, which a presence there during the DRC civil and technically supported a included a core protection zone of wars. In contrast, there had never been community conservation programme 900 km2 with complete protection. This any international support for Maiko NP in the Landscape since 2001.11 This model, which incorporated a number since its inception in 1970, although of signifi cant development incentives,

11 Supported in part by the USAID-funded U.S. Congressional proved so successful that in 2002, Gorilla Directive.

12 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

Figure 3. Zones for the Landscape during the startup phase, 2003–2005. The UGADEC CBNRM zone is shown in light green. The Tayna Nature Reserve, part of the UGADEC zone, is shown in orange. The dotted red lines represent minor modiﬁ cations that were made to the original Landscape boundary from 2003 and were added to include areas of the UGADEC CBNRM.

six other community associations under a community conservation communities chose to provide complete (formed as separate NGOs) joined the programme supported by DFGFI. In protection for this 900 km2 core Tayna Reserve and created a political the case of the Tayna Reserve, a local protection zone and obtained a Ministry federation called UGADEC.9 UGADEC community was already functioning as of Environment Declaration designating set a goal of establishing a corridor of a local CBNRM group that had received it a Nature Reserve. Further, before the similar community reserves for an area its NGO status from the government. arrival of CARPE support, the UGADEC of more than 10,000 km2, creating a Through fi eld surveys and participatory federation, composed of seven local biological corridor between Maiko and mapping, the Tayna group had identifi ed NGOs, was already functioning as a Kahuzi-Biega NPs (Figures 3 and 6). an intact, forested mountain zone CBNRM group attempting to replicate with only a few local inhabitants that the Tayna Reserve model for their Thus, by 2002, before the onset of contained a signifi cant population of communities located between Maiko CARPE support in the landscape, gorilla and chimpanzee, as well as 12 and Kahuzi-Biega NPs. signifi cant zoning work had been other primate species, Forest elephant, accomplished by local stakeholders Okapi and Congo peafowl. The Tayna

13 Section One: Land-Use Planning

2003–2005: CARPE support Lesson learned 2: Build local capacity 2006: CBNRM macro-zones arrives in the landscape, before attempting broad landscape-scale are expanded and better and macro-zones are initially macro-zoning and land-use planning. defi ned as two new protected focused on protected areas Landscape-level land-use planning and areas are created CI began its leadership of this macro-zoning could not really begin until Early in 2005, the USFS macro-zone local institutions had human resources landscape with the onset of CARPE methodology was introduced into the in place, had developed administrative IIa support in October, 2003, and as CARPE toolkit. By this time as well, capacity, and had acquired the basic Landscape Leader began to deploy infrastructure and equipment to begin signifi cant capacity had been developed a methodology described in the fi rst their operations using short-term interim for the ICCN staff of the two National version of their CARPE planning and planning. In this case, the fi rst two years Parks and the staff of the UGADEC monitoring matrix organized by three of the CARPE programme were devoted federation. The international and local Intermediate Results (IRs): 1) natural to developing this capacity for the staff partners of the CI-led partnership were resources managed sustainably; of two national park zones as well as for regularly meeting to discuss landscape- 2) natural resources governance the staff of a large CBNRM zone forming level activities and assessing how their strengthened; and 3) natural resources a corridor between the national parks. activities in each of the macro-zones monitoring institutionalized. Most of Landscape meetings brought partners should work together over the broader and local institutional actors together the fi rst interventions for this landscape region encompassed by the Landscape. to better understand a landscape-level centred around several important Sub- approach. IRs: Also by April of 2006, UGADEC reached • network of national parks and an important crossroads. A second protected areas established and nature reserve project, the Kisimba- maintained in landscapes; the zones.12 To address these gaps in Ikobo Reserve (970 km2, Figures 4–6) • local community management of capacity, for the fi rst two years, CARPE completed the necessary steps to forests, other natural resources, support was therefore directed towards seek Nature Reserve status, and in and sustainable agriculture benefi ts hiring and training fi eld and management discussions between UGADEC and local livelihoods; staff, providing infrastructural support the Ministry of Environment, it was • policies and laws support CBNRM, and training to develop administrative also decided that the Tayna Reserve decentralization and local-level capacity, providing basic equipment Declaration from 2002 needed to be management; needs for the National Parks and re-confi gured. Both of these “Nature • civil society and NGO sector UGADEC staff, and conducting the fi rst Reserve” declarations were issued capacity to engage in advocacy systematic collection of biological and (re-issued in the case of Tayna), but strengthened; and socio-economic data (the Sub-IRs noted signifi cantly, each was accompanied by • human resources for improved above). a management contract between ICCN natural resources governance are and the local NGO project representing developed. By necessity, management planning for the collectivité and customary these zones took the form of developing powers. In this legal agreement, ICCN In 2003, when CI began leadership of and following one-year interim plans, subcontracted management to the the partnership for this Landscape, and landscape interventions focused local NGO to manage the reserve, with two National Park PA zones and the on the existing three large macro- several co-management conditions UGADEC CBNRM zone (including zones: Maiko NP, Kahuzi-Biega NP, that needed to be met by the local the Tayna Reserve) were in place, but and the UGADEC CBNRM zone (Figure community. Effectively, two protected importantly, there had been very little 3, including the Tayna Reserve). For area zones had evolved from a CBNRM fi nancial and technical support for the latter zone, the fi rst focus was on zone (the UGADEC federation) and these areas (with the exception of the identifying and developing the core the Landscape partnership realized Tayna Reserve), and as a consequence, protection zones that were being that macro-zoning should refl ect this there were few administrative and developed into PA community reserves, evolution in zoning (compare Figures 3 human resource capacities in place. and CARPE mapping refl ected this and 4, for example). As a result it would have been almost emphasis on developing the PA network impossible in this fi rst phase to expand for the landscape (Figure 3).13 or refi ne macro-zoning or develop long-term management plans for any of 12 With the exception of the Tayna Reserve, which did develop long-term management planning in the fi rst two years of proposed core protection zones of UGADEC (Figure 6) CARPE support. were actively participating in the community conservation 13 Despite the fact that the collectivités surrounding the programme.

14 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

To address this evolution of a Lesson learned 3: In a dynamic, large focus from PAs and the UGADEC core CBNRM zone into a PA zone, the Landscape, macro-zones are not static protection zones (Figure 3) to a more Landscape partnership made several entities, and as planning is refi ned, many comprehensive vision for the CBNRM recommendations for macro-zoning that of these zones will evolve. In applying zones of UGADEC (Figure 4, yellow were approved by the local partners, the USFS macro-zone methodology for zone). The partnership assessed its work Protected Areas (PAs) and Community and subsequently sent to the CARPE/ with areas surrounding the National Based Natural Resource Management USAID management team, approved, Parks outside of the UGADEC zone (CBNRM) zones, the macro-zoning and integrated into the landscape-level approach for this Landscape had to take and concluded that we had perhaps land-use planning. First, to refl ect the into account that one type of zone was employed a somewhat too “protected- actual status of the Tayna and Kisimba- evolving into another: some CBNRM area-centric” focus. That is, in the fi rst Ikobo Reserves as two autonomous units were (and still are at present) in the two years, livelihoods and development Protected Areas, each with their own process of creating PAs, which would then assistance for communities surrounding management regimes (despite being be integrated into the national network National Parks were seen through members of the UGADEC federation), of PAs managed by local communities the lens of working in “buffer zones” the Landscape partnership assigned to and the state wildlife authority, the and were developed and directed by each a separate PA status, no different ICCN. Thus, a portion of a CBNRM unit National Park ICCN staff and their would eventually become a PA, while the from the PA status of Maiko and Kahuzi- international partners as, for example, remainder would continue as a CBNRM. Biega National Parks. This was refl ected the road and bridge building outside the Both the new PA and the CBNRM would in the 2006 macro-zone map (Figure 4). need to be considered as separate macro- northeast sector of Maiko NP (Figure 4, The planning team reasoned that zones, expected to develop their own olive zone, Bafwasende) or livelihoods this would facilitate the development management plans specifi cally adapted projects adjacent to the highland sector of individual management plans for to their contexts. of Kahuzi-Biega NP (Figure 4, green Tayna and Kisimba-Ikobo, which would zone, South Kahuzi). Although this did ultimately include micro-zones, such have the advantage of creating local as station locations, ecotourism routes, (Figures 4 and 5). It was understood that goodwill towards state-controlled patrol roads, etc. as each of the collectivités of UGADEC national parks, it was not conducive to eventually developed and created their developing a more focused capacity Outside of the two core protection own reserves, each of these reserves for local communities to manage their zones of these two new reserves, would need to be assigned a new PA own natural resources nearby the two however, were the actual communities macro-zone status. In addition, each national parks. Following this logic, the of each collectivité, governed by the collectivité would eventually develop Landscape Planning Team concluded customary powers sponsoring and its capacity within UGADEC and would that these zones should be identifi ed as managing the reserves (see Figure also develop separate CBNRM macro- CBNRM zones, and two more macro- 6, areas A and C for these two zones following the boundaries of their zones were added to the Landscape, reserves). The Landscape partnership customary governance units. Thus, in Bafwasende and South Kahuzi (compare understood that these communities a sense, for this landscape in 2006, the Figures 3 and 4). The Landscape needed resource management plans to UGADEC macro-zone could be deemed partnership believed that the creation sustainably manage natural resources a “supra-macro-zone”, in that it was of these CBNRM zones would better outside of the core protection zones an area where communities needed of their reserves, and decided that natural resource management planning the UGADEC federation was the best (in addition to their PA planning for community governance structure to the nature reserves) and the fi rst step Lesson learned 4: CBNRM macro- provide this CBNRM planning at that would be to do this together in their zones are not simply buffer zones for National Parks or other protected areas. time. Thus, following the boundary UGADEC federation, followed by an Technical and fi nancial support to develop limits of the collectivités composing expected evolution into separate PA and capacity for community-based natural UGADEC, that is, those communities CBNRM zones based on the traditional resource management should, when and still in the process of developing and boundaries of the collectivités (refl ected if available, not be perceived as projects gazetting nature reserves following the in the 2006 macro-zone map, Figure 4, conceived by and delivered through Tayna model as well as the collectivités and refi ned in the latest 2008 versions, National Park staff working in “buffer managing the Tayna and Kisimba- Figures 5 and 6). zones” of protected areas, but rather Ikobo Nature Reserves, the Landscape should be directly focused on surrounding Planning Team identifi ed one large Thus, from 2003–2005 to 2006, the communities to build their capacity to CBNRM area as the UGADEC CBNRM Landscape partnership enlarged its manage their natural resources.

15 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Figure 4. In 2006, a more comprehensive series of macro-zones were developed that: 1) included the Itombwe CBNRM extension; 2) included the Tayna and Kisimba-Ikobo Nature Reserves as newly created protected areas (blue and lavender); and 3) expanded the boundaries of the UGADEC CBNRM to the communities involved (yellow) in developing nature reserves similar to that of Tayna (shaded green).

16 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

focus attention on the needs of these zone in the 2006 macro-zone map provinces). The Consortium therefore communities in these zones, rather than (Figure 4). This increased the size of re-evaluated the boundaries for continuing a perspective where these the Landscape to just over 10 million Landscape 10, as well as its eight areas were seen as buffer zone projects hectares (10,601,316 ha). macro-zones, based on a new criterion only related to the National Parks. It was that was intended to improve zoning also understood that these new CBNRM By late 2006, the ICCN and local for this Landscape, while at the same zones were “supra-macro-zones”, in the communities, assisted by WWF, time facilitating acceptance of the sense that it was expected that individual succeeded in obtaining a Ministry of landscape-level approach by local, communities or collectivités within Environment Declaration creating the regional, and national government each zone would eventually organize Itombwe Nature Reserve (Figure 6). policy makers: Landscape limits themselves and create smaller, discrete Unlike the Tayna and Kisimba-Ikobo and macro-zone boundaries would macro-zones for which management nature reserve model, in which the be adjusted to follow government plans would eventually be developed core protection zone delineation was administrative units wherever possible (see below). completed by local communities before (i.e., provincial, territorial, collectivité and seeking a Ministerial Declaration, groupement boundaries). the Itombwe Reserve Declaration 2006: The Itombwe Massif is provided for the development of a core The Consortium reasoned that this added to the Landscape and protection zone in the future: it made would be the best way to facilitate the Itombwe Nature Reserve clear that the process of determining acceptance of both a Landscape and is created the fi nal boundaries of the reserve macro-zone approach by government The region of the Itombwe mountains to and the zones it would contain, such entities at all levels (national, provincial the south of Kahuzi-Biega NP (Figure 2) as completely protected core zones, and local) by ensuring that boundaries is a globally important biodiversity mixed-usage zones, and other zones would be understandable to the region for birds, mammals and reptiles, devoted to development, would be government based on the administrative and was originally given a high priority determined by future consultations units with which they were most familiar. for conservation intervention at the with local communities. Because no Because these changes effectively Libreville Conference in 2000 (Figure 1). core protection zone was defi ned in expanded the existing boundaries Because these mountains also included the Itombwe Reserve Declaration, the based largely on biological criteria, a good portion of the Albertine Rift Landscape partnership chose to keep the expansion did not interfere in any Ecoregion (AR) to the east (areas above it as a CBNRM macro-zone for the way with the biological or conservation about 1,500 m, Figure 2), the fi rst purposes of landscape planning, but objectives. The Consortium reasoned MTKB Landscape boundary excluded like the case for the UGADEC CBNRM, that this approach would substantially Itombwe, assuming that conservation expected that a PA macro-zone and one improve governance and long-term interventions there might be sponsored or more CBNRMs would likely evolve management of natural resources at by other initiatives more focused on the there in the future (Figures 4–6). all levels (including local communities) AR. After the inception of CARPE in this Landscape however, it soon became apparent that the Itombwe Massif’s 2007: Adjusting Landscape location in DRC and its proximity to the and macro-zone boundaries Lesson learned 5: If macro-zone and Landscape argued for conservation to refl ect politico- landscape boundaries follow government interventions being delivered there in administrative units and administrative unit boundaries as closely tandem with the rest of the landscape expanding macro-zoning to as possible, the landscape land-use interventions, specifi cally with the WWF the entire landscape plan will more likely be accepted by programme for Kahuzi-Biega. WWF In 2007, with the inception of CARPE government authorities at all levels. A began a programme of participatory IIb, the Landscape partnership macro-zone boundary based simply on ecological features that cuts across conservation for Itombwe (aided by (Consortium in this phase) began vetting a collectivité or groupement (local biodiversity inventories conducted by the concept of landscape-level land- governance units) is not only not well WCS) and in 2006 requested that the use planning with local and provincial understood by government authorities, it Itombwe region be offi cially recognized authorities. It became apparent that runs counter to the concept of community- as part of the MTKB Landscape. our Landscape boundary, having been based natural resource management, in The Itombwe extension was offi cially originally conceived as a biological which it is expected that all members of a recognized by CARPE in October entity, cut across a number of politico- community will participate in developing 2006 and was added as a CBNRM administrative units (including four plans to manage their natural resources.

17 Section One: Land-Use Planning

and would ensure that these units going to those members near the forest, Landscape and believed it essential remained meaningful well into the rather than all members within the for the process of landscape land- future. Importantly, this approach groupement. use planning to provide a macro-zone also minimizes competing claims designation for all areas throughout the between and within local governance These adjustments resulted in making Landscape (compare Figures 4 and 5). units. For example, if a CBNRM the Landscape boundary slightly larger For example, following this approach macro-zone is designed around an (Figure 2, compare yellow and red and respecting administrative unit ecological characteristic, such as a boundaries), and as a consequence, boundaries, we also expanded the forest block, but that zone overlaps two also enlarged some of the CBNRM Kahuzi South CBNRM macro-zone groupements, they are likely to make macro-zones to follow more clearly (compare the 2006 macro-zone map competing claims over the incoming the boundaries of groupements and with that for 2007, Figures 4 and 5). resources unless both are included. collectivités (compare the western Similarly, if the forest block only covers boundary of the UGADEC CBNRM It is important to note that these 50 percent of a groupement, ensuring macro-zone, Figures 4 and 5). macro-zone designations do not imply that the CBNRM macro-zone includes that ﬁ nancial resources are at present the entire groupement will avoid internal Simultaneously with the Landscape available for all zones or that they claims that resources targeted on boundary revision, the Consortium represent a shift in areas of intervention natural resource management are only evaluated all interventions in the and responsibility under CARPE funding (and the matching funding provided by Figure 5. The current (2007) conﬁ guration of eight macro-zones for the partners). Rather, they represent target Landscape. Figures below show sizes in hectares of each zone. areas for future interventions and, for the purposes of the landscape land-use plan, indicate that CBNRM planning will be necessary for all non-protected area zones in the Landscape. To provide an example, under CARPE-sponsored funding, one Landscape partner, WWF, is currently undertaking interventions in the Kahuzi South CBNRM macro-zone. With the inception of the CARPE programme, this was originally conceived as the buffer zone for Kahuzi- Biega National Park (Figure 4) and the

Lesson learned 6: An effective landscape land-use plan is a guide for the future sustainable management and use of resources throughout the entire Landscape and, as such, with stakeholder participation, it should identify macro- zones for the entire area of the Landscape. Bearing in mind that macro-zones will likely change and evolve, and irrespective of whether immediate ﬁ nancial and technical resources are available, a landscape land- use plan, through macro-zone designation, should target all areas in a landscape for future interventions. In the case of CBNRM zones, this provides a series of important community targets for government and international partners such that these communities eventually receive capacity building to enable them to develop resource management plans.

18 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

Figure 6. How some CBRNM macro-zones for the Landscape are in reality, “supra-macro-zones” (see text) in that they are zones in which it is expected that individual communities will develop as separate macro-zones with their own management plans. The ﬁ gures below display the actual eight collectivités (two are Territories, H and G) composing the UGADEC zone and the Itombwe Nature Reserve, and show the development of the Bushema forest CBNRM macro-zone from the Kahuzi-South CBNRM “supra-macro zone”.

19 Section One: Land-Use Planning

earliest interventions were seen through local state or community institutions the sustainable use of their natural the lens of this globally important having the capacity to even begin resources outside the protected area. protected area. With a change in operations (exceptions: the highland perspective by 2006, that an entire set sector of Kahuzi-Biega supported by During the time the Consortium has of collectivités surrounding the National GTZ; and Tayna, supported by DFGFI), been working in this Landscape, we can Park would at some time in the future nearly two years of support went into now see, with the clarity of hindsight, need capacity building in community- local capacity building and convening the that we evolved from an approach based natural resource management partners and stakeholders to familiarize focused on protected areas to a more (Figure 5), WWF, with limited resources them with landscape-level activities. comprehensive approach that considers available, began work in one area, Third, as the USFS land-use planning both the present and future needs the Bushema Forest (Figure 6), which, methodology became integrated into of all communities living in the entire in accordance with local collectivité the CARPE programme and as CBNRM Landscape. This evolution was catalyzed boundaries, could organize itself as a groups in this Landscape began to by inputs from the CARPE/USAID CBNRM macro-zone. Under the current create offi cially recognized protected management team, as the expected fi ve-year agreement with CARPE, it areas, the macro-zones being used, results (IRs and Sub-IRs) were adapted would not be expected that WWF which at the time focused largely on and refi ned and as new methodologies (and the Consortium) could widen its protected areas, were re-defi ned with became available for our toolkits, as, intervention to an area of 1,533,181 ha, a much broader emphasis on CBNRM for example, when the USFS land-use the new confi guration for Kahuzi South zones. Fourth, as the landscape planning planning methodology helped to refi ne CBNRM zone (Figure 5). Despite this, process emerged from a smaller project our thinking. Importantly, though, the the Consortium maintains that the new planning team and was vetted by evolution of our approach was most confi guration for this zone, following government policy makers, macro-zones often catalyzed by our local Congolese administrative boundaries, is the most needed to be adjusted to refl ect the partners who, with their vision for land appropriate way to go forward in boundaries of local governance units, use and management and a desire partnership with government offi cials. while continuing to refl ect important to protect their important biological Thus, this new (ideal) zone provides a ecological zones. And fi nally, to provide heritage, catalyzed many revisions. target for resource governance for the for a comprehensive land-use plan, all It would be disingenuous to suggest future, not a revision of our consortium areas of the Landscape were given a that at the onset of the programme, responsibilities under CARPE funding. macro-zone designation (or at best, a the Landscape partnership developed This example also demonstrates the “supra-macro-zone” designation). a comprehensive land-use plan and utility of using the name “supra-macro- then went forward and implemented zone” for the Kahuzi South CBNRM One of the most important lessons it, including the designation of macro- zone (also see discussion above for the learned for this Landscape was that the zones. In reality, this has been very much UGADEC CBNRM zone, and Figure 6), planning process had to introduce the an organic process relying on inputs and which is an area where formal, smaller concept that one type of macro-zone, insights from many sources, and perhaps CBNRM zones could eventually develop the CBNRM zone, had (and continues the most important lesson learned is under the vision of a comprehensive to have) portions of its area morphing that the process takes time. Security landscape land-use plan. into protected areas under initiatives led issues, complex and costly logistics, by local communities. The Consortium a new national government and even believes that zoning should refl ect this new regional conservation initiatives, Summary and therefore assigned these new areas as well as limitations with fi nancial and As the above “historical” narrative to the status of PA macro-zones. This technical resources, all conspired to slow the evolution of macro-zoning in this has the advantage of putting a focus down the process. But in retrospect, Landscape has hopefully underscored, on the development of an individual what may have seemed to be delays the development of a series of macro- management plan for each of these PAs along the way may have in fact provided zones for a comprehensive landscape which, in keeping with their government valuable time for the Consortium and land-use plan has clearly been an status as a nature reserve managed by its local partners to assess, refl ect, and iterative and adaptive process. First, the both communities and the state wildlife adaptively respond to the challenges process needed to absorb and include authority, would allow them to develop of the enormously complex task of the important community initiatives a management plan not dissimilar to developing an enduring plan for both already underway when the CARPE- that of a national park. Meanwhile, the conservation of biodiversity and the supported CI-led partnership began its for the CBNRM area, the community sustainable use of natural resources work in the Landscape. Second, when can marshal its efforts to develop a in an area larger than Belgium and the the CI-led partnership began, with no management plan that provides for Netherlands combined. '

20 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

Case Study 2 Lessons Learned from the Sangha Tri-National Landscape

Leonard Usongo

Introduction TNS Landscape. It enables the TNS Tri-National Landscape. Indeed, the In December 2005, partners of the partners to communicate with other development of LUPs for the priority Sangha Tri-National Landscape (Tri- stakeholders in a comprehensive landscapes in the Congo basin is one National de Sangha – TNS), manner concerning conservation and of the critical elements recommended (primarily WWF, WCS, GTZ and development issues in this important by COMIFAC (Commission of Forest national government forest forest landscape. Looking at the overall Ministers of Central Africa) to improve administration staff from Cameroon, forest landscape and its management the management of transboundary Central African Republic (CAR) and from a sustainable development conservation programmes. the Republic of Congo) held meetings perspective provides new insights for to discuss thematic issues to be what is at stake in the long run. captured in the Land-Use Plan (LUP) Vision for the Sangha document for the TNS Landscape. The First of all, this plan is a state-of-the-art Tri-National Landscape purpose of the consultative process document that describes the Sangha The vision for the TNS Landscape funded by USAID/CARPE was to Tri-National forest vegetation types, the includes the following objectives: allow key partners to exchange views present land uses and the management The TNS will be a forest landscape on the best strategies to address the strategies employed by the various where wildlife can move freely without multitude of conservation challenges actors in the different segments of the fear of being hunted, as illustrated in in the Landscape. The meetings Landscape. It brings together existing Figure 1 which shows the cross-border promoted dialogue and collaboration knowledge concerning vegetation types, movements of radio-collared Forest especially among the national animal populations and movements, elephants over their home ranges. It government forest administration road infrastructure and human will also be a place where the rights staffs of the three countries. The settlements, land-use zoning maps and of indigenous peoples are respected success of the implementation of overlays, conservation management and where local communities and the land-use plan strongly hinges with the involvement of surrounding indigenous peoples will be able to on the level of collaboration among local communities, law enforcement continue to practise their traditional life national government offi cials such as and infrastructure development. These styles with all stakeholders participating the conservators working together to key parameters concerning land in and benefi ting from the economic address hunting, the bushmeat trade use defi ne the context of landscape development of the area. and other cross-border conservation management and help identify the weak issues. spots in current management. The plan Another important element of the aims to foster existing transboundary management vision for the TNS is collaboration by describing local to ensure that forestry and wildlife Relevance of the land-use land-use strategies and policy issues exploitation as well as agricultural plan contained in forest and wildlife production are in balance with the The LUP provides broad management legislation, in particular issues related natural environment and form the guidelines for implementation of activities to land-use (access) rights of local and foundation for long-term sustainable promoting sustainable management of indigenous peoples. Furthermore, this development in the region. Industrial natural resources with the participation document will support long-term funding forestry activity is a key component in of all local stakeholders. The document initiatives such as the establishment of this balance as it provides sustainable describes forest vegetation types and the Sangha Tri-National Trust Fund. revenues and employment for the other bio-geographical features, land national economies of the three uses and management strategies Finally, the existence of a land-use countries. Likewise, wildlife is a critical as applied by the different actors plan provides technical, institutional asset, not only because of its intrinsic in the different segments within the and political backing for the Sangha value, but also due to its contribution

21 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Figure 1. Elephant home range patterns

22 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

Figure 2. Administrative features to local development and people’s livelihoods.

The Landscape The Sangha Tri-National Landscape includes a core protection zone in which human activities are either forbidden or controlled and a peripheral zone in which participatory and sustainable management of wildlife and forest resources is practised. The core protection zone of the Sangha Tri- National comprises the National Parks of Lobéké (Republic of Cameroon), Dzanga-Ndoki (Central African Republic) and Nouabalé-Ndoki (Congo Republic). The peripheral zone includes production forests, sport hunting concessions, community hunting zones and agroforestry areas.

The TNS area is about 35,000 km2 and is made up of Guinean-Congolese lowland forests rich in African Acajou and large mammals. The forest still covers some 95 percent of the landscape including swamp forests and natural forest clearings. The forest harbours important populations of Forest elephants, Western lowland gorillas, chimpanzees and Bongos. Whereas some 30 years ago the human population density in the area was very low, averaging less then 1 person/km2, The land-use planning for rubber exploitation. The human the human population has now risen process occupation of the area dates back many to about 4–5 inhabitants/km2. Local A formal collaborative management centuries. More realistically, we can say administrative centres have grown and, agreement was signed by the three that the process of consciously planning more importantly, the forest exploitation governments in 2000 and later ratifi ed land use started during the 1980s when companies have established relatively by the respective parliaments. This researchers doing biological surveys in important settlements deep inside the agreement provides the offi cial basis the area confi rmed its importance for forests. The building of an intensive for developing a comprehensive biodiversity and developed a vision of network of logging roads has opened up vision and LUP for the entire TNS establishing a cross-border tri-national the region further and has encouraged Landscape. However, the process of conservation area. Over the past 20 immigration into this zone rich in land-use planning started a long time years, this vision has gradually been natural resources. Thus unprecedented ago when governments fi rst started to translated into concrete actions on the development dynamics have taken root give out forest concessions during the ground with institutional mechanisms in the TNS Landscape. mid-20th century, or even longer ago put in place for coordination of when the French and Belgian colonial transboundary activities. The various governments gave out large concessions studies carried out have contributed

23 Section One: Land-Use Planning

immensely to a better understanding of the 12 selected priority landscapes in for the management plans especially the ecological and social dynamics in the Congo Basin. protecting biodiversity hotspots the region. The signing of a tri-national found in logging concessions and the accord in 2000 by the governments of 1990–2000: Thorough assessment inclusion of local people in management Cameroon, Congo and CAR provided of the human-driven pressures and processes. the much needed institutional platform other threats to natural resources of for the establishment of the Sangha the region. Subsequent gazetting and 1997 to the present day: Efforts are Tri-National Landscape. Looking designating of national parks, agro- being made by different technical back 15 years, tremendous progress forestry zones, community forests and partners, in particular GTZ, WWF and has been made in the process of hunting areas, professional hunting WCS, to support local communities building management institutions and zones and forest concessions – all in managing community forestry mechanisms for managing the TNS with the obligation of elaborating and community hunting zones. For Landscape. Listed below are the steps management plans following a clear set example, in Cameroon, WWF and that have been taken in establishing the of management, use and conservation GTZ assisted the government with TNS Landscape and in developing the principles. Land-use planning exercises the creation of six community hunting land-use plan: were carried out in a participatory zones around the Lobéké National fashion with the consultation of Park. About US$100,000 in revenues 1985–1995: Completion of various different stakeholders, notably local has been generated each year by biological and socio-economic studies communities and indigenous forest communities from trophy hunting in with results indicating the conservation peoples living in the area. The land-use their hunting zones. Most of the income importance of the TNS Landscape. planning process was carried out using is used for development projects such different approaches as stipulated by as the construction of clean water 1999: Organization of the fi rst summit the national forestry laws of the three infrastructure within the communities. of Central African Heads of State in countries. Yaoundé and the signing by member 1999 to the present day: Increased States of the Yaoundé Declaration to 2000–2005: Signing of different collaboration among national forestry promote sub-regional collaboration for institutional agreements by the and wildlife services and conservation sustainable management of natural governments of the three countries and development partners in developing resources in the Congo basin to namely a transboundary agreement joint activities for the cross-border support economic development of the to establish the Sangha Tri-National management of protection, policing and region. The Yaoundé Summit led to the conservation programme, an accord development initiatives. Following the creation of the Commission of Forest on joint anti-poaching operations and 1999 Yaoundé Heads of State Summit Ministers of Central Africa (COMIFAC) an agreement on free circulation of and the subsequent establishment with the mandate to coordinate all staff. The different accords signed of COMIFAC and the signature of sub-regional conservation initiatives by TNS governments are meant to the TNS transboundary agreement in under the umbrella of the Congo Basin strengthen sub-regional collaboration 2000, tremendous progress has been Forest Partnership (CBFP). The CBFP in the coordination and management of made by local partners, including local brings together COMIFAC national activities within the TNS Landscape. government administrations in joint governments, donor agencies, research implementation of fi eld activities. There institutions, the private-sector forest 1998 to the present day: Development are numerous stakeholder agreements industry and international conservation of management plans for the three involving local communities, forest organizations who collaborate in national parks and for all the forestry administrations and private-sector different domains to foster sustainable concessions under the responsibility operators such as logging companies. natural resource management, and obligation of each concession These agreements promote economic development and the policy holder (forestry departments for the consultations among stakeholders over and governance reforms required national parks and forest companies resource use, benefi t sharing and equity to promote greater participation of for the forest concessions). Each in access rights for local Bantus and local communities. The CBFP also stakeholder has the responsibility for indigenous forest peoples to certain promotes the establishment of long- developing management plans for areas for particular activities. term funding mechanisms such as trust each respective forest management funds to support the management of unit (FMU). Each country’s forestry 2005 to the present day: Creation conservation programmes especially for laws provide certain recommendations of the TNS Trust Fund governed

24 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

by a multi-stakeholder board and were to: (i) elaborate the planning peoples over resources must be the elaboration of a comprehensive process for development of the LUP; secured and offi cially granted. Since it is vision for the long-term sustainable (ii) create an inventory of available the fi rst to cover a Landscape involving management and use of the entire information as well as identifying three countries, it is expected that the Landscape. An estimated 22 million data gaps; (iii) determine the fi nancial TNS LUP, once approved, will generate Euros is needed to ensure effective and other resources required for the debate on a number of policy issues: operation of the trust fund. To date, consultation process; and (iv) agree 1. Regulation of the access of local 11.5 million Euros have been raised on a common vision for the LUP. An communities and indigenous through contributions from various independent consultant with an in-depth forest peoples to natural donors. An executive director has knowledge of the area was unanimously resources in the national parks; been appointed to manage the selected by the tri-national partners to operations of the trust fund. An pilot the consultation process including 2. Mechanisms for sharing the administrative board is in place and the production of the fi rst LUP draft. All benefi ts of forest revenues consists of representatives of national parties agreed during the workshop to amongst local communities; governments, key conservation NGOs, work closely with the hired consultant in and representatives of the private sector providing the information required from 3. Participation of local communities and civil society. the respective Landscape segments. in parks management; At the same time, GIS experts from 4. Capacity building and integration The establishment of the TNS Trust the different projects operating in of the national parks authorities in Fund’s governance-fi nance framework the area were expected to produce the management of the tri-national and the development of the TNS land- generic maps of land-use practices, park; use plan are parallel processes, though human settlements, fl agship wildlife not intrinsically linked as the latter is species distributions and other relevant 5. Re-investment of revenues purely technical in nature. The TNS Trust information to illustrate and describe the generated from ecotourism and Fund is a fi nancial mechanism to ensure TNS Landscape. Several drafts of the other income-generating activities long-term funding of fi eld activities and LUP document were produced by the for management of the TNS management of TNS Landscape. This consultant and submitted for review by Landscape; innovative funding mechanism, when the CTPE. The document was fi nalized fully operational, will serve as a model after two years of consultations and 6. Establishment by the TNS for long-term funding of protected review by the CTPE. In September Trust Fund Board of an effi cient areas and complex transboundary 2008, the fi nal draft of the TNS LUP was and transparent system for conservation programmes in the Congo forwarded to the respective national disbursement of funds for the tri- basin. governments for review and approval. national park’s activities; The document, once approved by the three governments, will constitute 7. Agreement on trophy hunting, Development of the land-use the offi cial document used by tri- quotas and wildlife species; plan document national partners to orientate land-use The elaboration of the TNS LUP started management actions in the Landscape. 8. Implementation of tri-national with a one-day workshop bringing accords on free circulation of TNS together major players in the fi eld, The LUP document proposes innovative staff, anti-poaching patrols, and notably the forest administrations solutions to many management the establishment and functioning represented by the conservators of problems in the Landscape. Some of a tri-national brigade. the three national parks and technical of the proposed solutions require partners including WWF, WCS and GTZ. changes in the perceptions and the The decision to convene a planning administrative approach to national Lessons learned meeting was taken jointly during bi- parks and the surrounding zones by the annual meetings of the TNS committee forest administrations of the different Land-use planning process for planning and implementation of tri- countries. For example, protected area As we have seen, the process of land- national activities, known by its French authorities must accept that success in use planning in the TNS Landscape has acronym CTPE (Comité Technique managing the national parks will depend not been a fully consciously planned de Planifi cation et Exécution). The on support from surrounding local exercise from the beginning. Indeed, objectives of the planning workshop communities. The rights of indigenous this would not have been possible as

25 Section One: Land-Use Planning

national policies and the sub-regional stakeholders, has proved to be a areas. The business plan should include context have evolved greatly over slow process. The ownership of the information on conservation investments the past decade to fi nally provide process was more fully anchored with outside the protected areas, notably the enabling framework and policy the conservation partners than with in production forests where most of environment that allows for such a far- the national park conservators and the threats originate. Pulling together reaching exercise. The national forestry the national forest administrations. technical information required to and wildlife laws of the three countries The government staff must feel fully determine the costs of operations for differ in many areas. For example, there involved in the process and possess TNS parks was a long process. None is an offi cial quota for sport hunting of the needed technical capacities to of the sites had detailed business plans elephants in Cameroon while the law understand the management vision addressing various management issues prohibits elephant hunting in CAR and articulated in the plan. Technical within their respective Landscape Congo. There are currently no laws or partners such as WWF, GTZ and segments. The CTPE, in consultation policies to control cross-border trade WCS must dedicate time and effort with national governments and the main in timber, wildlife and other non-timber to training national counterparts in conservation organizations working in forest products. Such sub-regional participatory management processes. the TNS Landscape, agreed to hire a laws, when put in place, will help Finding time with technical project staff team of consultants who helped with control on-going illegal trade in various to work intensively on the document the development, and more importantly, forest resources notably bushmeat and is a naturally diffi cult and time- the harmonization of the business plans ivory. It is extremely important for the consuming process. Therefore project for the TNS parks. This information three countries to harmonize certain teams must agree on a calendar for was consolidated into the overall TNS laws and policies to ensure effective joint planning meetings, including Landscape business plan which now implementation of the land-use plan. consultative meetings with different forms the basis of the calculation of Without such harmonization, there will local stakeholders. investment costs for the trust fund. be continuous discrepancies on issues dealing with the sanctions of illegal The conservation and development Another critical factor for establishing practices, remuneration of forestry staff partners who have been involved in the trust fund was the engagement and benefi t-sharing mechanisms for the TNS from the beginning had a of the national governments and local communities. landscape or eco-regional vision from their relevant ministries. It became the start. This larger vision helped push obvious during the initial phase of Also, for land-use planning and the process forward as all key players negotiations between national forest implementation to be meaningful, had a common understanding of the administrations and conservation conservation and development partners nature of the key issues, the relevance partners that both sets of actors need to be well established inside of the LUP and a long-term vision for differed in their vision and objectives the Landscape working together management actions. for the trust fund. Another problem in a relationship of trust with local was the decision to place the funds government services. All this takes Establishing a trust fund offshore given the fi nancial insecurity time. Even between the three main One of the critical elements for and political instability prevalent within conservation and development the development of a trust fund the sub-region. It took more than two partners in the TNS (WWF, WCS and is the availability of business and years for conservation partners and GTZ) it has taken a number of years management plans for the protected donor agencies to convince national to develop suffi cient understanding and mutual trust to be willing to freely Figure 3. Organigram of the TNS Trust Fund share information, to sometimes agree to disagree and, above all, Local Consultative to share successes and failures. Committee The implementation of the CARPE Board of Lobéké programme in the context of the Congo Administration Basin Forest Partnership has helped Local Consultative Private Investment Technical Consultative Committee bring partners closer together. Bank (off-shore) Committee Nouabalé N. Small The fi nalization of the draft TNS LUP Management Unit Local Consultative and vision ready for submission to Committee governments, COMIFAC and other Dzanga

26 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

governments to place the funds were able to map the migrations of the develop ecotourism and cultural tourism offshore. Political endorsement of this local pygmy groups before proposing ventures including activities such as decision by governments has been use and management regimes. In this traditional net hunting, bird watching crucial for the success of the process. aspect, Nouabalé Ndoki is different and guided tours of habituated gorillas. The three governments discussed and from Dzanga-Sangha (CAR) and Lobéké The project also plans to create approved the mechanisms for managing (Cameroon) because the attribution of community forest areas surrounding the funds in order to facilitate smooth forest and wildlife concessions in the the national parks as part of the on- disbursement and ensure transparency latter two had taken place long before going land-use planning process. and accountability. The management the arrival of the conservation partners. In Congo, WCS is assisting local structure of the trust fund is illustrated communities to manage community in Figure 3. The Board of Administration It is therefore recommended that wildlife zones established around and Executive Director have been in consultations with local stakeholders, the CIB (Congolaise Industrielle des place since 2006. Disbursements of the especially local communities and Bois) logging concessions in Kabo. funds to the three project sites will be indigenous forest peoples, should be The communities are being trained in coordinated by a technical committee done at the beginning of the planning management techniques especially for that approves work plans submitted by process. There were problems in the organized subsistence group hunting, the three national parks. TNS with getting local populations basic wildlife monitoring, and the to buy in because they felt cheated exploitation and commercialization Overall, the establishment of a and marginalized. Local communities’ of other non-timber forest products. transboundary trust fund involving disagreements with certain already- Other community forests will be several countries is a long and classifi ed zones seriously impacted established in forests surrounding protracted process that requires political management actions on the ground. the Nouabalé Ndoki National Park. commitment and understanding from The overall co-management vision the benefi ciary countries. Wide-ranging There is no doubt signifi cant progress in the TNS Landscape is to ensure expertise is needed to produce a has been made over the years within greater integration of the surrounding comprehensive business plan that the three TNS project sites to integrate local population in natural resource refl ects the costs of conservation local communities into natural resource management processes, facilitate operations in the area. Another management initiatives. In Lobéké, access to resources, support alternative important factor is the support of community hunting zones have been income-generating activities, build donor agencies and the international established. Technical assistance is strong local management institutions conservation community to mobilize being provided to local communities and facilitate benefi t-sharing funds. The estimated funds needed to in various resource management areas mechanisms for local communities create the TNS Trust Fund are yet to such as fi nance management and the from revenues generated from the be fully secured even after eight years implementation of micro-development exploitation of wildlife and timber, as of launching this initiative. Given these projects. Local communities generate well as from ecotourism. diffi culties, national governments and signifi cant revenues from trophy hunting conservation agencies need to explore by leasing their hunting territories to Dzanga-Sangha conservation partners other funding mechanisms such as professional sport hunters. Revenues are working out strategies to gazette carbon payments for environmental generated are used for village more community forests in order to services to secure the needed level of development projects such as the obtain property rights over wildlife funding for the establishment of trust construction of wells, community health resources for the Bantu and Baka funds for large complex transboundary projects and children’s education. Land- populations. Failure of these efforts conservation programmes. use plans have also been developed will likely lead to continued tensions for community hunting areas and local and a lack of support from surrounding Participatory management communities are being assisted to communities for conservation. This, in From the beginning, the conservation secure additional community forests. turn, could lead to increased hunting partners have always been very According to Cameroonian law, and other illegal activities in the park conscious of the spatial use of the communities can acquire 5,000 ha of and surrounding areas. Landscape by the indigenous pygmy forests to exploit timber using low- groups living in the TNS. It is of special intensity timber extraction methods. What trends can we see? interest how, in the large, undeveloped In CAR, WWF and GTZ are assisting The systematic disappearance of and sparsely populated zone of local communities, notably indigenous forests and biodiversity in most parts Nouabalé Ndoki, WCS and its partners forest peoples (Baka pygmies), to of the TNS Landscape such as in

27 Section One: Land-Use Planning

southeast Cameroon and in southwest have been achieved. Overall levels prices to their workers and other local CAR has come to a halt, and since are, nevertheless, still far too high. residents. In Congo, CIB has invested 2000 a new and more responsible Most logging companies operating in numerous projects to reduce hunting forest management paradigm is in the region actively support anti- and the bushmeat trade including emerging. The level of extraction poaching operations. In Cameroon, anti-poaching operations and, in of timber from the natural forest an Italian logging company provides collaboration with WCS, in alternative has stabilized to a somewhat more about US$30,000 per year of direct income-generating projects for local sustainable level. Due to efforts from fi nancing to anti-poaching operations. communities. both the private sector and projects, The company has constructed cold- localized reductions in the large-scale storage units in Libongo, their main In northern Congo, a major on-going extraction of bushmeat from the forest base, to sell beef and fi sh at subsidized challenge is that of previously unlogged forests being brought into production Figure 4. Logging concessions with corresponding dramatic socio- demographic changes augmenting the extraction of bushmeat. Logging operations attract many people into forested areas in search of job opportunities. Individuals unable to fi nd employment generally turn to hunting in the forest in order to earn a living. The timber business also stimulates local economies with small businesses and thriving local markets to help supply the workers of these companies.

The conservation status of the core protection zone, i.e., the three national parks, has improved greatly over the past ten years, with signiﬁ cant increases in wildlife counts in natural forest clearings (baïs). This positive trend can be attributed in particular to the greater participation of logging companies and, to some extent, local communities in anti-poaching and surveillance operations. These local stakeholders are held accountable by law for management of their forest units.

However in a number of areas there is increasing disturbance of wildlife and wildlife movements due to unregulated artisanal mining and forest exploitation activities and the poaching it engenders (northern section of Dzanga NP, northern border section of Nouabalé Ndoki NP, north-eastern section of Lobéké NP). The growth of industrial urban centres deep inside the forest has been the main driver in population trends in the Landscape, and whilst these centres may not continue to grow exponentially as during the past 10

28 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

years, these centres will continue to be sector. Most logging companies have entire Landscape will depend on social a main driving force in illegal resource approved management plans that cohesion and inclusive and equitable extraction and local development within address biodiversity issues in their economic development. The lack of the TNS Landscape. Of the estimated concessions. The forest administration revenue sharing is an emerging and 191,000 inhabitants, 33,000 live in and local councils in particular have urgent issue. Conservation partners logging towns. now been forced to decentralize have over the past years invested decision-making systems for the heavily in working with local community There is an emerging trend and distribution of timber and wildlife groups and the private sector to willingness of the different actors revenues to local communities. In enhance community-based wildlife to collaborate, and relationships Cameroon, several local NGOs play management. There is an urgent need between local communities, the an important advocacy role in support for strengthening the conservation private sector, local governments of transparency in the distribution and and development dialogue, involving and conservation and development management of community forest political leaders, government NGOs have signifi cantly improved. revenues. This process is extremely institutions, the private sector, Mutual confi dence is growing. This important as local communities will community representatives and civil can be explained by the multitude of not support conservation programmes society organizations operating within on-going stakeholders’ consultation if their interests are not taken into the Sangha Tri-National Landscape. meetings which have allowed everyone consideration. to be suffi ciently informed about the objectives of the TNS Landscape, The logging industry’s lack of Acknowledgements including the roles and responsibilities contribution to local economic and This article was written thanks to of the technical partners. The various social development in the villages and contributions from GTZ, WWF, WCS stakeholder platforms between forest district centres remains one of the and other technical partners working in administrations, the private sector and most signifi cant failures for sustainable the TNS Landscape. The contributions local communities have contributed development in the region. The forestry of the national forest administrations to building trust and collaboration. sector constitutes at least one-third of the three countries, especially the Different stakeholders have signed of the national economies of the TNS conservators, were highly appreciated. several Memoranda of Understanding to countries and the fi gure is even higher Equally gratifying was the technical and implement joint activities or to address for the Republic of Congo. According fi nancial support to the TNS Landscape problems affecting their relations. to national forestry laws, 10 percent of planning and development process from Some of these agreements involve total forest revenues must be shared CARPE/USAID, German Development safeguarding the interests and providing with local communities. In southeast Bank (BMZ), German Investment benefi ts to local communities and Cameroon, this should amount to Agency (KFW), Agence Française de indigenous forest peoples. roughly US$500,000 of timber revenue. Développement (AFD), World Bank, EU, Unfortunately, due to poor benefi t- UNESCO/Central Africa World Heritage International pressures from donors, sharing mechanisms and other illegal Forest Initiative programmes, Fonds international governments and markets practices, the communities receive less Français pour l’Environnement Mondial for more sustainably produced products than US$100,000 of this amount. This (FFEM) and other donor agencies. ' have led to greater interactions between should ring alarm bells as, in the long forest administrations and the private term, maintaining the integrity of the

29 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Case Study 3 Lessons Learned from the Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Landscape

Jef Dupain, with Ann Degrande, Paya De Marcken, Joanna Elliot and Janet Nackoney

Introduction: Landscape land- The Landscape Land-Use Planning Equateur province of the Democratic use planning (LLUP) methods used in the CARPE Republic of Congo (DRC). The MLW The objective of a land-use planning Maringa/Lopori-Wamba (MLW) Landscape boundaries are the strategy is to outline a procedure to Landscape are based on the HCP watersheds of the Lopori and Maringa consolidate the needs of local people with adaptations infl uenced by the Rivers. Forests dominate over 90 and biodiversity into a Land-Use Plan United States Forest Service (USFS) percent of the landscape; about one (LUP), the implementation of which Integrated Land Use Planning document quarter of these forests are swamp and will render the landscape ecologically, (December 2006).2 Over the last four fl oodplain forests (or forested wetlands), socially and economically viable. years, through continuous feedback refl ecting the landscape’s low relief and adaptive management, the (just under 300 m on average) and high A CARPE landscape is synonymous LLUP strategy has been adapted, rainfall (more than 1.9 m annually). Rural with an African Wildlife Foundation refi ned and strengthened. Although complexes, i.e,. human-dominated (AWF) Heartland. AWF developed the a single universal land-use planning areas, mostly farms and plantations, Heartland Conservation Process (HCP) methodology cannot exist due to the comprise less than seven percent of the as the framework to plan, implement, variability of unique local characteristics landscape. and measure conservation and social across landscapes, AWF’s work in MLW impacts at a landscape scale. As part so far demonstrates a robust structure Ecological characteristics of the HCP, AWF uses a landscape- and approach as a useful model for The ecological value of the MLW level planning process which was LLUP elsewhere in the Congo Basin. Landscape is very high and globally developed with help from The Nature signifi cant as MLW comprises a Conservancy (TNC)1 to work with In this paper we begin by presenting an sizeable portion of the Congo Basin partners and stakeholders to establish overview of the MLW Landscape. This forest ecosystem and is home to conservation goals for each Heartland, is followed by a review of select LLUP diverse and important species, to identify threats to conservation methods based on Phase II of CARPE including the endangered Bonobo as targets, and to design threat-reduction (incorporating Phase IIA from 2004–6 well as the Giant pangolin, the Golden activities. AWF has used this process and initial learning from Phase IIB, cat, the Forest elephant, the Congo to develop strategies to measure and scheduled to run from 2007–11). The peacock, and many other rare primates, monitor impacts on conservation fi nal section presents a summary of amphibians and reptiles. The Landscape targets and to set priorities for future lessons learned. has an extremely diverse avifauna and threat-targeted interventions in each abundant fi sh species. The biodiversity Heartland. Although the AWF HCP value of this Landscape continues to is an iterative process that takes Background: The Maringa/ be high despite the negative impacts different forms depending on the local Lopori-Wamba Landscape of forest conversion, slash-and-burn conditions of each Landscape or agriculture, commercial and illegal Heartland, the primary components of Physical characteristics logging, and the bushmeat trade. the process remain consistent across The Maringa/Lopori-Wamba (MLW) all Heartlands. Landscape spans 74,000 km2 and Socio-economic conditions covers the four territories of Basankusu, Recent spatial modelling on human 1 In the early stages of developing the HCP, AWF borrowed Bongandanga, Djolu and Befale in the distribution suggests that human heavily from TNC’s Site Conservation Planning process as described in “Site Conservation Planning: A Framework density is on average eight people per for Developing and Measuring the Impact of Effective 2 See http://carpe.umd.edu/resources/Documents/USFS%20 Biodiversity Conservation Strategies, April 2000”. Landscape%20Guide%20Dec2006.pdf.

30 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

km² (Kibambe, 2007),3 with estimated mainly present in the north, on the Equateur Province was severely densities of seven, seven, ten and axis of Bongandanga-Basankusu, and impacted during six years of war and nine people per km² respectively in the southwards in the Lomako Forest. Small unrest (1998–2004) and today remains territories of Befale, Djolu, Basankusu groups of pygmies are scattered in the one of the poorest and least developed and Bongandanga. The total human northern part of the Landscape and a parts of the country. Mainly dependent population in the MLW Landscape is concentration of Kitiwalists (Jehovah’s on wild resources for their livelihoods, estimated at 587,000. Witnesses) resides mainly between the local communities have indicated a headwater areas of the Lomako and strong desire to be included as partners Ethnic groups living in the Landscape Yokokala rivers. The Kitiwalists retreated in the development of improved are mainly Mongo people and their into the forest years ago and essentially natural resource management in their relatives of the Mongando ethnic do not accept any jurisdiction from the landscape. group. The Ngombe ethnic group is DRC government (Sifa Nduire, 2008).4 Principal threats to conservation

3 Modélisation spatiale multisectorielle des dynamiques 4 Les populations de Maringa/Lopori-Wamba, accès aux The principal threats to conservation territoriales: étude de cas à l’échelle régionale dans la ressources naturelles et les conﬂ its fonciers: cas de la in the MLW Landscape are associated RDC. DEA, Univ.Cath.Louv. zone K7/K2. Rapport AWF.

Figure 1. Forest loss within the MLW Landscape

Source: UMD/SDSU.

31 Section One: Land-Use Planning

with livelihood activities of local people, confi rms that the Lomako area is an of Phase II, the CARPE Strategic including subsistence agriculture and important source of bushmeat for both Objective was translated into site- unsustainable bushmeat hunting, but commercial and nutritional purposes. based conservation targets and goals also unsustainable commercial hunting, based on a programme of participatory and traditional and industrial logging. data collection and analysis (through a These threats are further exacerbated Landscape land-use planning “Threats and Opportunities Analysis” by inadequate agricultural policies and methods and results workshop). This participatory process lack of market access. Researchers aimed to ensure ownership of the from South Dakota State University and Early approach: 2004–2006 (CARPE programme by the local stakeholders the University of Maryland analyzed Phase IIA) and led to the identifi cation of a priori forest cover loss in the MLW Landscape The fl owchart in Figure 2 describes the goals centred on the reactivation from 1990–2000 using satellite imagery initial HCP methodology as applied in and/or sustainable management of a (see Figure 1). Roughly 56,000 ha (about the MLW Landscape from 2004–2006. number of natural-resource use zones. 0.9 percent) of the forest was converted These zones, called “macro-zones”, during this period for the expansion of Prior to the commencement of CARPE included Community-Based Natural slash-and-burn agricultural activities. Phase II, very little was known about Resource Management (CBNRM) areas, Over half of the observed conversion the MLW Landscape. Little data was Protected Areas, logging concessions occurred within 2 km of a road. available on biodiversity, stakeholders, and plantations. The structure of the land-use patterns, socio-economic fi rst AWF-led MLW Consortium was Human settlement and economic conditions, and the expectations of oriented to these a priori objectives, activities government and local communities. with partners CARE International, The principal towns in the MLW The sequence of planning activities Conservation International (CI) and AWF Landscape are Basankusu, Djolu, was adapted to accommodate this each focusing primarily on one type of Bongandanga and Befale with paucity of information. At the onset natural-resource use zone. populations ranging from 41,000– 135,000. Many surrounding cities such as Lisala, Bumba and Boende Figure 2. Heartland conservation process for the MLW Landscape infl uence economic activities within the Landscape. Roads between these towns and cities are very poor and IR 1: NR managed sustainably IR 2: NR governance strengthened are often only passable by motorbike. FY04 FY05 FY04-06 on-going Villages are stretched along road axes, with agriculture concentrated around Finalize Management plan: human settlements. The agricultural Partnership building • CFMA/CNRM Strengthening civil society and • Microenterprises governance: activities practised in the Landscape • Plantations and agriculture a. Community • Logging b. Regional forums are primarily for subsistence, with less c. G-DRC (legislation policy and opportunity for cash crops given diffi cult law enforcement) market access. Cassava, maize and Site Conservation Target & Goal Setting groundnuts are the main agricultural Implementation & Evaluation products. Most of the formerly active IR 3: NR monitoring institutionalized industrial plantations of palm oil, rubber and coffee have been abandoned. Socio-economic and NR analysis Bushmeat market data indicates that Monitor natural resource use local people are highly dependent on FY06 bushmeat hunting, consumption and Threat & Opportunity trade for both protein and trade (Dupain, analysis 1998). A one-year study of bushmeat availability at the market in Basankusu showed that more than 30 percent of the 12,000 carcasses recorded for sale originated from the Lomako area IR: Intermediate result set by CARPE/USAID Programme of the Landscape (Dupain, 1998). This NR: natural resources CFMA/CNRM: community forest management activities/community natural resource management G-DRC: Government of the Democratic Republic of Congo

32 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

From 2007 onwards: CARPE Phase consortium members now work • WorldFish Center (WF): IIB together on common objectives and development and promotion of Experiences and analyses of results implement carefully coordinated improved fi shery practices. from Phase IIA indicated the need for activities. Consortium members have • University of Maryland and a slightly different approach in CARPE specifi c thematic expertise: Université Catholique de Louvain: Phase IIB, (2007–2011). Elements of • AWF: biodiversity management analysis of satellite imagery and LLUP were adapted and new elements and sustainable land-use practices, implementation of GIS modelling initiated, including: enterprise development and for land-use planning and • Consortium structure; applied GIS processes. monitoring. • HCP and identifying priority • World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF): activities; development and promotion Local and national partner committees • Stakeholder consultation and of improved agriculture and have been created for the Landscape. participation; agroforestry practices. At each of the four local “territory” • Participatory data collection and • Stichting Nederlandse Vrijwilligers levels, a Committee has been analysis; (SNV): strengthening civil society established, with representatives • Zoning based on desired institutions, capacity building, of the various stakeholders and outcomes; confl ict resolution and participatory civil society groups involved. These • Spatial modelling and monitoring. approaches. committees meet once a year and • Réseau des Femmes Africaines serve as information-sharing platforms The lessons learned and adaptations pour le Développement Durable between the local communities and made in each of these six areas are (REFADD): strengthening the role of the LLUP team. discussed below. women and minorities in natural- resource use decision making. At the national level, a Landscape Consortium building Steering Committee has been During Phase IIA, the MLW Consortium created. This Committee is composed consisted of AWF, CARE International and CI. This was based on the perception at the time of the expertise Figure 3. Phase II structure of MLW Consortium needed. The expertise was macro-zone- directed as opposed to thematic. The DR CONGO work plan referred to a specifi c number GOVERNMENT of community forests, plantations and protected areas to be ultimately covered by a sustainable natural resource management plan. CI was USAID–CARPE LANDSCAPE STEERING responsible for assessing the potential COMMITTEE for conservation concessions and the MLW CONSORTIUM TECHNICAL PARTNERS reactivation of an industrial plantation. AWF CARE focused on community forestry • DRC Govt – various • UMD and AWF was the overall leader • USFS with a focus on protected areas and • SIFORCO • Kyoto University biodiversity. As consortium members • Others focused on delineated macro- zones, there was a lack of cohesion LANDSCAPE LAND USE ICRAF WFC SNV REFADD at the landscape level. One major PLANNING COMMITTEE consequence was the absence of a solid Public Participation Strategy IMPLEMENTING (PPS). PARTNERS

Livelihoods: Civil Society Biodiversity • Agriculture The LLUP consortium for the current LOCAL AND NATIONAL strengthening Zoning and • Fisheries and PARTNER COMMITTEE CARPE Phase IIB is structured and conservation • Community stakeholder organized very differently. Instead • Forestry consultation of being geographically focused,

33 Section One: Land-Use Planning

of stakeholders of the national start of Phase II, priority MLW activities the main challenges posed by trying to government. The committee reviews consisted of: implement a LLUP programme that is whether the MLW programme is • The creation of a protected area: both about serving the needs of local compatible with and responds to the the Faunal Reserve of Lomako people and conserving biodiversity, priority agenda of the DRC government. Yokokala; which are often confl icting objectives Figure 3 summarizes the overall Phase II • Indicative zoning of 40 percent of in areas such as MLW where people Consortium structure, developed from the Landscape; rely heavily on the ecosystem for their lessons learned during the initial phase • Signifi cant support for agricultural livelihoods and well-being. of work in MLW. activities, including improving access to markets; Attendance at the open meetings with HCP and identifying priority activities • A decision to cancel proposed representatives in Kinshasa grew rapidly In December 2004, a two- plans to establish a forest with from an initial eight people to more than day participative “Threats and controlled hunting. The results of thirty. Over time, however, the numbers Opportunities Analysis” workshop the fi eld data indicated that the fell back to a core group of 10–15. The brought together government, civil proposed area was not suitable, Consortium held open meetings and society and local NGO representatives and that the MLW Consortium’s made presentations at provincial level from each of the four MLW territories, approach should be adapted. and in each of the four administrative as well as representatives from Thanks to participatory data territories. The open meetings were provincial and national governments, collection and decision making, very much welcomed and initiated a international NGOs and the private local stakeholders did not process of growing local ownership. sector. Using the AWF HCP approach, dispute the necessary changes in This ownership translated into real the workshop: objectives for the proposed area. participation, with representatives of the • increased stakeholder stakeholders increasingly involved in understanding of the value of Stakeholder consultation and the development of the LLUP strategy, working at the landscape level and participation vision, objectives and work plans. the need for landscape land-use Ownership of the LLUP process by the planning; primary stakeholders has proved to be The MLW Consortium learned important • resulted in the identifi cation of a critical prerequisite for success. In lessons from this process. First we priority activities for specifi c areas. the MLW Landscape, this has meant recognized that, while the meetings enabling full participation by the socio- are key to real participation and to At the workshop, participants agreed on political groups in the different levels of the project’s long-term success, the following: government administration (groupement, they also create expectations and • The Lomako-Yokokala forest territory, province), traditional chiefs attract opposition as no specifi c should be protected to support the and civil society (preferably umbrella implementation activities are agreed livelihoods of local communities. and network organizations), as well as in this initial consultation phase. • Substantial support for agricultural specialized organizations (representing Second, we learned that the process of activities is needed to decrease the women, indigenous people) and private- stakeholder consultation is in a sense pressure on fauna from commercial sector representatives (including logging never-ending, and must be integrated bushmeat hunting. Participants companies, agro-industry, small planter into all aspects of intervention design, agreed to give priority to improving groups, and service providers). implementation and monitoring. These access to markets for the sale of lessons have been fed into MLW agricultural crops. The MLW Consortium team initiated Consortium best practice, with our • A potential site for controlled widespread discussions on the concept overall Public Participation Strategy hunting was selected. of LLUP and focused on the need to adapted as appropriate. look at a landscape scale rather than In addition to these principal activities, macro- or micro-zones. The planning Participatory data collection and the consortium also initiated a process team met with representatives of analysis of detailed stakeholder scoping, data government and local communities in From the start of Phase II, stakeholders collection and analysis. The results Kinshasa and in the Landscape. It was were also invited to participate directly helped to refi ne priorities in each important that stakeholders understood in the compilation and analysis of macro-zone. Direct support for local that no specifi c decisions would be landscape-level data. This participative NGOS was obtained to implement taken on zoning without widespread approach both improved the quality of priority agricultural activities. At the consultation and agreement. These fi eld data collection and strengthened meetings draw attention to some of

34 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

the partnership between the MLW activities. A total of about way. Socio-economic surveys used Consortium and stakeholders. 1,200 km of roads (50 percent focus groups; biological surveys were of the 2,400 km of roads in the preceded by focus group discussions As a result of the meetings, participatory Landscape) were covered, and and the surveys were conducted with data collection and informal discussions data was collected at about selected representatives of the villages. with stakeholders, the MLW planning 50 localities. Approximately 250 By using this approach we ensured team could develop a large-scale rough agricultural fi elds were geo- complete transparency of the data data collection system that focused referenced. collection approach and built trust with simultaneously on biological and socio- • The biological surveys had two local communities. economic issues. The data collection foci: covered an estimated 60 percent of the  the status of fauna hunted The surveys also allowed the MLW Landscape (USAID/CARPE MLW Annual for animal proteins, usually in team to scope out stakeholders more Report FY05, AWF). areas located closer to human extensively. Stakeholder scoping is settlements; probably the biggest challenge in a Data collection was stratifi ed (see  the status of endemic and/ situation where there is very weak Figure 4), and partially based on satellite or protected species located governance, extreme poverty and imagery: further away from the roads, in an absence of effective means of • Socio-economic surveys were forest that might be suitable for communication. The expectations conducted along the axes of protection. of a number of stakeholders were human habitation, i.e., along high and we encountered situations the roads. Focus was on the The surveys were also designed to where individuals with a competing historically fl ourishing coffee and examine the linkages between socio- agenda were intentionally raising these cocoa plantations, with some economic and biological factors. All expectations. attention given to other agricultural data was collected in a participative

Figure 4. Example of mapped data for MLW Landscape

35 Section One: Land-Use Planning

In addition to collecting data on the Resource Zones (ERZ). However, Spatial modelling and monitoring ground, satellite images were analyzed considering that CBNRM allows for The MLW Consortium is using both and basemap features such as rivers, some habitat destruction for agricultural analysis of satellite imagery and roads, vegetation and others were activities, AWF strongly urged the execution of spatial modelling as tools digitized. Other spatial data collected breakdown of CBNRM areas into for land-use planning and monitoring. for the MLW Landscape included “Permanent Forest CBNRM” and “Non- Marxan is a spatially explicit site- previously derived products such permanent Forest CBNRM”. selection software used for spatial as the 1990–2000 forest change modelling to help understand landscape dataset developed by South Dakota Based on information and suitability. Marxan is being used in the State University and the University of understanding acquired during Phase MLW Landscape to identify areas most Maryland. IIA, and taking into consideration suitable for future human expansion, the DRC national strategy for nature taking into account current needs for Combining fi eld data with mapping conservation, the general objectives for agriculture and livelihood activities. techniques such as GIS and map- work in the MLW Landscape in Phase Simultaneously, a habitat suitability based visualization resulted in the IIB were translated into the following analysis for biodiversity conservation fi rst comprehensive, though rough, indicative fi gures: is being carried out. Both results picture of the Landscape in terms of • Protected Areas: the national are combined for identifi cation of biodiversity, land use, socio-economic strategy for nature conservation compatibility and potential confl ict. conditions and the spatial distribution of states that 15 percent of the Priority areas are identifi ed that might human populations. A total of 15 young country’s territory should be need confl ict resolution. Proposed Congolese researchers executed the defi ned as protected areas, protected areas are either justifi ed or data collection, entry and analysis. equivalent to at least 11,100 km2 of identifi ed as better suited for conversion the MLW Landscape. to agricultural land, based on model Zoning and desired outcomes • Non-permanent Forest CBNRM data and assumptions. Thinking about how to develop areas: based on the estimated a strategic vision and objective number of inhabitants, and Similar spatially explicit tools are outcomes for the Landscape, we rough estimates of agricultural used for monitoring within the MLW translated the AWF strategic objective land needed per household, Landscape. Locations of active bush/ “to make the landscape ecologically, the Consortium estimated that forest fi res can be identifi ed using socially and economically viable” approximately 9,000 km2 of the satellite imagery and then used as into desired outcomes specifi c to the MLW Landscape be identifi ed as an indication of human presence and MLW Landscape. Local communities current and future agricultural land habitat destruction. Analyses such considered making agriculture more (i.e., 12 percent of the Landscape). as these serve as powerful tools for profi table as the top priority for their • Wetlands: satellite imagery predicting patterns of land-cover livelihood security, closely followed by shows important areas for water, change and further monitoring of the increasing producer values of non- covering about 10 percent of the impact of the MLW programme. In timber forest products (e.g., animal Landscape. addition to monitoring changes in proteins, medicines). This information • ERZ (Extractive Resource Zones): habitats, a methodology has been was considered in conjunction with 33 percent of the Landscape developed and will be implemented to general theories of biodiversity is covered by old logging monitor changes in livelihoods in the conservation, notably the need to avoid concessions that are under revision MLW Landscape. fragmentation and destruction of the for conversion to ERZ. Considering habitat for key species. This led to a the criteria for conversion, we focus on better spatial planning for assume that only Concessions K7 Summary of lessons learned the expansion of agriculture and other and K2 are really eligible, i.e., 10 activities that require the conversion of percent of the Landscape. Thus, Heartland Conservation Process fi ts forest habitat. ERZs will cover 10–33 percent well with LLUP of the landscape, depending on Despite the absence of a LLUP Strategy Using these general concepts, desired decisions by the government on Document5 at the start of the MLW outcomes can then be translated into conversion. programme in 2004, we learned a expected surface areas of land that • Permanent Forest CBNRM areas posteriori that the implementation of should be included in different land- cover the remaining 30–53 percent use zones, such as CBNRM areas, of the Landscape. Protected Areas (PA) and Extractive 5 A document required by the CARPE programme, outlining a strategy for completing a landscape management plan.

36 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

the HCP responds well to the USFS types of expertise present. Equally the able to develop MLW infrastructure guidelines for LLUP. Some of the partnership should be open to new throughout the Landscape, with shared requirements of the Strategy Document partners that can come with needed, MLW Consortium offi ces and Joint (desired outcomes, PPS, defi nition of but so far absent, expertise. MLW Focal Points in each of the four the role of planning team members) territories and in Mbandaka, the capital were particularly well articulated using The MLW Consortium in Phase IIB is of the Equateur Province. the USFS guidelines, by comparison much more effective than that in 2A with other approaches. because of its synergistic composition. Ownership of the process: The For each activity the need for specifi c crucial initial step HCP includes stakeholder scoping, expertise is identifi ed and mixed teams Ownership of the planning and conservation target setting, data of Consortium members are created. prioritization process by local collection, analysis focused on threats One example of this is the development stakeholders, in particular by various and opportunities based on prioritization of a management plan for the Lomako public-sector authorities and civil of actions, and well developed impact forest CBNRM area, co-fi nanced by society representatives, is vital. assessment. HCP aligns well with the French government donor AFD/ The inclusion of an initial phase of USFS-LLUP, particularly through the FFEM. In this area we are working participative exploratory meetings participatory “Threats and Opportunities with the local committees to develop during which general concepts of Analysis” workshop. During this alternatives to commercial bushmeat LLUP are presented and discussed workshop, the results of stakeholder hunting and we are evaluating the is an important lesson learned. scoping and data collection/gathering potential for controlled hunting. Through intensive consultations, the are pulled together and the following REFADD analyzes potential alternatives MLW Consortium enabled sound are pushed forward: desired outcomes, to the unsustainable bushmeat trade understanding of the LLUP concept creation of goal setting and objectives, with a focus on gender, and calls upon by stakeholders. This understanding identifi cation of macro-zones, and the expertise of ICRAF to develop and underpinned the meaningful and elaboration of an implementation plan. promote agriculture and agroforestry valuable participative approach and techniques and that of the WorldFish enabled stakeholders to infl uence During Phase IIB (2007–11), we are Center in order to improve post-harvest LLUP strategy development. The local implementing this merged HCP-LLUP technologies for fi sh. AWF focuses stakeholders became co-owners of strategy at a macro-zone level. Today, on hunting off-take assessment. As a the MLW programme. Through this this process is focusing on a potential result, most fi eld trips to the Lomako approach, the Consortium ended up new Protected Area (the Iyondje forest area are nowadays joint missions of focusing on priority activities that were or Congo-Lopori) and on priority REFADD, ICRAF, AWF and WF experts. not prioritized prior to programme CBNRM areas (the Lomako forest, the implementation (e.g., the focus on Lomako-Luo corridor, and/or Yahuma). In August 2006, a fi eld mission improved market access for agricultural Implementation in one of the ERZs (K7 comprised of AWF, ICRAF and SNV products). and/or K2) will start soon. We hope staff was organized to Basankusu, to learn from this how the AWF-led Bongandanga, Djolu, Lingunda and However, we did not fully succeed in landscape approach is replicable on a back to Basankusu. A distance of our attempt due to the diffi culties of macro-zone level. The fi rst fi ndings are before more than 1,000 km was communication with most programme encouraging. covered on motorbikes and in canoes. sites in the Landscape, which are In each location AWF led stakeholder extremely isolated. No matter how Together, these accomplishments discussions on HCP and LLUP. SNV often we organized meetings, the suggest that this HCP-LLUP model can facilitated the further development majority of the local people were not be a strong tool for participative land- of the PPS. Within this framework of able to participate. This leads us to use planning at the landscape, macro- LLUP and PPS, ICRAF then further the conclusion that a formal PPS (see zone and micro-zone level. developed the support for agriculture below) is an essential complementary and agroforestry. mechanism to the process of wide The LLUP team: Consortium building consultation. through thematic strengths This collaborative multi-institutional It is important to put together a approach has ensured effective use Consultation supported with a Public LLUP team with thematic strengths. of Consortium resources and the Participation Strategy The partnership should enforce the best possible outcomes for the MLW Through the PPS we aim for real possibility of joint activities that allow programme. It is important to recognize ownership of the project by the local increased synergy between the different that using this approach, we have been communities. We have learned that

37 Section One: Land-Use Planning

local communities are not used to an May 2008, we decided to be present The use of local and national approach that allows them to infl uence both in Basankusu and Befale, and committees as key to the Consortium general and specifi c methodologies were able to intervene and mitigate structure during the conception of a multi-year potential detrimental rumours spread by The Phase IIB MLW Consortium programme. This confi rms that, for politicians. structure is working quite well, and is most people and organizations, the a great improvement on that in Phase meaning of true participation is not Focal points as interface between IIA. However, there is always room well understood. Local communities local stakeholders and partners in for improvement. For example, the are used to “participation through Kinshasa functioning of the Landscape Steering information giving” and/or “participation After the “Threats and Opportunities Committee, composed of stakeholders by consultation” which do not concede Analysis” workshop, we decided of the national government and any share in decision making; however, to appoint MLW focal points on a members of the MLW Consortium, they are not used to participating in joint provincial level (Mbandaka) and in each would benefi t from more intensive analysis and the preparation of joint territory (Basankusu, Bongandanga, contacts with and between members. action plans (Pretty, 1995).6 Befale and Djolu). Focal points are the This is extremely important because interface between partners in Kinshasa the Committee is supposed to enable In addition, we learned that a good and the local stakeholders. This formal recognition of the LLUP PPS is fl exible and adaptive to the mechanism proved very useful in two management plan and its integration often rapidly changing reality on the ways: the focal points could ensure that into national policies and strategies. ground. During the creation of the partners in Kinshasa are informed about Without formal recognition, all the effort local committees, we learned that in activities in the fi eld, and also provide that is put into land-use planning is at Bongandanga, traditional chiefs are a means to increase local stakeholder risk. If functioning well, the Landscape of high importance, in Basankusu, understanding of the MLW programme Steering Committee would also inform business people should be considered, objectives. the MLW Consortium on other initiatives while in Djolu the focus is on the well going on or planned in the Landscape, organized local associations. The In 2007, when requested by local but this has not been happening, for composition of today’s representative communities, we tested giving local example with regard to planned logging committees and their dynamics are representatives the responsibility of within the Landscape. different from those anticipated in serving as this interface. At the end Kinshasa. The MLW Consortium, of 2007, however, it was decided At a local level, the MLW Consortium together with representatives of the to re-install the MLW focal points. regularly consults with local authorities, local communities, is therefore actively The decision was prompted by a though a more in-depth strategy is and permanently adapting the PPS. participative SWOT7 analysis, during needed that incorporates the role of which participants expressed the need authorities at national, provincial and The impact and reach of the PPS is to strengthen local representatives’ local level. In the past, thanks to close constrained by poor communications capacities in domains such as contact with provincial authorities, the infrastructure in the MLW Landscape. communication, public participation and MLW team was contacted directly when No matter how well developed the confl ict resolution before transferring activities were under development in PPS, it is only by being present in the role of interface to them. the Landscape. For example, when the fi eld that one can try to mitigate a logging company wanted to have a the impact of distorted information. This experience teaches us that: a) the logging concession in the Landscape, Often, this information is spread by importance of engaging focal points is the provincial authorities contacted people with competing agendas. In acknowledged by local communities, MLW for advice. As a result of this July–September 2006, during elections, b) local leaders currently lack the skills consultation, the logging title was never AWF was not present in the fi eld. During to play the role of interface between attributed. this period, misinformation against the MLW programme and the local the MLW Consortium was launched populations, and c) our approach At times there has been insuffi cient by some individuals. It took at least engages local communities in analyzing sharing of information between local 3–4 months to correct the situation. performance and implementing adaptive communities and associations, and the Therefore during the elections in Befale, management. Consortium. Several NGOs in the Befale and Djolu territories are collaborating 6 Pretty, J.N. (1995). Regenerating Agriculture. London: with projects similar to those in the Earthscan. 7 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats.

38 Chapter One: Land-use Planning at the Landscape Scale

MLW programme. For example, in authorities, local communities and other Imaginative use of geospatial tools some villages, SECID/RE-COMMIT8 is stakeholders. The set of objectives The MLW Consortium use of spatial supporting cassava production, while and related approaches evolves as a modelling and satellite data for planning ICRAF/MLW is working at improving result of changing dynamics on the and monitoring simultaneously may food crop production with the same ground. The conversion of old logging prove an effi cient strategy that could farmer associations. This in itself is not titles, changing values for cash crops, be replicated elsewhere in the Congo a problem as long as the approaches arrival of private companies, changes Basin. In order to be meaningful at the do not confl ict with one another in the priority agenda of the national local level, these approaches must be and interactions are transparent. government and new initiatives of major combined with in-situ datasets from On the other hand, some projects funding agencies, all have an impact on the ground, and feedback mechanisms in the Landscape pursue objectives how desired conditions are translated must be established as part of the PPS that are at odds with those of the into achievable objectives. to ensure data validation. MLW programme. This is the case, for example, with the international In 2004, the MLW Consortium focused Results of the spatial modelling in NGO Bonobo Conservation Initiative on a landscape approach, identifying the MLW Landscape are being used (BCI), which follows a fairly unilateral overall conservation objectives, desired for further priority setting during conservation concession approach conditions and priority areas. The participative meetings. Participative through collaboration with a small priorities at that time were creation fi eld data collection related to human elite in the same area where the MLW and participative management of the activities, vegetation and biodiversity Consortium is promoting combined Lomako Yokokala Faunal Reserve is fed into the modelling process and spatial planning for sustainable (Réserve de Faune de Lomako Yokokala allows for regular updating of outputs. hunting and expansion for agriculture – RFLY), a communal hunting area For example, faunal surveys in Cadjobe based on broader public participation. in Cadjobe and small enterprises or informed the team about depleted Local communities are confused community forestry in Lomako. Due fauna, despite predictions to the and competition to get access to the to its focus on these few areas, the contrary. resources employed by the different landscape vision disappeared little by programmes is increasing. This leads little into the background and local In consultation with local communities, to distorted information and a loss of stakeholders disengaged or even the MLW Consortium has decided credibility for the conservation and/or opposed the MLW programme. This to prioritize support for agricultural development programmes. We have is for example the case for the people livelihoods through Phase IIB. This learned again that a permanent fi eld living north of the RFLY. decision has been confi rmed and presence can help mitigate at least justifi ed both by feedback received from partially for misunderstandings and Only in 2008 did the MLW Consortium local communities as well as results confl icts. It allows for responsiveness re-invigorate efforts and vision in a from the Marxan spatial modelling to questions from stakeholders. But it landscape-wide context. Several tool. In addition, we have used spatial is not a substitute for the good will of actions helped to achieve adapted data and models to understand implementing agencies in looking for management of landscape objective the importance of certain areas in and reinforcing synergies. setting, notably the further development the Cadjobe forest for maintaining of the PPS and the Consortium connectivity for wildlife between the Regular review of vision, objectives workshop on “development of a RFLY and the Luo Scientifi c Reserve. and desired conditions for LLUP methodology to monitor the impact of At all times, activities and planning the MLW program on decreased habitat We will further develop these ideas and in individual zones should refl ect the destruction and on poverty reduction”. methods through implementation on overall objectives for the Landscape. Regularly reviewing the vision for the the ground and will build HCP-LLUP Having a harmonized vision for the Landscape not only supports successful as a tool for planning and adaptive Landscape has also facilitated the LLUP, but also enables Consortium management at landscape level, thus, presentation of the MLW programme to members to join with partners to try we hope, contributing to a methodology to access new funding mechanisms. that will be replicable elsewhere in the At the time of writing this paper, three Congo Basin. ' 8 South-East Consortium for International Development/ joint proposals have been submitted for Reintegration, Conservation and Community Recovery Project. funding.

Chapter 2

Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas: Examples and Lessons Learned

Geoffroy Mauvais

Protected areas are like young children, the oldest being scarcely more than 100 years old, and with a lot of hope riding on their shoulders. They grow and spread (more than 12 percent of the earth’s land surface), and ﬁ ll any space that is available. They sometimes grow without knowing exactly why, how and for whom… They try to rescue biodiversity, often fail, start again, change their strategies, philosophy, methods: moving from a conservationist approach where they were protecting nature from humans, to a participatory approach in which they try and integrate humankind into nature. They have gone through many stages, making many U-turns, to the point of blurring the path that they were following.

Protected area managers, whoever they are, are all like parents. They expect the best for and from their children. They set them impossible objectives and nurture unachievable ambitions for them. They look at them with eyes that are anything but impartial, are inclined to be more emotional than rational, motivated by passion rather than reason. Over time, they ask everything of them and more. As they grow, protected areas bring them with joy and often disappointment. And inevitably, they become what they should, or could, have become, and what nobody could have expected.

This is the story of these rather complicated lands, which within a few decades have become powerful tools for the spatial organization of our planet, more and more known and acknowledged by mankind as our environmental awareness grows. They have gone from being a few sanctuary parks, created from a vision of paradise that undoubtedly never existed, to sustainable development landscapes where nature has become a component of progress that is seen as inﬁ nite, which will also certainly never exist – an endless to and fro between two extremes that are linked: wild nature that needs to be saved from humans, humanity that naturally respects the future of its ecosystem.

All this to say what we already know: there is no magic formula to save nature any more than there is a perfect recipe for sustainable development. It all depends on the context, places, time and people. In the forests of the Congo Basin, the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) has developed a pragmatic and adaptive approach to conservation and land-use planning (LUP). Three examples are presented here, from Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).

41 Section One: Land-Use Planning

The CARPE approach to land- of the jungle prevails, and people’s only creation of this nature reserve. What use planning of protected aim seems to be plundering all of the was remarkable was that this took place areas: an overview of three area’s natural resources. Land tenure, against a backdrop of a fast-increasing case studies access rights, ancestral rights, none of population, the presence of valuable these are respected. The biggest losers, minerals and unpredictable governance. One philosophy, three contexts even though they are also participants It did not take long for this initiative The philosophy that these three in this mess, are the local population to attract big conservation NGOs, experiences share is a simple one, and and particularly the indigenous people. particularly the Diane Fossey Gorilla may be described as “common sense”: Fund International (DFGFI), followed land-use planning of a protected The planning process in Lobéké by Conservation International (CI), and area and its periphery has to be done started with detailed studies of the it has received support from CARPE through a participatory process, exceptional natural wealth of the since 2003. It is not possible to describe involving all the relevant stakeholders site, and the distribution of the main adequately the diffi cult path that had to and taking account of the interests of pressures. These studies were carried be taken, in the extremely tense context each and everyone (not forgetting, of out mostly by WWF and WCS (Wildlife of civil war, to create the reserve that course, those of the protected area). Conservation Society). The key mission we know today (the core area is 90,000 This holistic and participatory approach of the advisory committee created ha). But at every stage, recognition of has underlain many conservation by the “Jengi Forest” project was the reserve by all interested parties projects over the last 30 years, as part to negotiate with villagers and other was sought. The initiative has remained of the movement known as “sustainable users of the lands earmarked for the under local leadership, sourcing its development”. creation of the Lobéké Park, and then workforce from the region, implementing to organize the park’s peripheral areas. pilot development projects on the 1. Lobéké National Park (south-east During public meetings, the challenges, ground, letting the local authorities have Cameroon). The task here is to organize mapping and management options their say and leaving leadership to them. a complex landscape made up of: a were discussed. Out of these meetings park of about 200,000 ha (which at the came proposals for the boundaries of The land-use planning process is drawn start of the project had not yet been the park, and various allocations of the from the same inspiration. In 2002, created), village hunting concessions, surrounding lands for hunting, forestry concerned with what would become commercial hunting grounds, and etc. But they were also an opportunity of the reserve, the local chiefdoms community and commercial forests to pinpoint the expectations and/or defi ned the boundaries and zoning of (altogether more than 1.4 million the demands of the local population the reserve, taking into account future ha), while taking into consideration and other interest groups, and to potential, the established villages and the presence and specifi c needs fi nd solutions together, for example existing types of uses. They based their of sometimes vulnerable ethnic developing the fi ght against poaching designations on the surveys carried groups, such as the Baka pygmies. in forest concessions, or sharing the out with international NGOs (DFGFI In this landscape there are various meat from the animals killed on safari and CI) on the natural wealth of the and sometimes opposing interests, with the local communities. One crucial forest and the pressures on it. The which can cause confl icts between point was defi ning the rights of certain plan was submitted to Government for stakeholders. In response to this, the sectors of the population within the offi cial approval. In subsequent years, “Jengi Forest” project (World Wide Fund park itself, in a zone especially set aside the boundaries of the core zone were for Nature, WWF) has set up an advisory for them, something which up till then modifi ed by consensus to take into committee that includes donors such had not been done in national parks in account more specifi c management as GTZ, the State, represented by Cameroon. realities on the ground (administrative its Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife, boundaries, the presence of fl agship local administrations and all the 2. The Tayna Nature Reserve (DRC). fauna, etc.) which is testimony to an representatives of the aforementioned This reserve, in the Kivu mountains, was adaptive and coordinated process. interests, within the framework of created in a very different way from the These boundaries were in turn validated establishing the transboundary Sangha Lobéké National Park. In 2000, thanks by the State. Once created, the Tayna Tri-National (TNS) conservation to the good will of some indigenous Nature Reserve became an integral landscape between Cameroon, the peoples (including chiefdoms), and part of the network of protected areas Central African Republic and the based around an old hunting reserve, in the DRC, with community-based Republic of Congo. The project is the “Tayna Gorilla Reserve” was born, management carried out by a Site starting off amidst chaos where the law a local association devoted to the Coordination Committee (Comité de

42 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

Coordination du Site or Cocosi). The was reached between the reserve and local social amenities (dispensaries, boundaries were marked out and the the inhabitants. The signing of the schools etc.), that would certainly management structures (plan, staff, zoning document and the concrete not have been achieved without this procedures) put in place. The same establishment of boundaries on the preliminary planning work. Finally, in process has since been followed in ground concluded the participatory 2007, a park management committee other regions in the DRC. process, while the zone thus identifi ed was set up, bringing together village was introduced in the management representatives, the administration and 3. The Okapi Faunal Reserve (north- plan. The designation of hunting NGOs, to implement the management east DRC). This reserve was created grounds within the reserve followed the plan. This body is a testimony of by the Government in 1992. The same process. the continuation of the participatory unique feature of this reserve is that it process, beyond just the initial planning. recognizes some usufruct rights to the resident population (grazing livestock, First tangible outputs In Kivu (DRC), the major outcome here hunting) but obviously prohibits those In the case of Lobéké, the main too was the gradual gazettement of that are commercial in nature (mining, outcome of the consensual LUP the Tayna Nature Reserve. Having logging, commercial hunting etc.). process was simply the gazettement of become part of the country’s network The reserve is managed by the Institut the zone into a functional national park, of protected areas, and as such placed Congolais de Conservation de la without making the same mistakes as under the responsibility of the ICCN, it Nature (ICCN), in partnership with two in many previous gazettements, that is managed by the local group of actors international NGOs, WCS and Gilman were carried out in an uncoordinated who started the process and who have International Conservation (GIC) and, manner and generated frustrations since become an offi cially recognized from the start, was threatened by the and confl icts between the various NGO. A Cocosi is therefore in place, rapidly growing population in the area; stakeholders in and around the while the reserve has been demarcated a population that depends mostly on parks. Besides the gazettement and on the ground with and by the villagers natural resources, both renewable and clarifi cation of multiple-use zones themselves, after successive revision non-renewable, for its survival while near the park, the process itself has of envisaged boundaries to take into at the same time the management made it possible to institute a dialogue account increased knowledge of the capacity of the State is still very between all the actors in the area. challenges (location of important inadequate. The “Mambele Convention”, signed sites for biodiversity) and pressures by all the parties involved, was the (confl ict areas, administrative zoning). The planning process promoted by fi nal outcome that established the Throughout the process, raising CARPE took another direction here. rules and responsibilities of each and awareness has been at the centre of The aim was to facilitate the effective everyone according to their situation the planning efforts. This was done to management of a reserve that had and their rights. In addition, logging include all local actors in the decision already been created and recognized, companies have decided to become making. This has made it possible while integrating various “micro-zones” more committed to conservation by to raise the degree of environmental of human activities into it. The process adopting the certifi cation system. awareness signifi cantly, and to was based on raising the awareness Local social and professional groups, propagate at all levels the knowledge of the inhabitants to the conservation especially village hunting groups, that the reserve management team challenges and the importance of have also organized themselves in the accumulated while the surveys were zoning for the long-term management of course of this process, and formed being undertaken. As further proof of its the reserve. A collaboration agreement a committee to develop wildlife interest in, and commitment to, the local was adopted between the villages resources (comité de valorisation des population, the reserve management and the reserve, the fi rst such formal ressources fauniques or COVAREF). team draws on local people for its engagement. After studying existing This committee has instigated many workforce for all its activities. The types of use, the potential of the land, community projects (schools, public reserve was gazetted when the main the needs being expressed and existing health, sanitation …) thanks to the areas of tension had been alleviated. realities, a proposal for functional zoning income derived from organized hunting was submitted and discussed with the near the park. Another interesting Finally, through land-use planning, the village concerned, both indoors and outcome, and the most unexpected, Okapi Faunal Reserve has redefi ned on the ground. Negotiation then made was logging companies joining in the its landscape in such a way as to allow it possible to specify and redefi ne this fi ght against poaching, and some of all actors with user rights to take part zoning, until a common agreement them also investing in the provision of in the management and maintenance

43 Section One: Land-Use Planning

of the reserve, while respecting the A park such as the Lobéké National the absence of any kind of reference to conservation objectives assigned to Park depends very much on its governance, conservation can still be it. At the end of the process, 11 zones periphery. Land-use planning should possible, provided it is neither partial were allocated for agriculture and six therefore include all on-going uses in nor partisan. It is also necessary to for hunting, within the reserve. The the periphery, in a bid to optimize the move quickly from words to action and rest of the reserve was dedicated conservation measures taken inside show that conservation effectively has to conservation, and special efforts the park. The collaboration of actors measurable economic benefi ts. The were made to research and map this does not require commitment to all fi rst action is to give priority to local conservation landscape, to raise the challenges or priorities, but an people as regards the jobs generated its profi le and promote a feeling of understanding of the essential ones, by the reserve. Furthermore, Tayna did ownership amongst the local people. as for example with logging companies not hesitate to take former hunters on The participatory process also made it that have invested in the fi ght against to its staff, to show that conversion is possible for problems to be aired and, poaching in their own concessions. possible and that there are alternatives very often, for common solutions to be In order for this collaboration to take to poaching. Since knowledge of land is found. root, it needs to be steered locally, by a dynamic process, the Tayna Reserve the legitimate administrative authority also invested in training its staff to but one that is also very close to the collect fi eld data, including constructing Key lessons learned actors. It is necessary for people an accurate spatial representation Each approach has generated its own to get to know each other, talk to of the environment and challenges. lessons. Without being fundamentally one another in order to fi nally listen Special emphasis was also placed different, they are distinct depending on and sometimes even agree with one on raising the awareness of the local the context, the place and the actors. another. Here too, the NGO partner population through a standardized Their main common factor is that they has to adopt a guiding role to promote approach that brought to the fore were born on the ground, as the project dialogue and understanding, even if the long-term benefi ts of the LUP was being developed. Other lessons at any given time the outcomes may process. A standardized approach was would undoubtedly, for some probably, seem insignifi cant. Finally, and this is a important to enable the information to contradict what today we think we prerequisite to the development of the be disseminated effi ciently, using local have understood. That is the essence entire process, NGO partners can help NGOs, and to ensure that “individual” of “participation” that allows for the with their specialist knowledge of the approaches were not developed, emergence of all opinions, is open to landscapes and of the challenges of leading to the risk of confusing the contradiction and, thus, takes the risk of conservation, development and culture. message. Even if the advice and opinions changing over time. This knowledge, combined with their guidance of international NGO partners neutral and independent status, allows have been decisive, the LUP process Some local lessons … an objective picture to be drawn of the has always been controlled at the local The case of Lobéké shows the land being “allocated”. level, in order to ensure its effectiveness complexity of land-use planning when on the ground, and its connection there are many “strong” parties (logging The experience in the Tanya Nature with the realities of the situation. The companies, safaris, local commercial Reserve teaches us many other things, consequence of this “on-the-ground” hunters) interacting and whose activities even if their essence is the same approach is that the boundaries of the spread over the landscape. When “less and the purpose is to ensure that all core zone of the reserve (conservation strong” groups (local populations, stakeholders take part in the planning. It zone) were modifi ed several times, to indigenous people) share the same land, emphasizes the need to gauge properly take into account the real pressures, relations can become strained and only the consequences of actions to be the conservation and administrative dialogue with mutual respect can help undertaken, and not to fall into the challenges. This “fl exibility” during relieve tensions. As was well understood trap of responding to demands, albeit the establishment of the reserve was by the implementers of the “Jengi local, which do not take into account all encouraged by the State which did Forest” project, the most insignifi cant the parameters of the zone, especially not hesitate to modify, accordingly, the actor in the landscape could be the one conservation priorities. Preliminary gazettement decree. Promoters of the to cause the whole process to fail. The studies to get to know and understand reserve also insisted on the importance major role of the conservation NGO is the structure and functioning of the land of physically marking out the various therefore to be a mediator who, more are essential (and NGO partners have an boundaries of the multiple-use zone than just a good listener, knows how to important role to play here). The reserve of the reserve (conservation zone, let each actor air his/her views so that came into being in the particular context buffer zone, development zone) with no-one feels left out. of war in the DRC, and it shows that in and by the villagers, to ensure their

44 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

understanding of the plan, and again by short-term interests that kept coming is no longer to know what has to to be able to offer direct employment up during discussions. As a result, the be done, but to fi nd out what works opportunities. Finally, even if the birth of reserve now has functional zoning that and will lead to solid results. the reserve has followed a very different is accepted by all. • All actors are important, and path from other parks, it is important one should give priority to those that in the end it should be integrated …And some general lessons who seem, quite rightly, to be into the protected area network of Many common lessons may be learned relegated to the background, i.e., the country, and be considered as a from these experiences. They are inter those who are not heard because substantial addition to its representative alia: they are generally not invited to nature. The creation of a management • Effective dialogue is often only discussions, or who do not have a body made up of all the interested achieved, paradoxically, when full understanding of the challenges, parties (the Cocosi) is the next step in there are more than two persons or who are usually reluctant to fi nishing the work already undertaken to involved. Many of the situations take part in such meetings … It is set up this reserve. described could have been generally amongst these people resolved by simple consultation that you will fi nd the weakest The case of the Okapi Faunal Reserve between the protagonists but link that may cause the whole is in itself more traditional given that this does not happen. There is a arrangement to fail. It is necessary it starts with a park that has already need for third-party intervention. to identify them and give them the been created and recognized (World Mediation by international place they deserve. That is another Heritage Site). The challenge here is conservation NGOs can make it vital role that NGOs can play. not to map out a conservation zone, possible for the parties to accept • In the end, land-use planning does but to optimize its management while sitting around the same negotiation not change the realities of the taking into consideration its special table. These NGOs describe world. It is therefore necessary to statute that provides for usufruct rights themselves as “mediators” or ensure that decision makers (and for the resident population. The LUP “facilitators”. especially the State and its various process thus aimed, fi rst and foremost, • Knowledge of the environment, bodies) take part in negotiations, to raise the awareness of stakeholders of its strengths and weaknesses, and then in the decision making. of the limited nature of the resource, the challenges and pressures is Without the support and and the need for coordinated holistic indispensable. It is useless trying political will of the government, management. The particular context of to undertake joint planning without a sustainable outcome is the zone, which has a large immigrant having prior knowledge of the impossible. The participatory population, required that the indigenous situation on the ground. Given that approach therefore requires that all population be given a say, as they were each actor will come in with just stakeholders from all walks of life generally less able to stand up for their his or her own knowledge, that be brought together. rights, and liable to take short-term may well be limited or subjective, • At the same time, local interest decisions that may be detrimental to the sum total of everybody’s groups have to be helped: to themselves in the longer term. Thus, knowledge will not necessarily give be better structured, to be emphasis was put on raising awareness a true picture of the reality. The more capable of expressing so that the local people understood information-gathering phase can their expectations, to be more their rights, and could measure also help in identifying problems, representative of the local the contribution of conservation in to better circumscribe them, and population, and thus to become their everyday environment. During could be very useful later in the more reliable partners with which to the planning process itself, efforts negotiations. embark on a joint venture (the three were geared toward achieving an • Planning is a rigorous process that experiences are built on a “contract unambiguous understanding of the requires a lot of improvisation. While of trust”). Although these groups objectives of the reserve. This did not the route has to be marked out, the may generally be legitimate, it entail removing the rights of villagers, objectives have to be understood, would be a mistake to think that this nor did it mean that the reserve had the choices have to be understood means they are representative, let to compromise its prerogatives; the and shared, it is also necessary alone effi cient. Working with weak common objective was to achieve that, throughout the process, one local groups is building a weak optimum management of the limited continues to be aware of what is partnership and a fragile future. space. A lesson learned in the course of taking place on the ground, and is • “Moral, ethical and philosophical the process was the need to continue prepared to change course as often principles are essential” – this is listening to all and not to be distracted as is necessary. What is important what the Tayna Reserve teaches

45 Section One: Land-Use Planning

us. In addition to that, coordinated resources is increasing while the easy fi nally to say that we work land-use planning requires respect. resources themselves are decreasing; in a “participatory” manner. But it It is not only necessary to analyze powerful migrants are coming up is much more diffi cult to actually or understand the aspirations of the against fi ercely sedentary peoples do it, and to continue to do it in other stakeholders, it is necessary who are not well equipped to stand up spite of the diffi culties that arise. to accept them in their context for for their rights. Men and women are In these three stories, there was they are not, generally, determined taking up the challenge of conserving no hypocrisy, no lies … there were by anything other than legitimate “their” nature while international complicated situations, diffi cult needs, or at the least are felt to be NGOs would like to preserve “the” discussions, outcomes that may such. Obviously, these principles nature … All the ingredients are there have been less successful than sometimes weaken in the face of for misunderstandings and confl icts. those planned … but there was foreign partners, or are sometimes Meanwhile, each in their own way, always consultation and sharing of galvanized by a logic in which the these three experiences show how to decisions. land itself is secondary … NGOs overcome these differences. Each of • Time: undoubtedly the key factor can play the important role of watch them describes a different way to arrive in achieving trust. If there is no time dog in these circumstances. at the same end result: conserving an to meet, to listen to one another, • Raising awareness is therefore ecosystem, if not in its original state, to understand one another, to a vital phase. Everyone has to then at least in a sustainable state. convince one another, to change understand the subject matter, Each of them shows that, one by ideas, to change everything … it and no longer view the land one, it is possible to overcome every is not possible to have trust. The just through his or her prism. All hurdle. We must congratulate those best ideas need time to fl ourish. planning work – especially zoning who carried out this work, the local Furthermore, they need time to of activities, or rights, or challenges people that committed themselves, evolve and to face the hard realities – should lead to a common their representatives who were able of the fi eld, a process which will understanding of the problems to bring everyone on board, the sometimes cause them to be or opportunities, to facilitate a administrative authorities who for relegated to the level of a mere meaningful dialogue in the future. once, encouraged decentralization, the “concept”. Each of the experiences State that allowed or sometimes even presented here did it their own way, These lessons, and many others promoted this approach, environmental sometimes rushing phases, while illustrated by these three examples, NGOs that turned away from theory to still respecting the “timetable” will inspire those who are committed to face the realities on the ground. These of others. However, much more the adventure of participatory land-use experiences are promising and are time is still needed to move from planning for their own protected areas. already being emulated. This is all to on-going experimentation to This also applies to those who are the good. They are however still fragile, the day-to-day and sustainable responsible for developing new ones. given the challenges ahead, and their management of parks. balance sheet will need to be examined • Work: discovering these three in 10 or 20 years to come, to know if projects has been an inspiration, Conclusion today’s success is truly the foundation and just a few pages have The three experiences developed for the success of tomorrow. described what was done, why and here, with the support of CARPE, how. But this disguises a major certainly do not cover all the possible As for lessons learned, they are already reality. For nothing was produced aspects of the participatory approach out there. Each one of us stands to by chance. Nothing could have as conceived and elaborated over benefi t if we can adapt them to our happened by itself, simply with some decades now. They do however own working environment. If these trust and time. This may sound illustrate very well that there is potential experiences are to be summarized, banal, but these results have been for action to be taken in the Central three major factors come to the fore: achieved because men and women African forest context, where there • Trust: none of the three LUP have worked, not just with extreme are mixtures of scales, challenges endeavours would have gone this dedication, but sometimes above and actors. Multinational companies far without real and absolute trust and beyond the call of duty too. work alongside small local producers; between actors. It is easy to say There are hundreds of projects industrial development is threatening that dialogue is “instituted”, easy to like this but only a handful that endemic species; exploitation of natural pretend that we “listen” to others, get this far. It is not a matter of

46 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

luck; what counts is the energy whose contribution can be crucial, to live together. Just remember, expended by those who determine maybe someone from a forest protected areas are a human invention the future of the project: local concession, a development project, and like all its inventions, they only work actors, paid staff of international a school, the media. if the inventor wants them to work. NGOs, representatives of local Really. ' administrations that care, and those Trust, time, work – indispensable others, often isolated individuals ingredients for enabling human societies

47 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Case Study 1 Okapi Faunal Reserve, Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape, Democratic Republic of Congo

Ellen L. Brown

Introduction: Overview of the parks, livelihood activities, such as as the liberalization of mining (especially Okapi Faunal Reserve farming and hunting, are permitted by gold) and two civil wars, the region has The Okapi Faunal Reserve (OFR) is the resident population. People may seen an infl ux of migrants who come a protected area in the Ituri Forest of practise hunting and gathering, fi shing in search of arable land and economic north-eastern Democratic Republic and farming but they may not carry out opportunities. People have very few of Congo (DRC) that covers more activities that are permitted in villages employment options and must rely on than one third of the Ituri-Epulu-Aru outside of the protected area such their farms and the forest for all of their Landscape.1 The OFR, created in 1992 as gold mining, timber exploitation, needs. and added to the list of UNESCO World plantation agriculture, and commercial- Heritage sites in 1996, boasts high level bushmeat hunting and trade. In the period following the end of levels of biodiversity and endemism. the war in 2003, Reserve managers The Reserve harbours several high- The Okapi Faunal Reserve is under worked to secure the forest and stop profi le species including Okapi, Forest the management authority of l’Institut illegal activities. Mixed teams of ICCN elephant, Chimpanzee, 13 monkey Congolais pour la Conservation de eco-guards and the Congolese Army species, Leopard, several species la Nature (ICCN). ICCN is joined by effectively evacuated active gold mines of forest antelope, and Buffalo. The two conservation NGOs, Wildlife and poaching camps in the Reserve. Ituri forest is valuable because of its Conservation Society (WCS) and Despite the fact that certain efforts by biogeographic history as a Pleistocene Gilman International Conservation (GIC), local farmers, such as seed storage refugia with endemic plant communities and together the three organizations and increased food productivity, were found in rocky outcrops, or inselbergs, constitute the Reserve’s management completely wiped out during the confl ict in the Reserve. committee. In this paper when period, people had the courage to try reference is made to “the OFR” as a again – which has enabled land-use In addition to being a world-class stakeholder, the OFR is shorthand for planning and agricultural activities to site for the study of tropical forest this management committee. proceed. Alongside progress with land- dynamics and wildlife conservation, use zoning, the Reserve management the OFR is home to ethnically diverse Although ICCN has the management plan is being revised including detailed human communities2 including hunter- mandate for the Reserve, they guidelines on access to and use of land gatherers (Mbuti and Efe Pygmies) and generally lack resources to carry and natural resources. Bantu and Sudanic-speaking shifting out the Reserve’s conservation and cultivators (Bila, Ndaka, Lese, Mbo, livelihoods objectives. Land-use zoning In 2006, DRC held its fi rst presidential Manvu and Budu) who participate in is facilitated by Wildlife Conservation election in over 30 years and since then, social institutions based on exchange Society’s Community Conservation institutions and government agencies relations and reciprocity. The Reserve Program (WCS-PCC) which is have begun to regain some of their is unique among protected areas in composed of 11 full-time staff members functions and widespread national DRC because it is a high-profi le high including four agronomists. road rehabilitation is underway. The biodiversity site where, unlike national government is revising conservation The Reserve is situated on a settlement laws and drafting implementation frontier where the population density is guidelines for the national forestry code. 1 The OFR covers 1,376,000 ha of the Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape which spans a total of 3,600,000 ha. increasing in part due to immigration National efforts to repair dilapidated 2 17,000 people inside OFR borders and an additional from the highly populated Kivu regions infrastructure are being carried out in 37,000 people within a radius of 15 km around the OFR, according to a 2003 population census conducted by the where densities surpass 100 people/ Wildlife Conservation Society Community Conservation km2. Since the 1980s with such events Program (WCS-PCC).

48 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

the Landscape. The main road (RN4)3 land), and various members of the to begin the zoning process. that bisects the OFR, and another community, especially indigenous Socio-economic studies are road that forms the Reserve’s eastern farming groups. conducted to document village boundary, are being repaired. Most history, ethnic groups present, villages and agriculture clearings are 2. Signature of collaboration sources of revenue, hunting and located along these two principal roads. protocol: A collaboration protocol farming methods, agricultural Improved roads will facilitate increased is signed between representatives production, educational level, immigration to the area and enhance from the OFR (ICCN and WCS- social problems, confl icts market access as people come in PCC) and the local community between different groups, and search of land and forest resources. (usually village chief and/or elders) the relative power of chiefs and that states that the village is ready landowners. to proceed with the process of Land-use planning in the zoning. This document does not 4. Proposal of agriculture Okapi Faunal Reserve mention limits or area; it is only a zone limits by village elders In order to manage the OFR effectively step to formalize the beginning of (customary landowners): The for biodiversity conservation and the process. village elders, who are recognized sustainable livelihood support for the as the customary land owners, resident population, a land-use zoning 3. Census of agricultural make the fi rst proposal regarding plan, supported by USAID-CARPE, is households: A census of the size and outer limits of an being implemented. The micro-zoning agricultural households, those agriculture zone. Often they includes areas for hunting, agriculture heads of household who have propose natural limits such as and settlement, and conservation. farmland in the village, is rivers and hills that lie beyond The zoning system formalizes limits to conducted in order to estimate the forest that has been cleared agricultural expansion and subsistence the area of land required for in recent history. WCS-PCC hunting, limits that are based on the farming. The size of agriculture reviews their proposal in terms number of resource users. As mentioned zones is based on the number of of area (ha) and limits, and above, the OFR is unique because agricultural households. evaluates it based on estimated it is a protected area managed with Socio-economic studies: The land-clearing rates which take community-based natural resource order of steps is fl exible. For into consideration factors such management “micro-zones” in its interior. instance, a census of agricultural as age of the fallows, number of households and socio-economic consecutive years a fi eld can be Protected area land-use planning studies may be conducted before farmed, average fi eld size, number methodology and results achieved a collaboration protocol is signed of agricultural households, and Box 1 provides a summary of the land- use planning steps used for agriculture zones in the Reserve; after a detailed Box 1. Summary of agricultural zoning process in the Okapi Faunal Reserve explanation of the agricultural zoning process, a brief description of the 1. Conduct sensitization meetings methodological considerations for 2. Sign collaboration protocol hunting and conservation zones is 3. Conduct census of agricultural households and socio-economic studies provided. 4. Agriculture zone limits proposed by village elders (customary landowners) and documented with GPS Methodology for agriculture zones in 5. Identify and map the extent of agricultural clearing with GPS the OFR 6. Produce map; present map and zoning recommendations to community members 7. Negotiate agriculture zone to be delimited 1. Sensitization: The fi rst step in 8. Agreement reached between representatives of village and OFR authorities on the the land-use zoning process is to zone limits introduce the notion of zoning in 9. Ceremony to place boundary markers and signposts and signature of agriculture the Reserve through a series of zone agreement formal and informal meetings with 10. Delimitation: clear the perimeter of the agriculture zone and demarcate zone village chiefs, landowners (people borders where natural boundaries do not occur who have ancestral claims to 11. Validation of land-use zones in protected area management plan 12. Zone management

3 Route Nationale 4; or National Road No. 4 in English.

49 Section One: Land-Use Planning

population growth rate. The and to use the map to explain 10. Delimitation: clearing the proposed agriculture zone (size the village agriculture zone to perimeter of the agriculture and limits, number of agricultural others. They facilitate meetings zone: Where natural limits households) is presented to the on the new agriculture zone and such as rivers do not exist, Reserve management committee. its proposed limits and present fi eld teams clear a 3 m band Participatory mapping of the map to local communities for in the underbrush of the forest outer limits proposed by discussion. in order to make the artifi cial village elders with GPS: A agriculture zone limits visible. team composed of village 7. Negotiation of zone to be Small teams of village residents, representatives and WCS-PCC delimited: After the proposed led by a WCS-PCC technician, fi eld technicians maps the limits limits have been mapped are hired to clear the perimeter proposed by the customary and the results presented to when the zone is fi rst created, landowners using GPS units. representatives of different and there is annual upkeep. This groups in the village, the offi cial activity provides multiple benefi ts 5. Identifi cation and mapping of agriculture zone limits are including: revenue for hired teams, the current extent of agricultural negotiated. In some cases people awareness of zone limits by land clearing with GPS: A may feel compelled to argue for villagers and OFR personnel, and mapping team of WCS-PCC fi eld more area based on fear that they it facilitates monitoring of zone technicians and village residents are losing their land – or in other limits by ICCN. walks along the perimeter of cases WCS-PCC may advise Demarcation of zones: Erecting active fi elds and fallows to create them to extend the proposed cement posts and signs along a map of the current limits of limits based on estimated land- the borders of agriculture zones agricultural land clearing – where clearing rates or population size. has been completed for fi ve fi elds and fallows meet primary The fi nal decision depends on zones, but it is an expensive and secondary forest. approval from both the Reserve undertaking that costs an average management committee and of US$4,000 per zone (including 6. Create map of current village leaders. the purchase and transport of agricultural clearing and materials and labour) plus long- outer limits proposed by 8. Agreement reached between term maintenance. Whenever village elders and chiefs: After representatives of the village natural limits, such as rivers prospecting the outer limits of an and OFR over zone limits: It may and roads are present, it is not agriculture zone and the limits of take several meetings before a fi nal necessary to mark the borders agricultural clearing, the geo- agreement on the zone limits is with posts and signs. However, referenced data collected during reached; then a date is set for the zone limits in the forest must the fi eld missions is transferred ceremony to place cement posts be marked so that farmers and from GPS units to a computer and signs marking the limits of the OFR managers alike can respect at the main offi ce for clean- agricultural zone along the road. and monitor zone limits. This up and analysis, fi rst in Excel kind of physical demarcation and Mapsource, and then in 9. Ceremony to place boundary has been suspended at this time ArcView. WCS-PCC technicians markers and signposts and and we hope to fi nd less costly also make a poster-sized map to sign the agriculture zone alternatives. of the proposed agriculture protocol: During the ceremony zone using the geographic way the zoning process is reviewed, 11. Validation of land-use zones points collected in the fi eld and and the protocol which states in the Reserve management translating them into angles the area (ha) and boundaries plan:Once the Reserve land-use and distances on the map for of the agriculture zone is read plan is complete, and all micro- presentation to the community. aloud before an audience zones have been created in the Presentation of map and of local authorities, Reserve OFR at the local territorial level, zoning results to community managers and other community the land-use plan will be offi cially members: Community members members. Signature of the considered part of the OFR representing different groups protocol by Reserve and village management plan and should (Bantu men and women, Pygmy representatives is followed by a be recognized by ICCN at the men and women, etc.) are trained shared meal. national level. to present zoning objectives

50 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

12. Zone management: This paper a management agreement for the immigrant4 dynamic surrounding access will not elaborate on the long- conservation zone. to land and natural resource use. term management of agriculture Indigenous groups perceive the forest zones; but briefl y the objectives Results achieved to be an abundant resource, and one of zone management are to Agriculture zones: Eleven agriculture of the goals of the zoning system is to ensure the effective use of land zones, covering 30,700 ha, have empower these groups to understand and resources in order to ensure been delimited with agreement from the value and limited nature of their land that local people’s livelihood local communities and zoning is in and resources, and to manage them needs are met while decreasing progress in two more villages. Technical accordingly. deforestation and biodiversity assistance and improved seed varieties loss. Once agriculture zone have been provided to farmers to The zoning steps enumerated above protocols are signed, agronomists increase productivity and to reduce the enable indigenous groups to document work with farmers to optimize need to clear primary forest. and manage their land in collaboration land use in order to increase crop with ICCN; and to prevent the false productivity using less land area, Hunting zones: Participatory mapping impression that land and natural to encourage the use of fallow of hunting territories has been resources are limitless. Immigrants land, and to limit forest clearing accomplished for six villages covering prefer the informal land tenure systems for agriculture. more than 195,000 ha. and easy access to land that they fi nd in the Ituri forest; this situation Special methodological considerations Conservation zone:An inventory makes it possible for them to open for hunting and conservation zones of key large mammal populations large fi elds, usually by cutting primary The land-use planning process for and selected human activities was forest. Immigrants tend to be more hunting and conservation zones follows conducted from 2005–2007. Signifi cant economically powerful and can recruit similar steps to those listed in the populations of Forest elephant, Okapi labourers from indigenous ethnic agriculture zone methodology section and chimpanzee were found and most groups to clear the forest and work above, including a series of meetings, of the Reserve’s unique habitats, in their fi elds. Local landowners gain participatory mapping, negotiation including the spectacular inselbergs an immediate benefi t from selling and communication with different that harbour endemic fl ora, remain farming rights to immigrants from community groups to reach a fi nal intact. Most faunal populations were neighbouring regions where land agreement on zone limits. However, more abundant in the centre of the is scarce; others may benefi t from certain modifi cations are necessary Reserve, in a zone proposed for being hired as day labourers. In this due to the nature of the resource being core conservation, than in the zones sense, immigrants provide immediate exploited (wildlife vs farm land); and the designated for hunting and agricultural benefi ts in exchange for access to fact that hunting zones are larger with activities. The exceptions were land and natural resources, whereas territories organized by clan, whereas elephants, which remain concentrated ICCN’s zoning system may be seen agriculture zones have more individual in south of the OFR in areas that as a hindrance to these short-term property claims (such as fallow land) suffered less poaching during the gains. In a context where immediate and farming is organized at the period of confl ict, and monkeys (12 gain is highly valued, protected area family level. species) that were most abundant in managers have the task of conveying agricultural zones, in secondary forests the value and limited quantity of land For conservation zones, fi eld teams near fi elds and villages. available; hence the benefi ts of the composed of representatives of local zoning system are projected on a longer communities, and WCS and ICCN time-scale. The steps of land-use staff will map local forest claims and Lessons learned zoning which require local landowners collect social and biological data in the Zoning as a way to secure indigenous to discuss and document their land proposed zone. These data will be used land rights on a settlement frontier claims can instigate confl icts with to create a map showing how local As explained above, the OFR is located immigrant groups who wish to have land claims (forest hunting territories) on a human settlement frontier that easy access to land without oversight overlap with the conservation zone. The is already home to more than 15,000 map and the results of the social and people who depend upon the forest for 4 In this paper, indigenous is a general term for the ethnic biological assessment will be presented most, if not all, of their resource needs. groups who have the longest history in the area that is now the OFR, notably: Mbuti and Efe pygmies and Bila, to stakeholders in order to negotiate Within this management context it is Ndaka, Lese, Mbo, Manvu and Budu; whereas immigrants important to understand the indigenous- are generally those ethnic groups that originate from other regions such as Nande, some Budu, and others.

51 Section One: Land-Use Planning

by protected area authorities. In cases customary rights, but it is a recognition the eve of an inauguration ceremony where immigrants feel threatened by that they live in a protected area and for a new agriculture zone, we have the zoning programme, they have that agricultural expansion and hunting, received letters threatening to call off advised indigenous landowners to to name two of the most common the ceremony if certain demands are refuse to cooperate with the OFR. This resource uses, need to be planned and not met; for example the construction requires that the OFR be proactive monitored. Another interpretation is of a school, medical care for village with community education so that the that by mapping agricultural land and elders, or a motorcycle for the village resident population understands that negotiating the limits of an agriculture chief. It is important not to respond to zoning is a management tool whose zone, the Reserve is, in effect, ceding this kind of political manoeuvring with goal is to ensure their long-term use of that land back to the community. This is false promises. We have found that the resources. Thus far zoning in the OFR also not the case; zones are still under appropriate response to such demands has been effective in this sense. In the mandate of ICCN, and they are is to assure local communities that OFR some villages where locals have already subject to the regulations of a protected representatives are not in a hurry to determined agricultural zone limits, area. Zoning aims to document, and sign the protocol creating the zone, but immigrant communities have decided validate, local claims to resources – rather it is a document that should be to look elsewhere for farmland, beyond namely by the Mbuti and Efe Pygmies signed when both parties are ready. the protected area limits. If zoning can and indigenous shifting cultivators – in be replicated for all farming villages such a manner that despite being in the OFR, as is the plan by 2011, located on a settlement frontier, Conclusion new settlements should occur outside immigrants will arrive to fi nd that the It is important to stress that this land- of the protected area, thus ensuring local populations understand that land use management tool is, in many ways, that the agriculture zones already is a limited resource and it is in their experimental and that subsequent established may continue to serve the best interest to manage it well. monitoring of results and adaptive subsistence needs of OFR residents management are key. We strive to make for several generations into the future Erecting signs listing OFR interdictions decisions based on the most complete without compromising zone integrity by such as mining and plantation information presently available and leading to deforestation. In some areas, agriculture created the impression that to consider possible demographic, chiefs have remarked upon the trends once an agriculture zone is created and ecological and social changes. Once of deforestation and declining wildlife the sign erected, these activities are an agriculture zone is created and populations; these local spokespeople illegal, but these activities are prohibited an agreement is signed with village are important allies in passing the throughout the Reserve both in and representatives establishing the conservation and land-use planning out of established agriculture zones. outer limits of agricultural expansion, message onto local communities. In order to counteract the view that monitoring how people use the agriculture zones have specifi c resource agriculture zone is very important. Importance of sensitization restrictions, which could cause negative Trust between local communities and and communication to avoid attitudes towards zoning, we stopped Reserve managers is equally important; misconceptions linking general Reserve-wide regulations communities must be convinced that the It is important to communicate the to the specifi c process of creating an OFR will work with them to fi nd solutions goals and regulations of subsistence agriculture zone. to zone management problems and that, zones within the context of the if necessary, zone limits may be re- protected area as a whole. Signing It is not uncommon for village evaluated in the future. ' land-use agreements is not a way of representatives, especially chiefs, signing away their land to the OFR; it to change their positions more than is still their land, over which they have once during the process. Even on

52 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

Case Study 2 Lessons Learned in the Lobéké National Park, South-East Cameroon

Leonard Usongo and Zacharie Nzooh Dongmo

Introduction This paper describes the land-use planning process of the Lobéké National Park situated in the south-east corner of the Republic of Cameroon. The park covers 217,850 ha of forests and is part of the Tri-national de la Sangha (Sangha Tri-National) TNS Landscape. The paper highlights the biological signifi cance of the Lobéké National Park and its rich biodiversity which has attracted several logging companies, sport hunting outfi ts, parrot trappers and commercial bushmeat hunters. The scramble over natural resources in Lobéké by the different user groups, including local communities, has contributed to stakeholders’ on-going confl icts over the ownership and exploitation of the resources. The land- use planning process for Lobéké, given the complexity of stakeholders and high population of Baka pygmy indigenous forest peoples, was carried out in order administration. One of the basic of reasons. For example, the area to ensure the protection of the rights of principles that guided consultations was supports unusually high densities of this ethnic group as well as addressing that conservation of natural resources forest mammals, particularly so-called the interests of Bantu communities in the area can only be achieved with “charismatic megafauna” such as and other stakeholders. One of the the support and participation of all Forest elephants (Loxodonta africana objectives of land-use planning for stakeholders. The USAID/CARPE cyclotis), Western lowland gorillas the protected area was to ensure that programme provided signifi cant funds (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), Common the ecological integrity of the forest to support the land-use planning chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), ecosystems in the area is maintained process in the Lobéké National Park Bongos (Tregalaphus euryceros) and while promoting sustainable natural including the establishment of various Forest buffaloes (Syncerus caffer resource use in surrounding buffer consultative platforms with different manus). Sizeable populations of animal zones. The participatory management stakeholder groups. species internationally recognized as process that led to the designation of endangered still thrive in the forest, core protected areas and surrounding although they are increasing threatened resource use zones was coordinated Overview of the Lobéké by unsustainable exploitation of by the Ministry of Forests and Wildlife National Park timber and by hunting of bushmeat. (MINFOF) in collaboration with WWF, The Lobéké Forest National Park and Moreover, the park includes a signifi cant the German Development Corporation its peripheral zones are of outstanding proportion of primary forest, one of – GTZ, and the local government conservation interest for a multitude the few remaining unlogged forest

53 Section One: Land-Use Planning

areas in this particular region thus d’aménagement - UFAs) covering diversity of stakeholders, have created giving an opportunity to preserve the 911,454 ha (see Figure 1). The total area a complex management challenge in biodiversity of a rapidly degrading of the Lobéké tri-national segment that Lobéké. habitat. Protection of the Lobéké forest comprises the national park and the ecosystem also provides a notable and surrounding use zones is 1,470,799 ha. It is against this background that complementary addition to Cameroon’s The overall area of the TNS Landscape WWF, in collaboration with technical protected area system. including the core protected areas is partners including notably GTZ, worked 3,713,800 ha. with MINFOF to establish a technical At the international level, the Lobéké consultative committee to coordinate National Park is contiguous with The size of the park, including the negotiations with different stakeholders protected areas in both the Central surrounding multiple-use zones with including the local government African Republic (Dzanga-Ndoki several stakeholders, obviously creates administration. The committee was National Park) and the Republic of an environment for potential confl icts. established after the completion of Congo (Nouabalé-Ndoki National The confl icting and multiple land- various biological and socio-economic Park), and consequently there use options and rights, as well as the studies that provided baseline data is a unique opportunity for a tri- Figure 1. Zoning map of the south-east Cameroon region (excluding forest national conservation programme management units) fully developed under the CARPE programme and the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP). Finally, and perhaps most signifi cantly, the forests of the Lobéké National Park and its peripheries provide the basis for the way of life of two particular groups of Cameroonian people, the Baka and the Bangando. Both rely heavily on the forest for food, medicine, building materials and cultural identity, yet their environment and hence their livelihoods are severely threatened by the detrimental activities of outsiders whose arrival is facilitated by commercial logging. Indeed, while it is recognized that commercial activities such as timber exploitation and safari hunting have an important role to play in the local and national economy, it is vital that specifi c areas of south-eastern Cameroon are offi cially recognized by government for their intrinsic conservation value as protected areas while others are designated as multiple- use zones for sustainable exploitation and revenue generation.

Lobéké National Park covers 217,850 ha of forests. The surrounding multiple-use zones consist of six community hunting zones with an estimated size of 487,600 ha, seven safari hunting concessions (738,100 ha), six community forests (30,000 ha) and 14 forest management units owned by logging companies (Unités forestières Plan de Zonage de la région du Sud-Est Cameroun (UFA Excluses)

54 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

on key management aspects such as the biological and socio-economic rich biodiversity of the area following proposed park boundaries and multiple- studies were funded through the several years of studies. use zones, key threats to biodiversity, Global Environment Facility (GEF) and potential alternative income-generating GTZ. These studies provided critical options and other important data on the management information to discuss Methodology used for land- demographics and social dynamics of future management options in Lobéké. use planning the area. These included data and information on demographic trends with Bantu The development of a land-use plan and Baka pygmy populations, lists of for the Lobéké National Park Initial context non-timber forest products (NTFPs) The land-use plan (LUP) provides Conservation of the biological diversity with potential economic value for the broad management guidelines in the Lobéké National Park, as in most local communities, proposed core concerning approved activities allowed of the Congo Basin, is challenging given conservation areas, and potential use in a particular land-use type. This the broad spectrum of interests and zones with due consideration of areas document is jointly approved by the problems notably the bushmeat trade, used by local people, especially Baka government administration and the commercial logging, mining and other pygmies. local stakeholders. The purpose of illegal operations. Weak administrative the consultative process is to address institutions, ill-adapted forestry laws, The prevailing situation in Lobéké problems related to ownership and poor governance structures and the prior to the work of conservation access rights, and also to help defi ne abject poverty of surrounding local organizations could best be described the responsibilities of the local forestry communities add more layers to the as chaotic. There was an absence of administration and other specifi c existing pile of conservation problems in law enforcement, disenfranchised local stakeholders to manage the national the region. communities, absolute power and park and its immediate peripheral zones ownership over certain resources by with local stakeholders. According to Cameroon forestry law, infl uential stakeholders notably logging the forest is divided into two main and safari hunting companies; wide- In the 1990s, WWF, in collaboration categories of land tenure: permanent scale corruption of local authorities with the Government of Cameroon and non-permanent forest areas. including mayors and government and other conservation NGOs, and Generally, the permanent forest areas forest administrations engineered by with the fi nancial support of the WWF include protected areas and legalized the private sector; abuse of rights and Network, GEF and GTZ, initiated wildlife forest concessions where no human no recognition of indigenous forest inventories in the Lobéké forests with settlements are allowed although people’s communities. This lawless a special focus on large mammal there are illegal settlements observed situation also encouraged poaching, inventories. These inventories assessed in certain forest concessions. The bushmeat trade, illegal parrot trapping, the abundance and distribution of non-permanent forest areas allow cross-border hunting and an infl ux of megafauna species such as elephants, community resource-use zones and arms and ammunitions. gorillas, chimpanzees, Forest buffaloes agro-forestry zones. Human settlements and forest antelopes. Another focus and other activities such as farming are Despite the confused situation of the studies was on the assessment allowed within non-permanent forest on the ground and numerous of various threats to biodiversity from areas. conservation challenges, WWF and logging, poaching and the bushmeat other conservation partners were trade. The results of these surveys Until the mid 1980s, very little biological determined to assist the government of revealed a high conservation value data describing biodiversity potentials Cameroon in creating a national park in the area, with some of the highest and threats existed for Lobéké in the Lobéké Forest. The technical densities ever recorded for Forest forests. Subsequently, conservation partners were also determined to elephants and Lowland gorillas in the organizations such as WWF and WCS establish a co-management system Congo basin. have carried out a series of studies that whereby different land-use types highlighted the conservation importance would be delimited and approved by Building on the results of these studies of the area including threats mainly the government in consultation with all and subsequent recommendations, a from unsustainable commercial logging, local stakeholders. The motivation of consultative committee was established poaching and bushmeat trade that conservation organizations to embark in 1998 comprising WWF, GTZ, seriously threatened the rich wildlife on this arduous process was reinforced MINFOF and the local government and biodiversity in the area. Most of by the scientifi c knowledge of the administration. The committee was

55 Section One: Land-Use Planning

headed by the Sub-Divisional Offi cer each group of stakeholders, the minutes According to Cameroon law, a (Sous-préfet) with the MINFOF of the meeting were read in public community forest covers 5,000 ha Divisional Delegate as the Secretary. prior to being signed by a designated and is directly managed by a local The committee reported to a Divisional stakeholder representative and the community that constitutes itself as a supervisory commission chaired by the head of the consultative committee. recognized legal entity. The authorized Senior Divisional Offi cer (Préfet) of the The village meetings allowed for a community must submit a management Boumba Bek and Ngoko Division. The broad range of issues, in particular plan written on the basis of the results main objective of the local consultative development problems, to be discussed of multiple-resource inventories committee was to facilitate negotiations with local administrative authorities. carried out to determine the quantity with villages and stakeholders for the The meetings fostered communication of timber species, densities of wildlife approval of the proposed national park between local authorities, conservation and other important NTFPs found in and surrounding multiple-use zones. projects and stakeholder groups. the designated forest. The community The participatory land-use planning forest is managed by an approved process was developed and initiated At the end of the local consultative local management committee with by the Divisional delegation in charge process, minutes of the meetings from offi cial statutory organs governing the of Forests and Wildlife, MINFOF, with local stakeholder consultations were administration of the community forest. the participation of a multi-disciplinary presented to the Divisional supervisory The local community is authorized by team that included representatives of commission. Following deliberations at law to exploit just 200 ha of the forest the local administration, local council, the Divisional level, a report was sent each year. Other activities include guardians of public opinion such as to Yaoundé endorsing the proposed harvesting of NTFPs based on an local parliamentarians, WWF and GTZ limits for the Lobéké National Park. approved list of items. Figure 2 is an and was guided by the following vision The letter of endorsement from the example of a community forest map. statement: Senior Divisional Offi cer also included a technical report describing the There are always stakeholders’ confl icts Sustainable management of natural proposed boundaries of the national resulting from the delimitation of use resources in south-east Cameroon park and designated surrounding zones surrounding national parks. The is ensured through participatory resource-use zones such as community confl icts are primarily due to overlaps management practices involving forests, safari hunting zones and in user rights over the given territory. all stakeholders and contributes to logging concessions. For example, within the multiple-use improving the living conditions of zones around Lobéké National Park, local people. certain safari hunting zones overlap with

The local consultative committee held meetings in all the villages to discuss Figure 2. Map of the sectors in the Bogrisom community forest the proposed boundaries of the national park, community hunting zones, logging and safari hunting zones, especially those adjacent to or overlapping with village farmlands and forests. Village meetings were co-chaired by the village chief and the sous-préfet. Illustrative maps were produced from biological and socio-economic data and other maps were generated from rural participatory mapping processes involving guided discussions with local people. The consultative meetings allowed villagers to make proposals on either adjustments or acceptance of proposed areas for the different land- use types (national park, community forests, and safari and logging zones). Once an agreement was reached with

56 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

logging concessions and community Over the years, WWF and other to work together in the different forests. Figure 3 presents the network of conservation partners have been management zones. An example is protected areas in south-east Cameroon working in collaboration with the the Mambele Convention which was which includes the Lobéké National Park national forest administration to signed by logging companies, safari and surrounding resource-use zones. facilitate a dialogue among the different hunting outfi ts and representatives of stakeholders. The facilitation process community wildlife management zones. Confl icts of interest arise concerning led to the establishment of various Some results of this convention include: access rights, ownership and the consultative platforms to promote i) the various stakeholders fi nancing exploitation of natural resources. dialogue and collaboration among these anti-poaching operations to combat Unfortunately, the various users’ rights local actors. There has been signifi cant hunting and the bushmeat trade within such as timber exploitation and safari progress with collaborative agreements resource-use zones; ii) safari hunters hunting are regulated by different laws. signed by some of the stakeholders sharing the meat of hunted species with villagers where an animal was killed; Figure 3. Map of the protected areas in south-east Cameroon showing the and iii) logging companies providing multiple-use zones local communities with waste wood for fuel and other development activities.

Negotiating use rights of local communities in the national park During consultative meetings in villages to discuss the proposed boundaries of the Lobéké National Park, the local people, especially the Baka pygmies, made recognition of boundaries conditional upon guaranteed access to certain areas of the park. Baka pygmies frequently use some areas of the national park to harvest bush mangoes and other wild forest products. They also carry out shrimp ﬁ shing during the dry season in some of the major streams in the park. In addition, there are secret forests in the southern sector of the park that Baka pygmies visit for traditional rituals and during Jengi festivals. Jengi in Baka is “spirit of the forests”. Young men are initiated into Jengi which is a secret cult of the Baka. New members undertake a pilgrimage to some of the secret sites before the Jengi ceremony.

As a compromise, MINFOF ofﬁ cials and the consultative committee agreed to gazette a community use zone in the Lobéké National Park (see Figure 1 with the olive green community use zone). This process came after a decision by national park authorities in Yaoundé whereby national wildlife laws prohibited human activities in national parks. Acceptance by the government

57 Section One: Land-Use Planning

to gazette a community use zone in the The land-use planning exercise also paid to the local communities. Revenue national park was an unprecedented alleviated tensions and disputes among from trophy hunting is managed by decision in the history of protected area stakeholders over the ownership of land management committees whose management in Cameroon. as well as the exclusive exploitation of members are elected by the villages. both legally and illegally appropriated WWF has helped with the organizational This decision demonstrated the concessions. The multi-stakeholder set-up of these wildlife management government’s commitment to engage process led to the creation of a committees by: i) assisting with their in a people-centred conservation collaborative management agreement legalization as offi cial management approach. In the negotiation process, which was signed by local communities, entities; ii) training members in various local communities accepted that safari hunting companies and the aspects including technical, fi nancial a regulatory mechanism with joint forest administration. This collaborative and project management; iii) carrying monitoring and control operations management agreement, known as out the wildlife inventories required to by MINFOF and representatives of the Mambele Convention, establishes determine wildlife populations in hunting management committees of community rules and responsibilities for the territories; iv) training in the planning forests should be put in place to control parties involved, and clarifi es the and execution of micro projects; and access and activities in the proposed content and geographic sphere of each v) facilitating dialogue and contract community use zones. Hunting was stakeholder’s land-use rights. negotiations with sport hunting outfi ts. prohibited in the community forests The community wildlife management except organized subsistence hunting As a result of collaboration between committees have reinvested the income targeting Class C animals listed as WWF and the logging companies, three into education (building classrooms, non-endangered species. Prohibited logging companies have voluntarily providing scholarships to enable village activities include illegal parrot trapping engaged in the certifi cation process. children to access secondary schools and the exploitation without a permit of Inspired by this model of partnership, and universities), health, connecting medicinal plants. Harvesting of NTFPs other logging companies have followed villages to electricity networks, and must be carried out in strict compliance suit with commitments to promote constructing wells for clean water. with existing forestry and wildlife laws. sustainable forest management. In 2000, a collaborative agreement was Further, to defend their rights and more signed between local communities Major achievements effectively manage their resources and and safari hunting outfi ts operating The multi-stakeholder process piloted the benefi ts generated from community around Lobéké National Park. Some by the technical consultative committee hunting zones, local communities have of the key points of the agreement for the land-use planning process in organized themselves into groups include: a) safari hunters sharing the the Lobéké National Park has been known as COVAREF (Comité de meat of the wildlife they kill with local mutually benefi cial to all parties by Valorisation des Ressources Fauniques communities; b) both parties especially addressing the needs and interests of – Community wildlife management COVAREFs jointly investing in anti- the different stakeholder groups. It was committee). Between 1999 and 2005, poaching operations; c) safari hunting not possible to gazette the national all the COVAREFs’ wildlife management outfi ts investing in development park without the consent of local activities generated about 115 million projects in villages; d) safari hunting stakeholders especially as most of CFAF in revenues. The wildlife revenues outfi ts hiring staff from local villages; the threats to the park come from the are generated by the communities and e) both parties committing to activities of these same stakeholders leasing out their hunting territories resolving any confl icts through dialogue in surrounding resource-use zones. to sport hunters for trophy hunting. with arbitration by the government One of the main strategies in the Signifi cant incomes are generated administration and park authorities. land-use planning process was to from trophy hunting of wildlife species ensure the occupation of all the forest such as forest buffaloes and antelopes. In 2002, another convention was signed territories in the surrounding zones by According to existing wildlife laws, between the forest administration legally recognized stakeholders whose the local community receives the total and logging companies. Under this activities are authorized by the forestry amount paid as leasing fees for the agreement, logging companies will and wildlife authorities. The strategy territory where the hunting takes place; invest in anti-poaching operations as was also to avoid the no-man’s-lands the government wildlife administration well as community projects. The local that existed in the past which created receives 100 percent of the trophy tax wildlife management committees will fertile grounds for poachers, parrot and an additional payment equalling 10 jointly fi nance anti-poaching operations trappers and other illegal activities. percent of the value of the trophy tax is with logging companies and the forest

58 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

administration. The logging companies stakeholders while also addressing around to this approach once an will also allow local communities to natural resource ownership and use in agreement was reached to work collect waste wood from lumbering the surrounding buffer zones. This was together based on the principle of and processing sites. From 2002–2006, a delicate balancing act given that the mutual respect. WWF with GTZ the Italian logging company SEFAC interests of multiple groups had to be played a key role in facilitating operating in the northern sector of satisfi ed throughout the entire process. dialogue and restoring confi dence Lobéké National Park invested about The following lessons can be drawn among the stakeholders. US$30,000 in anti-poaching operations. from the Lobéké example: The company also constructed a 2. Landscape planning and modern market for the surrounding General observations management is not only a science population, a health centre and two An open and sincere dialogue and for protected areas. The Jengi primary schools with one specifi cally for collaboration among stakeholders Forest project found that the Baka pygmies. can lead to a land-use plan on which security of the protected areas the boundaries of non-confl icting within a landscape depends In 2007, three logging companies, uses overlap. A landscape land-use on the resource exploitation namely SEFAC, ALPICAM and SEBC planning process is more likely to dynamics of the buffer zones and Lokomo, signed an agreement with succeed if stakeholders discuss how on how stakeholder relationships the forest administration to fi nancially the boundaries of their non-confl icting are managed. A good illustration support anti-poaching operations activities can overlap, as opposed of the new engagement of logging around Lobéké National Park. The to strictly focusing on each one’s companies is the disciplinary companies agreed to make a monthly exclusive land-use rights and perceived measures taken by the companies contribution of US$300 based on an legitimacy. against workers caught hunting in agreed work plan. In return, MINFOF their concessions or transporting will produce quarterly technical and The vision and attitudes of bushmeat. For example, the Italian fi nancial reports for distribution to all conservation agencies logging company SEFAC has parties. 1. Landscape conservation is a dismissed fi ve workers implicated science of compromises. No in the transport of bushmeat and In 2007, the Lobéké National one group has enough power hunting. In addition, hunting by Park management committee to impose rules that other workers in the forest concessions was established. Members of this stakeholders do not understand adjoining the park has decreased committee include representatives of or share. Even the less powerful due to the increased disciplinary surrounding villages, conservators, stakeholders remain a serious measures and anti-poaching technical partners, representative(s) threat to biodiversity when they operations fi nanced by the of local NGOs, the local council feel the rules are against them. companies. Understandably, this and a representative of the local In the Jengi Forest project area, is good for wildlife in the park administration. This is the highest conservation is a social process. A as hunting in peripheral zones decision-making body of the park and good example of how not to start has a direct impact on wildlife is primarily responsible for the overall the process is the authoritarian populations both inside and supervision of the implementation of the way in which the government outside the park. park management plan. administration began the LUP negotiation process to defi ne the 3. Landscape land-use planning limits of the national park – in is more likely to succeed when Lessons learned the end, they had to succumb to the process is led by public WWF and partners adopted a fl exible pressure from the local population authorities and technically grass-roots approach in the design who openly criticized the top- facilitated by neutral resource and implementation of the land-use down approach in discussions. persons. Conservation agencies planning process for the Lobéké Most of the early meetings must act as technical support National Park. The approach refl ects the were boycotted by the local agencies and land-use planning complexity of the situation in Lobéké population as a protest against and management advisers, with multiple stakeholders from different the cavalier attitude adopted by and avoid being perceived interest groups. The land-use planning the local forest administration. as competitors who defend process had to ensure that proposed All the main actors including the conservation against other public park boundaries were accepted by all forest administration fi nally came interests.

59 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Landscape land-use planning 2. Our experience in Lobéké strategically, secure all categories methodology shows that multi-stakeholder of stakeholder rights, and secure 1. A bottom-up process, led by collaborative land-use planning livelihoods in order to create a local administrative authorities has the potential to overcome climate of confi dence. Through and supported by conservation land-use confl icts, consolidate this methodology, a negotiated agencies is more likely to generate negotiated rights over natural land-use plan stands a better results, as opposed to the trickle- resources, act as a catalyst chance of being adhered to and down effect of top-level decision for local collective action and implemented in a complex setting making at the macro scale. By establish a climate of confi dence like that of the Jengi Forest taking the lead in experimental among stakeholders. Though it project area. community hunting and safari might be a resource-consuming hunting zones in the Lobéké and lengthy process, this 4. Engagement of public institutions Forest of south-east Cameroon, approach appears to offer a long- at both the micro and macro the local forest administration term guarantee that the landscape levels is a precondition for with technical assistance from LUP will be defended by the successful landscape land-use international NGOs like WWF has stakeholders involved who clearly planning and management. achieved a landmark result in see the interest in protecting and Cameroon and Central Africa in ensuring the intergenerational 5. A multi-disciplinary approach general that can now serve as a availability of the resources they based on good knowledge of the model for designing nationwide all depend on. milieu by facilitator(s) potentially procedures for the designation leads to greater effi ciency and management of hunting 3. The landscape land-use planning and stronger engagement of zones. methodology must be designed stakeholders in the land-use to address land-use confl icts planning process. '

60 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

Case Study 3 The Tayna Community-Managed Nature Reserve in Democratic Republic of Congo: A Grass-roots Approach to Conservation and Resource Management

Patrick Mehlman

Introduction the diffi culties faced by traditional, The Tayna model proved successful. In 2000, more than 150 international government-run national parks. By late 2002, seven other community scientifi c experts convened a workshop Realizing the potential for a protected associations had joined Tayna, creating in Libreville, Gabon to determine priority area for gorillas in the mountains near a political federation called UGADEC areas for the conservation of terrestrial where he spent his childhood, he (the Union of Associations for Gorilla ecosystems within the Congo Basin.1 enlisted the support of the traditional Conservation and Development This workshop led to the identifi cation paramount chiefs (Mwamis) of the in Eastern DRC), with the goal of of 11 Priority Landscapes2 that formed Batangi and the Bamate peoples, establishing a series of similar reserves the basis of multiple conservation Mwami Stuka Mikundi II and Mwami for an area of more than 12,000 interventions for the Congo Basin Forest Mukosasenge II, to catalyze a km2 (the proposed integral4 zones), Partnership (CBFP) launched in 2002 community-managed project to create at the World Summit on Sustainable the “Tayna Gorilla Reserve”. 4 The integral zone (from the French term) is a core Development in Johannesburg, South protected area; it is completely protected and does not permit extraction of any kind. Africa.

Unknown to these experts, another workshop was taking place in 2000 in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). As the civil war still raged, traditional chiefs of the Bamate and Batangi Nations were in the mountains of North Kivu meeting with their constituencies and discussing how they could develop a community conservation programme, an initiative they launched in 1998. This programme was spearheaded by Pierre Kakule Vwirasihikya, who had been an ICCN3 warden for 15 years, but was on a leave of absence. Pierre was born in the region and had learned ﬁ rst-hand both the need for conservation and

1 This workshop is described in Kamdem-Toham, A. et al. 2006. A Vision for Biodiversity Conservation in Central Africa: Biological priorities for conservation in the Guinean- Congolian forest and freshwater region. Washington, DC: WWF. 2 A 12th landscape was later added to the CBFP Priority Landscapes: The Virunga National Park (and its surrounding buffer zones) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. 3 ICCN is the Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (Congolese Institute for the Conservation of Nature), Founders of the Tayna community conservation programme. Pierre Kakule (centre), with co- the DRC wildlife and parks authority. founders Mwami Mokasasenge (left) and Mwami Stuka (right). These days, leopard skin hats are synthetic.

61 Section One: Land-Use Planning

creating a biological corridor between By 2006, the Tayna Nature Reserve, customary governance) such that these Maiko National Park (10,000 km2) as well as another UGADEC project NGOs were sub-contracted to manage and Kahuzi-Biega National Park member, the adjacent Kisimba-Ikoba their reserves in perpetuity. (6,600 km2), and working hand-in hand Reserve, were both declared Nature with the ICCN to preserve biodiversity Reserves (for their integral zones, In the sections that follow, the history (Figure 1). This integrated approach 900 and 970 km2, respectively) by the of this unique grass-roots approach between communities and national Minister of Environment, becoming to conservation is chronicled to park management authorities was part of the offi cial network of protected provide an understanding of how this fi rst supported by Dian Fossey Gorilla areas in the DRC. Signifi cantly, these programme developed locally and was Fund International (DFGFI) in 2000 and declarations were accompanied by then successfully supported by the was signifi cantly strengthened when unique co-management plans, in which international conservation community. CI formed a strategic partnership with the ICCN entered into a legal agreement From the history of this programme, DFGFI in 2003. with the local communities (represented we can also extract a number of by NGOs based on traditional/ lessons learned, with the hope that the

Figure 1. Tayna Nature Reserve (A) and the similarly managed Kisimba-Ikobo Nature Reserve (B) with six other projects (C1-C6) form the UGADEC Federation

A D C4 C1 C3 B

C5 C2 C6

Note: The UGADEC community conservation zone forms a biological corridor between (and with) the Maiko National Park (D) and the Kahuzi-Biega National Park (E), which are located in the CBFP Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Landscape (yellow). Red areas indicate deforestation between 1990 and 2000 (satellite image courtesy of University of Maryland, CARPE program). A further Nature Reserve area, Itombwe, is located in area F.

62 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

approach can be replicated in other Chefferie within the Territory of Lubero). for hunting; they were created to limit areas of DRC, other communities in the They are part of the Banande people migration into the area by local people tropical forests of the Congo Basin and (Bantu), living in North Kivu, and share seeking their fortunes looking for gold perhaps in other areas across the globe. close affi nities with other Banande such and diamonds. While doing this, the as the Bapare, Bashwa, etc. Belgians simultaneously developed one of the largest alluvial gold mines in the Ecology and history of the The oral traditions of the Bamati and region at the Lutunguru gold mine (see Tayna region Batangi 8 recount that their ancestors Figure 2) just to the east of the present- The Tayna Nature Reserve is situated arrived in the Albertine Rift in the day Tayna Nature Reserve, which at its in a transition zone between the highlands west and north-west of Lake peak in activity in the 1930s had more lowland forests of the High Biodiversity Edward more than 500 years ago, as than 15,000 miners working and living Wilderness Area of the Congo Basin part of a wave of Banande immigrants in camps in the area. Of historical note, and the highlands of the Albertine fl eeing land disputes and tribal warfare an even larger mining camp developed Rift, part of the Eastern Afromontane in Uganda. Despite the centuries they near the deep-shaft gold mine in Maiko Hotspot.5 It ranges in altitude from spent expanding into the Albertine Rift, NP at the Anguma mining site (Figure 1). 850–2150 m, and holds exceptionally their oral traditions indicate a much high levels of biodiversity and globally more recent arrival in the mountains of In 1959, Schaller and Emlen surveyed threatened species, such as Grauer’s the present-day Tayna Reserve: they this area9 and reported several pockets gorillas, chimpanzees, Okapi, Forest suggest the fi rst pioneers moved into of forest with Grauer’s gorillas, but what elephants, and 14 species of primates.6 these mountains seeking new hunting was once surely a contiguous block of grounds and agricultural fi elds only forest from Tayna to Tchiaberimu (near The Tayna Reserve lies within two about 200–250 years ago. Lake Edward, Figure 2) had by the time chefferies (chiefdoms),7 the Batangi they conducted their surveys already and Bamate chiefdoms, who have By the period of colonial rule, at the become fragmented by increasing become so intertwined socially and beginning of the 20th century, Belgian- human population pressure. politically that it is virtually impossible led expeditions began entering the to map them separately (see Figure 3 area to hunt elephant, trade for ivory for the location of the Batangi Bamate and to explore for mineral wealth 1998–2000: Local origins (primarily gold). In the 1920s they began of the Tayna community

5 A “Wilderness Area” is defi ned by having 70 percent of its construction of a dirt road from Beni to conservation programme original habitat still intact; a “High-Biodiversity Wilderness Mbohe, west across Tayna, and then Eager to update some of Schaller and Area” is defi ned similarly, but contains more than 1,500 endemic plant species, and along with Hotspots is how west north-west to Oninga, a small Emlen’s 1959 surveys, in June–July Conservation International sets its priorities throughout mining centre (Figure 1, visible now as 1997, Thomas Butynski and Esteban the world. A Hotspot is defi ned as having lost more than 70 percent of its original habitat, and contains more than agricultural fi elds and small villages Sarmiento revisited the area near the 1,500 endemic plant species. The “hotspots” concept following the long-degraded road present-day Tayna Reserve, arriving was fi rst articulated by British ecologist Norman Myers in 1988 and adopted by CI as a priority-setting framework system; also see Figure 2). They never almost at its current eastern limits in 1989. See Mittermeier, R.A., Robles Gil, P., Hoffman, M., completely fi nished a road between in the village of Mbuhe (Figure 2). In Pilgrim, J, Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J. and da Fonseca, G.A.B. 2004. Hotspots Revisited. Cemex Books Oninga and the Anguma gold mine, discussing the reported presence on Nature; Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Brooks, T., which would have crossed the present- of rich wildlife west of their position, Pilgrim, J., Konstant, W., da Fonseca, G.A.B. and Kormos, C. 2003. “Wilderness and biodiversity conservation”. PNAS day Maiko National Park (Figure 1). they suggested to local community 100: 10309–10313. representatives (Mwami Stuka and 6 Tayna is home to a suite of globally threatened large animals typical of the region, such as the Eastern In the 1930s, the Belgian colonial others) that the area might be protected chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthi), the African authorities declared the majority of through some kind of community action. forest elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) and Grauer’s gorilla (Gorilla berengei graueri), as well as a number of the present-day Tayna Reserve to Following this suggestion, Pierre Kakule species found only in the Albertine Rift (for example, there be the “South-west Lubero Hunting and Mwamis Stuka and Mukosasenge are reports of a completely black morph of the forest leopard, Panthera pardus, the Endangered Ruwenzori Reserve” identical to the “hunting realized the area’s potential for future morph). These restricted-range species include several reserve” created at that time for what ecotourism and ecosystem services, poorly known, threatened birds, such as the Albertine owlet (Glaucidium albertinum), as well as locally is present-day Maiko National Park. In and having watched their forests endemic mammals, such as the Ruwenzori sun squirrel reality, these reserves were not gazetted disappear to commercial cattle ranchers (Heliosciurus ruwenzorii) and the Ruwenzori otter shrew (Mesopotamogale ruwenzorii). Also see, The Forests of the Congo Basin: State of the Forest 2006, pp.198–205, 9 Emlen, J.T. and Schaller, G.B. 1960. “Distribution and http://www.cbfp.org/. 8 The Bamati and Batangi are two tribes of the Tayna area, status of the mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei), 7 Administrative organization in rural DRC is by Province, who through intermarriage and land-use sharing have 1959”. Zoologica 45: 41–52; Schaller, G.B. 1963. The then Territory, then Chefferie (Chiefdom, formerly called a substantially intermingled over the last century; they share Mountain Gorilla: Ecology and Behavior. Chicago, IL: Collectivité chefferie) or Sector. a very similar oral history. University of Chicago Press. Also reviewed in reference xvi.

63 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Figure 2. A comparison of the original boundaries proposed for the Tayna Nature Reserve (2a) with the ﬁ nal conﬁ guration (2b). One of the principal access routes into the reserve is shown in the Figure 2a.

Figure 2a

Figure 2b

64 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

and agricultural settlements creeping 2001: International support for Lesson learned 1: Support local west, they began discussions with the Tayna project initiatives as opportunities arise, but their local village chiefs surrounding From April 2001 to the present day, only after feasibility and due-diligence present-day Tayna as to how this might the RGT began to receive signifi cant studies are conducted to calibrate be accomplished. By 1998, the Mwamis amounts of international fi nancial and potential conservation outcomes with an had banned the use of shotguns in technical support. In April 2001, Tayna appropriate level of investment. Local people sometimes present autonomously the area and were considering the signed its fi rst contract with DFGFI, developed projects to international creation of a communal reserve in in which Tayna accepted DFGFI as its NGOs. It is highly desirable to support a mountainous forest with only the “primary partner” (UGADEC signed an these projects, but only after initial due- presence of a dozen small villages west identical agreement in 2002). In doing diligence and feasibility studies. It is best of Mbuhe (Figure 2). Equally important so, they agreed to the principle that to begin a fi rst phase with small grants to to them, they noted the presence of all fi nancial and technical support to assess their capacity to manage funding chimpanzees to the north-east of their Tayna would be channeled through a and achieve conservation outcomes. fi rst target area near the important single international partner, DFGFI. It In some cases, a Primary Partnership cultural village of Kasugha, which was felt by both parties that this would between a local and an international NGO contained a sacred forest, a waterfall, eliminate multiple donors with multiple is advantageous, since it channels funding and a series of caves, and thought (and sometimes contradictory) technical and technical inputs from a single partner to the local NGO, and can avoid multiple that this could also be gazetted as a inputs. The primary partner agreement (possibly contradictory) conditions and separate reserve. fi rst signed in 2001 is still in effect today objectives associated with several funding eight years later, and is the fundamental sources. From the beginning of 1998 through mid- basis with which Tayna (and UGADEC) 2000, despite the civil war raging in their receive international support. area with various battles between armed militias and foreign armies (Congolese 2001–2003: Support from the Dian did as much biological prospecting as Mai Mai, Rwandan Interehamwe and Fossey Gorilla Fund and the US was possible given the conditions, and Congolese rebel forces, the MLC and Congressional “Gorilla Directive” confi rmed the presence of gorillas and RCD,10 as well as the Ugandan army), In mid-2000, Tayna staff requested healthy forest blocks within the targeted Pierre and the Mwamis kept the idea of a donation from Dr Liz Williamson, reserve area. The author became a community reserve alive and continued then-Director of the Karisoke Research convinced that creating a community discussions with local people as often as Center, DFGFI, and she secured a small reserve was not only feasible, but possible. In 2000, Pierre Kakule created fund to support community meetings for desirable, in that local communities a local association, the RGT (La Réserve Tayna that took place in late 2000. By were leading the process, rather than des Gorilles de Tayna – Gorilla Reserve February 2001, Pierre Kakule met again a more traditional approach of creating of Tayna)11 composed of about 10 staff with DFGFI senior staff (the author and a protected area from the top down, members (with no salaries) who came Dr Dieter Steklis), and presented a plan usually led by government authorities from the area. In 2000, the RGT began and local maps that had been created and international conservation NGOs. to seek help from several international by community members. DFGFI was From March–October 2001, DFGFI conservation organizations, but the civil interested in the visionary approach of provided approximately US$65,000 to war (and risk aversion on the part of the the Tayna group, and the author made support the Tayna Reserve. In October NGOs) prevented any signifi cant action arrangements for a due-diligence trip 2001, DFGFI successfully obtained at that time. into Tayna a month later. In March 2001, an award from the US Congressional the author traveled from Butembo to “Gorilla Directive” (administered by just beyond Bingi by road, and made USAID), and with DFGFI internal 10 MLC was one of the rebel factions during the civil war backed by Uganda, the Movement for the Liberation of his way to Iseya, a small village located funding, from then until September Congo (Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo); RCD within the targeted area for the reserve 2003, was able to provide Tayna was another rebel faction backed by Rwanda, the Rally for Congolese Democracy (Rassemblement Congolais pour la (Figure 2a). During this trip, he met the (and other project members from Démocratie); Interehamwe are illegally armed Rwandan Mwamis, village chiefs and community UGADEC) direct operations funding at militia in DRC who, being responsible for the Rwanda genocide, fl ed into DRC; Mai-Mai were (and in some cases, members who made clear their desire approximately US$215,000 for each of still are) locally based Congolese militia formed during the to create a gorilla reserve. The author the two years. civil war to resist external rebel forces such as the MLC or the RCD. 11 The Tayna Gorilla Reserve (La Réserve des Gorilles de Tayna – RGT) received local NGO status in 2001, and was legally registered in DRC in 2005 (when it received its personalité juridique).

65 Section One: Land-Use Planning

2003–2008: Support from DFGFI, 2001–2006: Development and • Establish an agreement between Conservation International (CI) and implementation of the Tayna the Tayna group and the ICCN; the USAID CARPE12 and Gorilla programme • Hire, equip and train fi eld staff Directive programmes As noted above, the vision for a who could immediately begin work By 2003, the on-going CBFP process community-based gorilla reserve in and around the area targeted and the Tayna community conservation for the Tayna area of North Kivu did for the community reserve, to programme successfully intersected. not originate in Washington, Paris both conduct rigorous biological One of the landscapes identifi ed in the or Kinshasa, but rather with the censuses and to provide more CBFP process was the Maiko Tayna inspired leadership of the customary extensive awareness raising with Kahuzi-Biega (MTKB) Landscape powers from the region. By the time the local population. and the zone between Maiko and international funding fi rst arrived, they Kahuzi-Biega NPs was precisely had a clear vision that they wanted to Interactions with “government” during where Tayna had begun its programme protect gorillas. They understood that the start-up phase and scaled it up with other UGADEC this could improve local economic In mid-2001, the RGT received formal communities (Figure 1). By chance, development through ecotourism, status as an NGO in eastern DRC. this guaranteed an essential role for through development incentives linked Because Goma was controlled by a DFGFI in the incipient Landscape to conservation outcomes, and through rebel government at that time, NGO programme, since it was the primary simply hiring and paying local staff, status was obtained from RCD Goma partner for Tayna and UGADEC, and whose salaries would circulate locally offi cials (by 2005, the RGT had applied was working with communities outside in a very impoverished area. They had for and received NGO status through (and between) National Parks within the identifi ed a mountainous region within the new unifi ed DRC government in MTKB Landscape. As proposals were their chefferie where intact forests Kinshasa, obtaining a Personnalité being called for by the USAID CARPE and gorilla populations still remained. Juridique). In mid-2001, the RGT programme, DFGFI and CI created a They had discussed creating a reserve also entered into a Memorandum of strategic partnership to support the with local stakeholders (village and Understanding with the ICCN through UGADEC community zone and Maiko clan chiefs, local landholders, village their offi cials stationed with RCD Goma, NP in order to submit simultaneous inhabitants) despite having to deal and with the MLC, which controlled proposals to CARPE and to CI’s Global with the tragedy of civil war sweeping much of North Kivu. Since Mai-Mai Conservation Fund (the latter providing through their villages on many militia groups also controlled the match funding to CARPE). These occasions.14 reserve area, the RGT also met with awards were successfully obtained, and them and explained their apolitical with DFGFI’s third and fi nal year of the Below, the various phases of the status, obtaining permission to conduct Gorilla Directive Funding, DFGFI internal development and implementation of the fi eld work. During the time the Mai- funding, CI’s Global Conservation Fund, Tayna project are described from early Mai controlled the area, they insisted and CI’s award from USAID CARPE 2001 until today, as it now functions as on supporting the RGT by providing Phase IIa, the Tayna and UGADEC one of DRC’s offi cial protected areas. protection against other illegally armed community conservation programme received US$1,750,000 in direct Start-up phase for the Tayna project operations funding from October 2003– By early 2001, DFGFI and Tayna staff Lesson learned 2: Conservation work September, 2006.13 This partnership had conducted a number of planning in contexts of civil strife (or civil war) and funding arrangement has continued meetings and concurred that the fi rst must attempt to remain apolitical at all from late 2006 until today, with support actions to accomplish would be to: times. The success of this project, as it from USAID CARPE Phase IIb, CI’s • Complete the receipt of formal developed in a context of civil war, can Global Conservation Fund, DFGFI NGO status for the Tayna working largely be attributed to it maintaining an internal funding, and special CI donors. group; apolitical stance, and its representation by local people who were well-known in the area and who were willing to talk to every 12 CARPE is the Central African Regional Program for the side to advance their conservation cause. 14 It is important to note that when this project fi rst received Environment (Phase I began in 1995). Phase II, begun in The international sponsor, DFGFI, left all 2003, was specifi cally designed to support the 11 Priority funding during the civil war, their region was partially Landscapes of the Congo Basin Forest Partnership. CARPE controlled by various armed factions, such as the Mai-Mai, local political matters completely in the II is divided into CARPE IIa (October 2003–September the Ugandan army, the MLC, and on some occasions, hands of the local NGO, the Tayna Gorilla 2006) and CARPE IIb (October 2006–September 2011). RCD Goma. This created a political context in which Reserve Project. 13 Direct funding fi gures quoted here are estimations of there was simply no central government. For the region those funds that were directly provided to Tayna, UGADEC of the incipient Tayna reserve, the only truly functioning and the Tayna Center for Conservation Biology; they government entity during this time was the traditional, exclude Maiko National Park, and operational funding and customary powers. administrative fees for DFGFI and CI.

66 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

groups by accompanying RGT and Goma). The RGT, in developing its Lesson learned 4: Train field staff DFGFI staff on fi eld missions. identity, made an immediate decision immediately on the use of satellite imagery to use the title of “Guide”, rather than and how to geo-reference their fi eld work. Deploying fi eld staff for Tayna “guard” or “ranger”, emphasizing that Traditional hand maps were essential for Field staff for the project were recruited fi eld staff were there to “guide” the local working with local people, but very early in the project, fi eld staff were trained to from the Tayna region. Amongst the fi rst population in conducting community translate these into geo-referenced maps. 25 fi eld staff, there were 15 “rangers/ conservation, rather than assuming a This was essential to the project in order guards” and 10 trackers, the former police function usually associated with to understand boundaries and customary being young men who had left the traditional national park staff. The Tayna claims, to understand the collection of area to obtain university degrees and guides and trackers were unarmed (as biological and socio-economic information in a few cases, ICCN training, and they are today). related to previous published work, and the latter being local men living in the for the staff to navigate effi ciently in a area as hunters and agriculturalists (in Early training – biological data mountainous and diffi cult fi eld context. several cases, the sons of village and In discussions with DFGFI scientifi c groupement chiefs). The fi rst funding staff, the Tayna group determined support went to equipping and paying the fi rst objective for this initial phase the RGT fi eld staff as well as to creating of work: to transform traditional an offi ce in Goma. Field staff created knowledge about the location of This was an opportunity to upgrade and a small camp at Iseya (Figure 2a) with intact forests and presence of gorilla, fully modernize their tool kit. tents and traditional huts. Field staff chimpanzee and elephant populations received blue uniforms to distinguish into a quantifi ed and geo-referenced In this fi rst training, the RGT fi eld them from all other groups in the region, database that would enable them staff were introduced to satellite and they were provided typical fi eld to target limits for their reserve. It mapping, the use of GPS units for fi eld equipment, such as tents, backpacks, was presumed that protecting these orientation, and to record the location binoculars, compasses, etc., as well as forest blocks would, by default, of all geographical data. They learned GPS units and satellite-image-based protect the full range of biodiversity to identify the presence of all fauna maps. and ecosystem processes, a position (not just gorillas) and were trained in the Tayna group rapidly reached as identifying IUCN Red-listed species. they become more fully aware of Importantly, they were also trained in Lesson learned 3: When hiring and the IUCN Red List and international how to create and cut line transects, training field staff, hire locally and be protected area efforts. As a result, they and conduct censuses along these, willing to hire former hunters. All staff transformed their original concept from collecting data on the presence of all hired for this project were from the Tayna only protecting gorillas to creating fauna and anthropogenic disturbance. area, and since one of their primary duties a fully functioning, internationally Since RGT and DFGFI both wished was to sensitize local people, they could recognized protected area. to emphasize gorilla protection as the not have succeeded if they had not been iconic species that represented the local people. Former hunters were hired To enable the Tayna group to create reserve, the staff were trained in how as trackers, and with a regular salary, to collect quantitative data for gorilla made much more for themselves and their this database, in June 2001, the author, families than they would have gained from Stuart Nixon and Pierre Kakule (DFGFI nest sites, using methods the author subsistence hunting and local trade of employees at the time) travelled to had developed in the Central African bushmeat. Most remain with the project Iseya and provided the fi rst biological Republic,15 combined with DFGFI’s today. training for the staff in a “learn by long experience collecting data on doing” approach. Until that time, staff mountain gorillas at the Karisoke had been using traditional maps (both Research Center. A small supervisory staff of four to hand-made and government maps six RGT employees remained in which often dated back to the colonial One year later, four of the RGT staff Goma (as well as Butembo) to deal area) to understand better the location traveled to the Karisoke Research with administration, fi nance and of small villages, geographical markers Center in Ruhengeri, Rwanda NGO relations. In the fi rst year, foot (rivers and mountains), the location of and received further training. This messengers were responsible for all gorilla populations, and the location communications between Goma and of important forest blocks relative to 15 For more on gorilla nest counts, see Mehlman, P.T. and Iseya (later, radio communications degraded or active agricultural areas. Doran, D.M. 2002. “Factors infl uencing western gorilla nest were established between Iseya and construction at Mondika Research Center”. International Journal of Primatology 23(6): 1257–1285.

67 Section One: Land-Use Planning

programme, which had great promise, they were eager to hear how creating Lesson learned 5: Assist local NGOS was cut short by the Rwandan a reserve could benefi t their future. conducting sensitization to develop a government when it blocked these In contrast, villages farther west and standardized approach to education, exchanges, fearful that RGT staff south were asking tough and pointed awareness raising, and working with may have had undesirable political questions: “were the Mwamis selling local people on issues of land use and conservation. We discovered that fi eld affi liations.16 ‘their’ land to foreigners for a profi t; was staff in their enthusiasm to begin working a National Park going to be established with local people were actually interacting Early training: Sensitization/ that would be run by outsiders; what with villages in many different ways, awareness-raising approach while immediate trade-offs would be offered depending on staff personalities, their deploying the fi rst development as compensation, etc?” These initial understanding of the project, and more incentives interactions with locals were the fi rst importantly, the reaction of locals to their Training staff to conduct biodiversity serious challenge for the RGT. Could message. We discovered a risk of creating surveys was rapid and relatively simple they communicate effectively to perverse incentives, in that villages compared to the much more challenging isolated, local people that a reserve showing the most resistance to the project task that the Tayna staff set out to could maintain essential ecosystem were sometimes given more attention and accomplish (and requested DFGFI to services, create opportunities for believed (or construed that) commitments for development incentives were being assist with): how to work with local ecotourism, and in general improve provided them as they “negotiated” their people so that they see the advantage livelihoods and stimulate the local participation in the project. To address of “ceding” their customary rights to economy? this gap, we immediately developed a hunt or expand their agricultural fi elds standardized awareness-raising approach in areas of the reserve. In the start-up The leadership of the Tayna group that emphasized the long-term benefi ts phase, fi eld staff, when conducting came up with what they believed and advantages of the project, rather biological and geographical surveys, would be a solution to breaking than a short-term view of opportunity were also expected to contact local the “suspicion barrier” in some of costs incurred through the perceived villages, estimate their sizes, determine their communities. They reached an loss of hunting rights and potential future their locations, collect initial data on agreement with DFGFI to provide some agricultural expansion. livelihoods and needs, and through pilot development projects in selected communicating the advantages of villages. These included refurbishing preserving biodiversity to local people, four primary schools and staffi ng them sensitize inhabitants about the desire of with teachers, supporting two medical Due to lack of development funding the chefferie to establish a community- clinics and nurses, and creating a relative to the enormous needs of based gorilla reserve. mobile health team that would provide the impoverished local population, some emergency health care in the development incentives for the Tayna By the time of the fi rst fi eld training area, given the limited resources. project could not be calibrated as quid session in June 2001, the staff had They argued that these responses to pro quo agreements that could offset already contacted many villages and some of the “critical needs” of local the short-term opportunity costs of had encountered some challenges. In communities would both demonstrate conservation incurred by local resource general, those villages to the east of the goodwill and a moral commitment on users.17 The initial challenge, therefore, reserve had village chiefs who had been the part of their international partner for the Tayna project was to develop sensitized by the Mwamis, and thus had and provide incentives to local people a sensitization and awareness-raising come to understand a long-term vision; to become active participants in the programme for local people that could reserve project. They also argued that demonstrate in plain terms the long- 16 To emphasize the context of our work at that time, it is the pilot projects should go initially to term advantages of protecting their important to note that the fi rst training was cut short and had to be completed in Butembo (Figure 1). After those villages that supported Tayna, biodiversity, juxtaposed against the a week at Iseya, our group received word that armed not, in fact, to villages that had been the perception of short-term losses related forces of unknown origin (suspected Interehamwe) were camped only a few kilometres west of our position and most resistant. They argued that any to giving up rights to hunting and future were occupying a neighbouring village, and possibly other approach would create perverse agricultural expansion. intent on doing us harm. We immediately left, but two of the RGT supervisory staff courageously decided to go incentives, and that resistant villages unaccompanied to the village to try to discuss the issue. after seeing the progress achieved in They were promptly beaten, and taken hostage for three months before we secured their release. They remain with neighbouring villages would eventually the programme today, one being the Director of UGADEC, come to support the project. As time 17 CI’s Conservation Steward’s programme works through an and the other being a fi eld supervisor for the RGT. The approach called Conservation Agreements; these provide Interehamwe eventually left the village and today the passed, this proved to be correct. exact quid pro quo contracts that specify conservation village actively supports the Tayna Project. Since that initial activities to be accomplished and match these to lost incident, Tayna staff have never experienced a similar opportunity costs via specifi c economic and development situation. initiatives.

68 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

With the support of DFGFI, the Tayna 7. It described how community methodology (“armed with knowledge, group then developed a standardized conservation differed from a not guns” became the slogan), the sensitization methodology to be national parks approach, and how Tayna fi eld staff working with local used by the fi eld staff in visits to local fi nancial and economic benefi ts villages throughout 2001 and 2002, villages where they fostered “dialogue would remain local; and through a process of convening committees”: with local people, began to defi ne 1. It used local people’s interest in 8. It described how community what might be a fi rst perimeter for gorillas as charismatic animals in conservation could draw attention the Tayna reserve (Figure 2a). During their culture to stimulate interest in to their communities and attract the same time, some of the fi eld staff protecting biodiversity; development incentives, and used assigned to census large mammals and the pilot development projects as anthropogenic disturbance, completed 2. It used a Noah’s Ark story examples; a grid of about 70 km of line transects, to inspire them about their which provided a fi rst estimate that responsibility to be stewards of 9. It made clear that no promises more than 400 Grauer’s gorillas lived their biodiversity; were being made for quid pro quo within the area they had targeted for the development incentives; reserve.18 3. It informed people about the IUCN Red list and DRC’s list of 10. It solicited from local people their The Tayna group develops a fi rst protected species; ideas of the critical needs for their land-use plan and seeks national villages; government recognition 4. It used local examples of By early 2002, the RGT convened disappearing forest and fauna 11. It introduced a concept of its fi rst General Assembly of village (loss of forest from cattle ranching; participatory mapping, in which and groupement19 chiefs from the loss of gorillas in the east when local people were encouraged to Tayna region. The Assembly, led by they once were common, and explain how they used adjacent Pierre Kakule, was composed of 13 loss of bongo throughout the forests and were introduced to the village chiefs and other notables. They area) to sensitize communities to idea that they could easily cede discussed the proposed limits of a the existence of environmental the use of some of these areas by reserve by evaluating data collected threats and the concomitant shifting their usage patterns; at that time by their staff concerning need for behavioural change as the distribution of remaining villages formalized in the development of 12. It introduced the concept of in and near the proposed reserve, the a plan for sustainable use of forest vacance de terre, an offi cial distribution of forests and gorillas, and and fauna before these resources declaration by local people who the use of the forests by local people. disappeared altogether; wished to support the reserve After negotiations, the Assembly ratifi ed indicating that the designated the fi rst land-use plan and agreed that 5. It made local people aware of area for the reserve was not in the two chefferies should petition the the potential for ecotourism by active use, and there were no government to become recognized as describing nearby examples future plans to use the area; a protected area under the new Forest where foreigners were paying Code. to visit gorillas (Rwanda, and 13. It established a network of previously in DRC, when gorilla communications (foot messengers In November, 2002, the fi rst tourism was being conducted at the time) to facilitate further governmental Decree recognizing the in the Virungas and at Kahuzi- dialogue and to inform local Tayna Gorilla Reserve was signed by the Biega) and would pay for places “notables” (chiefs, landholders, Minister of Environment. It established to stay, places to eat, and would etc.) about further developments an integral zone with complete be interested in buying handicrafts such as the presence of fi eld protection, and made provisions for and seeing local culture; staff conducting studies or

sensitization or important 18 See Mehlman, P.T. 2008. “Status of wild gorilla 6. It made local people aware of meetings of the customary populations”. In: Stoinski, T., Steklis, D. and Mehlman, P.T. (Eds) Conservation in the 21st Century: Gorillas as a Case the value of forests for their local powers. Study, pp.3–56. New York, NY: Springer Press. Note that watersheds and how designating the ﬁ gure of more than 600 gorillas referenced in that work includes areas south and outside of the present-day limits “no-go” zones would allow Armed with knowledge of how to collect of Tayna Nature Reserve (i.e., includes the northern area of populations of fauna to recover biodiversity and basic socio-economic Kisimba-Ikobo Nature Reserve). from over-hunting; data, as well as an awareness-raising 19 A grouping of several villages, roughly equivalent to a clan, led by a chief who can convene village chiefs.

69 Section One: Land-Use Planning

a working committee to establish a After considerable study of gorillas had taken them south through management plan for the reserve. It administrative maps, it was realized mountainous, uninhabited areas with no is noteworthy that the limits of the that the proposed southern borders of biogeographical boundaries. integral zone (effectively, the reserve) Tayna overlapped with the Territory of at that time, were quite different from Walikale. The Tayna Reserve under this The Tayna customary powers reviewed their confi guration today. The evolution confi guration would be mostly in the this issue and made the political of this participatory mapping and Territory of Lubero where the customary decision to keep the Tayna boundaries delimitation is explained below. powers for the Batangi-Bamate were within “their” Territory of Lubero, and located, but would cross over into shifted the integral zone north. This Evolution of the Tayna Reserve another territory (Figures 2 and 3). decision, however, was made much integral zone borders 2002–2005 easier since their model for community Between 2002 and 2005, the This approach had been quite natural conservation had been taken up by stakeholders of Tayna substantially for the customary powers, since in the two neighbouring chefferies to the modifi ed the limits of their integral zone area south of Tayna, most villages were south-east and south-west, with those with a shift northward of boundaries in Bamate and Batangi, even though they communities designating integral zones the south and a shift eastward in the were administratively located in another that abutted Tayna’s southern border north (see Figure 2). In the south, this territory (highlighting the fl uid nature (Figure 2). In addition, Tayna fi eld staff change refl ected political realities; in the of chefferie boundaries compared to were already actively training the staff north-east, the change refl ected new administrative boundaries laid down from the two other Reserve projects knowledge gained from fi eld surveys, in the colonial era). For the Tayna staff of UGADEC that bordered Tayna to as well as new engagement with local working in the fi eld, it had also been the south. Ultimately, the boundaries villagers through participatory mapping. quite natural, since their surveys of of the three reserves in question were decided upon after deliberations within the UGADEC Federation and a series Lesson learned 6: With technical advice, a local community NGO developed its own of trips to the fi eld to seek stakeholder zoning regulations for their nature reserve and community zones consistent with an approval. international approach to biodiversity conservation (Figure 3). The Tayna group developed the following zoning regulations that are in place today:

Integral zone: Level of protection is identical to that of a National Park, i.e., complete protection for all fl ora and fauna, and no exploitation of any natural resources at present or in the future. The few remaining small villages within the integral zone will be encouraged to relocate by offering “magnet centres” outside the integral zone that provide clinics, schools Lesson learned 7: Community nature and alternative livelihoods. Appropriate tourism and scientifi c study will be encouraged and reserve boundaries are created in a proceeds will go to the collectivité for reserve management and community development context of stakeholder participation (managed by the customary powers). and agreements, political realities, and the location of important biodiversity. Buffer zone: An area extending 5 km from the limits of the integral zone where current Because of this grass-roots approach, residents may remain and may continue their agriculture and pastoral livelihoods, but proposed boundaries can undergo where no new agricultural clearing and no new immigration will be permitted. Subsistence substantial change before a consensus hunting of non-protected species and extraction of NTFPs by residents will be permitted on their fi nal confi guration is reached. to continue, using traditional methods (snares, spears, bows, nets made from natural, In this project, technical advice from i.e., non-metallic, materials). Harvest and growth rates of these non-protected species international NGO partners related to and production rates of NTFPs will be evaluated and monitored by scientifi c study (with determining a fi nal confi guration for the full cooperation and participation of remaining residents), and if subsistence hunting of integral zone emphasized: 1) keeping any individual species (or extraction of NTFPs) is not sustainable, hunting and extraction the protected area within government- rights may be limited for appropriate periods of time or by season. Neither logging nor recognized administrative borders; 2) charcoal production will be permitted in buffer zones. Commercial mining in general will working collaboratively with neighbouring not be permitted, but small mining concessions to residents may be granted if consistent communities to increase connectivity with the community conservation and development vision. of integral zones (this approach was supported by finding funding for Development zone: Zones outside of the Nature Reserve, but within the chefferie where neighbours); 3) efforts to incorporate all legal activities are permitted (consistent with customary and national laws). These high biodiversity zones and maintain zones will receive conservation education and awareness-raising initiatives, and will be connectivity through the creation of “mini- targeted for rural development. corridors”.

70 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

Figure 3. 3a displays the boundaries for the combined chefferies of the Bamate- In 2002, the Tayna group had noted on Batangi peoples; 3b shows the integral zone for the Tayna Nature Reserve with their map the presence of chimpanzees buffer zone and location of signage for demarcation and primary forest north-east of their proposed reserve (two dotted circles in Figure 2a), but this was secondhand Figure 3a information provided by locals, since these areas were the most mountainous and isolated terrain in their chefferies (Figure 3). However, during a series of fi eld expeditions by the Tayna staff during this time period, they verifi ed this information and determined that gorillas were also found in some parts of this forested area. During these fi eld trips, they discovered that there were no active villages in this zone and through engagement with local stakeholders living on the periphery of the zone, received agreements from them that they could shift their hunting activities away from the new reserve area. They therefore incorporated these zones into the Tayna Reserve by creating a small corridor that extended northeast (Figure 2a). This process was completed before the Tayna group submitted its next application to the National Government to become an offi cially recognized Nature Reserve (see below).

Obtaining legal status as a DRC protected area and creating a unique community-based management approach Figure 3b By early 2006, the Tayna group, as well as their neighbours to the south, the Kisimba-Ikobo groupements, submitted proposals to the Ministry of Environment and the ICCN to become ofﬁ cially recognized Nature Reserves. Each proposal included the following documentation: 1. Ofﬁ cial recognition by the government that the Tayna (and Kisimba-Ikobo) group had received NGO status;

2. A management plan for the reserves, including proposed administrative structures;

3. Documentation that the Tayna (and Kisimba-Ikobo) group had an

71 Section One: Land-Use Planning

active Memorandum of Agreement groups created a co-management 1. An initial “Leaders” workshop, in with the ICCN, describing their regime in which the local communities which two representatives of each terms of cooperation; were responsible for management of village dialogue committee were the Reserve, overseen by the ICCN via invited to the TCCB to gather 4. Documentation that the Tayna annual reporting and the creation of a feedback from local stakeholders (and Kisimba-Ikobo) group had CoCoSi (Site Coordinating Committee) and to develop the details for the notifi ed and sought approval for each reserve. workplan; from the provincial and territorial authorities; 2. Field visits by Tayna staff to Recent management activities villages with dialogue committees 5. Agreements signed by local to sensitize local stakeholders communities that they supported Physical boundaries demarcated about the demarcation project; the Nature Reserve projects; Late in 2007, the Tayna Nature Reserve became the fi rst protected area in 3. Publication of 1000 brochures 6. Vacances de terres (see above) DRC to provide a complete physical in French and Swahili that were signed by the local customary delimitation for its boundaries. By 2006, distributed in these village powers and land users indicating despite the success of this community meetings that described the Tayna that the land found in the reserve approach, anecdotal evidence project and the importance of proposed reserves was not in use suggested that unclear boundaries demarcation; and would not be needed in the were one of the limiting factors of future; Tayna’s conservation capacity: fi eld 4. Radio broadcasts that described staff reported that much of the illegal the importance of the new project 7. The boundary limits for the extraction by local residents stemmed (via the Tayna community radio proposed reserves (integral from a lack of specifi c knowledge station, as well as two other zones). about the placement of the boundaries commercial radio stations in the rather than a disregard for conservation area); These proposals were reviewed by the goals. To address this, a project was Ministry of Environment and the ICCN, developed to place signage along the 5. Rotational fi eld visits by Tayna and were approved and signed into law boundaries of the reserve, employing staff to dialogue committees to by the Minister as two separate decrees local dialogue committees. This was install the signs with members of creating the Tayna and Kisimba-Ikobo accompanied by an awareness-raising the villages; Nature Reserves.20 campaign. 6. The use of the demarcation Once created, the two Reserves The demarcation project was project to achieve fi nal consensus became part of the DRC network of implemented through eight local on boundary limits as the protected areas under the mandate dialogue committees in villages nearby boundary signs were installed; of the ICCN. Management contracts the reserve, led by Tayna fi eld staff and between the ICCN and each of the Tayna Center for Conservation Biology 7. Establishment of a monitoring Reserves’ community management (TCCB) students. It began in late 2005 protocol managed by the dialogue with a Tayna management meeting committees in conjunction with

20 Available upon request, contact the author at ptmehlman@ that developed and implemented the the Tayna fi eld staff. yahoo.com or Pierre Kakule at [email protected]. following step-by-step phases of the project: This project, which was completed in late 2007, resulted in the placement of Lesson learned 8: A fi rst priority activity for any community-managed protected area signs at 500 m intervals near boundaries should be to provide a physical delimitation for its boundaries. Local people need with the highest human traffi c (villages physical boundaries to comply with conservation planning. In this project, we learned in the buffer zones), with boundaries that a demarcation project needed to be done with and by local villagers in “dialogue in more remote areas of the forest committees”. Their participation served to achieve consensus on the “micro”-specifi cs of having signs placed at 2 km intervals, boundaries and sensitized local stakeholders as to the exact placement of the boundaries. often following well-known rivers and The work of placing the signs also provided temporary employment for local people. The streams (Figure 3). Additionally, large project also provided a broader education campaign about the necessity of physical signs were placed in four key villages. demarcation of the Reserve through printed brochures and radio broadcasts. Local villagers, led by the dialogue

72 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

Examples of some of the signs demarcating the boundaries of the Tayna Nature Reserve. committees and Tayna fi eld staff, were ICCN, Tayna’s international partner – to unforeseen events. Negotiations hired on a temporary basis to install the DFGFI, local stakeholders, and territorial with local stakeholders can stall and signs (203 in total). authorities. This committee evaluated sometimes break down. Key staff overall progress towards conservation members may become ill or even die. Completion of a business plan for the and development goals, and created Security can worsen. Governments and Tayna Reserve an activity and fi nancial plan for each key policy makers change. Logistics The Tayna Reserve completed its coming year. somehow end up being far worse than management plan in 2008, and along imagined. None of this minimizes the with international partners decided role of planning. To the contrary, without that the management plan also needed Discussion and summary a fi rst road map, one can literally get an accompanying business plan that The Tayna experience demonstrates lost in the wilderness. But we now detailed recurring costs related to is that there is no abstract formula realize that the fi rst planning matrix will staffi ng and operations. or planning methodology to create a only partially resemble the path one community-managed protected area. takes to later planning iterations three Convening of the CoCoSi (Site As conservation NGOs, we sometimes or four years into a project. One cannot Coordinating Committee) mistakenly believe that once we emphasize enough the role of adaptive The contract with ICCN, in which the complete a project’s logical framework and fl exible management policies along RGT was responsible for Reserve of activities and budget, there is then the way. Reaching a stable management management, called for a yearly a straight line along the continuum of regime takes years. meeting of a CoCoSi identical to the conception to implementation to stable standard management protocols for and sustainable operations. Nothing The Tayna project was originally other DRC National Parks. The fi rst is further from reality. Unanticipated conceived from fi eld experiences, Tayna CoCoSi was held in September, obstacles frequently emerge that require discussions in village councils, and 2007 and a second was held in creative and adaptive solutions. Funding around campfi res, rather than through September, 2008. These were attended may not be secured, and when it does paper planning documents. This by the Tayna management group, the arrive, there are often shortfalls due approach better refl ects how local

73 Section One: Land-Use Planning

African groups conduct much of their 1. Strong motivation on the part of they do indeed have potential, customary governance and contrasts local communities to safeguard be willing to test them with with a western, linear view of the future. their biodiversity and to pursue incremental fi nancial and technical Nevertheless, these two approaches integrated conservation and support. developed into a unique synthesis development initiatives; between a local organization and 2. Translate local aspirations western international conservation 2. The presence of well functioning to global frameworks. Aid NGOs, with much learning along the customary powers, which provide the local group to modify and way. The very organic nature of the the leadership necessary to translate their local aspirations project in fact became its strength, and motivate local communities and ideas into international the myriad ways in which we all needed and maintain an institutional (and national) frameworks. to adapt provided a solid foundation foundation for well organized Here, it is important to create a for a novel approach to conservation interventions; knowledge-transfer process so in central Africa. As the Tayna group that concepts of suffi cient scale grew in experience and assimilated the 3. A partnership with an international to preserve ecological processes technical advice of their conservation partner that encourages local and connectivity, protection NGO partners, the log-frames, leadership to fl ourish, can of globally important species, Powerpoints©, scientifi c articles, translate local aspirations ecosystem services, and technical management and business plans about resource management, and fi nancial sustainability are blossomed. In retrospect, it is diffi cult conservation and development integrated into their approach. to imagine how the project could have into internationally recognized Encourage local groups to evolved otherwise. Without the initial approaches for creating protected become engaged at wider levels “boots-on-the-ground” experiences areas, and can provide the (provincial, national, regional, and the love of nature the local people essential funding to develop and international) to increase their exhibit for their forests and animals, the implement projects; knowledge base. abstract planning, administrative and scientifi c approaches would have been 4. A national government with the 3. Understand the local groups’ too disconnected from the very “nature” political will to attempt novel interests. It is unusual that human they were trying to protect. approaches to conservation and communities do something for local management regimes. nothing. Be cognizant that the This experiment in grass-roots local group is quite aware of community conservation continues. Without these basic enabling their opportunity costs. Through With the leadership provided by the conditions, we believe it unlikely that direct contractual quid pro quo Tayna Reserve, the approach has the Tayna experience would have arrangements providing benefi ts, been scaled up to seven other sister resulted in the fi rst community- and through extensive education projects in eastern DRC, and from managed, nationally recognized about long-term benefi ts, ensure that, a federation of these projects, protected area in DRC, nor would the that local groups perceive their UGADEC, has emerged. Later, using model have spread to other areas. actions as enabling them to reach some elements of the Tayna model, the development objectives. Sankuru Nature Reserve was created. A number of specifi c lessons learned In Equateur Province, the Tayna model from this experience may also be useful 4. Moral, ethical and philosophical has been almost exactly replicated by for international conservation groups principles are essential. Often, another community group, Vie Sauvage, to apply elsewhere to catalyze similar as conservation NGOs, we are which wishes to establish the Kokolopori projects: the fi rst groups to reach isolated Bonobo Nature Reserve (the Ministerial 1. Look for the emergence of local areas where biodiversity is still Decree is currently awaiting signature). groups. Be attentive to any locally intact. Because of this isolation, organized groups that emerge local people may lack immediate, As the Tayna model is now being with ideas about conservation critical needs, most often related replicated, it clearly demonstrates what and resource management. Their to health and food security issues. we have learned as the basic enabling mere presence probably indicates As a priority, fi nd partners or conditions necessary to succeed in local motivation to act, and if due- donors that can help meet these community conservation: diligence research confi rms that needs as a gesture of goodwill.

74 Chapter Two: Land-Use Planning in Central African Protected Areas

Hungry, ill people are unlikely 5. Foster independence and experiments to gain experience. to be interested in long-term autonomy. We, as conservation Empowerment is not a top-down resource management. To ignore NGOs, often believe we have process, nor can it be fast- these needs is moral relativism most of the answers in our tracked. Project sustainability and will not go unnoticed by local tool kits. Local groups know ultimately depends on the ability communities. their social contexts best, and of local communities to manage they need the freedom and the their own natural resources. ' opportunity to conduct their own

Chapter 3

Forest Concession Land-Use Planning: Lessons Learned

Cléto Ndikumagenge

1. Introduction The area covered by forest concessions in Central African forest countries (Cameroon, DRC, Gabon, Congo, CAR and Equatorial Guinea) is estimated today to total 50 million ha, which is about 25 percent of the evergreen rainforest of the region. All lands belong to the State and concessionaires simply manage the resources for a set period of time. In most of the countries, Cameroon excepted, the zoning process has not yet been ﬁ nalized. Nonetheless, there has been noticeable progress in the gazettement of forest concessions in these countries.

In its strategy of implementing the policy of conservation and sustainable management of natural resources in the Congo Basin, and more especially in accomplishing its Intermediary Result 2, CARPE is working with partners at all levels – micro-, meso- and macro-zone , but also at national and global level – to make the most of the lessons learned in its various areas of intervention, especially those to do with forest concessions.

The purpose of this paper is to present a summary of the history of the development of forest concession management in Central Africa, from colonial days up to the present; to highlight the main challenges (former and emerging) for better land-use planning (LUP) in forest concessions; to outline the main lessons learned from case studies analyzed in the Democratic Republic of Congo, in the Cameroon and Congo segments of the Sangha Tri-National Landscape; and to provide some guidelines on current trends.

2. Development of forest management from the colonial period to the present

2.1 From mining management to sustainable management of forest The history of forest management in Central Africa demonstrates the evolution of sylviculture and land management since the 19th century.

In fact, from the 18th century to the 1950s, policies on the management of forest resources were State-driven and all forest management was geared towards the promotion of logging without any real concern about regulating logging nor preserving wildlife. Most of the logging was for household use. Forests were, in almost all cases, the sole responsibility of the State.

In the 1950s, the situation started to change as forest management and logging were mostly geared towards the reconstruction of Europe after the 2nd World War.

77 Section One: Land-Use Planning

For a long time, logging activity was plans followed by directives and 3.2 Challenges of biodiversity concentrated mostly around the standards, management of felling conservation in production coastline because of problems of plots, etc.; forests:10 commandments for transportation. • Social responsibilities through managing wildlife the creation of jobs, the provision A study carried out in the south In the 1960s and 1970s, with the of goods and services to of Cameroon in 2003 in a forest coming of mobile saws and better administrations and the local concession managed by a logging means of transportation, an increase in populations, contributions to local company called FIPCAM has shown demand saw logging activity expand projects, etc.; that it is large mammals (gorillas, further and further inland although most • Economic responsibilities through chimpanzees and elephants) that are of the land still remained unexploited. the contribution of processing facing the most pressure from logging. units, and the creation and A few trials were carried out in maintenance of roads; Besides logging (that has as its corollary natural forests and they revealed that • Social responsibilities through the disruption of habitats and the sylvicultural treatments before and after the paying of a number of fees gradual disappearance of animal and logging could signifi cantly improve and taxes in addition to those plant species), there are many other growth rates and consequently the stipulated by law; pressures that are for the most part volumes of marketable species. • Environmental responsibilities found outside of forest concessions. geared towards respect for They include: Prompted by organizations such biological diversity especially • the economic crisis of which one as IUCN, the necessity of taking wildlife in production zones. of the consequences is the decline conservation needs into consideration in jobs in the public and private started to be felt. In 1975, the IUCN 2.2 Progress made on certifi cation sectors, and the subsequent return General Assembly organized in Nsele Over the past 10 years, a new era has of unemployed city dwellers to gave fresh impetus to the recognition been born with the advent of forest rural areas; of the importance of tropical forests to certifi cation. Concessionaires and • the devaluation of the CFA Franc conservation. States are doing quite a lot for the in 1994 and structural adjustment certifi cation of natural forests. Presently, measures imposed by the World In the 1980s, enormous efforts were the surface area under FSC certifi cation Bank and the IMF; made to develop programmes aimed has grown from zero in 2006 to more • new economic diffi culties related at promoting conservation and than 4 million ha in 2010. to the reduction in oil revenues and regulating forest logging. This gradually associated jobs, thereby creating evolved into programmes relating the an attractive economic niche for conservation of forest resources to the 3. Major challenges in forest the trade in bushmeat; development of local communities. concession management • the fall in price of cash crops (cocoa, coffee), coupled with poor In the 1990s, some governments 3.1 Forest concessions and land sales of these export products, started to adopt laws to enable local tenure again causing the bushmeat trade communities to be involved in the In spite of signifi cant progress within to become a more important management of forest resources. the framework of forest management, source of income for rural aspects of forest tenure are not yet households in forest zones; During this period, concessionaires harmonized in Central African countries. • the proliferation of more effi cient started to play an important role When it comes to large-scale zoning, hunting weapons aggravated by in management including the role apart from Cameroon, the other armed confl icts in the sub-region; hitherto entrusted to governments countries have still to complete their • the opening of new road networks such as that of being responsible for zoning plans. by logging and mining companies the management of lands on which thereby facilitating access to concessions had been granted. The period granted to concessionaires forest zones that were hitherto not The obligations of concessionaires varies from country to country accessible to hunters; continued to grow and included various depending on the regulations in force: it • the development of more effi cient responsibilities: can be 30 years or more. means of transportation; • Technical responsibilities such as • the growing demand for bushmeat the preparation of management in cities;

78 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

• the opening up of some regions 8. Establish awareness-raising well as the management of relations that has led to an increase in and education programmes on between the actors involved. outlets for the sale of bushmeat; the issue of overexploitation of • the development of transborder wildlife; 3.4 Emerging issues trade and markets for bushmeat in There are emerging issues that have not urban areas; 9. Promote the use of alternative been looked at in the case studies but • human immigration into logging sources of protein to satisfy the that will have short and medium-term and mining sites, and agro- dietary needs of the populations; impacts on forest concessions. industrial plants; • huge inadequacies in the 10. Never give up! Forest concessions and energy implementation of the law. The 13th World Forestry Congress in 3.3 How to reconcile the landscape Buenos Aires (October 2009) highlighted Some concessionaires have, in approach with the management of the importance of bio-energy and its collaboration with conservation forest concessions? impact on the use of landscapes. In partners, set up some basic rules Landscapes are geographical areas fact, bio-energy is used by at least to reduce the loss of biodiversity where there is human activity and 10 percent of the world’s population and especially wildlife. These rules, where there are physical and biological and has pride of place in all developing that have been dubbed the “ten specifi cities for a given region, countries. commandments”, were outlined at institutions and people who infl uence Lopé, Gabon, in 2000. They are: the latter, as well as cultural and As a result of the subsidies provided 1. Promote knowledge and respect spiritual values. Their scope has to be for research into fi rst-rate bio-fuels, it is for the laws in force inside and determined in terms of the targeted possible that land currently occupied by outside the forest concession management objectives. forest concessions will be given over to through close collaboration the production of bio-fuels. between all actors; Among the main principles of forest landscape restoration are: The World Congress recognized 2. Create between funding (i) the identifi cation of zones to be the potential negative impact of the bodies, administrations, logging restored within landscapes taking development of bio-fuels on agricultural companies and conservation into consideration the preservation of and forest lands. communities, true partnerships biodiversity, species, their habitats and with rights and obligations that are ecosystems, and fostering the resilience Importance of large plantations and known and accepted by all; of ecological systems; (ii) the promotion their impact on forest concessions of a holistic vision while taking into With the development of environmental 3. Mainstream the problem of consideration the management of large awareness due partly to climate change “wildlife management” in mosaics and the entire landscape; and the current economic downturn, designing and implementing and (iii) the promotion of multi-actor there is good reason to ask if current management plans; platforms (government, civil society, land-use plans will be respected. communities and the private sector) for Nobody can predict the evolution of 4. Restrict access to the concession; landscape management, to facilitate the annual growth of plantations in good moral, social, ethical and the context of climate change. Will the 5. Ban all commercial hunting or professional relations. trend be to produce timber in artifi cial hunting using non-selective plantations and leave natural forests techniques in the forest In the case of Central African forest for the conservation of biodiversity and concession; concessions, most of them are carbon sequestration? contiguous to protected areas and are 6. Manage immigration to the forest part of these large mosaics. Landscape Similarly, with the much awaited concession with relation to living development and management has to development of bio-fuels in Africa, will quarters, permanent camps and take into consideration the interactions large palm plantations that provide industrial sites; between protected areas and forest the opportunity, in the short term, for concessions. The security of protected greater fi nancial rewards than those 7. Put up strict regulations and areas within a landscape depends on provided by forests, not have the instruments for effi cient control in how sustainably they are exploited, the tendency to replace natural forests? the concession; dynamics of the peripheral zones as

79 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Impact of the UN-REDD Programme1 4. Synthesis of main lessons facilitated gradual collaboration with the on the management of forest learnt from on-going Administrator of the Mambassa Territory concessions experiences through quarterly meetings and other The international community strategic meetings. acknowledges the importance of Congo 4.1 Experiences may vary but some Basin forests in carbon sequestration. common lessons can be learned In the case of Cameroon, it has been Although they represent only a relatively Within the framework of capitalizing on observed that supposedly “weak small percentage as compared to experiences and lessons learned by actors” can constitute a signifi cant other types of forests in the world CARPE, three case studies on planning threat to biodiversity if they believe that (especially temperate forests), they forest management in concessions were management rules are detrimental to stock a relatively large volume of carbon carried out: their interests. From this participatory as compared to these other types of • Land-use planning by the Wildlife process of gazetting forest concessions, forests. Conservation Society (WCS) and it is clear that conservation is not a the Enzyme Refi ners Association technical process but also and mostly a The REDD process that consists of (ENRA) in the Ituri-Epuli Landscape social process. paying compensation to developing of the Democratic Republic of countries that have a net reduction of Congo; 4.3 Promote the landscape approach emission of greenhouse gases in order to • The gazettement process and and multi-actor partnerships mitigate climate change is topical today. management of forest concessions In the countries covered by the case in the Cameroon segment of studies, it has been observed that The Congo Basin countries that the Sangha Tri-National (TNS) forest concession management and manage forest concessions want Landscape, by the World Wide development must take into consideration to have credits for the preliminary Fund for Nature (WWF); and the contiguous protected areas (Virunga measures of sustainable management • The multi-organizational model National Park for the DRC, the Nouabalé- already undertaken, to develop suitable of land-use planning and Ndoki National Park for Congo and policies, incentives and reference management of forest resources Lobéké National Park for Cameroon). In scenarios that take into consideration in forest concessions in the Cameroon and Congo, it has been proven demographical evolution, food security TNS within the framework of the that the management of protected areas and energy needs. Project for the Management of within a landscape depends on how the Ecosystems around the Nouabalé- periphery is managed. The issue at stake in the long term is Ndoki National Park (PROGEPP in the future of management plans and French). Tripartite partnerships involving the land-use plans if the REDD mechanism private sector, conservation NGOs is implemented. In spite of the diversity of the and the local administration are often landscapes and the complexity of presented as a model to other sub- The position of the Congo Basin contexts, in the analysis there is some regions. It is thanks to multi-actor countries on this issue is that convergence of the main lessons partnerships (CIB, WCS and the “degradation in forest concessions learned in the management of forested Ministry of Forest Economy for the should be taken into account on the lands of which the most important are: Congo; ENRA, WCS and the Ministry same basis as deforestation”. for the DRC; and WWF, CEFAC and 4.2 Act locally and think globally to the Ministry in charge of Forestry for Also, only the carbon market infl uence policies at national and Cameroon) that management plans and mechanism can generate the necessary regional levels land-use plans are developed. fi nancial resources for REDD and ensure LUP processes always require the sustainable funding. involvement of communities, local In these partnerships, spelling out clear authorities, local, national and sub- roles and responsibilities is crucial. In regional administrations. In the case fact, conservation agencies must avoid of ENRA, it is reported that despite confl icts and possible competition with the weakness of local authorities, they administrations acting as technical nonetheless represent the legal authority support/advisory agencies to other actors. and ignoring them can compromise the The TNS experience in the Cameroon

1 The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing conduct of other planning initiatives. segment brings to the fore the fact that Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation in Collaboration with local authorities has the landscape conservation approach is Developing Countries.

80 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

a “science of compromises” and that no which the boundaries of non-confl icting and future views of the landscape actor has enough power to impose rules usage can be superimposed. The through sessions; and the cyber tracker that others cannot understand or share in. process of landscape zoning is much that makes it possible to improve on more likely to succeed if all actors how to plan and carry out logging If well carried out, these partnerships concerned can discuss and agree on operations. The success observed may result in the signing of collaboration how the boundaries of non-confl icting contribute to improving regulation. agreements such as the “Mambele allocations can be superimposed (and Agreement” (between local overlap) rather than focusing all their communities, safari hunting companies attention on exclusive allocation. 5. Conclusions and the forestry administration that • Thanks to the harmonization of spells out the roles and responsibilities In North Congo, PROGEPP is working to policies and the commitment of of each party with regards to strengthen formal recognition of the rights partners such as CARPE and sustainable management of wild of communities in hunting zones and to others, the Congo Basin has made fauna, and access to the various formally recognize the rights of pygmy considerable efforts to manage allocation units) and the anti-poaching communities in forest concessions. forest concessions in a sustainable agreement called the “LAB Agreement” manner through the drawing up (between logging and safari hunting 4.5 Increasing role of South-South and implementation of participatory companies, local communities, forestry dialogue and sharing between management plans; administration and conservation NGOs). landscapes • Multi-actor partnerships allowing In the DRC, these partnerships have Thanks to the harmonization of sub- for the involvement of the made it possible to sign collaboration regional policies under the coordination private sector and NGOs will be agreements with ENRA and WCS. of COMIFAC, there has been an strengthened in order to facilitate This also makes it possible to put in important promotion of discussion and the implementation of management place and strengthen consultation fora transboundary management to enable plans; between the forestry administration, new experience sharing in concession and • In spite of efforts made in countries conservation NGOs and forest zoning management; those countries that through the COMIFAC, the issue concessions to evaluate and direct are more advanced in land-use planning of forest tenure and access of efforts towards the sustainable should aim to inspire others. communities to land is not yet management of forest concessions clear, given that some countries are (e.g., WWF and the SAFEC Company). 4.6 Role of science and new tools more advanced than others; and methods to monitor landscapes • As a result of market pressures and 4.4 Acknowledge traditional land-use The complexity of landscapes requires climate change, the role of forest systems and the immediate interests the intervention of scientists who work concessions in providing fuelwood of local communities in close collaboration with professionals will become more important; Regardless of the context, case studies and the administration to defi ne new • Forest plantations and agro- have shown the need to master and tools to monitor landscapes that allow industries, especially of palm take into consideration traditional land for the various achievements (natural, trees and other plants used to management systems and to preserve social, fi nancial, human, cultural, provide bio-fuels, are playing the immediate interests of communities. infrastructural) to be measured. The an increasingly important role in example of the Groupe Sangha that countries; In Cameroon for example, it is follows up the annual evolution of the • Opportunities and uncertainties important to note that perceptions TNS landscape is quite illustrative, for generated by the REDD process of land tenure vary between local it makes it possible to capitalize on will have consequences for communities and migrants – migrants development and conservation using the development of forest are more likely to want to secure as indicators or benchmarks. concessions. In fact, the future of much land as possible in protected forest concessions is not limited landscapes (protected areas and forest Thanks to this group, there are several solely to carbon sequestration concessions), and this creates confl icts new tools to monitor landscapes such or environmental services that between the various ethnic groups. as modelling that allows for simulation are essential for the future of the of various scenarios; monitoring plantations; in addition, the human Experience has shown that it is development indicators that allow and economic dimensions of this only thanks to sincere and open for the monitoring of the evolution of area are inescapable. ' collaboration between actors that a landscape; visualization that allows zoning plan may be developed on communities to express their current

81 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Bibliography

COMIFAC. 2008. The Forests of the Congo. State of the forests 2008.

Karsenty, A., Jégou, C. and Singer, B. 2008. Social Policies of Forest Concessionaries in West and Central Africa. Washington DC: Rights and Resources Initiative.

Makana, J-R. 2010. “ENRA Forest Concession Land-Use Planning in the Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape, Democratic Republic of Congo”. In: Yanggen, D., Angu, K. and Tchamou, N. (Eds) Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned from the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). Gland: IUCN.

Makon Wehiong, S., Ndikumagenge, C. and Ngantou, D. 2005. Bilan et analyse des partenariats en gestion forestière dans le Bassin du Congo. OIBT, UICN, CEFDHAC.

Minnemeyer, S., Dkamela, G.P., Kabamba, F. and Stolle, F. 2009. Des forêts du bassin du Congo pour le climat global. Questions et réponses pour appréhender les déﬁ s du REDD. WRI.

Nzooh Dongmo, Z., Ngniado, A., Defo, L., Usongo, L. and Akwa, G. 2010. “The Process of Gazettement and Management of Forest Concessions in the Cameroon Segment of the Sangha Tri-National Landscape”. In: Yanggen, D., Angu, K. and Tchamou, N. (Eds) Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned from the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). Gland: IUCN.

Poulsen, J.R., Clark, C.J. and Curran, B.K. 2010. “A Multi-Organizational Model of Land-Use Planning to Conserve Wildlife and Forest Resources in Forestry Concessions”. In: Yanggen, D., Angu, K. and Tchamou, N. (Eds) Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned from the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). Gland: IUCN.

Sayer, J.A., Ndikumagenge, C., Campbell, B. and Usongo, L. 2005. “Wildlife, Loggers and Livelihoods in the Congo Basin”. In: Sayer, J.A., Maginnis, S. and Laurie, M. (Eds) Forests in landscapes: ecosystem approaches to sustainability. London: Earthscan.

82 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

Case Study 1 The Process of Gazettement and Management of Forest Concessions in the Cameroon Segment of the Sangha Tri-National Landscape

Zacharie Nzooh Dongmo, Alphonse Ngniado, Louis Defo, Leonard Usongo and George Akwa

Overview of forest concessions The Cameroon segment of the Sangha Tri-National (Tri-National de la Sangha – TNS) Landscape covers an area of 1,470,799 ha, divided into permanent forest estate (1,197,707 ha) and non- permanent forest estate (273,092 ha). The non-permanent forest estate (also called the agro-forestry zone) is intended, among other things, for the development of community forestry, community hunting and the agricultural activities of the local people. The permanent forest estate includes the Lobéké National Park (217,332 ha) and forest concessions (980,375 ha). Forest concessions devoted to logging of hardwood include 14 forest diversity. In terms of fl ora, there are over management units, alongside seven 764 plant species including 440 tree hunting zones1 (ZIC) and six community- and shrub species. In terms of wildlife, based hunting zones2 (ZICGC). there are about 45 species of large and medium-sized mammals, over 300 bird On the phytogeographical level, these species, 134 species of fi sh and 215 logging concessions are situated in the species of butterfl ies. Other taxonomic transitional zone of the Dja evergreen groups are also well represented. forest, and the semi-deciduous Amongst the mammals, the fl agship forest containing specimens from the (and highly threatened) species, such Sterculiaceae and Ulmaceae families. as elephants, gorillas, chimpanzees and On the whole, the semi-deciduous duikers, occur in relatively high densities forests are relatively greater in size. In in some forest concessions. all, 11 types of vegetation have been recorded. The area is sparsely populated, with a total population of approximately This diversity of vegetation brings with 63,150 individuals, an average of several other outside ethnic groups. it a relatively high level of biological 4.29 inhabitants/km2. This population The populations of the urban areas includes the minority Baka people and semi-industrial timber-processing 1 ZICs (Zones d’Intérêt Cynégétique) are hunting concessions (17 percent), the Bantu divided into sites are relatively high (21 percent that the State grants to business operators for safari several indigenous ethnic groups and 15 percent of the total population hunting. 2 ZICGCs (Zones d’Intérêt Cynégétique à Gestion (Bakwele, Bangando, Boman, Mbimo, respectively). Communautaire) are hunting areas that the State grants Konambembe and Mvon-Mvon) and to local communities mainly to satisfy subsistence hunting needs and for safari hunting.

83 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Process of gazettement permanent forest estate of the Republic to promote consultation and of forest concessions: of Cameroon”, which are: knowledge sharing based on the methodology and main • A preliminary technical report is social dynamics of the region. outcomes prepared; • The general public is notifi ed; The main fi ndings obtained have helped Initial background • Local communities are made to refi ne the boundaries of various Over the years up until 1995, the aware; allocation units and a technical report Cameroonian forest was gradually • The Gazettement Commission has been drafted for each of them, distributed amongst loggers through examines all feedback from the including the following items: the allocation of exploitation licences. various consultations; • The objectives of gazettement; In the Cameroon segment of the TNS • Final texts are presented to the • The boundaries of the forest to be Landscape, 16 operators had licences, Prime Minister. gazetted; and only a small area remained • A brief description of the area unallocated, made up essentially of Preparation of the preliminary (topography, hydrography, areas of swamp forest, and including technical report vegetation, population, human Lake Lobéké (see Figure 1). During this After the preliminary land-use plan, and industrial activities in the area, period, various bio-ecological and socio- WWF, WCS and German Technical accessibility, and a programme of economic studies were carried out by Cooperation (Deutsche Gesellschaft work for the future); the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the für Technische Zusammenarbeit – GTZ) • The description of normal use Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). carried out further studies including rights. bio-ecological aspects, socio- The results of these studies, economic aspects and participatory Public notice coupled with interpretations of aerial mapping. The main outcomes of these Based on the technical report, a notice photographs and satellite images, studies were: signed by the minister in charge of led to the proposal by the Canadian • Identifi cation of the critical area forestry was made public via the press Cooperation Offi ce (for the Canadian of conservation which is now and posters, together with a map (scale International Development Agency the Lobéké National Park on 1 : 200,000), and a deadline given – CIDA) for a preliminary land-use the basis of high concentrations for the receipt of any reservations or plan (LUP) for the southern part of and high densities of large and claims from local communities, to be Cameroon; a plan that was adopted medium-sized mammals and other addressed to the appropriate authorities in 1995 (Decree No. 95/678/PM of taxonomic groups such as birds; (regional administrative headquarters 18 December 1995 establishing the • Mapping of areas used by local and the Ministry of Environment and indicative framework for land use in the communities; Forestry’s regional offi cials). southern forest zone). • Better knowledge of the distribution of wildlife and certain Raising the awareness of This preliminary plan divides the non-timber forest products administrative authorities, interest Cameroon segment of the TNS (NTFPs); groups and the local population Landscape into permanent forest estate • Identifi cation of the main threats Meetings were held with the (1,186,120 ha), non-permanent forest and pressures on the biodiversity administrative authorities and other estate (224,000 ha), and an extractive of the area, and their origins; stakeholders (including representatives zone of 54,256 ha. The permanent • Establishment of a database of logging companies and local NGOs forest estate is made up of the Lobéké on the demography of the already operating in the area) who National Park (208,559 ha) and 14 forest local populations, areas of high have a role to play in the gazettement concessions (977,560 ha) (see Figure 1). concentrations (logging sites), the of forests to explain the work to be location of inhabited areas, and done and what is expected of them. Process of negotiating the boundaries levels of development of different A meeting was scheduled in the two of forest concessions communities; districts (Yokadouma and Moloundou) The process of gazetting forest • Evaluation of the perceptions affected by the proposed gazettement. concessions followed the steps laid of the local populations about Discussions at the meetings focused down by Decision No. 135/D/MINEF/ conservation and forestry, and the on the objectives of the proposed CAB of 26 November 1999 – “To potential benefi ts; gazettement, the principle of public lay down the procedures for the • Development of consultation fora participation in the management gazettement of the forests of the and of a network of local actors process of the forest stand, the next

84 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

Figure 1. The evolution of land allocation in the Cameroon segment of the TNS Landscape

Pre-1995 1995–2001

steps (including a tour to raise public local communities, logging companies traditional authority; (v) the level of awareness and a consultation meeting and safari hunting; (iv) mechanisms for poverty amongst the local people on the gazettement) and the work plan mitigating the repercussions from safari (average annual income below of the Gazettement Commission. hunting and logging; (v) recruitment of US$ 850); (vi) the high rate of illiteracy local people as workers by the logging within local communities making As regards raising the awareness of companies and safari hunting operators; awareness raising rather difﬁ cult; and local people, all the villages peripheral (vi) the contribution of these companies (vii) the breakdown of social structures. to the forest concessions to be gazetted to community development projects; were visited. During the meetings, and (vii) community access to the meat Work of the Gazettement Commission following the presentation of the of animals killed by safari hunters. Article 19 of Decree No. 95/531/PM gazettement project and the role that of 23 August 1995 lays down detailed the local people would have in the During this consultation process rules for implementing the forestry future management of these forest with various interest groups and regulation, and a regional Gazettement concessions, the various opinions, local communities, the local forestry Commission was created bringing claims and grievances were collected administration, WWF and GTZ faced together the representatives of all and incorporated into the minutes. a number of obstacles, including relevant administrations, local members The negotiations focused inter alia (i) conﬂ icts over land use; (ii) resistance of parliament, mayors and traditional on: (i) how to respect the use rights of on the part of local communities, authorities. the local population; (ii) compliance logging companies and safari hunting with the commitments of business guides to take part in discussions The meetings of this commission were operators, the forest administration and with conservation organizations; held in the headquarters of the districts conservation NGOs vis à vis the local (iii) poor governance within the local of Yokadouma and Moloundou. During population; (iii) collaboration between administrations; (iv) weakness of these meetings, the minutes of various

85 Section One: Land-Use Planning

awareness-raising meetings, as well as • The agro-forestry zone or non- each player and puts in place the views of third parties (deposited with permanent forest estate for the mechanisms by which they can administrative authorities following the land-use needs of local people has contribute to the fi ght against publication of the draft gazettement), been expanded, from 224,000 ha poaching; were examined. All relevant claims to 273,092 ha; • The establishment of consultation were dealt with, either by modifying • The extractive zone of 54,266 ha fora between the forestry the boundaries of the various forest has been redesignated, partly as a administration, conservation concessions or by revising the technical forest concession and partly as an NGOs and forest concessionaires reports on them (especially by taking into agro-forestry zone; to evaluate and channel efforts consideration the role and interests of • The number of forest concessions towards sustainable management the population in the future development (14) remains the same, but their of forest concessions. Within this of the various concessions). boundaries have been reviewed, framework, relations between and the total area has increased WWF and the logging companies The minutes of the Gazettement from 977,560 ha to 980,371 ha; have greatly improved, and a Commission, together with their • The southern part of Lobéké partnership agreement has now opinions and the entire gazettement National Park was expanded been signed between WWF and fi le for each forest concession, were with the integration of a habitat the SEFAC Group to combine forwarded to the minister in charge of complex, including the Bolo their efforts towards sustainable forestry. clearing, increasing its total area management and certifi cation. from 208,559 ha to 217,332 ha; Preparation of texts submitted to the • The traditional use rights of the Lessons learned Prime Minister local populations were reinstated in The forestry administration, WWF, GTZ Based on the minutes of the Regional each of the forest concessions; and other partners have adopted a Gazettement Commission, the fi nal texts • In the particular case of Lobéké fl exible approach in the gazettement of the draft gazettement were prepared National Park, an area has been of forest concessions in the Cameroon by the minister in charge of forestry and created to take into consideration segment of the TNS Landscape, given forwarded to the Prime Minister. This the wishes of the local population the complex character of the zone. draft decree, outlining the objectives of with regards to NTFPs (medicinal Feedback on the monitoring process gazettement as well as the boundaries plants, wild yams, honey, wild highlights the following lessons to be of the forest to be gazetted, was fruits). learned: accompanied by the following items: • A basic map showing the In general, this gazettement process General observations boundaries of each forest has resulted in: • A sincere and open collaboration concession, together with a • A reduction in tensions and between stakeholders can lead more detailed map to the scale disputes between parties related to to a land-use plan (LUP) in which 1 : 200,000; land use; the boundaries of areas for non- • A technical report detailing the • The signing of a cooperation confl icting use may overlap; objectives of the gazettement and agreement known as the “Mambele • The process of land-use planning outlining the use rights applicable Convention” between local in the landscape is more likely to to each of the concessions; communities, safari hunters and succeed if all stakeholders are able • The minutes of the meetings the forestry administration – an to discuss amongst themselves of the Regional Gazettement agreement that clarifi es the roles how the boundaries of non- Commission; and responsibilities of each confl icting allocations can overlap • Reports taking into consideration party towards the sustainable rather than focusing exclusively on the grievances aired by the local management of wildlife, and access the allocation. people. in the different units allocated; • The signing of an agreement to The vision and attitudes of Main outcomes combat poaching called the “LAB conservation agencies This participatory gazettement process, Agreement” between the logging • The landscape approach to as compared to the initial project companies and safari hunters, conservation is a science of that was aimed at gazetting national local communities, the forestry compromise. No one player has parks only, culminated in the following administration and conservation enough power to impose rules that outcomes (see Figure 1): NGOs. This agreement clarifi es others cannot understand or share the roles and responsibilities of and, indeed, the weaker players

86 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

Figure 2. Distribution of forest can become a serious threat to to resolve confl icts of use, secure concessions biodiversity if they believe that the use rights and development management rules are being made needs of all stakeholders, and against them. The conclusion to ensure the creation of a climate of be drawn from this participatory trust. Through this methodology, process of forest concession the negotiated LUP offers a better gazettement is that conservation is chance for actors to be involved in a social process; the development and execution of • Developing and managing management plans of the various landscapes goes beyond the use units in a complex context concept of protected areas. The such as that of this segment of the security of protected areas within TNS Landscape; a landscape depends on the • The commitment of public sustainable use and dynamics of institutions at the micro, meso and the peripheral zone as well as the macro levels is a prerequisite for management of relations between a successful LUP development actors involved or affected; process and for the management • The process of negotiating the of the various use units; LUP is more likely to succeed if • The multidisciplinary approach, it is driven by the administrative based on better knowledge authorities and facilitated by of the environment by the neutral resource persons. facilitator (s) offer (s) potentially Conservation agencies should act a good performance and strong as agents who provide technical commitment of the actors in the advice, and should not be process of drafting and negotiating perceived as competitive agencies the LUP. that advocate for conservation at the expense of the public interest. Process of drawing Lessons learned from the methodology up development and of the LUP negotiation process management plans for forest • The experience of gazetting forest concessions: methodology concessions has shown that multi- and main outcomes of the legislative and regulatory stakeholder collaboration in the The 14 forest concessions of the framework in force.3 The process differs process has a role to play in the Cameroon segment of the TNS according to which type of plan is being resolution/prevention of confl icts Landscape were awarded to nine developed. upstream, in the consolidation logging companies. These companies of each stakeholder’s right to are part of four major groups: (i) the Management plans natural resources, and that it THANRY/VICWOOD Group, made up Management plans for forest catalyzes action and establishes of the CFC, SBEC and SAB companies, concessions, generally drawn up by a climate of trust between actors. who were allocated 364,565 ha; (ii) the approved consultancy fi rms, will usually It may seem a long and costly SEFAC Group (SEFAC, SEBAC, Filière include the following steps: process, but it offers a long-term Bois) – 406,815 ha; (iii) the ALPICAM • Carrying out additional surveys guarantee that the LUP obtained -GRUMCAM Group (Alpicam, Habitat as required (socio-economic, will be consistently defended by 2000) – 129,673 ha; and (iv) the management inventory, etc.); the parties involved, who have STBK Group (STBK) – 89,322 ha (see • Identifying management options clearly understood their interest Figure 2). based on the fi ndings obtained in protecting and ensuring the from the surveys; availability of resources on which Methodology their survival depends, as well as The process of developing a fi ve- that of future generations; year management plan and annual 3 Law No. 94/01 of 20 January 1994 on forestry, wildlife and fi shery regulations; implementation Decree No. 95/531/PM • The methodology used to develop operational plans for logging of 23 August 1995 which lays down terms and conditions the LUP must include mechanisms concessions follows the guidelines for implementing the forestry regulations; and subsequent sundry decrees and decisions.

87 Section One: Land-Use Planning

• Presenting a public summary of allowed access for subsistence to the regulatory framework, information management options to the main activities; collected should include the species stakeholders affected; • Participation of the population exploited by the concessionaire, • Validation of the document by an in management (reminder of the numbers that have reached the inter-ministerial committee. the rights and duties of the minimum management diameter, local population, peasant-forest followed by the quality of their trunk, a. Carrying out additional surveys committees); and topographic features of the The process of gazetting various • Duration and review of the environment (swamp, steep slope, concessions has provided considerable management plan; running water). Counting is carried data on the landscape. For each forest • Economic and fi nancial balance out using plots of 250 x 1000 m. The concession, the information available sheet. information is recorded on a grid, is analyzed, then additional socio- based on chaining after every 50 m. economic surveys and management c. Presenting a public summary of The gathering of these data results inventories are carried out if needed, management options to the main in distribution maps of tree stands, together with mapping of vegetation stakeholders affected species to be logged and the road types. Within this framework, WWF has A summary of management options network; topographic and vegetation a large database that helps in identifying is presented and made public a maps; and tables of stands and trees to the specifi cities of each concession and month later during a meeting of all be logged, with the volumes expected what additional information needs to be stakeholders. The purpose of this from each of them. collected. meeting is to present the expectations and duties of each stakeholder in the Main outcomes Socio-economic surveys include validated implementation of the plan. General framework demographic data, and data on the use The management plans of 13 of the 14 of landscapes and natural resources d. Validation of the document by an forest concessions of the Cameroon by the local population. Management inter-ministerial committee segment of the the TNS Landscape inventories of tree and shrub species In keeping with the regulatory have been validated and are being are made on the basis of a sampling framework, the adoption of the draft executed. The annual operational plans plan approved by the administration in management plan takes place during a for each of them are being developed charge of forestry; the sampling rate session of the inter-ministerial committee, in accordance with the regulations in ranges from 0.5–1 percent. All stems of whose members are appointed by force. trees and shrubs with diameter at breast the Prime Minister. This committee’s height greater than 10 cm are identifi ed mission is to examine the contents of the Some gaps observed and measures and treated differently according to document and give their opinion. taken their diameter class. The vegetation From analysis of the management plans maps are drawn from analysis of aerial Annual operational plans of the various concessions, it seems photographs. The fi ve-year management plan that wildlife management measures summarizes the actions outlined in the are not suffi ciently taken into account. b. Defi ning management options management plan for each fi ve-year In the case of annual operational based on fi ndings obtained block. It deals with the major operations plans, the emphasis is on species to Based on the fi ndings of the various to be carried out (main infrastructure to be exploited by the concessionaires; surveys, the management plan be put in place, boundary demarcation however, for sustained and integrated document is developed, and is made up of series of protection,4 etc.). logging, other layers of information are of the following parts: essential. These are distribution maps • Biophysical features of the forest; The annual operational plan describes of (i) seeds; (ii) saplings (for the next • Socio-economic environment; all the interventions and the terms round of planting); (iii) areas of high • State of the forest (history, tree and conditions of their execution on concentrations of fragile animal species; and shrub density, gross inventory an annual basis. Determining these (iv) areas of high ecological value such volume and productivity of the interventions is done on the basis of as clearings and bays; (v) NTFPs; and forest); exploitation inventories at 100 percent (vi) cultural and sacred sites for the local • Development objectives for of the annual allowable cut. According population. production forests that could

either be exploited for commercial 4 A protection series is a perimeter aimed at protecting To overcome these shortcomings, WWF, purposes or local communities a fragile ecosystem or an area of social and ecological with ﬁ nancial support from USAID/ interest (Law No 94/01 of 20 January 1994).

88 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

CARPE, has developed partnerships will include the organization of it. The unique feature of this programme with two forest concessionaires awareness campaigns, internal is that prospecting is digital and not interested in sustainable forest staff control, reporting of instances on cards as provided by the regulatory management and certifi cation (SEFAC of involvement in poaching, and framework, and all information is geo- Group and CFE ceded to Habitat 2000 providing information to the local referenced. This information includes: all – ALPICAM). Within the framework services of the Ministry of Forestry stems of tree species with a diameter of of these partnerships, in order to and Wildlife (MINFOF) to enable more than 50 cm, signs of the presence enrich the management plans by better organization of patrols to of species of large and medium-sized better taking into consideration bio- combat poaching; mammals, NTFPs, special ecological ecological aspects and especially fauna, • Logistical and fi nancial support areas, sacred and cultural sites for local and the socio-economic aspects of increasingly signifi cant to the local populations, elements of topography sustainable logging, additional wildlife services of MINFOF to organize (swamps, running water, slopes) with inventories and socio-economic patrols to fi ght against poaching. their features, signs of human activities surveys were carried out by WWF in six These contributions are estimated (hunting, fi shing and gathering), and concessions with joint funding of two at US$ 20,000–30,000 per year; old logging infrastructure. According to partners (40 percent for WWF and 60 • Better consideration of the specifi c the regulatory framework, only some of percent for the concessionaire). The needs of the indigenous Baka these data (stems of tree species with fi ndings have led to the identifi cation, people in logging operations, the minimum diameter, special ecological in each concession, of areas of high including (i) developing a framework zones and elements of topography) are concentrations of animal populations, document for interventions for noted on the grid-scale cards. corridors for migrating animals, sensitive the Baka people; (ii) identifying habitats, and areas containing resources and mapping their resources The gathering of these layers of essential to the Baka people which landscape within the concessions; information collected with the should be considered when planning (iii) the signing of co-management CyberTracker allows for better planning logging operations. Based on these agreements for these areas; and (iv) of logging operations (for example, recommendations and those of the increasing the number of Baka in the road network map overlapping socio-economic surveys, the SEFAC the company’s personnel; with areas of high concentrations of Group has made the following structural, • Facilitating, on the basis of socio- wildlife or the location of sensitive organizational and functional changes: economic surveys, the creation sites within the annual allowable cut • Strengthening the technical of peasant-forest committees area (see Figure 3)). Moreover, taking management unit (which already – fora for dialogue between into account the number of future has a forestry engineer as the concessionaire and local seedlings by diameter class allows the coordinator), with the recruitment communities; concessionaire to make projections for of (i) a sociologist charged with the • Drawing up a micro land-use the next planting season, based on the co-management and other social map for the whole concession, estimated volume after 30 years with aspects of sustainable logging; highlighting areas of high animal the combination of the diameter growth (ii) a cartographer charged with the concentrations, sensitive habitats, rate and mortality rates. management of the GIS database, migration corridors for elephants, the drawing of various maps (micro and Baka resource landscapes. In the particular case of the SEFAC land-use planning map, road Rules have been set to minimize Group, the combined efforts of partners network map, lumberyard map, …); the impact of logging operations. has led to the latter obtaining an FSC (iii) a forestry works engineer to certifi cate for four of its concessions, guide logging technicians (fellers, To address the shortcomings observed covering an area of 314,655 ha. Within haulers, drivers, …) on complying in the inventories of logging sites, the framework of this partnership, WWF with management rules; and (iv) an WWF has developed a database of has focused on conducting additional environmental engineer to guide multi-resource inventories using the surveys (on the basis of joint funding) and monitor compliance with CyberTracker5 programme, and trained and capacity building of technicians environmental standards; technicians of the SEFAC group to use of the Group on various aspects of • Setting up an anti-poaching sustainable management. The SEFAC committee to combat illegal 5 The CyberTracker is a programme that works on a set Group has committed itself to improving hunting in their concessions and made up of a small pocket computer linked to a GPS, its logging operations by implementing that facilitates note taking on the ground and their direct trade of bushmeat in populated transfer to a computer upon return to base. It makes it the required standards following the areas (e.g., Libongo and Bela). possible to collect simultaneously several types of data recommendations of various studies, that are diffi cult to collect using standard data collection The activities of this committee sheets. pre-audits and audits by approved fi rms.

89 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Figure 3. Map of the road network overlapping with areas of high concentrations of wildlife, and the location of sensitive sites within the annual allowable cut (AAC) area

Lessons learned is a case in point. It follows in framework and makes it possible • In the light of the various the footsteps of the partnership to improve on how to plan and phases of the development and developed between WCS and carry out logging operations. The implementation of development the CIB which has resulted in the success observed can contribute and management plans for forest certifi cation of the KABO Forest in improving regulations; concessions, it is evident that Management Unit, located in the • When forest management sustainable forest management Congolese segment of the TNS is almost all, or completely, and certifi cation are complex Landscape; done internally, by a service processes that require various • The experience of partnership equipped with all the necessary kinds of expertise. The forest between WWF and SEFAC has skills (forestry engineers, a concessionaire alone cannot have shown, among other things, that social science specialist, a all the specialties and implement if well managed and with a little GIS specialist ...), it has more all the requirements. It is therefore determination, logging companies chance of achieving satisfactory necessary to develop partnerships can make operational and technical results in terms of sustainable with organizations that can provide changes to support the process of management. ' input into the process. In the case sustainable management; of FSC certifi cation of the SEFAC • The innovative CyberTracker Group, the partnership developed experience presented above is not between WWF and the Group inconsistent with the regulatory

90 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

Case Study 2 ENRA Forest Concession Land-Use Planning in the Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape, Democratic Republic of Congo

Jean-Remy Makana

Introduction: Overview of the Kivu Province, just to the south of the hog, Baboon and several species of ENRA forest concession Landscape. Cercopithecus and Colobus monkeys, With its large tracts of tropical and Mangabeys. Informal interviews rainforests, the Democratic Republic of The topography of the forest concession with Mbuti pygmies dwelling in the Congo has been attracting many logging is gentle with occasional rolling hills. concession indicate that most of these companies that are eager to tap into its Elevation ranges from approximately large mammals have gone locally enormous timber resources that are still 800 m in the west to 950 m in the east. extinct, particularly those that require little exploited to date. The near total The concession is covered by a dense large tracts of undisturbed forest such breakdown of transport infrastructure, network of rivers and streams that feed as Forest elephant, Okapi, Leopard and however, limits large-scale timber the Upper Ituri River and constitute the Forest buffalo. The disappearance of exploitation to forests along navigable natural limits of the forest concession. those species in the concession can sections of the Congo River and its be largely attributed to the conversion main tributaries, confi ning industrial The vegetation in the area is a mixture of mature forest areas into farmland.1 logging to western regions of the of evergreen forest, including extensive As indicated above, the concession is country. In eastern DRC, most logging areas of monoculture forest dominated also rich in high-value timber species. is carried out by small-scale operators by Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, and The most abundant and commonly using chainsaws and selling timber semi-deciduous forest with a canopy harvested species are Iroko, Sapele, to neighbouring countries. The ENRA containing higher representation of African mahogany, Tiama, Olovongo, (Enzyme Refi ners Association) is the only major timber tree species including Kosipo, Mukulungu and Limbali. industrial logging company operating Iroko, Sapele, Sipo, Tiama and African in the region and is located east of the mahogany. Secondary forests cover In addition to its high plant and mammal city of Kisangani, along the easternmost signifi cant portions of the concession. diversity, the forest in the ENRA navigable section of the Congo River. These originate from both natural and concession is important as a corridor anthropogenic causes. In the eastern between two forested protected areas, The ENRA forest concession is situated and southern parts of the concession, the Okapi Faunal Reserve and the south-east of the Ituri-Aru Landscape forest degradation has accelerated northern sector of Virunga National Park. in the north-eastern part of the over the past two decades leading to Congo Basin forest block. The initial the conversion of large areas of closed Prior to commercial logging operations, concession of 52,190 ha was granted forest into a mosaic of logged forests, the forests of the area were very to the company in 1982. Because of regenerating vegetation and active sparsely settled. A few villages were large-scale forest destruction in this agricultural fi elds. located along an old mining road concession by illegal settlers, ENRA linking Beni to Mambasa that bisects requested and was granted an additional The forests in the ENRA concession the concession in a north-south 28,800-hectare forest block to the west contain high diversities of fauna and direction. However, that has changed of the fi rst concession in 2005. fl ora. Prior to logging operations, as the concession borders the heavily these forests harboured several populated Kivu highlands that are a The ENRA concession is entirely species of large mammals important to major source of immigration into the contained in the administrative conservation such as Forest elephant, concession. The rebuilding of the Beni- collectivity of Babila-Babombi, Okapi and chimpanzee. Other large

Mambasa Territory, Ituri District in mammals that were present in the 1 Recent wildlife surveys indicated that Forest elephant, Orientale Province. The company’s forest concession included the Leopard, Okapi, chimpanzee and other large mammals have disappeared in the logged and degraded forests of the headquarters and wood transformation Forest buffalo, Giant ground pangolin, concession. Chimpanzee presence was recorded in the facilities are based in Beni, Nord- Bush pig, Forest aardvark, Giant forest new forest block, with a higher nest density than ever seen before in the Ituri Forest.

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Figure 1. Okapi Faunal Reserve and the Ituri Landscape major interruption until the present day. ENRA is a relatively small company (almost 200 employees) harvesting on average less than 10,000 m3 of logs a year.3

The major strength of ENRA, which makes it unique in DRC, is its production of a wide variety of processed products. The company has a parquet fl ooring plant that produces high-quality decorative parquet fl oors and panels for wooden ceilings from a wide range of species. Parquet fl oors produced from Iroko are the leading product of the company and they are mainly exported for European markets. In addition, ENRA runs a joinery/carpentry workshop that makes decorative doors and windows and high-quality furniture.

ENRA forest concession land- use planning methodology and results achieved

Methodology The CARPE Performance Management Plan recommends that each macro- zone4 in CARPE landscapes be Mambasa road for logging purposes in most important population centre in the covered by an integrated land-use plan the earlier 1990s has facilitated human concession, boasts a population of over (LUP). Currently, the ENRA logging intrusion into the forest concession, 13,000 people. concession is the only active Extractive dramatically increasing the human Resource Zone5 in the Ituri-Epulu- population density2 and accelerating the The major subsistence activities in the Aru Landscape. The goal of the WCS rate of forest degradation. Major ethnic concession are agriculture, mining, land-use planning process in the ENRA groups inhabiting the concession are bushmeat hunting and small-scale forest concession is to assist ENRA the Bila, native to the land, and Nande trade in manufactured goods. Animal to produce a management plan for immigrants who settled in the area husbandry is minimally developed in its concession. This plan is required after road construction by ENRA in the the area. Major food crops grown in the by the new DRC forestry law and will early 1980s. There is also an important concession include cassava, plantain, population of nomadic, hunter-gatherer upland rice, maize and groundnuts. A 3 Due to the enormous distance to its export point in Mombasa (Kenya), ENRA only exports added-value Mbuti pygmies. While the latter few cash crops are commonly grown by products, particularly parquet fl ooring, to Europe. All generally inhabit the forest interior, immigrants and include coffee, oil palm logs are processed locally in Beni, increasing logging benefi ts to the local population in the form of employment most of the population is located and papaya. Cacao is only recently opportunities and access to high-quality wood products. along the main transport routes. A few being cultivated in the concession 4 Macro-zones are land or forest areas designated for specifi c land-use objectives such as biodiversity major population centres have recently area. Agriculture and bushmeat hunting conservation, rural development, commercial extraction developed in the concession because constitute the main threats to the forests of natural resources, etc. In its landscapes, CARPE has defi ned three different macro-zone types: protected areas, of immigration pressure. Biakato, the of the ENRA concession. extractive resource zones and community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) zones. 5 An Extractive Resource Zone is an area designated for 2 Rapid socio-economic surveys conducted in 2006 ENRA started logging operations in large-scale commercial exploitation of natural resources indicated that the human population density was ~ 34 1984 and has since continued without (i.e., logging or mining concessions, large-scale people/km2 in the concession. agricultural plantations, safari hunting reserves, etc.).

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promote sustainable timber harvesting ENRA and local communities in human activities. Key elements and biodiversity conservation. Because which the rights and obligations of recorded were the distribution of the ENRA forest concession has been each party are spelled out. residents by localities (or clans), settled by signifi cant numbers of • Participatory mapping of the ethnic groups, length of stay farmers, it is vital to conduct micro- extent of human settlements in the concession (immigration zoning work to determine areas to in the concession: A team pressure), major economic/ be set aside for the needs of local composed of ENRA staff, the subsistence activities, agricultural populations already inhabiting the local forestry administration, production, education, access to concession, and forest areas for and representatives of pygmy education and health care, market timber exploitation. The major steps communities mapped the limits of opportunities for agricultural undertaken in the land-use planning human penetration into the forest products, native-immigrant process for the ENRA concession are: concession. During this work, the relations, relationship with ENRA, • Collaboration agreement boundaries of clan lands were etc. This activity was conducted by between WCS and ENRA: The delimited to help determine the a mixed WCS-ENRA team. fi rst step in WCS’s involvement level of customary dues paid by • Participatory micro-zoning of in the ENRA concession’s land- ENRA to each clan. the concession: The human use planning process was to sign • Signature of an agreement population census and socio- an agreement with the company between ENRA and local economic surveys indicate a to determine the objectives of, communities: Encroachment into heavy and increasing presence and the principles guiding, our the forest concession is facilitated of humans within the concession collaboration, as well as the rights by traditional landowners who limits, particularly immigrants and obligations of each party. give lands to new immigrants in whose main activity is extensive • Assessment of the state of exchange for meagre dues paid farming. It will therefore be vital the forest in the concession: annually in the form of a goat or a to clearly delimit areas devoted A preliminary evaluation of the portion of agricultural production. to subsistence agriculture and state of the forest was conducted WCS facilitated the signature of timber exploitation zones. A team through a series of meetings an agreement between ENRA and composed of WCS experts, ENRA between ENRA’s leadership and traditional landowners aimed at staff, and representatives of local timber harvesting team, and the stopping forest encroachment by communities will map the front line traditional chiefs or customary prohibiting the “sale” of new lands of human settlement, evaluate the landowners in the forest to immigrants. The agreement also needs of the existing populations concession. In addition, satellite spells out ENRA’s contributions to for farmland, and propose limits images were used to determine the local development projects. Now for the agricultural and timber scale of forest degradation in the the agreement has been signed, harvesting zones. concession. it must be validated by the district • Validation of micro-zones: Once • Sensitization meetings: and provincial authorities. the above step is accomplished, a Through meetings with ENRA’s • Forestry and biological surveys: meeting bringing together all key leadership, key stakeholders Rapid forestry and biological stakeholders will be organized to were identifi ed. Informal and surveys were used to evaluate the evaluate and validate the limits of formal meetings were held with abundance of major timber species the proposed micro-zones. key stakeholders individually or and the presence/abundance • Development of alternative in groups to explain the need for of key mammal species, activities in community land-use planning to promote particularly elephants, Okapi and development areas: ENRA, in sustainable forest utilization and to chimpanzees, in order to guide partnership with ESCO-Kivu6 and determine the potential interests the process of micro-zoning of the WCS, is promoting shade cacao of local communities. Local state concession. During these surveys cultivation and reforestation authorities at the collectivity and we also gathered details on the projects in degraded forest areas territory levels, and the local level of forest degradation in the as a means of increasing farming forestry administration service, concession. income and slowing down the were brought in to facilitate • Human population census encroachment of people into new negotiations between ENRA and socio-economic surveys: areas of mature forest. Other and the local communities. This These surveys were conducted current or planned alternative process has led to the signature to document social organization, of a collaboration accord between immigration pressures and 6 A private company dedicated to agricultural production.

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activities include artisanal timber the company’s image locally, • Fundraising to develop exploitation in agricultural zones, nationally and internationally. alternative activities: WCS promoting the education of native The company has now entrusted has received a grant from the children, and honey production WCS to oversee all zoning work IUCN National Committee of The by pygmies. Expert assistance in the forest concession. This Netherlands to promote shade from development organizations will certainly help accelerate the cocoa plantations and to support is critically needed with these process of land-use planning in the artisanal timber exploitation by activities to ensure effective local concession. local communities in the ENRA community participation in land- • Strategy for the land-use concession buffer zone. use planning processes. planning process: A strategy • Production, implementation and document outlining the steps and monitoring of a management process of land-use planning for Lessons learned plan: The ultimate goal of the the ENRA concession has been land-use planning process for the produced by WCS and approved The importance of active involvement ENRA forest concession is the by ENRA. This strategy plans the by the concessionaire production and implementation writing of a management plan for The concessionaire is responsible for of a management plan for the the forest concession by 2010. producing the management plan for concession, as outlined in the • Collaborative platform for land- the concession as required by the new above steps. Once the plan is use planning: A platform has forestry legislation in DRC. The CARPE produced and being implemented, been put in place to coordinate programme recommends that CARPE it must be monitored to ensure and monitor activities related to partners assist private operators or continued effectiveness. land-use planning in the ENRA government organizations responsible • Validation of the plan by higher forest concession. It includes for the management of each identifi ed State and forestry authorities: ENRA, WCS, representatives macro-zone to produce management ENRA and WCS work closely of local communities and plans for their zones. However, the with local State authorities at the immigrants, local State authorities activities of CARPE partners can only collectivity and territory levels. (collectivity and territory levels), be successful if the legal management Once the forest concession the local forestry administration, authority of the macro-zone is actively management plan is complete, ESCO-Kivu, and local NGOs (PAP- involved in the process. Initially, the it will be submitted to district, RDC and SOS Nature). Signifi cant major constraint encountered in provincial and national authorities results achieved through this the land-use planning process for for validation. platform are: the ENRA concession was ENRA’s  Quarterly meetings of all key resistance to collaborating with WCS. Results achieved stakeholders since 2006; This resistance was overcome after The land-use planning process is  Signature of an agreement regular and public debates between still at an early stage in the ENRA between ENRA and local ENRA and representatives of local forest concession. However, a few communities in 2007. communities with the involvement of achievements have been accomplished: • Accurate data on the state of the local authorities and State offi cials and • Improved relationship between forest and on human population with technical advisors from WCS. ENRA and WCS: WCS is well- in the concession: Through fi eld The land-use planning process is now known in the Ituri region as evaluations, interviews, forestry progressing well. Thus, as we learned, a conservation organization and biological surveys, and the fi rst step when working with private concerned with wildlife protection socio-economic surveys, precise operators or government agencies in in protected areas. Thus, there information has been gathered on: land-use planning must be to convince was a sense of suspicion or  The level of forest degradation; them of the necessity of the process. mistrust from ENRA towards  The size and distribution of In the case of timber concessions, the WCS’s activities in its concession. the human population, and its publication by the central Government Effective collaboration between activities in the concession; of application measures of the new WCS and ENRA started only a  Timber abundance; Forestry Code related to forest year ago after ENRA realized  The presence and spatial management in timber concessions that WCS’s work in its forest distribution of key wildlife was of great importance for enticing concession was helping to improve species.

94 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

timber operators to seek help in forest from the Virunga National Park. It is These views totally ignore DRC forestry management processes. diffi cult for an NGO to deal with such laws that stipulate that all forestlands issues on a case-by-case basis. belong to the State, which has the State authorities are key players in exclusive right to rent or sell land the land-use planning processes Effectively dealing with issues of human to private individuals or companies. In Ituri-Aru, as elsewhere in DRC, encroachment in production forests WCS, in partnership with the local local State authorities are generally requires that external forces and the forestry administration, is conducting weak and ineffective. However, they regional context are taken into account a sensitization campaign with both represent the legal authority for in the land-use planning process. For local communities and immigrants to management of natural resources. If example in this case, the regional LUP increase their knowledge of national ignored, they can seriously obstruct (e.g., landscape-level LUP) should forestry laws. These efforts are however the successful realization of land-use set aside areas designed to absorb hampered by the unavailability of the planning initiatives. In addition, the immigration pressure, and put in place application or enforcement measures7 of sustainability of land-use planning strategies to channel new immigrants the forestry code. depends on the involvement of State to designated areas in order to reduce offi cials and forestry services in the pressure on the production forests. The need to understand both process. In the ENRA concession, individual and community interests collaboration with local communities The importance of understanding ENRA interventions in local was moving very slowly until the traditional and legal land tenure development activities are generally Administrator of the Mambasa Territory systems oriented towards community projects threw his weight behind the process. In the Kivu highlands, land belongs that benefi t the wider society (e.g., Since then, quarterly meetings have to individuals and can be rented or constructing schools and dispensaries, been systematically organized and an sold, whereas in the forested regions fi xing roads, etc.). However, traditional agreement has been signed between of the Ituri Landscape, land belongs chiefs with customary authority to ENRA and local communities. to the community. Although the allocate land to immigrants have traditional chiefs or clan elders in the personal needs that are not satisfi ed by It is therefore crucial to involve Ituri Landscape have the authority to community projects. Thus, the chiefs local State authorities and forestry grant usufruct rights to outsiders, they use their customary rights to grant the administration in all activities related actually cannot sell the community concession forestlands to immigrants to the land-use planning process in land. Currently, landless immigrants and they receive direct payments. It is concessions to avoid the development from the Kivu highlands are fl ocking crucial that this cultural aspect be taken of resistance to the process and to into the forested regions with the aim into account in the land-use planning guarantee the sustainability of this work of acquiring land for themselves and processes, particularly in logging or beyond the CARPE funding period. their children, ignoring the local land mining concessions where a private tenure philosophy (this is different company is claiming control of the land The necessity of taking into account from the situation in the Okapi Faunal by the virtue of a contract signed with the regional context Reserve where immigrants tend to a “distant” government institution with Eastern DRC has experienced many be temporary residents because they little local community involvement. social problems in the recent past, the cannot actually acquire forestland most important being land shortage due for themselves). The land acquisition Even members of the community do to high human population density and rush is accelerating forest degradation not always value the long-term benefi ts growth, and civil unrest. Successive because new immigrants are widely of community projects and land-use rebellions have resulted in the almost scattered in the forest concession to planning. It is important to think about total collapse of the government ensure that each has enough land area immediate benefi ts, such as hiring institutions responsible for land for his descendants. This difference in local residents in logging teams or as management. This situation facilitated land tenure systems between the native labourers for construction work, and the uncontrolled settlement of sparsely population and the immigrants has a fi nancial support for the education of populated forests by immigrants in potential to create ethnic clashes in selected native youth. ' search of available agricultural lands. the future when native people realize The encroachment of forestlands in their previous generations sold out their 7 Enforcement measures are detailed regulations and the ENRA concession has also been traditional forestlands to immigrants. procedures taken by a ministerial decree and intended to exacerbated by the eviction of farmers explain how a law will be applied.

95 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Case Study 3 A Multi-Organizational Model of Land-Use Planning to Conserve Wildlife and Forest Resources in Forestry Concessions

John R. Poulsen, Connie J. Clark and Bryan K. Curran

Introduction to PROGEPP Western lowland gorillas, chimpanzees wildlife populations and human threats In the Republic of Congo, the Project and Bongo. The park largely protects to them. PROGEPP uses a variety of for the Management of Ecosystems in the biodiversity of the region, but research and monitoring methods to the Periphery of the Nouabalé-Ndoki the survival of wide-ranging species quantify hunting pressure, bushmeat National Park (PROGEPP in French) such as elephant and Bongo also availability and consumption, densities manages wildlife in four forestry depends on their protection outside and distributions of wildlife populations, concessions surrounding the Nouabalé- the park borders. The forests of the and ecological processes critical to Ndoki National Park. PROGEPP, a logging concessions also provide forest regeneration. Monitoring results partnership of the Congolese Ministry natural resources (food, construction guide management decisions and aid in of Forestry Economy (MEF), the Wildlife materials, animal protein) critical to the formulation of regional and national Conservation Society (WCS) and the the livelihoods of indigenous forest policy. Congolaise Industrielle des Bois (CIB), peoples. To conserve these natural was established in 1999 with two resources, PROGEPP created a wildlife objectives: 1) to protect the Nouabalé- management system based on four key Land-use planning in the CIB Ndoki National Park (NNNP) from principles: regulating access to wildlife concessions hunting pressure coming from logging resources through forest-use planning; Land-use planning within the CIB operations and increasing numbers of promoting selective hunting through law concessions has occurred at two immigrants; and 2) to manage wildlife enforcement; involving communities in different levels. The fi rst level of planning in the concessions for sustainability. wildlife management; and developing defi nes where logging can take place, Unlike conservation of most protected economic and protein alternatives to is driven by an interest in maximizing areas, PROGEPP’s goal is not to hunting and bushmeat. timber production and economic profi t abolish hunting. Rather, the idea is to within the limits of sustainable forestry reduce hunting to sustainable levels, First, we work with the MEF, CIB norms, and is defi ned by National which likely means the elimination of and local communities to establish Forestry Management Directives. commercial hunting, so that indigenous formal hunting zones based on the These directives defi ne fi ve types of people and CIB workers have access to traditional hunting territories of local “series”, or land-use categories: 1) the wild meat. The project seeks to evolve people. Second, we collaborate with production series is set aside for logging towards a locally-managed solution the MEF to enforce wildlife laws, with operations and economic production; where suffi cient incentives exist to the goal of protecting biodiversity 2) the conservation series guarantees ensure that local people and local law and endangered species and keeping the existence of timber species and enforcement offi cials work towards the hunting at sustainable levels. Third, we protects biodiversity, wildlife and sustainable management of wildlife. work with communities to help them landscapes; 3) the protection series manage their own wildlife resources safeguards fragile habitats, particularly Together the concessions (Kabo, and to arm them with information about watersheds, watercourses, swamps Pokola, Loundoungou and Toukoulaka) ecology and conservation. Fourth, we and soils that could be degraded by and NNNP form a landscape that experiment with alternative activities to erosion; 4) the community development covers approximately 20,000 km2 and hunting to provide protein and income series is reserved for use by local comprises a vast stretch of lowland to local people. Management activities populations to exploit natural resources forest rich in African mahoganies and are constantly adapted to the reality on for their livelihoods and community home to some of the continent’s most the ground, which is assessed through development; and 5) the research endangered species: Forest elephants, the analysis of monitoring data on series delimits areas that can be used

96 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

Figure 1. Map of the project area, including the Kabo, Pokola, Loundoungou and hunting zones (1,396 km2, 47 percent Mokabi concessions and the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park of the concession), conservation zones (1,154 km2, 39 percent of the concession), and protected zones (413 km2, 14 percent of the concession). It is important to emphasize that hunting by traditional techniques (spear, crossbow, hand-woven nets, etc.) by Bantu or semi-nomadic pygmy communities (Mbenzélé) can occur year-round in both the village hunting zones and conservation zones (86 percent of the concession).

The adoption of the management plans by the government formalized both land-use planning systems in the Kabo and Pokola concessions. Land-use planning within the Loundoungou concession (which has been merged with Toukoulaka to form a single concession) has already been accomplished, and in theory, should be legally established with the adoption of a management plan in the coming for ecological and forestry research. of logging sites and the controlled years. In the Kabo concession, 72.3 percent hunt (a monthly hunt organized for (2,140 km2) of the area is included in the CIB Congolese employees). Based PROGEPP conservation and wildlife production series, 20 percent (593 km2) on traditional hunting territories, management activities take place in the protection series, 5.1 percent the demarcation of village hunting within and in consideration of these (151 km2) in the conservation series, and zones took place following months different access zones. Within 2.6 percent (76 km2) in the community of discussions with local villages the community hunting and NTFP development series. The entire area is and after careful identifi cation and zones, PROGEPP works with local included in the research series. description of traditional land-use communities to raise awareness patterns for both Mbenzélé (pygmy) of hunting laws and conservation The second level of land-use planning and Bantu inhabitants. Conservation principles like sustainable off-take, involves the creation of hunting zones zones prohibit hunting with fi rearms, threatened and endangered species, within the production and community but permit hunting and trapping with and adaptive management. Awareness- development series. Other non- traditional weapons; fi shing and raising efforts include teaching formal timber forest products (NTFPs) can be gathering are allowed throughout environmental education classes in exploited throughout the concessions, the year. Protection zones conserve local schools, village meetings, and the with the exception of the protection areas of particular importance for use of multi-media sources such as series which, by Congolese law, is large mammals (e.g., the buffer around television, radio, posters and theatre. off-limits to any form of exploitation. the park borders and large natural We also work with local communities Through a series of meetings with forest clearings) and all hunting, either to increase capacity and involvement local villages, PROGEPP created modern or traditional, is prohibited. in the management of their natural three types of wildlife-use zones: The conservation and protection zones resources through the organization of village hunting zones, conservation serve to protect populations of game resource management committees in zones and protected zones. Village and key habitat, and presumably local villages and semi-nomad camps. hunting zones reserve access to the serve as a source of wild animals to Resource management committees forest for hunters from the adjacent replenish wildlife stocks in neighbouring offer a conduit for information exchange village and are subdivided into zones hunting zones. The Kabo concession, with local communities and a structure for indigenous villagers, residents for example, is divided into village for involving people in the development

97 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Figure 2. Map of project area with the hunting zones in the Kabo and Pokola of hunting rules and zones. PROGEPP concessions, and proposed zones in the Loundoungou concession seeks to empower communities to make and implement wildlife management decisions (e.g., developing hunting rotations around villages, reducing harvest of rare species or developing systems to restrict the use of hunting zones by outsiders, if necessary). The forest lifestyle and semi-nomadic culture of the Mbenzélé have led to a relative lack of formal organization and representation compared with villagers. At present, policy decisions (e.g., determining which areas are to be set aside from logging or hunting, or where and how CIB workers can hunt) are primarily made by the logging company, the government, the project, and elite members of villages. Resource management committees will hopefully ensure that the Mbenzélé, like villagers, will be involved in policy decisions.

Across the concessions, PROGEPP eco-guards enforce Congolese wildlife laws. CIB company rules prohibit the transport of hunters and bushmeat in logging company vehicles; therefore, eco-guards stop and search all vehicles at roadside posts at intersections along the logging road network. Eco-guard forest patrols focus on areas within the concession where illegal hunting is thought to be taking place, or in areas with high densities of protected species like elephants, gorillas and chimpanzees.

Synthesis of lessons learned Land-use planning within the CIB concessions surrounding the NNNP production. Most forestry concessions ecological, livelihood, economic and has been a multi-year process, served as home to indigenous peoples cultural activities. As such, multiple involving many different actors from and as habitat for wildlife long before stakeholders have interests in the industry to government to international concessionary rights were sold to forests within timber concessions and conservation organizations to local logging companies. Before logging all must be incorporated in the land-use communities, including semi-nomadic began in the CIB concessions, for planning process. peoples. Through this process, several example, nearly 12,000 people lived important lessons have been learned. in permanent villages and temporary To incorporate all actors, there must camps, making their living from the be a platform by which they can 1. Multiple actors should be involved forest. Therefore, timber production express their interests, particularly in land-use planning should be perceived as an economically local communities that tend to be less Logging concessions generally serve important activity introduced into empowered than formal organizations multiple purposes in addition to timber a previously existing landscape of like companies, NGOs and worker

98 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

unions. By working directly and and resource needs of the timber stakeholder include: 1) assuring food frequently with local communities, company and local people. security of concession workers and PROGEPP social teams helped promote local people; 2) collecting the biological indigenous people’s rights (including 3. Land-use planning should be and socio-economic data necessary to conservation of their traditional formalized make decisions; 3) incorporating local territories) to the company and the Land-use plans must be formalized and peoples into resource management; government. In this way, their interests made public. Even if all stakeholders 4) managing different forest resources: and needs in terms of natural resources have participated, negotiated and wildlife, timber, NTFPs, fi sheries, were incorporated into the management agreed upon the zoning and rules for etc.; and 5) resolving confl icts among plan. Later, once the formal plan was exploiting resources, the procedures institutions and other stakeholders. drafted, village leaders and local people and principles must be incorporated were invited to open fora to express into a formal management plan. A fi nal note on the defi nition of roles and their opinions, opposition, interests First, this ensures that the plan is in responsibilities, it should also include and needs. In addition to making the agreement with national (and sometimes an explicit recognition of all the actors land-use process as open as possible, international) laws and standards. to be consulted during a management there should also be a mechanism for Second, this ensures that outside actors activity or decision. Even though the confl ict resolution for situations when respect the plan. For example, after logging company may be responsible stakeholders simply cannot come to the adoption of the Kabo concession for the construction of roads, it agreement. management plan in 2006, a MEF must consult other stakeholders to offi cial delivered a large game (buffalo, guarantee that roads do not cross 2. Land-use planning should be Sitatunga, etc.) hunting permit to a important habitat for gorillas or traverse based on data and balanced by group of expatriate hunters. However, a cemetery sacred to the Mbenzélé economic and social needs by consulting the Kabo management people. The list of actors to be In addition to listening to the voices of plan, which does not include provisions consulted should be defi ned and clear, local actors, zoning should be based for safari hunting, the mistake was and should be based on criteria such on rigorous biological and socio- immediately recognized and the hunters as the proximity of people to an activity, economic data. First, inventories need were quickly directed to a different their livelihood interests, etc. to be conducted to determine the forestry concession where hunting is abundance and spatial distribution of permitted. animal species, timber species and Conclusions and NTFPs across the concession. Just as 4. Roles of stakeholders should be recommendations logging companies base their annual clearly defi ned The land-use planning process exploitation on the location of their The roles of all the actors operating has largely succeeded in the CIB target timber species, hunting off- within the logging concession should concessions because it incorporates take, natural resource harvest and/ be well defi ned by formal protocols multiple actors and is based on data or the designation of protected areas describing rights and responsibilities. collected over many years. Before within concessions should be based The defi nition of roles not only assigns management plans were written, WCS, on surveys of wildlife and other natural responsibility for certain aspects CIB and MEF had completed studies resources. Second, once the different of management to the appropriate on wildlife populations, bushmeat, types of land-use zones have been stakeholder, it also prevents overlap NTFPs and timber species, in addition designated, it is important to determine or duplication of effort by different to socio-economic studies of the procedures for harvesting the resources. organizations. This is particularly movements of semi-nomadic peoples, For example, if natural forest clearings important for wildlife management their traditional territories, and annual are protected as habitat for animals, and enforcement of hunting laws. For demographic censuses of the human then buffer zones around them where example, if eco-guards are employed populations within the concessions. logging and/or hunting is prohibited to enforce hunting laws, it must be The government-adopted management must be based on an analysis of both clear who manages them and who is plans formalized the land-use planning animal behaviour and their habitat responsible for their actions, and failure and defi ned the roles of different needs. In many cases, the optimal or success. This protects other actors actors through individual protocols conditions for conservation (e.g., a who could be blamed for their failure of collaboration (e.g., the PROGEPP buffer of 15 km around forest clearings to accomplish goals or follow laws protocol defi ning the roles of MEF, WCS used by elephants) are not achievable, and procedures. For natural resource and CIB in wildlife management within and must be balanced by the economic management, other responsibilities the CIB concessions). While land-use that must be clearly assigned to a planning for the Kabo and Pokola

99 Section One: Land-Use Planning

concessions has been completed, legislation: nine management plans mechanism for infl uencing management planning for the remaining concession is are advanced in their development, practices; and for consumers, it advanced and will be completed in the including the Kabo and Pokola provides information on the legality and coming couple of years. concessions which have been adopted the environmental and social impacts and received Forest Stewardship of the wood being purchased. To date, Land-use planning in forestry Council (FSC) certifi cation. Of the 69 the only internationally recognized concessions comes with its own forest management units, 50 percent performance-based scheme issuing set of challenges: the fi rst and most are committed to the process of certifi cates for tropical forests is the diffi cult challenge is to fi nd common sustainable forest management Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). ground and common goals. It is planning. As land-use planning evolves possible that a logging company across central Africa and standards Certain exemplary companies like CIB adopts the attitude that its lease of become more rigorous, management have made considerable investments the concession makes the company of forestry concessions will necessarily in infrastructure and procedures the only legitimate actor. But local consider the livelihoods and interests to promote sustainable forest communities and local or international of local people and the conservation of management, social development, and NGOs should not be dissuaded from natural resources and wildlife. wildlife management. But to promote working with the company because 1) it land management and conservation at may be the only option for mitigating The trend in land-use planning and a regional scale, forestry laws should environmental damage and resource forest management is also partially be applied to all companies and all loss; and 2) a strong partnership driven by the growing market for concessions without exception – central means that multiple organizations can certifi ed wood, particularly in European African countries need to enforce their share the responsibilities and cost countries that are starting to require own laws. Finally, beyond enforcement of resource management. Moreover, that imported wood comes from legal of hunting laws, forestry laws and logging companies have a great deal and sustainable sources. Three forestry certifi cation schemes fall short when to gain by partnering with conservation concessions (including the Kabo it comes to wildlife management and organizations. By collaborating with and Pokola concessions) have now biodiversity conservation. Although NGOs that seek to manage natural been certifi ed by the FSC in central most certifi cation bodies address resources, protect human rights, or Africa, and several companies have wildlife conservation to some extent, improve food security, the company can committed to seeking certifi cation in the their principles and guidelines are benefi t from an improved image and coming years. Companies only receive typically focused on protection of have access to new sources of fi nancial certifi cation if their logging procedures endangered species and protection of resources (e.g., loans from the World meet the standards of the organization critical sites and habitats. But protection Bank). A greener image can attract that bestows the certifi cate which is of endangered species is not a suffi cient new clients and open new markets, assessed by independent audits of goal for biodiversity conservation and allowing the company to earn greater the company. Auditing is a systematic resource management, particularly profi ts from its wood (see discussion of process of verifi cation, usually where local communities rely on certifi cation below). In addition, where conducted at the level of the forestry bushmeat as a critical source of protein public organizations work to improve concession, to determine whether and income. In these situations, land- living conditions, health care and food the operation meets a predefi ned set use planning and management should security, the company benefi ts from a of criteria or performance standards. implement regulations that exceed the healthier and more effective workforce. If the operation meets the minimum standards of certifi cation schemes. standards, a certifi cate is granted. If not, The PROGEPP model of wildlife There is a trend towards better land- corrective actions may be requested management in forestry concessions use planning and forest management (CAR). The corrective actions must be serves as an example of what can and in central Africa. Central African completed in a specifi ed time-frame for should be done to achieve sustainable governments have recognized the need certifi cation to be achieved. Subsequent harvest of wild game and prevent for management plans for concessions, spot checks and monitoring audits local extirpation of non-endangered and at least in the case of the Republic are then conducted to keep the species. Certifi cation standards and of Congo, the existing forestry laws certifi cate valid. For producers like CIB, national laws should be strengthened correspond to or even surpass certifi cation brings more systematic by considering the following aspects internationally recognized standards. management systems, potential market of wildlife and natural resource Moreover, the Congolese government access and improved image. For management: is slowly starting to enforce its own conservation, certifi cation provides a

100 Chapter Three: Forest Concession Land-Use Planning

1. Pre-logging inventories of wildlife logging levels. To allow some off- 5. Land-use planning in forest (both protected and hunted take by local communities, and to concessions should be viewed as species) should be conducted to take into account yearly variation part of a wider land-use planning identify the presence, approximate in wildlife populations and error in process that integrates multiple abundance and distributions of measurement of wildlife densities, concessions, or concessions and key wildlife species. maintaining populations within protected areas. A single forestry 10–20 percent of their pre-logging concession managed in isolation 2. Pre-logging assessments of the levels may be practical. may be too small for the long- hunting practices and needs of term conservation of wide-ranging local communities living in the 4. Explicit access regulations and species, not to mention that the area should also be conducted, adaptive management protocols effort and money invested in including the evaluation of tenure should be developed to prevent conserving species will be wasted and hunting rights. local depletion of important game once animals stray across borders species while simultaneously into unmanaged lands. ' 3. Once the pre-logging assessments assuring monitored, legal hunting of wildlife have been conducted, access to the local communities the goal should be to maintain that most depend on wild meat. wildlife populations at or near pre-

101

Chapter 4

Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning: Lessons Learned

Adonis Milol and Cléto Ndikumagenge

Community forestry: A priority for CARPE and its partners Community forestry as a management method is by deﬁ nition not limited solely to the management of forests by local communities to produce timber. It also includes the harvesting of non-timber forest products, exploiting bushmeat, biodiversity conservation, and other environmental, social, cultural and religious services (Colchester et al., 2003).

On the basis of this broad deﬁ nition, the concept of community management contributes to Intermediate Result 2 of CARPE Phase II that aims to strengthen governance within institutions, improve policies and laws related to natural resource management, and build the capacity of civil society and communities involved in the management of forest resources.

Involvement of communities in the management of renewable resources: Analysis of recent developments

Who should join forces with whom? The issue of involving communities in the management of forest resources lies at the heart of a controversy that, to this day, is still unresolved – that is, participatory management. Who should join forces with whom? Participatory management is in itself the culmination of an evolution in policies on the management of forest landscapes in Central Africa. It marks a clear break from views held prior to the 1992 Rio Conference, where protection (conservation) and exploitation of resources were the only pillars of forestry policy.

Whenever natural resource management is discussed in the context of the Congo Basin, it is difﬁ cult to dissociate the issue of resources from that of land tenure, since “a landscape only has economic stakes because of the resources it contains; and resources (land, water and plant) can only be important from an economic and social view point, on condition that they are useful”, as an eminent socio-economist rightly once said (Weber, 1998).

This marks the switch from the notion of protection to that of management. Protection implied prohibiting human activity, and aimed above all at perpetuating the existence of animal and plant species. Environmental management entails accepting that humans are a dominant element in the natural environment and that the impact of their actions on the latter may and should be beneﬁ cial for all (Bahuchet et al., 2000).

103 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Voluntary or imposed participation? There is a clear preference for local In conceiving participatory management Powerful civil society lobbies had actors to the detriment of external strategies, it was thought that the to bring pressure to bear on States actors even though their infl uence on individual should be relegated to the to prompt them to adopt the idea the activities of local communities is background and the group brought to that wildlife was only wild by name, obvious. Is this not one of the primary the fore. The community approach was given that in reality it is the result of a inadequacies of this conception of local supposed to absorb individualism for symbiotic relation between man and development? optimum results, and to have effects on his biotope. Forests, as they appear all individuals of the same group. today, are the outcome of several Participatory management and all its transformations induced by human derivatives seems to be based on the Unfortunately this has also been actions in a perfect balance between desire to establish equity; the desire shown to have its limitations, due to disadvantages and advantages. to repair an injustice that until now social changes, characterized by a Destruction causes a collapse of this kept forest populations away from all deterioration in the forms of community fragile balance in several ways. forestry activities and thus contributed control (Lavigne-Delville, 1996) over to breaking the interdependence private, individual and family property, Involving members of local forest that seemed to prevail in all relations at the same time as the infl uence of communities in the management between forest dwellers and forest customary authorities is declining in of ecosystems that they have been resources. forest zones. living in for ages, in order to better conserve them, has therefore become a However, there is a lot of criticism with panacea since 1992. Man is no longer regard to how this involvement was Lessons learned a secondary character in conservation conceived. The three case studies presented in programmes and has instead become a this chapter describe three different key actor. There are those who believe that the experiences of community management current strategy is implausible: that in three landscapes of the Congo Basin. Actors with divergent interests is, offering the local populations, This ecological viewpoint, derived dependent on forest resources, They consist of three multi-stakeholder from “ecological capitalism”, is based alternatives to their traditional activities partnership initiatives, involving civil on the ideas of resources, wealth and so that they can turn away from the society, the administration, and local access. The more wealth and wellbeing resources, but still have suffi cient communities, aiming to achieve the that resource use generates, the more incomes to provide them with the sustainable management of natural users will be concerned about the necessary goods and services to resources in the three landscapes. conservation of these resources. support their livelihoods and wellbeing All three initiatives were facilitated by (Weber, 1998). an international NGO working for the Unfortunately, in developing this new conservation of ecosystems. approach, a distinction was made After more than a decade of attempting between urban élites and rural people. to balance participatory management In two of the case studies, land- The former should, according to this with sustainable management, and use planning was carried out by the new way of thinking, be distanced from trying to achieve local development local population using participatory any sustainable development initiatives while also conserving resources, the mapping. These two experiences carried out locally, because they are scientifi c community has been obliged were coordinated by the Wildlife liable to hijack them and subvert their to face up to some unpalatable truths: Conservation Society (WCS) in the Lac original objectives. poor practices in the environment have Télé-Lac Tumba Landscape, and the not stopped. Local populations have Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape, As for the latter, the “real benefi ciaries” not yet taken on board the participatory in areas where conservation objectives of these initiatives, they should be management methods that have been were at odds with the vital needs of prepared to take ownership of them proposed to them. Poverty has scarcely the population. These two experiences and implement them, by using their been alleviated in conservation zones. describe the ups and downs on the road traditional know-how and customary Pressure has increased in quite a to arriving at an acceptable compromise codes that may not necessarily be number of cases, infl uenced by factors for all actors; many diffi culties required environmentally friendly. that are external to the forest and that new and ingenious approaches to are generally driven by the market. continue moving in the right direction.

104 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

The third case study describes These three experiences are concrete are just as likely to indulge in less than supporting the acquisition and examples of the types of partnerships transparent practices. management of community forests that may make it possible to reconcile by people living in the Sangha Tri- the conservation of ecosystems with From all of these developments, National (Tri-National de Sangha – TNS) the welfare of the local population. All the main lesson learned is that the Landscape, and was carried out by the three also demonstrate that community outcomes of participatory management WWF Jengi Program. management is not in itself a panacea. are just some of the factors that will The complexity of the legal status of impact on the future of the forests. Of the three case studies, it is the one protected areas, lengthy administrative The city-forest relationship is another that best illustrates the diffi culties of procedures, the weak technical factor that contributes to the ups and community management, because it capacity of the local populations, and downs of forest management. This deals with a case where the fi nancial the fi nancial and political stakes are may be the moment to start developing and political stakes were already clear, just some of the obstacles to effective strategies for the controlled involvement as compared to the other two whose appropriation of the participatory of the much-feared “urban élites” in populations were still at the initial stage management opportunities offered to local development and ecosystem of the project and could not yet perceive the population within the framework conservation strategies. They are the outcomes. Instead of the potential of mitigating the negative impacts of undoubtedly key actors in overcoming or real benefi ts generated by the conservation policies and objectives. the numerous hurdles that remain to commercialization of community forest be tackled by all the actors who have products boosting local development in The TNS Landscape case study for decades been seeking to integrate the TNS Landscape, in quite a number illustrates well the fact that bad conservation and development of cases they fuelled violent confl icts governance is far from being the successfully. ' between the benefi ciaries. preserve of public institutions, for community managers at the local level

Bibliography

Bahuchet, S. et al. 2000. « Les peuples des forêts tropicales aujourd’hui. Volume synthétique, rapport ﬁ nal ». Brussels : APFT, CAC-ULB.

Colchester, M., Apte, T., Laforge, M., Mandondo, A. and Pathak, N. 2003. Communautés, forêts et réseaux internationaux: des liaisons à renforcer. CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 41 (f). Jakarta : CIFOR-BOGOR.

Lavigne-Delville, P. 1996. Foncier rural, ressources renouvelables et développement. Analyse comparative des différentes approches (document de travail). Paris : GRET.

Ministère de la Faune et des Forêts du Cameroun (MINFOF). 2009. « Messages clés et recommandations de la conférence internationale sur tenure forestière, gouvernance et entreprise : nouvelles opportunités pour l’Afrique de l’ouest et centrale ». Yaoundé : MINFOF.

Rights and Resources Initiative (RRI). See http://www.rightsandresources.org/french/events.php ?id=48.

Solo, J.A. « Contribution des forêts communautaires à la conservation de la diversité biologique et à la lutte contre la pauvreté ». In: Actes de la 6ème CEFDHAC.

Weber, J. 1998. « Ressources renouvelables et systèmes fonciers ». In: Lavigne-Delville, P. Quelles politiques foncières en l’Afrique rurale ? Paris: Ministère de la Coopération/Karthala.

105 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Case Study 1 Community Land-Use Planning in the Lac Télé Community Reserve (Lac Télé-Lac Tumba Landscape)

Hugo Rainey and Felin Twagirashyaka

Lac Télé Community Reserve the dry season some areas are linked September 2007 resulted in severe and periphery by footpaths. The reserve contains fl ooding in the LTCR several hundred In the forests of the Republic of Congo, a rich diversity of habitats including kilometres away. the confl uence of the Sangha, Likouala- swamp forest, seasonally fl ooded aux-Herbes, Oubangui and Congo forest, riparian forest, mixed forest and Communities rivers forms an area of 63,500 km2 seasonally fl ooded grassland savannah. The Lac Télé Community Reserve has of wetlands. Seasonal fl oods are a The habitats on the periphery of the a population of over 16,000 (2005 data, characteristic feature of the riparian reserve are generally similar with the WCS unpubl.) of whom over 90 percent habitats of both the Congo River and its addition of large areas of Raphia palm are indigenous Bomitaba people. The tributaries, and determine the habitats swamp to the east and south-east. majority of the remaining inhabitants and species distributions in these areas. are Congolese who have immigrated to The topography is predominantly a Annual rainfall in the region averages the reserve with a small proportion from featureless alluvial plain at an altitude of 1,600 mm although there is neighbouring countries. On the edge of 300–320 m; and the soils are classifi ed considerable variation, for example, the reserve, most villages are Bomitaba as gleysols, due to the fl ooding and from 1,200 mm in 2005 to over 2,200 with a small number of indigenous waterlogging throughout the year. in 2007. There are two rainy seasons, semi-nomads in the northern periphery. with peaks in August–November and Few semi-nomads reside in or on the The Lac Télé Community Reserve May–June. The main dry season is in periphery of the reserve for any length (LTCR) lies in the heart of the swamp December–March, although this varies of time. The population increased at forests of the Likouala region of from year to year and no month is an average rate of 2.5 percent per north-east Republic of Congo. The completely dry. Temperatures vary little annum in the period 2001–2005. The reserve was created by presidential over the year with an average annual majority of people in the LTCR and its decree on May 10, 2001 with the temperature of 26.7°C. The average surroundings are young: 59 percent of goals of conserving biodiversity and daily maximum temperature is 32°C people are under the age of 20. The rate guaranteeing sustainable use of natural and the average daily minimum is 22°C. of immigration into the reserve is low resources. The reserve is situated In the fl ooded habitats of the LTCR as there is scarcely any employment between the Sangha and Oubangui and its periphery, variation in rainfall here; swamp forest is of little current Rivers and covers 4,400 km2 of which results in corresponding changes in the value for timber exploitation, and there 90 percent fl oods for at least part of the water level throughout the reserve. The is little permanently dry land suitable for year. Only an island of terra fi rma forest highest water levels normally occur in intensive agriculture. Each Bomitaba divided by the Likouala-aux-Herbes September–December and the lowest family group or lineage has ancestral River, and small patches of terra fi rma in February–June. However, the Sangha rights over traditional community on which villages are located, do not and Oubangui rivers are linked to the territories for use of natural resources fl ood. The LTCR is surrounded by rivers: reserve by surface and subterranean through activities such as fi shing, the Likouala-aux-Herbes, the Batanga, aquifers and the water levels in these hunting and agriculture. the Bailly and the Moundougouma. Lac rivers also have a great infl uence on Télé, after which the reserve is named, levels in the reserve. For example, as Most of the protein consumed by is in the northern half of the reserve in the catchments of these two rivers lie local communities comes from fi sh (91 the middle of the swamp forest. Apart partially in the savannahs of Cameroon percent) with only 6 percent coming from 5 km of tarmac road, all travel and the Central African Republic from bushmeat and even less from in the LTCR is by boat, although in (CAR), very heavy rainfall there in July– livestock. This is different from other

106 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

intensities are unknown and, given the population’s reliance on fi sheries, this is of huge concern); planned construction of new roads and prospecting for oil; bushfi res; population growth; zoonoses (including the epidemic which decimated the Cane rat population several years ago); Ebola which could spread from western Congo; diseases potentially transmitted by livestock to wildlife entering the reserve from Impfondo; and avian infl uenza potentially introduced by imported domestic fowl.

LTCR project and management The Lac Télé Community Reserve and its periphery are managed by a partnership of the Ministère de l’Economie Forestière (MEF) of the Congolese Government and the Wildlife Flooding in the LTCR in 2007. Conservation Society (WCS) which has worked here since 1990. This rural communities in Central Africa 20,000. Chimpanzees are also found successful collaboration has developed where bushmeat is usually the primary in the area’s swamp forests, but at a activities to describe the reserve’s protein source. Many local people earn lower density. The three largest mammal wildlife, forests and socio-economic large sums of money during the dry species are elephant, hippopotamus characteristics and to address the season by catching and smoking fi sh for and buffalo which were formerly found threats mentioned above. Specifi c export. Only in the terra fi rma villages in their thousands in the reserve, but activities include: the development of is fi shing less important as they have were decimated by hunting in the community participative management; limited access to fi sheries. Agriculture 1960s–1980s. These populations are education and awareness-raising; law is practised by most families and the now recovering and may now be seen enforcement patrols; biological surveys main staple is manioc. Other activities close to villages. The fi sheries are very and monitoring of large mammals, include hunting, gathering non-timber productive in the Likouala swamps waterbirds, fi sh and herpetofauna; forest products (NTFPs) and small-scale and, although a defi nitive inventory has and bushmeat and fi sheries off-take commerce. not been completed, there may be a monitoring. number of endemic and undescribed Wildlife species here. Waterbirds are abundant Large populations of gorillas were in the reserve, many of them feeding Lac Télé community land-use discovered in the Likouala swamp on fi sh. Two species, Purple herons planning methodology and forests in the early 1990s and and African darters, are found in results subsequent surveys have estimated the internationally important numbers and Each Bomitaba and semi-nomad family population of gorillas in the reserve at the site is designated both a Ramsar group or lineage in and around LTCR over 10,000 individuals. Recent surveys site and an Important Bird Area because has ancestral rights over traditional of the reserve periphery have identifi ed of the size of their populations. community territories for use of natural large gorilla populations to the west resources such as fi shing, hunting, of the reserve and also at very high Threats collection of NTFPs and agriculture. densities (5.3 individuals/km2) in the The principal threats to biodiversity Additionally, each family has customary Raphia swamp to the south-east. The and natural resources in the reserve laws, many of which are related total gorilla population in the reserve are: illegal hunting and the commercial to natural resource management. and periphery is estimated to exceed bushmeat trade; overfi shing (current Social changes with the passage of

107 Section One: Land-Use Planning

colonial rule, one-party socialism after independence, civil war and the current regime have resulted in an erosion of traditional authority and a corresponding decline in community management of natural resources.

The Lac Télé Community Reserve has a moderately low human population density as much of the forest and savannah is seasonally or permanently fl ooded. This factor, along with the very limited employment opportunities compared to areas with logging concessions, results in land being used for non-commercial subsistence activities, and in low levels of immigration. The focus of land- use planning in LTCR has therefore been on community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). Community meeting on traditional land-use rights and customary laws. WCS in collaboration with MEF has been working with communities to • to reduce the threat of limits, different use zones and to reinvigorate community management marginalization and eviction of describe the customary laws which of natural resources in the Likouala communities by immigrants, applied to natural resources. Our socio- swamps, including fi sheries, forests politicians, land-grabbers and economic team worked with family and wildlife. Our goal has been to commercial interests. leaders to indicate territorial boundaries develop each community’s vision of by creating maps drawn in the sand. natural resource management based As part of the process of developing on traditional management. We community management, WCS carried Traditional zoning of territories included have engaged with communities to out a census of all the inhabitants of the villages, agricultural land, fi sh ponds, develop community natural resource reserve in 2005. This was very intensive, lagoons and river pools, hunting and management plans which will then but has given us an unparalleled insight NTFP collection zones and sacred be incorporated into the overall LTCR into the socio-economic characteristics sites. These included both current management plan. of the villages and the changes that and historical village locations as have occurred in recent years. The many villages were formerly hidden The goal of the community land-use census served two main purposes in the forest to escape raids during planning programme implemented in for the purpose of community land- pre-colonial tribal wars. Subsequently, and around LTCR by WCS and MEF is use planning: (a) to identify the family during the colonial period, some villages to reinvigorate traditional land-use rights lineages and heads of families within were moved to easily accessible rivers and use customary laws, reinforced by each community; and (b) to assess and combined with other villages to modern laws, to provide communities the rate of population change within facilitate taxation. The sand mapping with authority over their land. This has the reserve (the previous census was used to facilitate the participation three major objectives: was carried out in 2001). The census of the elders and large numbers of the • to create a sense of ownership also provided detailed information villagers. The LTCR team oriented the over territories by local on education levels, diet, livestock discussions where, together with some communities which will encourage numbers and other data which will villagers who were able to read, they a long-term view of natural inform management decisions. drew the sand map sketch on a IGN1 resource management; map of 1/200000 using features such • to provide security of tenure for WCS then started a process of working as rivers, roads or other visual reference communities over their traditional closely with each family lineage in the points which were easily identifi able on territories; reserve to identify traditional territorial

1 Institut Géographique National.

108 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

Participatory mapping in the LTCR. the map and in the fi eld. Some points interest from many communities and Lessons learned on limits shown by the populations were we received comments such as “this The key factors for successful collected with GPS. Once in the offi ce, will take us back to the time when our development of CBNRM here are the the drawing on the IGN map, with help ancestors managed their land”. The following: from the GPS points, was digitized in mapping and participatory process • High proportion of indigenous ArcView to become a geo-referenced required signifi cant investments of time, (i.e., non-immigrant) inhabitants map (see Figure 1). We then returned personnel and logistics. (90 percent Bomitaba) with to the villages to verify the accuracy traditional territories and of the mapping with communities. Community natural resource customary laws: the indigenous Customary laws related to natural management plans will be developed Bomitaba have strong incentives resource management are quite varied, for each village and these will include to manage the reserve for the but contain many common themes identifi cation of traditional authority future as they are not likely to which will facilitate their implementation and family lineages over each area of move on, i.e., because they have and, indeed, many of which should land; maps of each traditional territory a long history here, they regard it be incorporated directly into the LTCR including different use zones; and as their homeland which should management plan. customary laws for traditional natural be managed sustainably with resource management. Each community technical encouragement from As we were working with so many and its traditional territories and WCS and MEF. older people in each village, we also customs will therefore be incorporated • Low potential for immigration documented the history of each territory into the LTCR management plan. Once and limited land available for in order to understand their origins approved by the government and immigrants: all villages are located (some of which have disjunct borders). signed into law, this management plan on terra fi rma islands within the This historical analysis could provide will give legal status to community LCTR (and periphery) as fl ooding is a solid basis for the delimitation of rights over their traditional territories so widespread in the wet season. each territory and could help mitigate and to their customary laws (within Almost all islands are currently future territorial boundary disputes. national laws). occupied by villages thus there is Territories have been bought and little room for further settlement. sold in the past and used to pay off Additionally, local resource debts. This process attracted great management and ownership

109 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Figure 1. Community territories for all the LTCR villages

of fi sheries prevent outsiders Our work with local communities in also comment on how this programme exploiting fi sheries and hunting is the Lac Télé and Likouala swamps has has had additional effects which have limited compared to other sites. been essential for the success of the supported the conservation objectives Also there are few clinics, schools, overall project here. However, careful here. roads and other factors which consideration must be given to the might encourage local immigration. resources required for implementation of Our land-use planning team succeeded • Relatively high productivity of CBNRM and it must also be understood in their goals of working with all fi sheries albeit with limited room for that natural resource management is not communities in and around the LTCR to expansion: as mentioned above, all necessarily equivalent to or suffi cient identify families holding traditional rights current fi sheries are occupied by for conservation management. The goal and authority, traditional territorial limits families with long-term ownership, of community land-use planning is to and customary laws. Here we detail how therefore there is limited room for establish sustainable community-based we were able to achieve this with the fi sheries expansion. This reduces natural resource management. This is limited available funding and logistics the potential for overexploitation. a long-term goal, so here we review we are able to deploy in the LTCR: Empirical observations indicate our success in attaining intermediate • Personnel strengths. The socio- that fi sheries are probably objectives and the factors which have economic team consisting of three sustainably exploited. aided or constrained our land-use dedicated and highly motivated planning activities. Additionally, we individuals [leader Faustin Otto

110 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

(FO), Gerard Bondeko (GB) and from national or regional based natural resource management Roger Mobongo (RM)]. Both FO government. As this programme acceptable to all management actors, and GB have relevant university was designed to re-invigorate including communities, technical staff degrees, GB and RM are Bomitaba traditional authority and customary (i.e., protected area managers) and and all three speak Bomitaba, rights, it was popular amongst local politicians and government. a dialect of Lingala. RM is also communities who have to be self- The support given to this process a trained boatman, so the team reliant for survival. Each community by all actors has been wide-ranging. was independent and fl exible. The had their own vision for community This is of particular importance in a personalities of the individuals natural resource management country which has suffered civil war in community-related work are and their requirements for fi shing, and experienced limited development always crucial to success and all gathering NTFPs, subsistence in recent decades. As mentioned three members of the team have hunting, etc. Our role was to above, sustainable natural resource gained the confi dence of the ensure a harmonization of management does not necessarily communities. FO, in particular, community efforts with the national equate to conservation management.2 made it his mission to complete laws applicable to natural resource Individuals may be motivated by this work and, as he has worked management and conservation. local needs, and external pressure by with WCS in LTCR since 2001, traders to hunt for ivory and bushmeat he had considerable knowledge As related above, this methodology is considerable. Thus, CBNRM may of traditional community requires a signifi cant investment of reduce threats to forests and wildlife, management. Working with the time and resources, outstanding but localized and targeted threats to project management team, he personnel and motivated communities. some of the world’s most threatened designed the programme based By reducing the overall level of detail species, such as elephants and gorillas, on discussions with communities required for understanding communities require governance activities such as and this ensured that it was based and traditional management at a site, law enforcement patrols. Education and on the communities’ vision and it may possible to increase the speed outreach play a strong role in informing requests, rather than imposed by of application of community land-use people of their rights and laws, but external management. planning to new areas in the Likouala there is no holy grail of community • Resource dedication. The team swamps. However, whether this will management without external threats. was dedicated to this programme achieve the same level of community That means that communities need for four years with few other support and success remains to be strong incentives to manage their activities to hinder their work; they seen. Community land-use planning community territories. Additionally, in spent many months in the fi eld, outside the LTCR is being carried the period before colonization, local often for more than half the year. out using this reduced investment hunting and trading may have exerted Additionally, as the reserve is so approach. For example, we will not little pressure on local resources. large and it can take two days to carry out a census and the identifi cation However, modern external pressures travel by boat from north to south, of all individuals in each family lineage on their territories such as illegal non- signifi cant resources were required will not be required. Thus, the approach local hunters and bushmeat traders for this work. This was particularly is faster and should be completed more are omnipresent and diffi cult to stop. important as importing fuel and rapidly. The personnel involved in such Great demand for bushmeat and ivory, other supplies to the Likouala a programme must be very carefully mainly from urban centres, means that swamps is very demanding as identifi ed as they must not only be able local communities can have diffi culties there are no roads to this region in to communicate with communities, but the heart of Africa and for half the they must also be able to empathize 2 Conservation management will focus on species or year the rivers are not navigable and establish a rapport with them. habitats of conservation concern. For example, we by cargo boats. Thus signifi cant Additionally, they must have the stamina are focusing on gorilla management in the LTCR as the population of this species here is of international investments of time, scientifi c to carry out such a wide-ranging importance. This involves patrol teams and community and logistic personnel, fi nances programme. No mean feat when dealing management in combination. If we only carried out CBNRM (community-based natural resource management), we and management oversight were with 16,000 people over four years. would have few gorillas as this would focus on NTFP required. and fi sheries management. Communities themselves do not have the legal authority to prevent individuals from • Community motivation. Local The primary conclusion of this review inside or outside the community from hunting there. They communities in the Likouala, of our approach to land-use planning is may have the moral authority, but without support from government-authorized patrol teams, they will not be although motivated by party that it has been successful in its goal of able to prevent hunters with military weapons, or traders politics, receive little investment providing a framework of community- illegally buying bushmeat or ivory, from carrying out their unsustainable activities.

111 Section One: Land-Use Planning

in maintaining traditional management. enforcement and technical input by of trust they have in our objectives and Neither community management nor government and partners to ensure that presence in their villages and traditional law enforcement can exist in isolation community natural resources are not territories is very high. Given the if conservation is to be successful. As rapidly exhausted by new threats. An isolation of some of these villages, the mentioned above, communities are additional outcome of the approach we welcome given to us by communities no longer isolated from demands that have implemented in the LTCR has been and the ease with which dialogue has national and international trade place the conﬁ dence that the communities been opened is hugely important. This on them. Large cities create a huge now have in the conservation project goodwill is likely to provide considerable demand for bushmeat and international partnership between MEF and WCS. beneﬁ ts to the conservation project in trade has increased the price of As each community family has had the long term. ' ivory. Thus, traditional management direct positive contact with members needs to be augmented by modern of the conservation project, the level

112 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

Case Study 2 The Process of Allocating and Managing Community Forests in Cameroon: Case Studies from the Sangha Tri-National and the Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National Landscapes

Alphonse Ngniado, Louis Defo, Claude Chendjou and Zacharie Nzooh Dongmo

Community forests in Cameroon are sanctioned by Law No. 94/01 of 20 January 1994 on forestry and its Implementation Decree No. 95/531/ PM of 23 August 1995. One of the main objectives of this law is to promote the participation of the population in the conservation and management of forest resources, so that these resources can contribute to improving their living standards. The terms and conditions as well as regulations relating to the allocation and management of community forests are outlined in the Manual of the Allocation Procedures and Management Regulations for Community Forests. Various bodies and organizations are involved in the implementation of the community forest process in south-east Cameroon, including WWF through its Jengi Objectives • To improve transboundary Project. The objectives of the Jengi Project are: conservation activities in • To ensure the sustainable collaboration with key partners and management of wildlife in multiple- various institutions. WWF Jengi Project use zones; • To ensure the efﬁ cient and There are ten community forests Background collaborative management of with management agreements in the The WWF Jengi Project has been in protected areas; Cameroon segment of the Sangha place in south-east Cameroon since • To reinforce the sustainable Tri-national (Tri-National de la Sangha the mid-1990s. It focused mainly on management of logging activities (TNS)) Landscape and the Dja-Odzala- inventories of large mammals and then through solid partnerships between Minkébé Tri-national (Tri-national on the creation of three new parks – the government, the private sector Dja-Odzala-Minkébé (TRIDOM)) Lobéké, Boumba Bek and Nki. In 1998, and village communities; Landscape. These agreements were it extended its range of activities to • To put in place a systematic granted through a contract with which include sustainable forest management, ecological monitoring programme the forestry administration entrusts co-management and access to to study the status of the to a community a portion of forest resources as well as beneﬁ t sharing. environment during logging in the agro-forestry zone for it to activities; manage, conserve and exploit in the

113 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Figure 1. Location of the Cameroon segments of the TNS and TRIDOM Landscapes

best interests of that community. It is The Cameroon segments The process of allocating accompanied by a simple management of the TNS and TRIDOM community forests plan that outlines the activities to be Landscapes By law, a community forest is a forest carried out. Fourteen forest portions The Cameroon segments of the STN in the non-permanent forest estate that have been granted or are in the process and the TRIDOM Landscapes are is subject to a management agreement of being granted to local communities. situated in the south-east and have between a village community and the How have these forests been granted surface areas of about 1,471,000 ha administration in charge of forestry. and managed? What is the WWF Jengi and 112,000 ha of forest respectively Its surface area cannot be more than strategy to guide the communities? (see Figure 1). They are made up of fi ve 5,000 ha. Between applying for, and What are the lessons learned from the protected areas (the Lobéké, Boumba- fi nally being allocated, a community community forestry process in the TNS Bek, and Nki National Parks, the Dja forest, the community has to fulfi l and TRIDOM landscapes? Wildlife Reserve and the Mangame several conditions of which the most Gorilla Sanctuary). Their peripheral important are: constituting a legal entity, zones are made up of production preparing a Reservation File, drawing up forests, mining zones and agro-forestry a simple management plan (SMP), and zones. Community forests are created in signing a management agreement. the agro-forestry zones.

114 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

Constituting a legal entity application specifying the objectives As soon as the SMP has been drawn In order to qualify for the granting set for the community forest; a map up, six copies of it must be deposited of a community forest, the village showing the location of the forest (and with the regional forestry service to community has to be constituted into proof of its surface area); documents be passed on to MINFOF where it is some kind of acceptable legal entity showing the name of the community studied and then approved or rejected such as: an association, a cooperative, concerned as well as the address of the by a multi-disciplinary validation a common initiative group, or an head of the legal entity; a description commission. economic interest group. This is to be of the activities previously carried done after awareness-raising meetings out within the forest; the curriculum Signing a management agreement on community forestry have been vitae of the person designated by the A favourable response from the organized in the community concerned. community to manage the forest; the validation commission allows the If the community is receptive to the minutes of the consultation meeting community to prepare and sign process, a general assembly meeting held at the headquarters of the legal the management agreement. This is organized during which the statutes entity and presided over by the agreement gives the entire community, and rules and regulations are drawn up, administrative authority (at which the through their legal entity, the exclusive and a legal entity that represents all the objectives for, and boundaries of, the right to exploit timber and non-timber social components of the community community forest are determined); resources in the forest for 25 years (with (villages, women, men, Bantus, Bakas) the statutes of the legal entity, and an option to renew) with motor saws is set up. Its members are elected an up-to-date list of its members. and mobile sawmills at their disposal for democratically. All important decisions The Ministry’s technical services for felling and light processing. The sawn are taken by the general assembly; community forestry will verify the timber is moved from the processing those which relate to the community surface area (5,000 ha maximum) and point in the forest to the break-bulk forest or to the management of the location of the forest to ensure that yard by the roadside, where shaping is revenues should also conform to the it does not encroach on a permanent done manually. The person in charge requirements of the SMP. forest estate or any other pre-existing of managing these activities has to titles. If no irregularities are found, a submit an annual work plan as well as Once the major decisions have been reservation authorization valid for 18 an annual progress report to the forestry taken, small commissions can be set up months is granted to the community to administration. to monitor the use of the funds and the allow it to complete the fi nal procedures implementation of the project, under the for obtaining the land. supervision of the steering committee WWF strategy for assisting of the association presided over by a Drawing up a simple management communities delegate or a president. plan (SMP) Community forestry has an important The reservation authorization gives the role to play in conservation since, if According to the SMPs, revenues community the right to draw up and well managed, it creates jobs and raised from logging should fi nance, as submit a simple management plan to strengthens the local economy, thus a priority: the functioning of the entity the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife contributing to improving the living as an enterprise, to guarantee the (MINFOF). The SMP stipulates the conditions of local people. Therefore, sustainability of jobs and incomes; the activities to be carried out, the rules to help overcome the obstacles exploitation of the timber and non- for managing the timber and non- related to the process of obtaining timber forest products (NTFPs); any timber resources sustainably, as well and managing community forests, the other project that might create jobs and as managing the revenues generated WWF Jengi Project and other partners incomes (fi shponds, community farms, by selling forest products so that they provide various kinds of support to local etc.); and community projects (such as contribute to the wellbeing of the communities. The approach is simple a health centre, school, well, community community. The SMP should include and participative: fi rst, meetings are centre, etc.). a description of the forest and of the held to raise awareness of the concept community; a micro land-use plan of community forestry. After this, Preparing a Reservation File (LUP) based on inventory fi ndings specifi c requests for assistance may Once the process has been accepted (conservation, agro-forestry and be presented to WWF. A memorandum by the community, a fi le called a production zones), fi ve-year and annual of understanding (MoU) between the Reservation File has to be prepared work plans, results of socio-economic community and WWF Jengi is drawn up and submitted to the Minister in charge studies and a natural resource inventory, and signed, and mechanisms are put in of forestry, consisting of: a stamped and a community development plan. place for monitoring and evaluation of

115 Section One: Land-Use Planning

the MoU commitments, and for confl ict Managing the funds generated from Outputs management. logging Several capacity-building sessions Allocation of community forests Awareness-raising meetings are held for the steering committees The fi rst community forest of 5,000 ha Aware of the fact that local people of the legal entities responsible for the was granted in 2001 to the Mbialebot may have a very limited knowledge of management of the community forest, community. The table below gives the process of obtaining a community and for the revenues derived from its details of subsequent allocations. forest, WWF Jengi, in collaboration with exploitation, to enable them to: some local NGOs that have expertise in • Identify priority actions for the The ten community forests cover this domain, organize awareness-raising community (planning social a surface area of about 47,560 ha, meetings for communities. WWF Jengi projects); representing about six percent of gives priority to villages bordering the • Secure funds (setting up the total area of the non-permanent Lobéké, Boumba-Bek and Nki National procedures for taking in, holding forest estate in south-east Cameroon. Parks. and disbursing funds); The table shows that the number of • Monitor and evaluate the projects community forests has increased Requests for assistance carried out. signifi cantly since 2004, which is largely After the awareness-raising phase, thanks to the actions of WWF and its communities that want to apply for a Monitoring and evaluation of the partners. community forest, but lack the expertise implementation of the MoU to do so, may ask for assistance from The monitoring and evaluation of Technical and fi nancial management WWF Jengi through a letter addressed the MoU is done through quarterly of community forests to the regional coordinator. In their evaluation meetings with members of Because the community’s technical request, they have to specify the type the steering committee, WWF Jengi capacity tends to be inadequate, and of assistance expected (technical, Project staff, local NGOs working on there is a lack of fi nancial resources to fi nancial, material …). The fi nal community forestry, and the forestry purchase their own timber-processing commitment is conditional upon the administration. equipment, they are often obliged applicant community accepting WWF’s to sign sub-contracts with business MoU. Confl ict management operators. This can lead to problems, Capacity-building sessions on the including: Signing the Memorandum of identifi cation and management of • Operators being suspended by the Understanding between the potential confl icts that may arise within forestry administration for non- community and WWF Jengi the community were organized. These compliance with the stipulations The MoU is signed during a meeting sessions were aimed especially at the of the SMP. The most common in the community concerned, at which members of the legal entity, to help causes are not respecting the the terms of the MoU are made public. them prevent confl icts by encouraging boundaries of the annual felling The MoU clearly defi nes the actions to communication i.e., collating and plot, and felling trees with trunks be carried out, the expected outcomes, transmitting information on the of a smaller diameter than the and spells out the commitment of the management of the community forest to prescribed minimum; two parties to achieving the defi ned all communities involved. • Confl icts between members. objectives. Several confl icts have occurred in communities of which the Implementing the Memorandum of most recurrent are those related Understanding Table 1. Allocation of community to leadership struggles between In addition to assisting the community forests for the period 2001–2007 steering committee members, and with the administrative procedures a perceived lack of accountability Number of Legal entity of the associated with applying for a Years CFs allocated communities concerned in the management of funds community forest, WWF, through 2001 1 Mbialebot generated by the sale of products; its MoU with the community, 2003 1 Bibimbo • A shortage of logging partners. focuses on the following actions: 2004 1 Mpemog The often poor state of local roads, managing the funds generated by the 2006 3 Djankora, Essayons voir, combined with the distance of the community forests; evaluating the Mpewang zones concerned from big cities project’s achievements; and confl ict 2007 4 Asmimi, Zenkadjel, such as Yaoundé and Douala, management. Morikoaye, Biemo discourages business operators from investing in community

116 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

Table 2. Projected and actual timber exploitation fi gures in some community capacity of members of the legal entity forests in particular, and even of community forestry in general, to stimulate socio- Logging carried out Projected economic development in villages. quantity Price per m3 Revenues generated Legal entity Year (m3) Species Qty (m3) (CFA Francs) (CFA Francs) The micro-projects surveyed support Bibimbo 2004 1010 Sapele 70 80,000 5,600,000 schooling, the creation of casual jobs, 2005 Ayous 50 40,000 2,000,000 and some construction jobs (a shed and Mpemog 2005 1000 Sapele 94 20,000 1,880,000 a classroom). Ayous 54 10,000 540,000 Mpewang 2006 1000 Sapele 20 20,000 400,000 Mbielabot 2003 1025 Sapele 100 18,000 1,800,000 Lessons learned 2006 Sapele 100 18,000 1,800,000 2006 Assamela 92 18,000 1,656,000 Management of legal entities TOTAL — 4035 — 580 — 15,676,000 An evaluation of legal entities shows that compliance with the statutes, rules and regulations is mixed. Membership forests. Those that do invest often should however be noted that the price rights and annual contributions are pay much less than they would for of FCFA 80,000 observed in Bibimbo almost never paid and the average areas closer to major cities; includes handling charges that the membership per legal entity is 43 • Machinery break-downs. The community has to bear instead of the members, a relatively low number machines are old and cannot run subcontractor. compared to the number of inhabitants for long, leading to low production per village. This could be explained by and output. Achievements of community micro- the population’s general lack of interest projects in community concerns on the one The above table gives an illustration of Community micro-projects are the hand, and inadequate awareness on the planned and actual exploitation fi gures outcome of surveys and meetings other hand. As regards representation of in some community forests. organized within communities. They are the various social groups, members are included in the development plan, and mostly Bantu men (80 percent); Bantu From this table, it can be seen that the they are funded from benefi ts generated women represent only 12.94 percent four forests produced only 580 m3 of by sale of timber harvested from the and the Bakas are in a small minority the 4035 m3 projected, that is, 14.37 community forest and other sources (7.06 percent). It is also noted that percent. This can be attributed on the previously identifi ed in the community there is little involvement of members one hand to MINFOF’s delay in signing (council and State contributions). Five in decision making. For example, the Annual Logging Certifi cate and the years after the granting of the fi rst drawing up contracts with loggers transportation documents for logged community forest, these micro-projects and other service providers is done by wood (way bills), and on the other hand are still not very visible in the villages. mutual agreement and most often with to the European market (where almost This creates suspicion and even delegates of the legal entities, without all the timber is sold) which is very scepticism amongst some members the real involvement of other members demanding with regard to high-value of the community with regards to the of the community. Instituting good timber. Only three out of a possible 15 tree species have been logged so far: Table 3. Community development projects Sapele with a volume of 384 m3 (66.2 3 percent), Ayous with a volume of 104 m Legal entity Achievements (17.93 percent) and Assamela with a Bibimbo Contributions to the salaries of part-time teachers volume of 92 m3 (15.86 percent). The Payment of the salaries of workers timber logged generated a total revenue Mpemog Enrolment of 20 students and two undergraduates in their respective institutions (FCFA 500,000) Construction of a classroom of 15,676,000 CFA Francs (FCFA); the Grant to the Catholic Church (FCFA 15,000) average price per m3 of timber of any Mpewang — species stands at FCFA 27,000. This Mbielabot Construction of a shed in Gribe (FCFA 3,000,000) price oscillates between FCFA 10,000 Scholarships to students and pupils (FCFA 500,000) (Ayous in Mpemog) and FCFA 80,000 Essayons Voir — (Sapele in Bibimbo) depending on Djankora — the contracts with subcontractors. It

117 Section One: Land-Use Planning

governance within the management Exploitation of community forests origins. The most common are between body of community forests, and real The exploitation of community forests families and the members of the legal participatory management, remain a is entrusted to business operators entity. Families claim “ownership rights” priority in the days ahead. (subcontractors) who bear all the costs over the forest lands where community of exploitation. They pay the legal forests have been created. But in reality, Awareness, information, education entities a price per m3 comparable to these are only customary rights, given and training on community forestry an “owner’s tax” that enables them to that the land tenure code and forestry This phase is executed by WWF cover running costs and make a small law make the State the sole owner of Jengi in collaboration with NGOs and profi t but not enough to allow them to almost all lands and forest resources the forestry administration. Given carry out planned development projects. of the country. Confl icts between the varying management diffi culties members of the legal entity and the described above, this type of support Small-scale logging, under the forest manager are usually due to a lack and guidance should be maintained control of the community or through of accountability in the management of throughout the entire community subcontracting, offers signifi cant job funds generated from logging. Confl icts forestry process. opportunities for the local youth. A between village chiefs and the manager large proportion of the community can are usually about the chiefs wanting to Reservation fi les be involved in various tasks related to have monthly salaries from community The reservation procedure is long. The logging operations. However, for the forest revenues. Finally, confl icts fi les, prepared by the communities and communities to take charge of logging between legal entities and neighbouring deposited with the local administration their forests, they need access to loans villages can arise from not respecting in charge of forestry, are then forwarded to buy their own sawing equipment, boundaries. In order to overcome these to the central administration in charge and their technical capacities need to problems, various interventions will be of forestry. The process of examining be built up to enable them to use the necessary, including: the development and approving these fi les, and issuing a equipment effi ciently and comply with of simple and transparent management reservation document, takes about one the stipulations of the management mechanisms, especially the putting in and a half years. The procedure should plan. place of a simple accounting system; be revised so that the whole process training all members of the steering is carried out at the local forestry Confl icts within communities committee on their respective roles; administration level, and the manual An evaluation of the running of the establishing project preparation of procedures should be revised and management bodies shows that and monitoring commissions; and simplifi ed. confl icts related to the management organizing regular meetings between of community forests are of diverse communities. '

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Case Study 3 Lessons Learned from the Monkoto Corridor Community-Based Natural Resource Management Zone in the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape

Lisa Steel and Alfred Yoko

Introduction In 2006, WWF initiated its community livelihoods of communities through Located between the two sectors assistance and environmental education revenue generation. of Salonga National Park (SNP), the programme in the inhabited part of Monkoto Corridor has been a site the Monkoto Corridor (5,581 km2) of confl ict between government and (see Figure 1). This programme is one Physical and administrative local communities since the 1940s component of a larger initiative for features of the Monkoto when villages were moved away the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru (SLS) Corridor CBNRM zone from their ancestral lands and closer Landscape (104,144 km2). WWF, its The Monkoto Corridor is located in the to roads. Additional relocations Consortium2 and partners3 are working Tshuapa District of Equateur Province. occurred between 1954 and 1958 for with the government of the Democratic Both the territory and principal town administrative reasons associated with Republic of Congo (DRC) and other within the corridor bear the name the planned creation of a protected groups to develop, implement and Monkoto and the CBNRM zone area. A third series of relocations was monitor an integrated land-use plan encompasses two sectors: Nongo and carried out by the Institut Congolais (LUP) for the landscape. The landscape Monkoto. The corridor’s limits within the pour la Conservation de la Nature1 LUP is based on the designation SNP are delineated by two rivers – the (ICCN) in 1970 when Salonga National of different macro-zones and the Loile and Luilaka – which both fl ow in a Park was offi cially created (d’Huart, development of associated management north-westerly direction and eventually 1988; WCS, 2004). This history of plans defi ning resource use and empty into the Ruki, which meets the forced movements has led to long- governance. Within the SLS Landscape, Congo River at Mbandaka. lasting confl ict over land in the Park the inhabited part of the Monkoto and the Monkoto Corridor where Corridor is classifi ed as a community- The corridor is critical to ICCN relocated communities were settled on based natural resource management operations in SNP with the park’s the land of existing villages. (CBNRM) zone. principal station located in Monkoto and a second to the east in the village Since 1970, relations between ICCN The CBNRM approach is aligned with of Mondjoku, on the Loile River. An and local communities have continued ICCN’s draft “National Strategy for absence of bridges and ferries and to deteriorate due in part to problems Community Conservation: 2007–2011”. the degraded state of the roads limit associated with: ambiguous policies on The goal of the ICCN strategy is to transport within the corridor to boats resource use in the park and bordering promote sustainable participatory on navigable rivers, motorcycles rivers; declining resources outside the management of natural resources by and bicycles. There is, however, an park; and a negative perception of anti- (1) assuring that communities are better operational airfi eld in the town of poaching activities. These problems, engaged in the conservation of natural Monkoto. which were highlighted during socio- resources; and (2) promoting activities economic studies carried out by WCS that link conservation to development and WWF (WCS, 2004; Colom, 2006), and contribute to the improved Socio-economic represent a threat to the sustainable characteristics of the management of community resources. Monkoto Corridor CBNRM

2 Pact, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Zoological zone Society of Milwaukee (ZSM). The majority of the Monkoto Corridor 3 International Conservation and Education Fund (INCEF), Global Action Coalition (GACC – DRC national NGO), Institut CBNRM population is Mongo (Nkundo 1 In 1970, the Institut Zairois pour la Conservation de la Africain pour le Développement Economique et Social and Mbole sub-groups) although there Nature (IZCN). (INADES), Center for Tropical Forest Science/Smithsonian.

119 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Figure 1. The Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape and the Monkoto Corridor CBNRM zone

is one Batwa village. As throughout the agricoles et commerciales) operated (Aveling et al., 2007), the authors landscape, subsistence and economic palm oil, coffee, cacao and rubber recommended that a biological corridor activities are restricted primarily to plantations in the area. While Monkoto be established between the two sectors agriculture, hunting, ﬁ shing and the communities speak favourably of of the park allowing for the movement collection of non-timber forest products ENTRIAC, an estimated 80 percent of of species and genetic exchange. The (NTFPs). However the corridor area their workforce of over 1,200 workers area south of the proposed CBNRM reported more subsistence and was brought in from the Kasais. zone may present the best option for economic activities than the rest of Moreover, several villages lost their land such a corridor. the landscape with a higher number to ENTRIAC plantations. of households engaged in artisanal Large mammal surveys have only work and commerce (Colom, 2006). been completed in a small segment Agriculture is low-yield and farmers lack Biological characteristics of the Monkoto Corridor (WCS, 2005), access to improved cultivars, markets The Monkoto Corridor represents an south-east of the limit of the proposed and knowledge of better agronomic important biological link between the CBNRM zone. WCS has initiated practices. two blocks of the SNP. In a recent report and will complete corridor surveys by a UNESCO monitoring mission4 in 2008. Forest elephants and other As recently as 1997, the company characteristic fauna of the region are ENTRIAC (Entreprises industrielles, known to frequent the corridor and there 4 SNP is a World Heritage Site.

120 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

have been Bonobo sightings on the the desired conditions of the Landscape throughout the CBNRM land-use periphery of the town of Monkoto. and the CBNRM area as determined by planning process, it has been integrated stakeholder groups. The methodology into each of these elements. Legal status used in the SLS Landscape is based on guidelines provided by CARPE/ Element 1: The collection of baseline The Forest Code of 2002 makes USAID and the United States Forest information on the socio-economic and reference to (1) local community forests Service (USFS). The processes and biological characteristics of the area. (des forêts des communautés locales) management plan components to be (Article 111); and (2) local community included in the road map or Strategy In the Monkoto Corridor, CBNRM concessions (concessions aux Document for CBNRM land and information collection is an on- communautés locales) (Article 22). There management plan development include: going process. Previously collected is an on-going debate over the exact information on the socio-economic defi nition of the two terms, which will Processes: characteristics and the biological affect the elaboration of implementing • Creation of a planning team; value of the corridor were what led decrees. In the absence of a clear • Information and data gathering to its selection as a priority CBNRM and appropriate legal mechanism plan; zone and have been important for the for the validation of CBNRM zones, • Stakeholder participation strategy; identifi cation of different stakeholder an alternative approach may be to • Creation of a strategy for the groups. Additional types of information establish “management contracts” formal recognition of plan. collection, including threats and between Monkoto Corridor communities opportunities analyses and participatory and the appropriate legal authorities. Management plan components: mapping have been or are being This approach would start by obtaining • Unique value; implemented together with communities recognition of the contract by local • Characteristics of CBNRM area; and their representatives. Further details government offi cials and their provincial • Desired conditions; are provided in subsequent sections. counterparts. This process should • Objectives; be inclusive of not only the Ministry • Micro-zoning and guidelines; Element 2: The implementation of a of Environment representatives but • Implementation plan; stakeholder strategy that incorporates: also of other relevant ministries (e.g., • Monitoring plan. (1) platforms of consultation, rural development, agriculture, interior, collaboration and management; mines) in order to avoid confl icting land The stage of development of the (2) activities geared towards informing or resource attributions. different processes and management communities and building capacity; and plan components varies. While (3) a communication strategy. The unique location of the Monkoto important inroads have been made in Corridor between the two blocks of stakeholder participation and a plan Platforms of consultation, collaboration the SNP heightens its ecological value. for information and data collection, and management are the launching There is no legal defi nition for protected activities such as the creation of a points for work with communities and area buffer zones in the DRC,5 however, planning team and the defi nition of other stakeholder groups. Over time it is likely that ICCN and the Ministry of objectives and desired conditions they will evolve into the different levels Environment will be willing to advocate have been deferred until stakeholder of governance of the CBNRM zone. At for a form of management which groups have gained the capacity the highest level, these structures will encourages “community conservation”. and knowledge to participate in the be inclusive of a larger group of actors decision-making processes. including government representatives.

Approach to CBNRM land- Consequently, in the following In the Monkoto Corridor CBNRM use planning and results presentation of results, four elements zone, the ﬁ rst step in working with The goal of planning is to develop of the planning process have been communities was to create platforms of land use and management plans that highlighted: (1) baseline information collaboration and consultation bringing contribute to the Strategic Objective of collection; (2) the creation and together representatives of different the CARPE programme6 as well as to implementation of a stakeholder villages. Four different thematic groups participation strategy; (3) participatory were created: (1) forest, wildlife and 5 Although there is a reference to 2–10 km in one draft mapping; and (4) investments in agriculture; (2) ﬁ sheries and freshwater decree under discussion. 6 “Reducing the rate of forest degradation and loss of community development. As capacity management; (3) local chiefdoms and biodiversity through increased local, national, and regional building is seen as a critical activity good governance; and (4) civil society natural resource management capacity”.

121 Section One: Land-Use Planning

and local development. Representatives vision and to accept or refuse to and debated. Prior to the workshop, were selected by villages based on participate in the process of land-use most participants had no access to or their role in the use and governance planning. As a secondary benefi t, their information pertaining to environmental of natural resources as well as their increased understanding and capacity laws. At the end of the workshop, social status (including members should enable them to participate more participants highlighted three lessons of local NGOs and associations). actively in national debates on zoning, learned: (1) the relevance of the material Representing 113 villages, these 205 land tenure, revenue sharing from to ICCN and other local authorities volunteer “environment counsellors” natural resource-based industries and in the area and the importance of serve as intermediaries between other initiatives that may impact their their participation in similar, future WWF, ICCN, partner organizations resources and livelihoods. workshops; (2) that their present use and local communities. They are of natural resources is in many cases responsible for the two-way fl ow of In the SLS Landscape, thematic group illegal under Congolese law; and (3) that information between thematic groups representatives were guided through there are numerous contradictions and communities as well as organizing the process of analyzing the impact between customary practices and and supporting activities such as of their activities – both positive and norms, and national legislation. participatory mapping. negative – on their land, water and natural resources. The different thematic Many communities in the SLS As a consequence of the work of groups then identifi ed improved land Landscape lack access to radio and environment counsellors: and natural resource management other sources of information. Also practices using information provided a large portion of the population is The villages of Betamba and Likwela by experts in agronomy and natural illiterate or unable to understand media report that they no longer permit resource management. In the thematic service communications in Lingala and “foreigners“ to hunt in their forests groups “local chiefdoms and good French. Communication strategies, because they are considered one governance” and “civil society and often in the form of environmental the principal causes of the decline in local development” an emphasis was education activities, are a way to better wildlife numbers and the increase in placed on legislation, the importance inform and involve a larger number and commercial hunting. of natural resource governance and different segments of the population as the concept and potential benefi ts of well as to change behaviour over time. Along the roads between Monkoto community forest management. As a A recent initiative by the Consortium’s and Mbanda and Monkoto and follow-up to these different analyses newest partner, the International Yongo, villages have stopped using and discussions, the environment Conservation and Education Fund small gauge nets and poison when counsellors refl ected on their visions (INCEF), will support the development fi shing. for natural resource management in and execution of a community-based the corridor. The shared vision was media campaign. Communities and With the assistance of the environment to “assure the improvement of partners such as ICCN, together counsellors, village management livelihoods of local communities with national-level counterparts, will committees have been initiated in by re-establishing and sustainably be able to translate threats, lessons 62 villages. These nascent structures managing the forest and fauna of the learned and other information into a are responsible for: (1) the planning, area”. locally targeted, culturally appropriate regulation and monitoring of natural format. A list of themes identifi ed for resource use; and (2) the future In August 2007, WWF partnered with production includes the importance elaboration of community development the national NGO, Avocats Verts (Green of SNP, rights of indigenous people, and natural resource management Lawyers), and held a workshop for promotion of collective action, monkey plans; and will serve as the conduit environment counsellors and local pox, bushmeat trade and poaching. A for larger-scale land-use planning and authorities (157 participants). The goal second programme being implemented management plan development in the of the workshop was to introduce by WCS in collaboration with RARE, Monkoto Corridor CBNRM zone. communities to Congolese laws on a US NGO, uses a form of social natural resource use and to infl uence marketing that aims to educate youth WWF promotes the values of free prior future management decisions. groups in the corridor on the importance and informed consent in their work Legislation on nature conservation of Bonobo conservation and the threat with communities. Communities are (wildlife exploitation, management of bushmeat trade. provided with the information and and trade; protected areas), fi shing, capacity to determine and implement freshwater resources and forests Element 3: The use of participatory their own sustainable development (Forest Code of 2002) was distributed mapping and complementary

122 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

information to inform decisions on villages have elaborated nine maps Element 4: Investment in rural zoning and the development of covering 2,110 km2 (38 percent) of the development and income-generating regulations on natural resource use, Monkoto Corridor (Figure 2). activities. access and governance. Concurrently, WCS is carrying out large Asking communities to self-regulate Participatory mapping is an important mammal inventories in the Corridor. unsustainable practices such as community tool to be used to defi ne In recognition of the Corridor’s status commercial hunting, without providing or validate existing community zones as a community zone, WCS has taken economically viable alternatives, is (micro-zones) and associated rules the innovative approach of training and short-sighted and, in the long term, will governing resource use in these deploying inventory teams comprised of jeopardize the durability of CBNRM different micro-zones. The maps are WCS personnel and representatives of land-use planning and management also a powerful tool when negotiating corridor villages and NGOs. The results efforts. Feedback from communities community rights of access to land and of this study will be superimposed with in the Monkoto Corridor has shown resources with the private sector participatory maps to further refi ne that the communities and individuals (e.g., logging companies, agro-industrial zoning and resource regulations in the most reluctant to participate in different groups), government and conservation CBNRM zone and identify options for land-use planning activities are often groups. With the assistance of their a biological corridor between the two the most outspoken about insuffi cient trained environment counsellors, 81 blocks of SNP. attention to community development.

Figure 2. Preliminary results of participatory mapping in the Monkoto Corridor CBNRM zone

123 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Therefore investing in sustainable rural on the differences between NGOs can be important tools for assisting development and income-generating and associations and did not have communities to identify sustainable activities is a tangible means of the understanding or organizational income-generating activities. However, demonstrating the links between good capacity to design and implement the full value of these tools will only be natural resource management and economically and socially viable realized if and when linkages between governance, and improved livelihoods. activities. This capacity is not only producer groups and commercial important from a livelihood perspective, entities are established, which is Within SLS, the Landscape Consortium but is critical if local civil society is to particularly challenging in such a remote has initiated numerous activities aimed take a greater role in environmental location. at improving livelihoods. These activities protection; advocating for community included conducting a commodity chain rights and concerns; and monitoring the Greater emphasis should be placed on analysis of local products which found implementation of CBNRM activities. establishing links with organizations that products with an interesting profi t To address this defi ciency, the SLS working in rural development, margin included maize, mushrooms, Landscape Consortium has sought the agriculture and small business as well fumbwa (Gnentum africanum), fi sh, assistance of INADES (see footnote as other sectors such as education and caterpillars and copal (Rokotondranisa 3), a national and regional NGO, to health. Investment in rural development et al., 2006). Consequently, a group of organize a series of capacity-building is also an important tool to gain the trust Monkoto women decided to join forces workshops.8 In early 2008, the fi rst of reticent stakeholder groups. and create a central market location for two workshops were held for Monkoto the selling of lucrative NTFPs such as Corridor associations and NGOs. The process of land-use planning in mushrooms while aspiring to attract the Additional workshops are planned both CBNRM zones is only as valuable interest of external buyers in the future. locally and in three other areas in the as the ability to secure community Other groups have increased maize landscape. contractual or concessionary rights production and the Consortium partner The de facto rural systems of land use, Pact is conducting further research resource use and governance contradict on the merits of the copal trade. In Lessons learned from the the de jure status of the State as the 2006, with support from the CARPE/ CBNRM land-use planning legal title holder of all the country’s USAID Small Grants Program, seven process in the Monkoto land and resources. Communities local associations and NGOs benefi ted Corridor refer to land and resources as “theirs” from fi nancial support for projects and traditional authorities continue in promoting increased agricultural and Contributing to poverty reduction is practice to wield considerable control domestic animal production. As a part critical over the distribution of agricultural lands of this support, small grant benefi ciaries Communities demand clear and and to a lesser extent the use of fi shing and other local community-based concrete actions demonstrating the and hunting areas. organizations (CBOs) received training links between conservation, sustainable in improved agricultural and animal natural resource management, poverty Although contradictions between husbandry techniques. More recently, reduction and improved rural conditions. customary local law and formal a second series of small grants was It is critical to start investing from national laws prevail and the debate distributed in 2008 thanks to funding the beginning in building community on the defi nition of community from the European Union.7 The projects capacity to develop and implement forests is on-going, it is necessary for of the nine recipients included the sustainable income-generating activities conservation organizations to proceed rearing of pigs and chickens; increasing through support to associations, with CBNRM initiatives in order to meet the production of beans, groundnuts/ village groups and NGOs. Without urgent conservation and livelihood peanuts, rice, maize and cowpea; and this capacity, the long-term impact of objectives. By using a more inclusive environmental education in schools. investments in community activities will and decentralized approach, starting be limited. with securing the buy-in of local and During the course of implementing provincial government offi cials who these activities it became apparent Tools such as commodity chain can then be used to galvanize the that the CBOs lacked functional and cost-benefi t analyses and the support of their colleagues in the capacity. The CBOs lacked information development of business plans relevant national ministries, there is a far greater likelihood that these efforts

7 From the project « Renforcement des capacités de gestion 8 Organization and functioning of a CBO, establishment will be accepted by the government. At de l’ICCN et appui à la réhabilitation d’aires protégées en of legal status and internal regulations, self-promotion, the same time the results of this work RDC » (9 ACP ZR 4). business plan development.

124 Chapter Four: Community-Based Natural Resource Management Land-Use Planning

can contribute to resolving the on- National-level decision making on participation. For example, only a few going debate over the meaning of local processes such as land-use planning have been nominated as representatives community forests and local community should not move at a pace that to the thematic groups and men defend concessions in the Forest Code excludes the time necessary to build their absence by stating that they are and corresponding implementation their capacity and create a forum for unable to travel away from their family legislation. their viewpoints to be heard. and responsibilities to participate in meetings and workshops. As with It is important to build the capacity If women are to be important vehicles socio-economic study focus groups, of local communities to participate in of change in communities, targeted it may be necessary to consider national dialogues strategies will need to be developed organizing separate, village-based Communities are eager to participate to ensure their participation in meetings for women to ensure that in the development of laws and CBNRM planning and management they are fully informed of the activities other initiatives impacting their processes to date, to obtain their input, and to future, and their voice is critical to Unfortunately, until now the participation collaboratively work together to develop these discussions. However, given of women in CBNRM activities has been a strategy for their long-term inclusion communities’ lack of familiarity with very limited. To increase the involvement in the development and management of national laws and policies, in order for of women it will be necessary to the Monkoto CBNRM zone. An adaptive them to participate as equal partners, develop an approach that takes into methodology is equally important they must ﬁ rst be provided with the consideration time constraints and when working with groups such as the knowledge and tools to participate. socio-cultural impediments to their full Batwa. '

Bibliography

Aveling, C., Hart, T. and Sionneau, J.-M. 2007. Mission conjointe de suivi réactif UNESCO/IUCN au Parc National de la Salonga, République démocratique du Congo (RDC), 27 février–10 mars, 2007. Unpublished report prepared for UNESCO.

Colom, A. 2006. The Socio-economic Aspects of Natural Resource Use and Management by Local Communities in the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape: Guidelines for Conservation and Livelihood Improvement. Unpublished report prepared for WWF-Democratic Republic of Congo. d’Huart, J.P. 1988. « Parc National de la Salonga (Equateur, Zaire) : Conservation et Gestion, Développement des Collectivités Locales ». Rapport d’une mission d’étude UICN préparatoire à la réalisation d’un programme régional du FED pour la conservation et l’utilisation rationnelle des écosystèmes forestiers en Afrique Centrale.

Rokotondranisa, D., Katumpwe, R. and Cowles, P. 2006. Etude des ﬁ lières des produits agricoles et forestiers non-ligneux. Unpublished report prepared by Pact-Congo for WWF-DRC.

WCS. 2005. “Base-line Surveys on Selected Large Fauna, Human Activity and Important Habitats for Biodiversity Conservation in the Salonga Park: A summary of data sources available as Means of Veriﬁ cation for WCS/CBFP Salonga Landscape Biodiversity Survey Program”. Report presented to USAID/CARPE as Means of Veriﬁ cation.

WCS. 2004. « Proposition pour la mise en place d’un programme de conservation communautaire en faveur du Parc National de la Salonga : Etude Socio-économique Détaillée. Document 1 : Synthèse ». Report to UNESCO/ICCN for the project « Soutien aux Sites du Patrimoine Mondial en République Démocratique du Congo » and as a Means of Veriﬁ cation to USAID/ CARPE.

125

Chapter 5

Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation: A Case Study in Creating a Community-Managed Conservation University

David Yanggen

1. Introduction

1.1 Overview The U.S. Agency for International Development’s Central African Regional Program for the Environment (USAID/CARPE) has adopted a “people-centered approach” to conservation. This approach recognizes that, given the widespread and acute poverty prevalent in the Congo Basin, conservation efforts will only be successful in the long term if local populations ﬁ nd viable alternatives to current natural resource use patterns that degrade the environment. This approach therefore necessitates a balance between conservation via the exclusion of individuals from protected areas of high biodiversity, and conservation via the promotion of alternative livelihoods that allows individuals to use natural resources in a more sustainable manner (USAID/CARPE, 2006).

In the CARPE people-centred approach to conservation, helping people is not considered an ancillary social objective inserted into the conservation programme, but rather an a priori condition needed to achieve the programme’s conservation objectives. Put another way, the promotion of alternative livelihoods for communities is a necessary means to a conservation end. For CARPE, with its mandated strategic objectives of biodiversity protection and reducing deforestation (USAID/CARPE, 2008), the end has been clearly established as biodiversity conservation. While CARPE’s help to communities in the form of support to alternative livelihoods provides a positive outcome in human terms, the reason that CARPE as a conservation programme supports these activities is that without them the conservation objectives will not be achieved.

The overall purpose of this article is to explore the relationship between livelihoods and conservation in order to explain in a detailed and rigorous manner why CARPE supports alternative livelihoods to achieve its conservation objectives. As a part of this analysis, this document reviews three CARPE lessons learned case studies of how CBFP1/CARPE Landscapes have incorporated alternative livelihoods into their conservation programme.

1 Congo Basin Forest Partnership, a multilateral initiative for conservation in Central Africa. CARPE is the U.S. Government’s principal contribution to the CBFP. 127 Section One: Land-Use Planning

1.2 Background USAID/CARPE moved its management multiple use of forest areas and are CARPE is a regional initiative that team from Washington DC to Kinshasa, therefore closely linked to livelihoods began in 1995. The Strategic Objective the Democratic Republic of Congo issues. Finally, the report suggested of CARPE is to reduce the rate (DRC), in 2003 in anticipation of the establishing some minimal level of of forest degradation and loss of shift from Phase I to Phase II. This required funding for development biodiversity through increased local, move also corresponded with a major activities with local communities to national and regional natural resource scaling up of fi eld activities from a base5 better integrate them into conservation management capacity in nine central of US$ 3 million/year in Phase I to a objectives. African countries.2 During its fi rst base of US$ 15 million dollars/year in phase (1995–2002), CARPE’s purpose CARPE Phase II starting in fi scal year In response to the external was to increase knowledge of Central 2004. The second phase of CARPE is in assessment’s recommendations, the African forests and biodiversity, and fact divided into two phases, Phase IIA CARPE/USAID management team took build institutional and human resource (2003–2006) and Phase IIB (2007–2011). the following measures as refl ected capacity. Currently in its second phase by the terms of reference (TOR) for (2003–2011), CARPE has three main 1.3 Formalizing a people-centred the Phase IIB RFA6 funding proposals goals:3 approach to conservation (USAID/CARPE, 2006). The new i) the implementation of sustainable Toward the end of Phase IIA, CARPE/ TOR required an explicit “Strategy natural resource management practices; USAID commissioned an external Document” that outlined the steps ii) the improvement of environmental assessment of the expanded necessary to elaborate a landscape- governance in the region; and programme to evaluate the results level management plan. A template was iii) the strengthening of natural achieved in Phase IIA and to make developed by the US Forest Service resources monitoring capacity in Central recommendations for Phase IIB which describes in detail the required Africa (USAID/CARPE, 2008). (Weidemann Consortium, 2006). Several components of a strategy document. of these recommendations are pertinent One key component involves the The fi rst goal, by far the largest to the direction that CARPE/USAID identifi cation of macro-zones, including component of the overall programme, has taken in terms of the livelihoods all three categories, within each corresponds to CARPE’s landscape component of its conservation strategy. landscape. programme. This component involves the implementation of fi eld-based First, the external assessment This planning requirement was an effort conservation activities including suggested that greater emphasis to move away from a PA focus to a sustainable livelihoods in 12 different needed to be put on livelihoods landscape-level focus that included large-scale Landscapes constituting in activities in support of conservation an emphasis on community areas total nearly 80 million hectares spread objectives. In order to do so, the report and extractive zones as well as the across seven different countries. gave three specifi c suggestions. First, environmental interrelationships that The programme classifi es three it recommended that new partners exist between all the macro-zones types of “macro-zones” within the should be brought into the landscapes at a Landscapes level. To further broader landscape: protected areas that have competencies in rural reinforce this integrated landscape-level (PAs), CBNRM4 zones (Community development. Second, it noted that, approach, the TOR required that at least Forests) and extractive resource among the three categories of CARPE 50 percent of budgetary resources be zones (principally logging concessions “macro-zones”, a preponderance of spent outside PAs. but including mining, oil extraction funding was being spent by CARPE and agricultural plantations). A landscape partners on protected Finally, the TOR mandated that key component of the landscape areas. In order to achieve the broader the Landscape lead conservation programme involves land-use planning landscape objectives it would be NGO’s7 form consortia including (LUP) and the development of necessary to “place growing attention “complementary organizations with management plans for macro-zones on addressing threats and opportunities the competencies necessary to carry and the entire Landscape. in forest concessions and with out complex landscape planning communities”. Forest concessions and the execution of landscape and community zones imply human plans”. In addition, a minimum skill

2 Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Republic of 5 This does not include matching funds from other donors 6 “Request for Assistance” – a USAID mechanism for Congo, Rwanda, and Sao Tome & Principe or complementary U.S. Government funding such as eliciting project funding proposals. 3 Known as “Intermediate Results” or “IRs” in the language Economic Support Funds (ESF) from the State Department 7 World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Wildlife Conservation Society of USAID. or the Great Ape Conservation Fund from the Fish and (WCS), Conservation International (CI) and African Wildlife 4 Community-Based Natural Resource Management. Wildlife Service. Foundation (AWF).

128 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

set for the consortia was required “development”, but are antithetical Perhaps an even more important to include competencies in PA to conservation objectives. However, question is whether conservation management, biological and socio- where unsustainable natural resource efforts can succeed without support economic monitoring, livelihoods and use by local communities exists, for alternative livelihoods? Three of economic development, participatory development activities in the form of the principal causes of environmental community development, natural sustainable alternative livelihoods can degradation in the Congo Basin are resource governance, sustainable forest support conservation. For example, bushmeat hunting, slash-and-burn management and gender. By specifying if a programme of small animal agriculture and harvesting of fuelwood these minimum competencies, the husbandry provides an economical from natural forests (CBFP, 2006). All of USAID/CARPE management team source of protein and thereby reduces these activities are characteristic of rural intended to further guide the potential bushmeat hunting, does it make sense communities in the Congo Basin living recipients in their selection of consortia to classify this as a non-conservation in poverty. partners and the list clearly reﬂ ects an “development activity”? Similarly, if increased emphasis on the promotion permaculture8 or wood lots reduce the For example, in the DRC, which of alternative livelihoods for local felling of forests are they not part of a contains over 50 percent of the communities. conservation strategy? The dichotomy basin’s forests, 59 percent of the between conservation and development population lives in extreme poverty 1.4 Conservation vs development: a appears at best inaccurate, at worst subsisting on less than US$ 1.25 a false dichotomy misleading. day9 and 76 percent of the population Prior to Phase IIB, the language used is undernourished (World Bank, 2007). to describe CARPE activities generally Figure 1 indicates that certain The predominant livelihood activities of made a distinction between activities development activities lead to rural communities in the DRC likewise that promoted “conservation” and environment destruction (area 1), include slash-and-burn agriculture, activities that promoted “development”. others are environmentally neutral hunting, ﬁ shing and gathering of For example, even the 2006 external (area 2), and others support forest products. Fuelwood/charcoal CARPE evaluation called for a “more environmental conservation (area 3). is the principal source of energy for precise approach to balancing The CARPE approach is to engage cooking. These activities all involve conservation and development activities in a environmental threats-based extraction from the natural resource in the landscapes”. The report further analysis to identify those livelihood base and thus can contribute to suggested establishing a “development activities that are currently leading environmental degradation. Further, window” to search for development to environmental destruction (area 1) with a demographic growth rate of 3.1 funding to complement conservation and seek to promote sustainable percent, the population of the DRC is funding in the landscapes (Weidemann, alternative livelihoods that contribute to expected to increase from 68 million 2006). This use of language implies that conservation (area 3). in 2010 to 108 million in 2025, i.e., an development funding is by its nature increase of 40 million in only 15 years distinct from conservation funding. (United Nations, 2008). Figure 1. Relationships between Indeed, a frequent sentiment expressed environment and development by individuals working in conservation If these livelihood activities are the NGOs in the Congo Basin was that principal causes of environmental money spent on development activities Environmental Environmental degradation, can conservation within a conservation programme Destruction Conservation objectives be achieved solely by resulted in less funding being available restricting poor rural households’ for conservation activities. access to these resources on which their very survival depends? Aside from Clearly not all development activities 123 the moral implications of depriving promote conservation objectives. vulnerable populations of basic Clearing forest areas for large-scale sustenance, consider for a moment ranching or building a factory that the logistics. Given that there are Development pollutes both the water and air millions of rural households in the may indeed provide employment, Congo Basin living in remote and highly augment individual incomes and dispersed environmentally sensitive increase a country’s gross national product and therefore contribute to 8 Permanent agriculture as an alternative to shifting slash- 9 The Millennium Development Goals measure of extreme and-burn agriculture. poverty.

129 Section One: Land-Use Planning

areas with little or no presence of the chemical and/or organic fertilizer communities are receiving benefi ts from State, conservation strategies based amendments, etc.) can allow longer touristic activities. For example, is there uniquely on denying individuals access use of a given parcel and decrease revenue sharing of park entrance fees to these natural resources are simply agricultural expansion into the forested with local communities? Do the local not logistically feasible. In sum, given areas. In addition, improved seed and communities own or work in businesses the extreme poverty, rapid population other productivity-enhancing practices that provide goods and services to growth and the high dependence (including for aforementioned fertility tourists ( e.g., hotels, restaurants, on natural resources for survival practices) can allow farmers to produce artisanal products, cultural shows, etc.)? combined with the logistical diffi culties more using less land and thereby Are individuals from local communities and negative moral implications of reduce deforestation. Tree plantations employed in the park as rangers, denying poor people access to natural are a further example of a threat-based guides and maintenance workers? If resources, a conservation strategy livelihood alternative to the felling of local communities are integrated into which does not promote sustainable trees for fuelwood in natural forest tourism activities such that the benefi ts alternative livelihoods will not achieve areas. of tourism outweigh the previous its environmental objectives. benefi ts received from extracting natural Interdependency linkages imply resources within the park,12 then a 1.5 A typology of livelihood- that a livelihood activity depends local constituency for environmental conservation linkages on the conservation of the natural conservation will emerge. This sub-section proposes a specifi c environment. Perhaps the most famous typology of how livelihood activities example of these is the Brazilian Interestingly, safari hunting is an activity can contribute to conservation. This rubber harvesters who extract rubber that combines both forest-dependent typology can help to analyze the from natural forests in the Amazon products and tourism. Forest animals type of linkage that exists between and who have strongly resisted forest are indeed forest “products” that livelihoods and conservation as well as conversion to other uses, notably depend on conservation of the forest to better design livelihood activities to ranching. They have been strong as a habitat needed for their survival. meet conservation objectives. Table 1 advocates of forest conservation Safari hunting is a touristic activity that displays the four-category typology. precisely because their livelihoods has the potential to generate signifi cant depend upon it. In the Congo Basin, a revenues to local communities as Table 1. A typology of livelihood- few of the most common non-timber typically safari hunters pay hefty fees conservation linkages forest products (NTFPs) that depend to hunt. If local populations receive on the conservation of the forest are signifi cant benefi ts from safari tourism, Threat-based Interdependency forest honey,10 medicinal plants and then they will have a direct stake in Quid pro quo agreements Unlinked caterpillars.11 If these and other forest- fi ghting illegal hunting. If there are no based products can be promoted longer game animals to hunt, then the through greater commercialization safari hunting and its accompanying The threat-based linkages have already to markets which, in turn, increases revenues to communities will cease. been referred to in Section 1.4. As local communities’ incomes, then a mentioned previously, hunting, slash- constituency for forest protection can The third type of livelihood-conservation and-burn agriculture and fuelwood emerge. linkage is through quid pro quo collection are three principal causes agreements. A quid pro quo agreement of environmental degradation in Aside from NTFPs, ecotourism is means that one party agrees to do the Congo Basin. In the case of a another important example of how something in return for the agreement of threat-based linkage, a conservation a livelihood activity depends on another party to do something else. In organization identifi es the particular conservation of the natural environment. this case, a conservation project agrees threats in the area it is working and If the natural environment is destroyed, to fund a livelihood activity in return for proposes livelihood alternatives that then tourists will no longer spend a local community agreeing to restrict are direct alternatives to the identifi ed money to visit a site. The critical their use of certain natural resources threat. For example, in the case of question here is whether or not local hunting, a logical alternative is small 12 In fact, certain extractive activities within a park are not animal husbandry such as chicken, 10 In some cases, forest dwellers traditionally referred to as unsustainable or environmentally destructive. Subsistence goat and/or pig raising. For slash-and- pygmies fell trees in order to harvest honey for subsistence fi shing, the collection of “dead” fi rewood, the gathering consumption which would not be sustainable in a of traditional fruits, nuts and medicinal plants all may be burn agriculture, improved soil fertility commercial context. compatible with ecotourism activities and, if so, should management (e.g., leguminous fallows, 11 Caterpillars are consumed as an important source of be encouraged as they lower the opportunity cost to local protein in the Congo Basin. communities of establishing a protected area.

130 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

such as hunting and farming in a healthier individuals won’t hunt more while not yet implemented, small animal protected area. For this category, the animals and fell more trees if there are husbandry and fi sh ponds have been livelihood activity may not be directly no formal linkages between support identifi ed as two potential solutions to linked to an environmental threat or for health projects and environmental commercial hunting and overfi shing interdependency. conservation. refl ecting once again the threat-based approach of PACT. A conservation project, for example, may agree to build wells for clean 2. A review of the livelihood- PACT has also put substantial emphasis drinking water or install electrifi cation conservation case studies on quid pro quo type agreements to run small-scale mills to transform that link livelihood and conservation grains and cassava into fl our, neither 2.1 Introduction objectives. These agreements are of which typically have a direct link The CARPE lessons learned initiative formalized in the establishment of to conservation. In some cases, included three case studies of “Simplifi ed Management Plans” (PAGS)14 the agreed-upon support to a local the integration of livelihoods into for CBNRM zones. In order to work community may not be a direct conservation programmes. The three more effectively with communities livelihood activity that provides current case studies are based in the Salonga- to develop these plans, PACT has household sustenance needs, but Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape, the supported the creation of local natural rather an activity that indirectly supports Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Landscape resource management committees livelihoods such as provision of schools and the Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega as communal platforms to make and medical facilities. A payment Landscape. This section reviews decisions about conservation and for environmental services (PES) is these case studies using the typology livelihoods. Members sign a “charter generally another example of this type presented above and synthesizes the of responsibilities” that identifi es both of agreement as one party (e.g., a lessons learned as identifi ed by the their rights and responsibilities. In order buyer of a carbon credit) agrees to pay authors. to further increase the buy-in of local another party (e.g., a local community) if populations, PACT uses a variety of they agree to provide an environmental 2.2 The Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru participatory research techniques that service (e.g., the protection of a forest). Landscape case study helps the communities themselves WWF, the leader for this Landscape identify problems and solutions that are The critical issue for a quid pro quo (abbreviated as the Salonga incorporated into the management plans. agreement is that it should be formally Landscape), included PACT13 as part recognized by both parties so each of its consortium for CARPE Phase IIB. In addition, PACT uses value chain clearly understands and accepts PACT is an NGO with competencies in analysis to identify the products that their rights and obligations. Given the community development and has taken have a reliable market and positive emphasis put on land-use planning in on the bulk of alternative livelihoods profi tability. However, a major constraint the CARPE programme, a logical place activities in the landscape. PACT to all commercial livelihood activities to formalize these types of agreements started off with a threat-based analysis in the Salonga Landscape is a lack of is in the context of a management of environmental degradation and transportation to markets due to the plan. These plans establish restrictions identifi ed slash-and-burn agriculture, remoteness of the landscape, poor concerning natural resource use but commercial hunting and indiscriminate infrastructure and corruption. PACT they also generally have a section on overfi shing as the principal conservation is currently engaged in developing support to communities in the form of threats (Makambo, 2010). a business plan that includes development activities. transportation costs in its fi nancial To date, PACT has focused on calculations and is evaluating options The fi nal category of livelihood- the promotion of groundnuts as for improving commercialization routes. conservation relationships is where an alternative to slash-and-burn In this context it was recognized that an there are no linkages. Support to agriculture. Groundnuts, a nitrogen- additional product, copal (a type of tree agriculture, for example, that doesn’t fi xing leguminous crop, were found to resin prized for its natural beauty), given improve soil fertility or isn’t linked to have high potential to grow in fallow its small size and high price, could be production in already cleared areas areas already deforested thereby commercialized much more easily than may result in increased clearing of obviating or at least minimizing the need more voluminous products and is being forests for cropping. In the case of to clear new forest areas. Furthermore, promoted as a livelihood alternative. community health projects, there is no a priori reason to believe that 13 Participating Agencies Collaborating Together. 14 In French a “plan d’aménagement et de gestion simplifi é”.

131 Section One: Land-Use Planning

A summary of the lessons learned Women for Sustainable Development15 insists on the participatory nature of this identifi ed by PACT in Salonga are as (REFADD), focuses on gender issues approach: follows. Support to livelihoods is a throughout the landscape planning The very basis of our approach is necessary precondition to conservation. process. participation of and ownership by the Communities are very diffi cult to engage local communities of the landscape in the development of a management The MLW Consortium uses an explicit LUP process…fi nal decisions depend plan for improved natural resource threats-based analysis to select on a participatory assessment management if material improvement livelihood activities. Their approach of needs and opportunities and in their wellbeing is not included up began with socio-economic and collaborative decision taking with front. Simply put, communities are more biological surveys in diverse areas of the benefi ciaries, who are the local concerned about their daily survival the landscape. The results of these communities and government than conservation. There is therefore a surveys were then discussed with (Dupain et al., 2010). need to fi nd alternative activities that relevant stakeholders in a “Threats harmonize the two. In addition, there is and Opportunities Analysis” workshop In the context of support to agriculture, a critical need to improve transportation in 2004. A central conclusion of that the project has worked with local routes to markets. Otherwise alternative workshop was that, due to the collapse communities to identify micro-zones livelihood activities will lead to surplus of marketing infrastructure, the costs for agricultural production outside of production beyond subsistence needs and risks of the commercialization of primary forest areas. Through quid and no increased revenue for local crops such as coffee, maize, rice and pro quo agreements embedded in the communities. Finally, there is a need cassava had increased substantially. As LUP process, farmers may only receive to reinforce the capacities of local a result, many households had moved project support if they agree to limit communities to enable them to engage deeper into the forest in order to hunt their production to these agreed-upon in natural resource management forest animals which offer a higher micro-zones. planning decisions and attain value-to-transport-cost ratio. At the economies of scale for the production same time, these same households A fi nal component of the MLW and commercialization of products from engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture Consortium strategy is based on the alternative livelihood activities. for subsistence needs in primary forest interdependency linkage between areas leading to particularly damaging livelihoods and conservation in the 2.3 The Maringa/Lopori-Wamba environmental degradation. form of ecotourism. With support from Landscape case study the Consortium, the Lomako Yokokala The African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) As a solution to this threat-based Faunal Reserve in the MLW Landscape is the leader for this Landscape problem analysis, the MLW Consortium was offi cially gazetted in June 2006. An (abbreviated as the MLW Landscape). decided upon a combined approach of agreement was facilitated with ICCN,17 The MLW Consortium has a number supporting agriculture production and the DRC National Parks Agency, that of institutions active in alternative commercialization. On the production the local population will be involved in livelihood-related activities. AWF side, small grants to local community- both the development and execution of takes the lead on landscape planning, based organizations helped fi nance the the reserve’s management plan. biodiversity conservation and acquisition of improved germplasm,16 conservation enterprises. The World and agricultural tools. On the The core of this interdependency Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) promotes commercialization side, the consortium strategy, according to the MLW innovations in land-use practices helped arrange and pre-fund a barge to Consortium, is to ensure that the to create alternative and additional transport agricultural products from the reserve will create more benefi ts for sources of livelihoods, including the Landscape to the Kinshasa market, a local communities as a protected area domestication of high-value and distance of roughly 1500 km. with tourism revenue generated by threatened tree species, and NTFP international visitors than as a source for enterprise development. The WorldFish The MLW Consortium has also engaged commercial bushmeat hunting. In order Center (WF) provides expertise in in quid pro quo agreements with local to achieve this goal, the Consortium has sustainable fi sheries management. The communities in the context of land- been constructing tourism infrastructure Netherlands development organization use planning. The consortium strongly and has created a revenue-sharing Stichting Nederlandse Vrijwilligers (SNV) mechanism for reserve entrance fees leads on multi-stakeholder consultation 15 Réseau des Femmes Africaines pour le Développement that will be used to fund local livelihood Durable. and civil society strengthening. Finally, 16 Seed in the case of maize (corn) and vegetative cuttings a regional NGO, the Network of African in the case of cassava, the two crops receiving the most support. 17 Institut Congolais de Conservation de la Nature.

132 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

activities. The communities themselves communities’ commitments to a buffer zone and a development zone. will have a voice in determining the uses conservation, DFGFI would provide The TCCB complex and the adjacent of these funds. local development and health village of Kasugha are located in the projects as alternative livelihoods development zone. In addition, the A summary of the lessons learned as to offset local people’s opportunity MTKB consortium has put substantial identifi ed by this MLW Landscape case costs as they ceded land-use rights effort into micro-zoning around the study is as follows. First, the support to create nature reserves (Mehlman, university and village, as the “magnet” to livelihood activities must include 2010). effect of the university and various a public participation strategy in the development activities has attracted context of the overall LUP strategy This quote, in fact, sums up nicely substantial spin-off economic activities design and development. Secondly, the the concept of a quid pro quo linkage and entailed a certain developmental support for livelihoods must have an between livelihoods and conservation. sprawl that has needed to be contained. explicit link made to conservation such A university by itself is not inherently as in the case of agricultural micro- linked to conservation as in the case Some of the key lessons learned zoning to avoid further forest clearing. of threat-based or interdependency identifi ed in this MTKB case study Finally, local capacity building is critical linkages and therefore necessitates this are as follows. First, a participatory as in the case of small grant support to type of agreement. approach is critical to achieving local community-based organizations community buy-in. In this case study, even if this leads to some failures as a The selection of a university as a priority the local community contributed part of the normal learning process of development intervention was made substantial labour and even funding to the local organizations. by a large majority of the community support certain development activities leaders who identifi ed access to a because they themselves were able 2.4 Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega centre of higher learning as their highest to establish their own development Landscape case study priority for local economic development. priorities. Important infrastructural Conservation International (CI) is the Several other livelihood-development investments such as the university, leader for this landscape (abbreviated activities were also prioritized by the the hydroelectric plan and the road as the MTKB Landscape). Livelihood communities and have led to the connection to markets have created activities on the ground are carried out following interventions. A micro hydro- signifi cant opportunities for other principally by the Dian Fossey Gorilla electric station was build with support livelihood and development activities. Fund International (DFGFI), a local from JGI and is now providing power Early land-use planning through micro- community organization known as to the TCCB and the nearby village of zoning has been critical to control the Union of Associations for Gorilla Kasugha. Health interventions were also any potential negative impacts of Conservation and Development in prioritized and have included important uncontrolled sprawl resulting from these Eastern DRC (UGADEC), and the Jane levels of support to the rehabilitation of developments. Goodall Institute (JGI). The strategy clinics, family planning, the provision of of the MTKB Consortium has centred medicine, and access to clean water. around the establishment of an Other social infrastructure has included 3. Conclusions and institution of higher learning, the Tayna the construction of a road to the recommendations Center for Conservation Biology (TCCB). university, the refurbishment of schools, A number of common threads have This institution began operations in the construction of an orphanage and emerged from the lessons learned 2003 and since 2005 has been located the establishment of a community radio of these three case studies. First of at Kasugha, near the Tayna Nature station. Some more direct livelihood all, the typology of these linkages Reserve. activities have included funding to proposed in this article proved capable agriculture, fi sh ponds, small animal of characterizing the integration This strategy described in the MTKB husbandry and a brick-making project of livelihoods into a conservation case study has focused on the quid for widows. programme. However, it should be pro quo agreement approach to linking noted that this does not imply the livelihoods and conservation. The case This quid pro quo agreement has been different types of linkages are mutually study clearly states: fi rmly anchored in the participatory exclusive. On the contrary, in the case LUP process centred around the studies they often proved mutually One of the important pillars of this Tayna Reserve Management Plan. reinforcing as in the case of threat- community conservation programme The participatory zoning plan for the based agricultural production being was that, in exchange for local reserve includes a core protected area, linked to a quid pro quo land-use

133 Section One: Land-Use Planning

micro-zoning. Even when they were not and offer low yields per hectare, it is fauna or forest clearing for agriculture. explicitly linked, the landscape projects not necessarily an irrational strategy This is a key reason why in all of the are typically undertaking more than one by rural households. In land-abundant case studies the livelihood activities type of livelihood-conservation linkage. environments such as the Congo were fi rmly embedded in an overall This typology does, however, facilitate Basin, this type of agriculture gives LUP process. Admittedly this does the integration of livelihoods into high returns to relatively scarce labour refl ect the approach required by the conservation programmes by allowing a and capital. In order for agricultural USAID/CARPE management team. clear identifi cation of the different types alternatives such as groundnuts in Nevertheless, all the case studies of positive linkages. the Salonga Landscape planted in found that land-use planning such as previously cleared fallow areas to give a the establishment of core protected In this typology, both the threat-based higher return, they need market access areas or agricultural micro-zones was and interdependency categories had so farmers increase their incomes. The a necessary component of ensuring direct and inherent links to environmental interpretation of farmer resistance to coherence between livelihood and conservation. In this specifi c sense, they adopting alternative livelihoods often conservation objectives. are preferable to the quid pro quo-based refl ects either an underestimation of the approach. However, a quid pro quo real opportunity costs of their current A fi nal common thread of all the case approach allows greater fl exibility to environmentally destructive livelihood studies was the need for participatory respond to local communities’ priorities, practices or an overestimation of the approaches and local capacity building. such as the case of the MTKB case benefi ts of the sustainable alternative. Choosing alternative livelihoods study where education and health were solely on the basis of their potential identifi ed as higher priorities. In practice, On this last point, all three case studies conservation benefi ts is highly likely to all these categories of alternative found that integration into markets fail if they don’t take into account local livelihood activities should be considered was critical for promoting improved communities’ priorities. Furthermore, and the approach or combination of livelihoods. Most improved livelihoods capacity building is almost always approaches that makes the most sense, aim to increase production beyond necessary in order for local communities given the local context and including basic subsistence needs, whether in the to agree upon complex decisions about local community priorities, should be case of agricultural crops, livestock or the use of their natural resource base. adopted. NTFPs. If the producers of these goods Natural resource degradation caused by do not have access to markets then population pressures is often a relatively All three case studies made reference indeed these alternative livelihoods will new phenomenon necessitating not to the concept of opportunity costs likely be less attractive than their current only the adoption of new livelihood of conservation. Perhaps the MLW destructive activities. Conservation alternatives but also new governance case study summed this up the most areas tend to be in relatively remote mechanisms for establishing rules and eloquently when it stated that the areas with poor access to markets. regulations about natural resource core of their strategy with the Lomako Attention to market integration is use. Traditional approaches to these Reserve was to create more benefi ts therefore all the more necessary. changing circumstances are frequently for local communities as a protected Nevertheless, many alternative not adequate and therefore capacity area with tourism revenue generated livelihood activities associated with building is essential. by international visitors than as a conservation projects have focused on source for commercial bushmeat the production side to the neglect of As a fi nal conclusion, it is hoped that hunting. This objective should be true commercialization issues. This oversight with the detailed analysis of livelihood- of any alternative livelihood strategy. typically leads to failure and, all too conservation linkages backed up by It is not enough that an alternative often, a misguided blaming of rural the concrete examples from the case livelihood activity be benefi cial, it must household resistance to change. studies, this article makes the case be more benefi cial than the current for those still in doubt of the need environmentally degrading activity it The linkage to markets, however, is for a people-centred approach to is intended to replace. For example, not without risks. Indeed improved conservation that includes livelihoods while slash-and-burn agriculture may market access can easily lead to as an integral part of a conservation be very environmentally destructive increased commercial hunting of programme. '

134 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

Bibliography

Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP). 2006. The Forests of the Congo Basin: State of the Forest 2006.

Dupain, J., Bwebwe, F., Elliott, J., Sebunya, K., Williams, D. and Nackoney, J. 2010. “The Role of “Alternative Livelihoods” in Achieving a People-Centred Approach to Conservation”. In: Yanggen, D., Angu, K. and Tchamou, N. (Eds) Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned from the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). Gland: IUCN.

Makambo, E. 2010. “Lessons Learned from the Lokolama Area of the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape”. In: Yanggen, D., Angu, K. and Tchamou, N. (Eds) Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned from the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). Gland: IUCN.

Mehlman, P. 2010. “A Case Study in Creating a Community-Managed Conservation University”. In: Yanggen, D., Angu, K. and Tchamou, N. (Eds) Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned from the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). Gland: IUCN.

United Nations. 2008. Gender Info 2007. United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). http://data.un.org.

USAID/CARPE. 2006. Request for Applications (RFA) No.623-A-06-026; Democratic Republic of Congo Central African Regional Program for the Environment Landscape Program Implementation 2006–2011.

USAID/CARPE. 2008. “CARPE II Revised Performance Management Plan”. http://carpe.umd.edu/resources/Documents/ carpe_performance_management.pdf.

Weidemann Consortium. 2006. “Mid Term Assessment Report for the Central African Regional Program for the Environment”. http://carpe.umd.edu/resources/ Documents/Weidemann_CARPE_Eval_17Feb06.pdf/view?set_language=en.

World Bank. (2007) “Data and Statistics. Millennium Development Goals”. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATA STATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20546904~menuPK:1297806~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html.

135 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Case Study 1 A Case Study in Creating a Community-Managed Conservation University

Patrick Mehlman

Introduction: Overview of the its globally signifi cant biodiversity, cassava, rice and beans. There are intervention zone containing more than 45 IUCN Red a few plantations near villages that This chapter describes how alternative List-threatened species of fauna and grow oil palm, banana and coffee, but livelihoods interventions can include a fl ora, and high numbers of endemic most commercial plantations are now role for higher education in conservation and restricted-range species. There are degraded and are no longer functional. and biological sciences for local important populations of large tropical Oil palm is extracted by simple hand stakeholders. As a case study, it forest vertebrates including Eastern methods throughout the landscape. describes the development, successes chimpanzee, Forest elephant, Okapi, It is an important product traded in and challenges involved in creating a Forest buffalo, the Congo peacock, local villages and is often moved by community-managed university located and Grauer’s (eastern lowland) gorilla bicycle to larger village markets in near a community nature reserve in (endemic to eastern DRC).2 The region the east. In North Kivu near Tayna, rural, eastern DRC: The Tayna Center is also globally signifi cant for containing there are cinchona (Rubiaceae family) for Conservation Biology. some of the largest remaining blocks of plantations, a medicinal plant used intact forest in the Congo Basin. These for malaria treatment, tended by local Location forests at the headwaters of the Congo farmers, who sell their product to a The Tayna Center for Conservation River not only regulate local climate commercial company. Subsistence Biology (TCCB) is located in the Maiko and soil protection, but are critical to hunting takes place throughout the Tayna Kahuzi-Biega Landscape in maintaining global ecological services – Landscape. The trade in bushmeat is eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, storing carbon that counteracts global not as developed as in western Central Province of North Kivu. It is located just climate change and playing a role in Africa, but consumption of bushmeat outside the buffer zone of the Tayna regulating one of the world’s largest is high near illegal mining camps and in Nature Reserve near the village of river basins. some smaller towns and villages. Most Kasugha (Figure 1). local bushmeat trade is monkey, duiker, Livelihoods and subsistence in the antelope and rodents. River fi shing is Biodiversity value region common throughout the Landscape and This region lies between the lowlands The Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega some fi sh farms (now in disrepair) are of the Congo Basin and the highlands (MTKB) Landscape is an area of present in the Walikale area in the centre of the Albertine Rift (altitude: 495–3,279 signifi cant poverty, where almost all of the Landscape. m), making it a phytogeographical of its inhabitants rely on subsistence convergence zone between two centres agriculture, hunting and the gathering Emerging from civil war of regional endemism: the Congo of forest products. The principal The civil war ended, in theory, with lowland forests, a “High Biodiversity economic activities in the Landscape the signing of the Sun City Accords Wilderness Area”, and the Kivu- are subsistence farming, hunting, raising on April 2, 2003, fi nalizing the Lusaka Ruwenzori region of the Albertine cattle, goats and/or sheep, mining and Agreement, restoring peace and Rift, part of the eastern Afromontane some fi shing. Most farming is carried national sovereignty to DRC and “Hotspot”.1 The area is noted for out using slash-and-burn methods, establishing a transitional government. with principal crops being manioc, This “offi cially” ended the period of

1 Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Brooks, T., Pilgrim, J., civil war dating back nearly eight Konstant, W., da Fonseca, G.A.B. and Kormos, C. 2003. Palaeo-ecological studies also show this region to have years, in which 2–4 million people died, “Wilderness and biodiversity conservation”. PNAS 100: been a faunal refuge of montane forest during the cold and 10309–10313; Mittermeier, R.A., Robles Gil, P., Hoffman, dry periods of the Pleistocene era. mostly from disease and famine, the M., Pilgrim, J, Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J. 2 These megafauna assemblages, characteristic of Central most costly conﬂ ict in human lives and da Fonseca, G.A.B. 2004. Hotspots Revisited. Cemex African rainforests, represent one of the best opportunities Books on Nature; Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, worldwide to protect examples of intact tropical forest since World War II. The vast majority C.G., da Fonseca, G.A.B. and Kent, J. 2000. “Biodiversity megafauna communities; they have mostly disappeared of the violence and concomitant hotspots for conservation priorities” Nature 403: 853–858. from South-east Asia and West Africa.

136 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

Figure 1. Location of Tayna Nature Reserve and the Tayna Center for Conservation Biology

The Tanya Center for Conservation Biology (red asterisk), a state-accredited university, is located just outside the buffer zone (yellow) of the Tanya Nature Reserve (red boundaries) in Lubero Territory, Province of North Kivu.

deaths were confi ned to eastern DRC, market, or in some cases, they take to have large families. They have little with North and South Kivu provinces entire villages hostage or oversee knowledge about reproductive health occupying the centre of the maelstrom. quasi-slavery conditions in the mines or alternative methods for family Unfortunately, armed confl icts did not they control. They control most of the planning. As wives and mothers, cease in 2003, but have continued illegal mining sites, and they participate women are responsible for almost all sporadically throughout the Landscape heavily in the bushmeat trade and of the household activities necessary until 2009, as various Mai-Mai units illegal traffi cking of animals. for family life: child care, preparation of refuse to unify with the national DRC meals, tilling agricultural fi elds, water army, and Rwandan Interehamwe Women, widows and vulnerable carrying, wood gathering, etc., yet groups control some areas of the children they have very little fi nancial security Landscape by armed force. These Women have signifi cantly less access or land to call their own. In a region militias create insecurity through than men to education, assets and emerging from years of civil war and sheer terrorist violence, often against services, restricting them from actively strife, life is especially hard for widows. women (see below), and many use participating in civil society. Deeply Although orphans may sometimes be child soldiers. They have decimated engrained cultural traditions and beliefs looked after by relatives, the widow is domestic animal stocks of farmers further perpetuate gender inequity forced to fend for herself and is often throughout the area, stealing, killing and often exclude women from village left homeless. Confl ict in the region and eating most local stocks. They decision-making processes. Many has also resulted in widespread use of enforce “taxes” on simple people women enter arranged marriages in rape as a weapon of war. Over the past attempting to move their goods to their teenage years and are expected decade, tens of thousands of women

137 Section One: Land-Use Planning

and girls have suffered systematic pillars of this community conservation that this was their highest priority for rape and sexual assault at the hands programme was that, in exchange for local economic development. The idea of various armed groups (including the local communities’ commitments to of a community university emerged, a DRC military). These crimes against conservation, DFGFI would provide university that would be located near the humanity continue, with large numbers local development and health projects fl agship project, the Tayna Reserve, but of women suffering from violent multiple as alternative livelihoods to offset local would serve the needs of communities rapes, mutilations and the subsequent people’s opportunity costs as they throughout the UGADEC zone by development of fi stulas, a debilitating ceded land-use rights to create nature providing job training in natural resource medical condition often leading to reserves. During several stakeholder management, conservation, biology and ostracism from society. The widespread meetings in 2002–2003 with the wider other subjects. fear of HIV/AIDS contributes to the community representation afforded stigmatization of rape survivors and by the UGADEC association, DFGFI With the community university concept in their children. Because of the civil wars, solicited feedback from local groups mind, UGADEC created the Tayna Center there are vast numbers of orphans and as to what kind of major development for Conservation Biology (TCCB) in vulnerable children. These children are intervention they would favour most for mid-2003, and began its fi rst academic taken in by relatives and other families their communities. An overwhelming year (October 2003–September 2004) while others are placed in makeshift majority of the community leaders stated in rented buildings in Goma, while orphanages, thus placing an enormous that their sons and daughters did not construction was underway at the site. burden on communities barely able have access to higher education, and By February 2005, the TCCB had moved to survive with the limited resources to its new site at Kasugha, near the available to them. technical and fi nancial activities of all its eight members, Tayna Nature Reserve. and additionally administering a community-managed conservation biology university that is part of the programme. Alternative livelihoods methodology and results Figure 2. Administrative Structure for the Tayna Center for Conservation Biology achieved

Introduction BOARD OF DIRECTORS Conservation International (CI) partner, the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International (DFGFI), began working with local communities in North Kivu in RECTOR AND VICE RECTOR early 2001.3 At that time, they developed a community conservation programme initially focused on the developing Tayna ACADEMIC HEAD ACCOUNTANT ADMINISTRATIVE Nature Reserve (see chapter 2), and SECRETARY GENERAL (BUDGET SECRETARY) SECRETARY GENERAL then later on a zone of communities that would form an ecological corridor between the Maiko and Kahuzi-Biega ACADEMIC ACCOUNTS PAYABLE TECHNOLOGY AND SERVICES DIRECTOR CLERK INFORMATION SERVICE National Parks, represented by the Union of Associations for Gorilla Conservation and Development in Eastern DRC ADMINISTRATIVE ADMINISTRATIVE FOOD SERVICE (UGADEC).4 One of the important ASSISTANT REGISTRAR ASSISTANT

3 Conservation International began their partnership with DFGFI in October, 2003 with the inception of the USAID FACULTIES TRANSPORTATION CARPE IIa programme. MAINTENANCE SERVICE 4 The Union of Associations for Gorilla Conservation and • Science Development in Eastern DRC was founded in 2002, and • Economics is a federation of eight local NGOs based on customary • Information and powers (traditional governance). Each individual NGO communications AGRO PASTORAL member represents the interests of its chefferie (tribal • Medicine SERVICE territory) that includes both a development zone (CBNRM • Polytechnic zone) and a fully protected zone. The federation was created in an effort to standardize their conservation and development efforts and contains a scientiﬁ c component ADMINISTRATIVE as well as customary governance component. It also ASSISTANT serves as an administrative unit, coordinating the

138 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

Current confi guration of the university Communications, Sciences, Medicine and teaching (seven women). Plans are The TCCB is a private degree-granting and a Polytechnic Institute. It has a staff underway to employ at least 50 more higher-education institution based of 45, including 20 academic faculty 2008 graduates. in Kasugha, North Kivu Province in and 25 administrative and operations the Democratic Republic of Congo staff and is managed administratively Other development and alternative (DRC). It was established as a non- through a Board of Directors (Figure 2). livelihoods interventions profi t organization under DRC law, The campus occupies a 122-hectare Under a DFGFI “Ecosystem Health and and received accreditation under a concession of rolling terrain and is Community Development Project”, in Presidential Decree issued in March composed of an academic wing, two 2002, DFGFI began support for the 2006. It is also known as the Kasugha dorms for students, administrative fl agship project, the Tayna Reserve, University for Conservation and Rural offi ces, staff housing, and visitors’ by providing basic support for an Development. quarter. orphanage (food, clothes, health care, education, and building repair) and TCCB operates in a remote region For the academic year 2008, the small micro-projects for a Widow’s of the DRC under extremely diffi cult TCCB had an enrolment of 375 Group (initially food care, but leading conditions. Besides providing students students (including 29 women), with 91 onto improved seed stock for small with higher education, TCCB must students from UGADEC projects on full plots provided by the community, a house, feed and provide basic services scholarships (food, accommodation, pig and guinea pig livestock project, a to a small community of over 350 tuition fees, medical care, and supplies); soap/oil production project and a brick- people, including students, faculty 229 students for whom tuition fees were making project). Aid was also provided and staff. A purpose-built campus, waived, and 55 students who were self- to rehabilitate and operate several built by the local community, an supporting. primary schools and health clinics, integrated agricultural production plan, as well as install several clean-water a conservation and environmental The University offers three-year access projects. education ethic, and a work-study Bachelor’s Degrees and fi ve-year programme provide the setting for a Professional Preparatory Degrees. By In 2003, Congolese members of community experience that extends well January 2009, the TCCB had produced the Tayna Project also contributed beyond the academic programmes. 211 graduates since its inception (130 donations from staff to create a hospital, from the academic year 2008). Of the an orphanage, and a community radio The TCCB offers 19 academic 81 graduates from 2006–2007, 43 are station located nearby the TCCB, a programmes in fi ve faculties: now employed in professional careers testimony to the commitment of certain Economics, Information and in conservation management, media staff who donated signifi cant portions

A F A B C D

A Classrooms B Computer centre C Ofﬁ ces E D Commissary E Dormitories and library F Classrooms (interior) G Computer center (interior) G

Aerial view of the Tayna Center for Conservation Biology and classrooms

139 Section One: Land-Use Planning

of their salaries. The entire complex was In this isolated region battered by civil hand-built by the villagers of Kasugha war for more than seven years, local – the widow’s association pressed and people had absolutely no access to fi red the bricks; local craftsmen built all health care. To address these issues, the furniture, doors and windows. DFGFI developed the Ecosystem Health Program and, by 2008, the programme The CI/DFGFI development initiatives had rehabilitated six clinics around two were also supplemented and amplifi ed of the UGADEC community reserves, by a partnership created with the trained nurses, and provided medicines Jane Goodall Institute (JGI) in early and supplies (with assistance from JGI). Community radio station 2005 in which leveraged funds from For the years 2005–2008, the DFGFI USAID (via EngenderHealth Inc.) were Ecosystem Health Program was also utilized by JGI to provide health and awarded a US$1,000,000 grant of family planning interventions for the medicines from Pfi zer Pharmaceuticals, community conservation projects of Inc. for treatment of intestinal parasites Tayna and UGADEC. As JGI found and providing basic medical care further funding, it was also able to pilot (antibiotics, etc.). The programme several development projects near the provides rural clinic support contributing TCCB: a demonstration fi sh-farming basic medicines, equipment and project, improved seed stock for supplies (stethoscopes, rehydration agriculture and, most importantly, a 37 units, locally made beds, etc.), and Recording studio. kilowatt hydro-electric station that is supporting the training and salaries now providing power to the TCCB and of eight nurses and two doctors. It is the nearby village of Kasugha. estimated that more than 20,000 people

Hydro-electric station (37 kw) serving TCCB, the radio station and village of Kasugha. A dam with sluice feeds a gravity drop pipe into the turbine station, generating the electrical current. From there, through several transformers, the current reaches the TCCB more than 4 km distance, and also is sent to the village of Kasugha, where it drives public lighting and several micro-projects.

140 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

in this landscape are now receiving treated and trained in the hygiene issues. There is now electricity for the some form of clinic care compared to education programme. university as well as public lighting the complete absence of health care for the nearby village. However, the before the programme began. Malnutrition is rampant in DRC, much University’s true value for conservation of it arising from lack of protein due rests with the students: they are the These clinics also serve as focal points to the pillaging of domestic animal new generation of hereditary stewards for a JGI-led Family Planning project, stock during the civil war. Local of the land that lies within the Maiko implemented since 2005 in the health stakeholders face a further challenge Tayna Kahuzi-Biega corridor. About 70 zones of Lubero, Pinga and Walikale. as they have agreed not to hunt in of the 300 students pursuing degrees In this project, JGI provides a number large tracts of forest as a part of their at the University are the sons and of interventions, including training to local conservation projects. A series of daughters of the stewards whose land health-care workers, a sensitization projects were thus developed to help easements form the UGADEC reserves, programme, technical support, aid reduce malnutrition, providing pig and and they will inherit their parents’ in health data collection, provision of guinea pig livestock, and improved seed responsibility to assure land-use rights contraceptives to maintain stocks at stock for crops such as soy, sorghum, in their communities. Without the health centres, and rehabilitation of beans and peanuts. The programme leadership and vision of their elders, health centres. When the programme is now operational in fi ve villages these students – some of the region’s began, there were no family planning near Tayna Nature Reserve where the best and brightest – would have had activities in these three health zones. To highest percentage of inhabitants is limited futures. date, family planning and reproductive women (many men were killed during health activities are completely the war). Each project is run by an While there are other models for implemented in 70 health facilities. The association of local women who choose higher education capacity building, average rate of contraceptive prevalence the projects and manage them. In all of for example sending students abroad is 6 percent, which is a substantial the small animal husbandry projects, a for training, the TCCB is a far more increase in comparison with the baseline, percentage of the offspring are given to cost-effective approach per student which is estimated to have been 0.8 community members who have applied trained: with current operating costs, we percent. For the period 2006–2007, 402 to be recipients and the rest are sold. All estimate the cost of training one student Congolese health professionals were project participants receive husbandry for a three-year degree in conservation trained, more than 20,000 local people and animal wellbeing training, and biology to be approximately US$3,000. participated directly in the programme, veterinary visits. The produce from And of course, it is impossible to put a and more than 60,000 people were the agricultural projects is sold (with price on the invaluable contribution the exposed to reproductive health/family the exception of a percentage of the university is making to local pride, and planning messages in the sensitization harvest which they donate to a local its important links to demonstrating that programme for the region. orphanage), and the profi ts are split development can go hand in hand with between the women after conserving an biodiversity conservation. The DFGFI Ecosystem Health Program amount to cover new grain purchases and also seeks to reduce the threat of and heavy manual labour. University lessons disease cross-transmission between humans and at-risk fauna (great apes) Local communities will participate and by analyzing the levels of intestinal Lessons learned contribute to projects they perceive as parasitism in fauna and humans The impact of the university is wholly theirs near protected areas, and providing remarkable and far-reaching. In During the development of the TCCB, free treatment to infected people. It addition to construction jobs, the local as early as 2003, Congolese members contains an educational component population now has access to doctors, of the Tayna Project NGO contributed targeting hygiene, avoiding parasitism, nurses and the health centre’s services. donations from staff to build the and enabling the local populace to Agricultural extension programmes local hospital, an orphanage, and the understand cross-transmission threats, support local farmers, and children infrastructure for a community radio while emphasizing conservation goals. have access to primary and high school station at the TCCB, a testimony to To date, the project has collected and education. The radio station broadcasts the commitment of certain staff who completed faecal analyses for more messages to the local communities donated signifi cant portions of their than 10,000 people from the UGADEC concerning conservation, politics, salaries (more than US$15,000). Local zone; more than 25,000 people were music, culture, and women’s and family community members volunteered

141 Section One: Land-Use Planning

their time and labour during the brick- donors and remain fl exible with multiple staff were all local experts, not making phase of construction of the sources of funding would have been far expatriates. Although the TCCB has its TCCB. Members of the nearby village less effective. own library, an agreement is underway volunteered their time and labour during with the nearby University of Graben the construction of the dam for the Even in areas with high rates of (Butembo) so that TCCB students will hydro-electric station, and signifi cantly, poverty and security challenges, also have access to Graben library. An they formed a civil corps to repair and academic fees can be generated early agricultural programme for the students maintain the 9 km of road from the main along the road to sustainability provides garden vegetables for the road to the TCCB. Although the TCCB has by no means commissary (scholarship students, reached a level of sustainable self- employees and professors are provided Higher education projects can serve fi nancing (plans for a Trust Fund are with meals in a cafeteria along with their as a catalyst to involve women and being developed), in 2007–2008, accommodation). marginalized peoples in conservation the university generated more than There has been a strong level of US$50,000 in income from students Build a campus around modules and interest from women who wish to paying academic fees (currently plan for expansion obtain university degrees at the TCCB. US$500 per academic year for fees, The TCCB is a work in progress and Although enrolment of men and women room and board). For projects such there are many continuing infrastructural has never reached parity, young women as this, the ability to show community improvements to be made. Despite are showing strong interest in higher donations, local involvement, and a this, the main classroom buildings and education and conservation training (on potential revenue stream is essential dormitory were ready for students just average, women account for about 20 in demonstrating to donors that the eight months after construction began. percent of the students over the last project can reach sustainability. Once classes had begun, more modules fi ve years). During this time, there have were added as funding became also been six students who are from Seek cost effectiveness available: a hospital with an operating Pygmy groups (three are still enrolled With funding always a challenge, we theatre (also serving the community), and studying). needed to remain fl exible in order to offi ces, kitchen, guest house, computer meet national curriculum standards centre, etc. As recently as 2009, another Develop a business plan early and and to ensure suffi cient academic large classroom was added, supported seek multiple funding sources teaching staff. For example, as an by a donor who wished to contribute A large project such as a community- accredited university in DRC, the specifi cally to that initiative. managed university for conservation TCCB must maintain certain curricula biology is costly in terms of above and beyond their specialty in Development lessons infrastructural start-up, recurrent conservation and biology: economics, operating costs, maintenance, and information and communications, Development activities catalyze more associated micro-projects such as a sciences, medicine and polytechnics. To local economic development hydro-electric station, hospital, and achieve this, the TCCB has a full-time Repairing the road to the TCCB opened agricultural programmes. On the other staff of 18 professors, but invites as local market access and stimulated hand, it can draw the attention of many as 40 visiting professors each the local economy. As construction philanthropists and multi- and bilateral year to meet standards. This provides and then implementation took place, agencies, especially as it demonstrates a professor:student ratio of between local people repaired and continue links to biodiversity conservation and 1:7 and 1:15 during the academic year, to maintain a 9 km local road. Trucks natural resource management. We and maintains the academic expertise bringing in construction materials began learned to remain extremely fl exible necessary to remain accredited. This to take local produce out to market, and and diversifi ed with funding sources, is less costly than maintaining all bring in products and sundries that were as some donors cut back funding, professorial staff as full-time employees, then sold in local kiosks to the students while others became interested and and new professors arriving every few and staff members of the TCCB. In involved. The most important tool for months provide academic stimulation. 2008, the ICCN (The Congolese Institute this project was a business plan, in There are other cost-cutting techniques: of Nature Conservation) asked DFGFI which its objectives and activities were a student work-study programme and UGADEC to support a rehabilitation described, along with yearly budgets, is being developed, in which some centre for gorillas orphaned because an acting board of directors, and a students pay their fees by donating of animal traffi cking and the bushmeat plan for fi nancial sustainability. Without time as kitchen and cleaning staff. The trade. After external evaluations, the this plan, our ability to attract new technical construction and maintenance best site was determined to be Tayna

142 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

Nature Reserve and TCCB. TCCB in been turned into a protected area with village of Kasugha were zoned for partnership with DFGFI, ICCN and the full biodiversity protection (i.e., only development from the onset of the Pan African Sanctuary Alliance (PASA) ecotourism and scientifi c research are programme, and the development zone received a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service permitted). Here, development is fully from the site extends many kilometres grant to build a gorilla rehabilitation integrated with conservation. Local east, north and south. To the west, the centre. TCCB donated the land for the radio broadcasts, primary school and only direction in which they cannot building of this centre. Local people orphanage songs, hospital signs, expand, there is a mountain chain, have contributed to the construction vehicle logos, even dances at the local providing a useful geographical barrier. and planning of the site, and TCCB discotheque, all celebrate the fl agship students will be able to learn applied species, Grauer’s gorilla, which is a Careful land-use planning can prevent primatology, conservation education, symbol of biodiversity appreciation the phenomenon of magnetization and communication approaches to help and protection, and the local people’s For the TCCB, and the “Conservation combat the trade in young gorillas. magnet for livelihoods, health, and Action Village” developing in its vicinity, educational development. With this the potential problem of an infl ux of With increased development around level of success, a typical question new immigrants was avoided through a small village and university centre, is whether this site will draw in more advance zoning and land-use planning, consider advising micro-zoning or people than it can absorb and, in so the participation of the customary building regulations doing, will the new arrivals break local powers, and careful site selection. The With a boost to the local economy, law and head into the Tayna Nature latter was enhanced by using a site that increases in paid staff, and even Reserve, 7 km west, and undo the was already considered sacred by local students with pocket money, a fl urry progress so far achieved? people. of activity began to occur: small shops and kiosks sprang up overnight at To address this important question it road junctions, small produce stands is necessary to understand how the Summary appeared at every conceivable place Tayna Reserve is managed. First, the A community university initiative can be along the centre’s small road, and a few TCCB site has been a sacred site extremely valuable for capacity building. houses began to appear at sites not for the Batangi people for more than It is cost-effective and can be a source really intended for this use. Although 150 years according to oral tradition, of local pride, bringing together local it could be tempting to consider this a and the customary powers (Mwami) aspirations for educational development natural organic growth of a small village have a traditional mandate to control with conservation objectives. As we around a university centre, it may have immigration into the area. They have discovered, in providing local led to a kind of minor, uncontrolled therefore limit any infl ux of new families people with an initiative they conceived sprawl, clogging roads and paths, from farther east, but signifi cantly, they and requested, it can also become a creating markets at hospital entrances, have encouraged a few small pioneer signifi cant catalyst for local economic etc. Fortunately, the local customary families, once located inside the Tayna development. In this case, the TCCB powers and the TCCB administration Reserve, to relocate outside the reserve has become a fl agship programme, realized this challenge early, and core zone to nearby Kasugha. Second, motivating local people to participate created some basic zoning rules for a the site is steeped in conservation by donating labour and funding, more orderly development of their site. awareness programmes from the magnetizing other projects such as the Some of the early kiosks and shops children to the adults of the community, hydro-electric station, a hospital, and were asked to relocate. This will remain and with the rules well understood, a gorilla rehabilitation centre. Local a challenge into the future as more and the boundaries for the Reserve people, supported by their customary development is attracted into the area. well marked, most local people respect governance structure, view this project and understand the value of the gorilla as completely theirs, and an entire The question of “magnets” reserve to their local economy. Third, new generation is now developing a The TCCB university and nearby village one of the guide (ranger) stations for comprehensive understanding of the have rapidly evolved into what our the reserve is located just adjacent to value of biodiversity conservation. ' DFGFI partner is calling a “Conservation the TCCB, and provides patrols and a Action Village”, underscoring how a protection function. Fourth, the original cluster of development incentives are participatory zoning for the reserve offsetting the opportunity costs of local provided for a core zone, a buffer zone, people creating a community-managed and fi nally a development zone. The reserve in which 900 km2 of forest have entire TCCB complex and the adjacent

143 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Case Study 2 The Role of “Alternative Livelihoods” in Achieving a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

Jef Dupain, Florence Bwebwe, Joanna Elliott, Kaddu Sebunya, David Williams and Janet Nackoney

Introduction to biodiversity. This is evident in the allow participatory identifi cation and The African Wildlife Foundation has characteristics and roles of MLW analysis of critical threats to both been working for more than fi ve years Consortium partners. conservation and the sustainability of with government, NGO and community local livelihoods, and opportunities to partners to implement a programme The MLW core Consortium comprises mitigate these threats. HCP enables of conservation and development the following institutions: the African the translation of the needs of the local activities in the Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Wildlife Foundation (AWF) leading human population and local biodiversity (MLW) Landscape located in northern on landscape planning, biodiversity into an agreed-upon Land-Use Plan Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) conservation and conservation (LUP), the implementation of which (see Figure 1). enterprises; the World Agroforestry will render the landscape ecologically, Centre (ICRAF) promoting innovations in socially and economically viable. The goal is to leverage the collective land-use practices to create alternative These last two aspects, “socially resources and expertise of partners and additional sources of livelihoods, and economically viable”, led AWF from international and national including the domestication of high- and the MLW Consortium to modify institutions to support the DRC value and threatened tree species and USAID-CARPE’s strategic objective Government in its efforts to complete non-timber forest products (NTFP) “reduce habitat destruction and loss and implement a landscape-wide enterprise development; the WorldFish of biodiversity through a better local, sustainable resource management Center (WF) providing expertise in national and regional governance of programme, including a participatory sustainable fi sheries management; the natural resources” by adding “aiming land-use planning and zoning process. Netherlands development organization to reduce poverty”. “Livelihood” It aims to decrease the destruction Stichting Nederlandse Vrijwilligers (SNV) strengthening is considered as of habitat and loss of biodiversity as taking the lead on multi-stakeholder important a goal as conservation in well as to reduce levels of poverty consultation and civil society the MLW programme. Considerable and increase the wellbeing of local strengthening; and the regional NGO attention is paid to methodologies for communities through improved Réseau des Femmes Africaines pour identifying viable alternative livelihood governance of natural resources, le Développement Durable (REFADD) activities. For example, through the strengthening local institutional and civil focusing on gender issues throughout HCP process, we identifi ed inadequate societies, and support for alternative the landscape planning process. The agricultural policy and lack of market livelihoods. University of Maryland (UMD) and access as direct causes of increased Université Catholique de Louvain slash-and-burn agriculture and A primary on-going challenge is (UCL) contribute to spatial analysis increased dependence on commercial the need to encourage and enable and modelling for land-use planning. In hunting. Industrial forestry, traditional appropriate and sustainable addition, the Consortium has a pool of logging and subsistence hunting were development opportunities for external technical support, for example also identifi ed as additional threats to communities living in the landscape; the United States Forest Service (USFS) both conservation and local livelihoods to make certain that they have the contributes to land-use planning. (AWF, 2005). It was during this step opportunities to lift themselves out in HCP that the need to focus on of poverty without jeopardizing The MLW Landscape programme agricultural livelihoods for conservation conservation goals. We have has been designed using the AWF became evident. developed a programme to do this Heartland Conservation Process (HCP). while maintaining close monitoring HCP starts with stakeholder scoping In the following sections we explore of the resulting benefi ts and costs and baseline data collection that will how support for alternative livelihoods

144 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

Figure 1. The Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Landscape Yokokala rivers. The Kitiwalists retreated into the forest years ago and essentially do not accept any jurisdiction from the DRC government (Sifa Nduire, 2008).

Most of these people depend on wild resources to meet their basic needs, including food, fuel, medicines and building materials. This area of DRC was severely impacted during the six years of civil war and instability from 1997– 2002 and remains one of the poorest and least developed regions in the country. Dependent on wild resources, these populations have indicated a strong desire to be included as partners in the development of improved natural resource management and alternative livelihoods in their landscape.

The principal towns in the landscape are Basankusu, Djolu, Bongandanga and Befale. Their total population is estimated at 41,000–135,000. Many cities surrounding the landscape such as Lisala, Bumba and Boende work in MLW has been agreed upon high rainfall (>1900 mm annually). Rural infl uence economic activities within the and implemented and discuss some complexes, i.e., human-dominated MLW Landscape. Road infrastructure concrete examples. areas – mostly farms and plantations between these towns and cities is very – comprise less than 7 percent of the poor and the only feasible means of landscape (Dupain et al., 2008). motorized land transport is motorbike. Overview of the intervention Throughout the landscape, villages are zone Recent spatial modelling on human located along roads, with agriculture The Landscape Land-Use Planning distribution suggests that human concentrated in the peripheries of (LLUP) Strategy focuses on the entire density is 8 persons/km² (Kibambe, these centres of human habitation. We MLW Landscape. As such, the MLW 2007) with densities of 7, 7, 10 and 9 refer to these human dominated areas livelihoods programme considers the persons/km² in the territories of Befale, as “rural complexes”. An estimated entire Landscape as its intervention Djolu, Basankusu and Bongandanga 56,000 ha of forest (about 0.9 percent zone. respectively. The total human population of the landscape’s total forest area) in the MLW Landscape is now estimated was converted between 1990–2000, The MLW Landscape spans about at 587,000 (Dupain et al., 2008). due primarily to the expansion of 74,000 km2. It has an elevation gradient slash–and-burn agricultural activities. of less than 300 m. The Landscape Ethnic groups living in the landscape Over half of the observed conversion covers the four administrative territories are mainly Mongo people and their occurred within 2 km of a road. Today, of Basankusu, Bongandanga, Djolu and relatives of the Mongando ethnic the agricultural activities practised in the Befale which fall within DRC’s Equateur group. The Ngombe ethnic group is Landscape are primarily for subsistence, Province. It is a relatively intact mainly present in the north, on the axis with less opportunity for cash crops landscape defi ned by the Maringa and of Bongandanga-Basankusu. Small given lack of access to markets. Lopori river systems. Forests cover over groups of pygmies are scattered in the Cassava, maize and peanuts are the 90 percent of the Landscape. About one northern part of the landscape and a main agricultural products. Because of quarter of these forests are swamp and concentration of Kitiwalists (Jehovah’s the war and poor access to markets, the fl oodplain forests (or forested wetlands), Witnesses) reside mainly between the formerly active industrial plantations of refl ecting the landscape’s low relief and headwater areas of the Lomako and

145 Section One: Land-Use Planning

palm oil, rubber and coffee have mostly key livelihood concerns through project participatory assessment of needs and been abandoned. activities. For example: opportunities and collaborative decision • sustainable agricultural practices making with the benefi ciaries, who are Bushmeat market data indicate and increased producer value the local communities and government. that local people depend highly on added, including improved access We explained that our mandate was to bushmeat hunting, consumption and to markets; make our expertise available to help trade. A one-year study of bushmeat • community management or co- better manage the natural resources availability at the market in Basankusu management of key local resources in order to meet ecological, social and showed that more than 30 percent including forest resources and economic needs. of the 12,000 carcasses recorded fi sheries; for sale originated from the Lomako • development and/or restoration We considered various methodologies area (Dupain and Van Elsacker, of former (pre-civil war) labour- for collecting the required information 1998). This confi rms that the Lomako intensive small farmer cash crop that would help us to evaluate livelihood Yokokala Faunal Reserve was an activities (rubber, oil palm) in concerns linked to conservation important source of bushmeat for both partnership with the private sector; objectives. commercial and nutritional purposes. • appropriate alternative enterprise development such as ecotourism. We used socio-economic and biological In economic terms, bushmeat has a surveys as the main method for data signifi cantly better value/weight ratio The very basis of our approach collection. The results of the surveys compared to agricultural crops and it is is participation in, and ownership were discussed during the “Threats and easily preserved at low cost. Bushmeat of, the LLUP process by the local Opportunities Analysis” workshop (AWF, is therefore advantageous for transport communities. Prior to any real activity 2005). In this way, local communities and commercialization given the poor on the ground, the MLW Consortium were actively and fully involved in state of infrastructure and diffi cult went through a series of meetings decision making on priority activities. access to markets. It offers the best with local communities to discuss return for labour input. LLUP. These meetings confi rmed Examples of the initiatives undertaken that the main challenge facing the so far in support of alternative MLW LLUP programme is serving livelihoods are described in the Methods and results both the needs of local people and following sections. AWF ensures that consideration of conserving biodiversity. These goals livelihood alternatives are integrated are often confl icting in areas such as into the HCP. The establishment of the MLW Landscape where people rely The boat project an initial baseline socio-economic heavily on local ecosystems for their Analysis of socio-economic data profi le of the landscape ensures that livelihoods and wellbeing and where collected by the MLW Consortium livelihood concerns are understood little weight is given to questions of revealed that the observed trend of and acknowledged. At the site- “sustainable” use. During most of these households migrating out of their intervention level, livelihood concerns initial meetings, the representatives of natal villages into more remote forest are built into project planning, design, local communities asked us about the blocks was driven by a lack of access implementation and monitoring. projects and livelihood activities we to markets for agricultural crops. were going to support. Our response Two decades ago, local communities The HCP ensures appropriate was that this was not up to us to decide typically made a living from selling participation of and consultation with and that no prior decision had been both cash and subsistence crops to communities and their institutions, taken. We informed the communities urban markets. Due to the collapse of including local NGOs, throughout that we were in a consultative phase infrastructure and the disappearance of both the design and implementation of a participatory interactive approach. boats linking remote agricultural areas stages of projects that offer alternative We seek interactive participation, with important urban markets such as livelihoods. A clear understanding which means that people are invited Basankusu, Mbandaka and Kinshasa, of the social and economic status to participate in joint analysis, which, crops such as coffee, maize, rice and of local human populations and the in turn, leads to action plans and the cassava could only reach these markets dynamics of human use of natural formation of new local institutions or on small dugouts with high transport resources are essential at each stage. the strengthening of existing ones. We risks. As a consequence, people turned This understanding enables AWF and explained that, while some a priori ideas increasingly to bushmeat hunting its local partners to address directly might exist, fi nal decisions depend on a and trade which offers a much better

146 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

return for labour input. The forest areas markets, was strongly applauded locally, Supporting agricultural surrounding most villages are, as a provincially and nationally. livelihoods through small result, being progressively depleted of grants bushmeat. For more than two decades Nevertheless, the project was only From widespread consultation it became now, families have been leaving their partially successful. Logistical constraints clear that lack of equipment and lack of villages to settle in remote forests with and incongruent governmental priorities access to high-quality germplasm were much higher densities of bushmeat, (e.g., seizure of a barge for transport of major causes of decreased productivity but where they can still cultivate soldiers during the integration of different of subsistence and cash crops in the subsistence crops. army factions) were major handicaps, as MLW Landscape. We invited local was the lack of capacity to ship all the community NGOs to develop proposals As a result of the “Threats and available crops that communities had that would support the strengthening of Opportunities Analysis” workshop, made ready. With the promise of a boat agricultural activities. Five local NGOs AWF agreed to invest in a specifi c coming to transport crops, peasants submitted a joint proposal, developed market-opening initiative. While AWF converted areas producing crops for with support from AWF, to the IUCN had initially planned for potential local markets into maize production for Small Grants Program (funded by investments in coffee and cocoa transport to the capital. This caused CARPE) for a total of US$30,000. Each plantations, the participatory analysis surplus production and, as a result, a NGO functioned as a platform to reach a indicated that support for the shipment large quantity of crops that was not sold. set of local associations. AWF employed of agricultural crops to urban markets MLW Consortium Focal Points to could be a fi rst step in trying to reverse However, given that the boat project accompany the NGOs and associations the trend of people leaving their natal is the result of responding to local on the ground during the execution of villages and settling in remote forests demand, it is possible to identify the programme including support for for bushmeat hunting and subsistence some major achievements. First, local accountability and reporting. Through slash-and-burn agriculture (Belani and communities began to see that LLUP these fi ve local NGOs, the Small Grants Dupain, 2005). might be a solid strategy to harmonize Program reached 31 associations, with a conservation and poverty reduction. total of 1,765 people (1,241 men and 524 AWF provided pre-fi nancing, therefore Second, thanks to appropriation of women) working on 740 ha of agricultural absorbing the fi nancial risks of the the project by the local communities, land and producing almost 3,000 tonnes owner of a large boat which transported these communities did not blame the per annum of produce, mostly maize and agricultural crops along the Maringa MLW Consortium for the diffi culties cassava. River (September 2005–January 2006). but instead engaged in constructive More than 130 tonnes of merchandise discussions on how to strengthen the In a second phase, the local NGOs was shipped upstream with about 180 design of the next phase. Third, due insisted on working independently of clients involved. On the return trip, 530 to the overproduction of maize, the supervision by the MLW Consortium. tonnes of agricultural crops – 430 tonnes farmers themselves identifi ed the need A number of local NGOs requested of maize, 39 tonnes of coffee, 34 tonnes to spread risk. For example, in Djolu, the a complete change in the policy of of cassava, but also caterpillars, oil, communities transformed a number of approving and attributing budgets. A cocoa, mushrooms and other NTFPs maize fi elds into non-maize crops that recent evaluation of the programme – were shipped to the capital from have a local market. Diversifi cation of indicated differences in accountability as far as Befori, which is the furthest crop production leads to a spreading and performance between the phases upstream port of the Maringa River in of risk by providing greater fl exibility in and between the benefi ciaries. Again, the MLW Landscape, 1,500 km from responding to fl uctuations in access to while this open and fl exible approach Kinshasa. This trip effectively facilitated urban markets and by increasing local is vulnerable to failures, it is built upon market access for agricultural crops food security. A fi nal achievement is the participation and thus obliges local grown in the poor remote villages of increased local understanding of the communities to be actively involved in the MLW Landscape (Belani, 2006). landscape concept as inclusive for all decision making. At the time of writing As a consequence of this intervention, stakeholders. This project was not at all this case study, local communities MLW Consortium partners observed limited to people living, for example, in and NGOs have invited AWF and the that numerous families returned to their the periphery of a protected area or to MLW Consortium partners to increase villages to reactivate agricultural activities people living in a hotspot of biodiversity. supervision and guidance again. The given the renewed hope of commercial The boat project was open to all those fact that these NGOs now recognize opportunities. The arrival of the fi rst boat who were able to cultivate crops along their organizational, management since the war, re-opening access to the the Maringa River. and operational weaknesses, and are

147 Section One: Land-Use Planning

requesting further capacity building CARPE refers to three types of macro- and related threats. In collaboration to ensure better performance, can be zones: Community-Based Natural with UMD, UCL, South Dakota State considered a major accomplishment.. Resource Management (CBNRM) areas, University and the US Forest Service we Protected Areas (PA) and Extractive used Marxan to identify priority “human Resource Zones (ERZ). In Chapter 1, habitat” or non-permanent forest Land-use planning and we advocate differentiating between CBNRM areas, taking into account development of spatially permanent forest CBNRM areas and conservation constraints (e.g., Bonobo explicit land-use planning non-permanent forest CBNRM areas. habitat, large primary forest blocks). models The latter refers to land that can be Figure 2 shows existing rural complexes One major component of our work in converted to rural complexes (human- in the MLW Landscape and identifi es MLW entails development of spatially dominated areas – mostly farms and potential priority expansion areas for explicit models using a Geographic plantations). For our modelling efforts, future population needs. Information System (GIS) to help we suggested that about 12 percent identify and delineate macro-zones of the landscape be set aside as rural Our goal is to encourage movement for landscape land-use planning. complexes. from incompatible rural complexes Support for livelihood activities in the – small, remote or located inside MLW Landscape is directly linked to We need to consider that farmers’ conservation priority areas – into conservation objectives. In the case of rights to agricultural land are equal more conservation-friendly and support for agriculture and access to to the needs and rights associated socio-economically sound prioritized the market, the aim of LLUP activities with communal management of forest areas. A principal challenge will be is to reduce uncontrolled slash-and- resources. This approach avoids the the elimination of rural complex burn agriculture, and increase respect so-called “arborealization” or “not development in remote forests. Each for conservation legislation, particularly seeing the farmers for the trees” dot of rural complex in remote forests in terms of stopping the hunting of (Walken, 2008). refl ects not only the conversion of protected species. To address slash– land best suited for wildlife habitat into and-burn agriculture, we are working In our effort to avoid “utopian agricultural fi elds, but also an increase with communities to generate micro- scenarios”, we used a decision- in hunting pressure for a radius of zoning plans that determine where support software package called 10–15 km, a trend we consider highly to develop agricultural activities. Marxan to focus on livelihoods as a threatening for biodiversity. Community-scale micro-zone plans major component of our conservation are guided by landscape-scale macro- programme. Marxan is typically used To further consolidate rural complex zoning plans undertaken in the MLW to explore reserve design scenarios distribution into more suitable LLUP spatial modelling effort. considering a suite of spatially explicit confi gurations, we eliminated areas information on species’ habitats of existing rural complex smaller than a certain size and those distant from Figure 2. Existing rural complexes and potential expansion areas in the MLW roads or located inside proposed Landscape conservation areas for input into our model. We then built a spatially explicit model using the Marxan software, using these and other developed parameters based on projected population growth and expected hectares needed for agriculture per person. We also incorporated conservation-specifi c parameters into the model, such as the locations of protected areas, locations of intact forest blocks and areas important for wildlife connectivity. Figure 3 shows one output of the Marxan-driven modelling effort which delineates the areas for proposed distribution of rural complexes. The area of proposed rural complexes is

148 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

Figure 3. One output of the Marxan modelling which delineates proposed rural complexe areas discussed ﬁ rst elements of this management plan. This approach is new to ICCN and is strengthening ICCN’s perception of the importance of the participation of local communities in PA decision making.

In RFLY, the core strategy is to ensure that the reserve will create more benefi ts for local communities as a protected area with tourism revenue generated by international visitors than as a source for commercial bushmeat hunting. Today, our conservation and development programme in RFLY and its surrounding areas combines conservation and tourism revenue-generating activities in the reserve and livelihood development activities providing alternatives to the bushmeat trade in the periphery. A local management committee will decide how to use revenue from the reserve entry fees to support alternative livelihood activities in the periphery. During the recent CoCoSi, the fi rst 10,372 km2, and fi ts our assumptions creation of the reserve was identifi ed symbolic amount of US$780 was given about expected agricultural needs during the “Threats and Opportunities to representatives of this committee. according to future population growth. Analysis” workshop (AWF, 2005). AWF The MLW Consortium, and in particular This mapping process helps focus the facilitated the creation of the RFLY by REFADD, ICRAF and WF, continues support for livelihood activities spatially, ICCN. RFLY was gazetted as a Faunal to work with the local communities in full consideration of conservation Reserve in June 2006 after almost two to identify alternatives to bushmeat objectives. years of participatory data collection hunting and the best mechanisms for and negotiations. implementing these activities. Simultaneously through this process, we are gathering input for revision and During the gazetting process, the As a result of this approach, we modifi cations which might be required proposed reserve was always have received requests from other for the proposed macro-zones. Adaptive considered for planning purposes communities asking us for a similar management is key. Good landscape as part of a larger area including the approach in their region. The basic management requires acceptance that periphery inhabited and used by the invitation is typically: “we have rich the ecological, economic and social communities who are the traditional biodiversity in our forest, and we would dynamics are fl uctuating in both space “owners” of this forest. ICCN agreed like you to come and explain how we and time (Gordon and Maginnis, 2008). that the local population would not can get support for livelihood and only be involved in the execution of development activities in return for the the management plan, but also in its protection of our forest”. Today, the HCP Participative design and development. This required extensive process is on-going with the people management of new faunal and interactive participation. For living south-east of the Luo Scientifi c reserve example, during the last CoCoSi Reserve, in support to the Centre for The creation of the Lomako Yokokala meeting (Meeting of the Committee Research and Ecology and Forestry Faunal Reserve (RFLY) and the design for Coordination of the Site, held in and in collaboration with the Wamba of its management approach should September 2008), ICCN, AWF and Committee for Bonobo Research become a good model for a protected other MLW partners and more than 40 (Kyoto University). Work with other area with a people-centred approach representatives of local communities communities is now being planned. to conservation in DRC. The potential and local and provincial authorities

149 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Lessons learned Most important is the integration agriculture are welcoming the idea of of livelihood interventions into the micro-zoning and identifying the areas Importance of the Public Participation conservation programme, resolving for agricultural development as well as Strategy right from the beginning how to give responsibility to local areas of forest that should not undergo We believe that it is not the support for communities and how to strengthen conversion. alternative livelihood activities per se their capacity to deal with the complex that has been of primary importance, settings in which ecological and Allow for failure but rather the Public Participation economic needs might be in confl ict. Aiming for a “people-centred approach” Strategy (PPS) in the design and means openness to human failure. We development of land-use planning. Importance of making the links have created opportunities for local It is important to have the best PPS between livelihoods and conservation NGOs and local communities to try from the start of the programme. The explicit out their own ideas with increasing MLW Consortium aims for interactive Local communities naturally tend to independence, for example through participation in order to ensure: focus on livelihood concerns without an accessing the Small Grants Program. • honest public participation, explicit link to conservation objectives. AWF has played a fl exible role in this seriously considering the issues In the MLW Landscape, we continuously process to allow local NGOs to assess raised by the representatives of the stress the fact that every activity their own capacity and spread their local communities; supported by the Heartland programme wings, but also to come back to MLW • correct identifi cation of livelihoods to increase livelihoods must be tied to Consortium members for support when and diversifi cation needs, as conservation objectives. In the initial it is needed. Learning by doing involves for example the identifi cation of phase of the MLW programme, as a risking failure, but is a far better process market access as a priority over result of the outcome of the “Threats than outsiders substituting for local the reinvigoration of cash crops; and Opportunities Analysis” workshop, institutions. Encouraging local NGOs • ownership of the livelihood we agreed to put a strong focus on to grow their own capacity goes hand interventions by the communities, supporting livelihoods. However, in hand with an adaptive management with a commitment to learn and our support was given contingent approach, which allows for error, strengthen these interventions; upon the ability to link development evaluations and corrective measures. ' • the overall sustainability of the to conservation. Today, those same project, by connecting needs to communities are well advanced in livelihood interventions to the discussions on how to link both sustainable management of natural objectives more closely. In particular, resources. communities that received support for

150 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

References

AWF. 2005. “Rapport d’atelier de planiﬁ cation de site de conservation pour le landscape Maringa/Lopori-Wamba: analyse des opportunités et des menaces avec les parties prenantes, 2–4 décembre 2004”. AWF.

Belani, J. 2006. “Report on the boat project”. Report for USAID/CARPE. AWF.

Belani, J. and Dupain, J. 2005. “Les potentialités agricoles et les aspirations des populations pour la relance de l’agriculture. Rapport de l’enquête mesomacrosocioéconomique”. AWF.

Dupain, J., Nackoney, J., Williams, D., Bokelo, D. and Bwebwe, F. 2008. “The Integrated Land Use Management Plan, MOV 1.1.B”. Report for USAID/CARPE.

Dupain, J. and Van Elsacker, L. 1998. “The Importance of Bushmeat in the Bonobo Distribution Area, Democratic Republic of Congo”. Conference Proceedings, Primate Society of Great Britain. Primate Eye 65: 15–16.

Gordon, J. and Maginnis, S. 2008. “Accepting change: conserving biodiversity in productive landscapes”. Arborvitae 37: 15.

Kibambe, J.P. 2007. “Modélisation spatiale multisectorielle des dynamiques territoriales: étude de cas à l’échelle régionale dans la RDC”. DEA, Univ. Cath. Louv.

Sifa Nduire, C. 2008. Les populations de Maringa/Lopori-Wamba, accès aux ressources naturelles et les conﬂ its fonciers: cas de la zone K7/K2. Rapport AWF.

Walker, A. 2008. “The ‘hidden’ farmers in Thailand’s forests”. Arborvitae 37: 7.

151 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Case Study 3 Lessons Learned from the Lokolama Area of the Salonga- Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape

Emola Makambo

Introduction The World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Private Agencies Collaborating Together (PACT) and the Zoological Society of Milwaukee (ZSM) created a consortium in 2006 to collaborate within the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape, on the basis of an agreement signed between USAID-CARPE and WWF, the lead organization. Other partners joined later to reinforce the team, including the International Conservation and Education Foundation (INCEF) and a local organization, the Institut Africain pour le Développement Economique et Social (INADES).

PACT is focusing on capacity building in civil society organizations (CSOs), and on setting up grass-roots governance Inongo (in Lokolama) and by air, landing The rare permanent structures that exist structures and other networks in order at Mimia. The Lokoro Rivers I and II are are buildings abandoned by colonialists, to forge links between the government, the biggest in the region. Other smaller or those belonging to the Protestant the private sector and CSOs in a bid rivers that irrigate the region include Mission or the Catholic Church. Most to promote social, economic and the Basangi, Bosimani, Ibeke, Itume, other houses are built with mud bricks environmental justice through the Lolama, Luenge, Lulo and Yetele. and have thatched roofs. creation of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) zones. The Nkundus make up 79 percent In order to satisfy their essential needs, of the population in the Lokolama the local people have developed The fi rst pilot zone in the Salonga- sector. The other tribes are Batwa (17 survival mechanisms on a day-to-day Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape to be percent), Yasa (2 percent) and others basis and, under these conditions, selected by PACT was the Lokolama (Nganda, Bolongo, Mbambo and the conservation of natural resources sector. The choice of this sector was Nkulu – 2 percent in total).1 Migration is becomes diffi cult. They have no other infl uenced by the fi ndings of the negligible, but from time to time groups choice but to systematically, and often socio-economic surveys and biological identifi ed rightly or wrongly as hunters destructively, exploit biodiversity, leading inventories carried out in this area by may settle in villages for a long period to the inevitable disappearance of some various partners. The Lokolama sector of time. species and the further impoverishment is part of the vast Oshwe Territory in the of the indigenous peoples, who are Bandundu Province. This sector can be already living in sub-human conditions. accessed over land from Oshwe (about 1 Colom, A. 2006. The Socio-economic Aspects of Natural Resource Use and Management by Local Communities in 176 km away), by water from the port the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape: Guidelines for on the Lokoro River that runs through to Conservation and Livelihood Improvement. Unpublished report prepared for WWF-Democratic Republic of Congo.

152 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

Figure 1. Map of the Lokolama sector, in the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape many cases of illness and sometimes even death are reported. One fi nal point with regard to hunting – around Bisengebatwa village there are a signifi cant number of poachers armed with automatic rifl es, adding to the level and impact of hunting in the sector.

Fishing occurs on a small scale. Farmers practise line, net and bow-net fi shing. Women fi sh using a technique locally called écopage or “emptying” that consists of diverting the river from its normal course. Once the fi sh have been deprived of water, all the women have to do is scoop them up. This technique is detrimental to the restocking of fi sh in the rivers because it does not spare young fi sh. It could also be one of the causes of a decline in water resources.

Alternative livelihoods Farming is the major subsistence impossible. The occasional whalers that methodology and results activity amongst the local population dock at Lokolama Port once or twice a achieved but farming techniques are outdated. year charge local producers exorbitant prices to transport their produce to the Methodology They practise slash-and-burn agriculture big markets (Inongo, Kinshasa,...). For Taking the living conditions of the grass- which gives poor yields per unit of example, a farmer has to pay about roots communities (communautés de land and leads to a rapid loss of soil US$ 30 to get a bag of beans from base or COBAs) into consideration is fertility, because fi re destroys the fl ora Lokolama to Kinshasa even before one of the determining factors in the and fauna essential for the fertilization, facing innumerable obstacles and success or failure of the entire process aeration and conservation of soil over a harassments on the way. This situation of natural resource management in long period. They practise this type of has caused traders to give up and has the Lokolama sector. It is necessary farming because it is easy – everything discouraged local producers. Farmers to reconcile conservation and is consumed in the twinkling of an eye no longer produce anything because development objectives because the and, in no time at all, there are large there are no buyers, and traders no local population is entirely dependent bare arable areas, ready to be used. The longer call because production has on the resources surrounding them. loss of fertility forces them to abandon stopped: it is a vicious circle. the land every 18 months, leaving fallow The development of alternative land that is not fi t to be used again for This explains why hunting has become projects is a response to the needs 10 years or more. Thus deforestation so important and is now the primary of rural households and a way of advances and the amount of fallow land income-generating activity even though preventing bad management of natural continues to increase every year. it has a negative impact on biological resources. It also encourages the diversity. Prospective trading networks COBAs to become more involved in, Hunting has always been practised for bushmeat have been established and motivated by, the overall process, mostly for subsistence. As a result in Oshwe, Kikwit, Tshikapa and even thereby ensuring the viability of their of the economic slump and the war, Kinshasa. The meat is transported on taking on the sustainable and rational public infrastructure, especially roads, bicycles, known as matinda locally. management of natural resources. have deteriorated. The lack of roads This small trade yields enough income has isolated the sector and made for those practising it, but because The methodology used in identifying transportation very diffi cult, if not of the long distances being covered, alternative livelihoods is the accelerated

153 Section One: Land-Use Planning

method of participatory research, the to group, in order to defi ne principal Drawing up community action plans AMPR. The use of AMPR tools makes it and secondary activities in the village. (CAPs) possible for rural communities to defi ne Data are collected during workshops The most suitable tool for drawing up their problems themselves, to classify or during working sessions with focal a CAP is the problem tree. Drawing a them according to strategic areas groups. Analysis of this data provides problem tree makes it possible to detect (social, economic, ecological, etc.), to an overview of the local economy and problems, as well as cause-and-effect seek solutions together, and to prioritize shows up the level of reliance of this relations between problems. In the them in order to arrive at a CAP or economy on the outside world while course of this exercise, COBAs draw Community Action Plan. highlighting the possibilities of vertical a virtual tree to visualize the groups of and horizontal integration with nearby problems and their various levels of At this point, alternative projects are economies, i.e., the economies of the interaction. identifi ed and may be implemented after areas in their immediate vicinity, in order preparing a project document and/or a to determine actions to be undertaken Using cards to help them in their sectoral analysis detailing data needs. to improve their living conditions. brainstorming sessions, the Analysis of all the data gathered will communities identify all the possible In 2007, 30 villages in the sector began allow the general strategy to be refi ned problems, and then sort those that are the process of drawing up a land-use to deal with specifi c needs, such as similar into the same column. At the plan or simple management plan (SMP). those of women and vulnerable groups. end of the exercise, there are several columns called strategic areas: health, If the CAP is a plan that is intended Surveys of prospective trading economy, agriculture, etc. These areas to satisfy the needs of grass-roots networks are represented on the tree by the roots communities in terms of development, A survey of prospective trading at the bottom and branches at the top, the SMP is the fi nal document that networks in the region can help depending on whether they are causes complements this plan with aspects identify potential sustainable or effects. There has to be consensus of conservation, which will include a economic activities. The fi rst step is amongst the participants in verifying the map of the area showing the zones a brief description of the consumers, tree from bottom to top, and in ensuring designated for the various economic producers/processers, traders, that each cause actually corresponds to and conservation activities identifi ed transporters and markets in the each effect. by the community. It is a kind of area. This approach provides an spatialization of problems and solutions, opportunity to intervene at various The same process is repeated for the which enables communities to make links in the chain of a sector to allow solution tree, by turning problems into the link between conservation and more people to benefi t from added positives at all levels. The main problem their living conditions, and highlights value. The aim is to try and solve the is transformed into an overall objective, the need for rational and sustainable problems of governance or power the causes into specifi c objectives and management of the natural resources relations within the sector, and achieve activities, and the effects into expected that they rely upon for their livelihoods. complementarity between the various results. levels and categories of participants. In practice, this is done using a In general, buyers and transporters As to determining the priority actions methodology that does not necessarily have a comparative advantage over to be undertaken, this is done using follow a sequential and chronological local producers. Structuring the latter classifi cation into pairs. order, but that takes into consideration into associations or networks ensures the realities on the ground. The sound management of community Finally, the solution tree is transformed following sections provide a summary of affairs and, by using collaborative into a plan made up of a cross-section the essential stages: strategies, fundamental imbalances can of all the development priorities for the be avoided. For example, one strategy village. This is the community action Livelihood analysis and gender is setting up contract-based markets. plan (CAP). All potential actors at the analysis This allows the various parties to be village level can use it for programming This entails identifying the economic protected from seasonal variations in projects and funding. activities carried out by local prices and acts as a safeguard for local communities and then determining producers against arbitrary and unfair After drawing up the plan, it is essential the proportion of people who practise trading, as each party stands to gain to hold a series of wrap-up meetings for each activity according to gender and from the transaction. the exchange and sharing of information

154 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

between the village communities, for their functioning and, as the case and, to a lesser extent, trade in rare offi cials and decision-making bodies. may be, to raise funds, and to carry out manufactured products. Almost no The plan is then amended and adopted. advocacy with other actors. agricultural produce is sold outside the sector; the indigenous people are more Structuring COBAs The creation of the platform was sealed interested in looking for bushmeat that Developing alternative activities by an offi cial document signed by may be sold to traders from the Kasai. cannot be done by individual members all stakeholders, in which the roles, There are travelling salesmen who come of the communities. Appropriate responsibilities, duties and obligations and go between Oshwe and Lokolama community structures need to be set of each actor are outlined. This and supply the people with clothing, up that are likely to gather support document is called the responsibility kerosene and some minor manufactured upstream and channel it to a larger charter. products. audience downstream. The setting up of local natural resource management Those most involved in the CBNRM Surveys of prospective trading communities or platforms will facilitate process, namely the COBAs, play networks of non-timber forest the creation of grass-roots associations. an important part in the platform, products Associations have the benefi t of both in the CBNRM and the planning A survey of prospective trading bringing communities together into processes. Their participation was made networks was carried out within the interest groups, reducing the unit cost possible through the establishment sector. This enabled an exchange of of production, and forming strong of the Natural Resource Management information between stakeholders and unions capable of defending their rights Committees. These are autonomous the development of an integrated vision or negotiating fair prices. Of course, self-managed legitimate democratic of the parameters determining current defending rights is made easier if the structures for the sustainable conditions. Above all, it enabled the association has legal status, acquired management of natural resources at the identifi cation of possible remedies to by being offi cially recognized. A public village level. They are normally made up problems with a view to undertaking association with legal status has to of fi ve members, democratically elected palliative measures. All the links in have adequate human, technical and by the entire village which comes the coffee, maize, groundnut, copal, fi nancial resource management policies; together in plenary session before the caterpillar, mushroom and palm oil an internal and external communication traditional ruler of the locality. They also networks were examined in detail. strategy; and procedures for confl ict function as spokespersons on behalf Further studies are currently being resolution and advocacy; in a nutshell, a of the planning team to the COBAs and carried out on groundnuts and copal, governance structure that allows for the vice versa. Such a committee has been with a view to their future economic sound and transparent management of set up in each of the 30 villages. potential. the association for the sole benefi t of its members. Organizational development Implementation of the alternative Copal is one of the products considered in the Lokolama sector has been projects to have potential by the survey of entrusted to a local NGO, INADES. The next step is to design, formulate, trading networks carried out in 2006 by implement and monitor alternative PACT and WWF, within the framework of Creating platforms projects outlined in the Community CARPE. Trade in copal fl ourished in the In order to avoid duplication and to Action Plan. Participants in the platform past, just like coffee, and it was handled ensure coordination of efforts, platforms commit themselves independently or by the private company COLEMAN. are created not only to distribute in a group to carrying out the various During this period, the region was duties but also for probable funding activities. even christened “Copal Congo”. The of CBNRM activities. The platform fi ndings of the survey showed that created in Lokolama is a discussion Results achieved copal could have outlets in Madagascar forum that brings together the various or in England. The existence of an stakeholders who have agreed to look Livelihood analysis and gender external market for Monkoto and into the various issues surrounding analysis Lokolama copal is a huge bonus and the management of natural resources These analyses highlighted the major an opportunity to be seized for the part in an effort to come up with adequate economic activities carried out by it may play in the development of the solutions. Such platforms also make it the COBAs in the Lokolama sector: communities in the Salonga-Lukenie- possible to support one or more useful predominantly agriculture, bushmeat Sankuru Landscape. In effect, the costs of providing resources necessary trade, fi shing while water levels are low abundance of this product and its rise

155 Section One: Land-Use Planning

in value2 during this period of non- carried out by PACT agronomists in an to two and thus reduce the destruction exploitation augurs well for reasonable abandoned fi eld at Mimia. Therefore, of the forest. revenues. farmers will try to replicate the successes of the pilot experiment by Health. This entails developing Conscious of this potential, COBAs cultivating groundnuts on existing fallow activities aimed at enhancing the value are ready to begin harvesting copal. lands, and thus avoid clearing and of medicinal plants by selling them Madagascan companies have felling more trees. It should be stressed (marketing) and cultivating them. expressed their willingness to buy, but that this approach will also mean less have insisted on getting the quantity work for them overall. The economy. This covers all the and quality they want. In order to activities related to supporting income- please everyone, studies are currently Drawing up Community Action Plans generating activities, such as clearing underway on the reliability of the market Drawing up problem trees and solution the dead wood from the Lokoro River, for grass-roots communities and/or trees enabled communities to come up dredging the river, or repairing the road. local NGOs and the sustainability and with their own community action plan A farm-to-market road in the sector quality of the supply for importers. (CAP). Thirty Lokolama villages have is undoubtedly the answer to at least It certainly ought to be possible to already developed CAPs. Poverty, and some of the transportation diffi culties. establish this trade – it mainly depends its alleviation, are a central element of The COBAs are convinced of this and on certain key factors: the organization these plans. they are right. Furthermore, all they of the COBAs, the quantity and quality are asking for is agricultural tools, and of the product, the price, supply, The CAP is the basis of the COBAs’ sugar cane to help regain the energy transportation and contracting. programme to improve living conditions lost during the hard repair work. in the Lokolama sector. It highlighted This activity that can be carried out by eight areas which, in order of priority, Animal husbandry. This will involve women will hopefully spur grass-roots are: agriculture, health, the economy, the development of intensive breeding communities to protect the forest and animal husbandry, social amenities, the projects for the production of animal to abandon hunting, given that hunting environment, education and fi shing. protein that can serve as a substitute for is only valued because it is relatively Let us review some of the proposed the products gained from hunting. easy and because it generates income. ways of reconciling conservation Hunting, as mentioned earlier, has and livelihoods, the key idea behind Social amenities. The COBAs increased alarmingly since the fall in developing CAPs. expressed the wish to be organized into agricultural production. The killing associations. “United we stand”, as the of game will continue as long as the Agriculture. The chief concern of saying goes. The benefi ts of forming population does not have alternatives grass-roots communities is to increase such organizations have already been that can compete with or are more agricultural production, in the hope of stressed in earlier sections. viable than hunting. However, trade in returning to the good old days when this copal is far more benefi cial in many sector was the main source of income. The environment. The COBAs are most respects. Currently, increasing production means concerned with legal aspects. They a continual quest for fertile land, leading would like to obtain documents granting Another way of increasing household to further expansion of agricultural them the right to manage forests. incomes, but also, and above all, zones through the felling of trees. In They also expressed the wish to carry reducing pressure on natural resources, order to avoid the endless clearance of out small-scale logging. To this end, is capacity building amongst farmers land by destroying the forest, farming they have already begun to designate – training them in modern farming techniques need to be improved; for logging zones on their land. They will techniques and better marketing example, by improving and enhancing need to be supported in this small-scale methods. Groundnuts are one of fallow lands, but also by introducing logging activity in order to ensure that the cash crops in the sector and improved seedlings. The introduction of the situation remains under control. their cultivation is better adapted to soil-improving plants such as Leucaena fallow lands than most food crops, leucocephala and the intensifi cation Education. This is the key to knowledge as demonstrated in pilot experiments of plant and animal production may and knowledge is a source of power. considerably reduce the fallow period of Helping communities to educate existing agricultural land from ten years themselves will make them become 2 Copal is a product that increases in value over time. Copal that contains insects is worth fi ve or ten times more than more knowledgeable, more responsible ordinary copal.

156 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

and less inclined to believe false on the existence of associations and for their efforts and the remainder will be statements from self-interested institutions that operate within a given given to others to launch a broad-based groups that would like to keep them radius of activity, there are practical awareness-raising campaign. ignorant in order to better exploit sketch representations identifying the them. The “WORTH” programme that existence and interactions between A business plan for shipping out the PACT intends to initiate combines various organizations. This is the Ven farm produce is being revised and three integrated approaches: literacy, and Chapati diagram. fi nalized. Studies carried out prior community banking and small business to project implementation show an development. As people are mastering Unfortunately, the conclusions of overall rise in transport costs and reading and writing, they begin saving the preliminary evaluation showed a that the COBAs have overestimated together in small groups. Once literate, conspicuous lack of local associations. what they can actually offer, not to they use their new-found skills to In the Lokolama sector, the almost mention the marketing costs and the learn how to make loans, start micro- complete absence of associations is a lack of an appropriate management businesses and transform their savings serious setback to the implementation structure. The cost of chartering a groups into community banks. It will of alternative projects. However, ship is approximately US$ 16,000 at also have an environmental component, in the future, the sector will create a time when actual production is well raising awareness of several associations that will form a network below 100 tons. It is in fact only 46 relevant issues and encouraging the so that actions carried out will benefi t tons, of which 25.5 tons is maize, 3.9 development of problem-solving skills. a large number of people if not all the tons groundnuts, 7.6 tons beans, 8.3 villages. In fact, a contract has just been tons rice and 0.86 tons marrow, the Fishing. The construction of fi shponds signed with a local NGO, INADES, for total value of which is estimated at will contribute to reducing the the promotion of associations in the US$ 17,000–19,000, depending on destructive fi shing methods described sector. seasonal fl uctuations. For example, earlier and avoid the displacement of the “Galaxie”, a 100-ton private whaler the population for 2–3 months (July– Creating a responsibility charter docked at Lokolama port, was there September) to fi shing camps six days’ Constituent workshops were held for more than two months without ever trek away from the village. recently and a draft of the responsibility becoming fully loaded. This is another charter adopted. The administrator of reason for COBAs to form themselves All in all, drawing up the CAPs was the Oshwe Territory will sign it in the into associations or cooperatives, a means of bringing together the near future. This will make it possible to enabling them to reduce production communities, without any tribal, regional bring together, integrate and catalyze cost, increase yields, create warehouses or even social distinctions, for them the synergy of everyone’s efforts, across and better negotiate contracts. to identify their needs. Meanwhile, it the sectors and at all levels. also turned out to be a tool, a means, The other on-going project is the a catalyst for their commitment to Implementing alternative projects exploitation of copal. The populations conservation and to the CBNRM Three projects have been developed, and local associations of Monkoto are process in general. This exercise one of which is already being more than motivated to engage in the has enabled them to refl ect on their implemented. This is a project to grow collection and sale of copal. The local problems and to go ahead and forge a groundnuts which is a recent innovation people have collected samples in the vision for the future. It has helped them, in the sector. corridor between Salonga and Monkoto for the fi rst time, to think globally and through WWF which has also initiated to determine how they can change their The goal of this project is to improve a CBNRM programme here. PACT lifestyle. With time on their side, they will farming techniques and popularize Congo has transported these samples reap the benefi ts of their efforts. them through innovative farmers’ to Madagascar, a country known for committees set up for the purpose, and its export of quality copal. Production Structuring the grass-roots it brings together all the villages. In each and the market seem to be guaranteed. communities village community, farms of a hectare The technical and especially fi nancial Implementing the CAP, whilst ensuring each have been created. Groups of feasibility of the project will be better involvement of COBAs, can farmers have been trained and inputs assessed, culminating in getting the thus only be done through “nearby” distributed. The harvest will be divided necessary procurement contracts duly organizations, namely local associations into two parts. One part will be sold to signed (a draft contract is in hand). or NGOs. In order to gather information recompense the committee members

157 Section One: Land-Use Planning

Lessons learned various development plans can obtain Improved means of transportation, a fi nancial or material support. remedy to the development of trade Without cushioning measures, grass- for grass-roots communities roots communities that are motivated Grass-roots communities are more Transport remains the major bottleneck and in favour of integrated community interested in their daily survival than in in the Lokolama sector. The gradual management of natural resources risk conservation deterioration of transport infrastructure becoming disaffected The Community Action Plan is a multi- has isolated the area, and caused If grass-roots communities are not sectoral plan. During the drawing the local communities to lose heart. convinced that it is in their best up of the CAP, it was realized that Farming has been abandoned for interests to manage “their” natural conservation was not the primary hunting. Projects are blocked because resources, there will be no community concern of the villagers. This can of the exorbitant cost of transportation, or participatory management of natural obviously be explained by their etc. resources. Good words need to be dependence on natural resources and followed by concrete actions. their diffi cult living conditions. However, There needs to be a meticulous analysis rather than taking this as a negative, of this aspect. The analysis has to be Involving and motivating COBAs the fact that it was identifi ed as an done on three levels: the short, the requires being aware of their socio- issue at all is encouraging. Although medium and the long term. This will economic and cultural realities. Taking conservation does not rank highly in enable the situation to evolve towards account of people’s livelihoods appears their list of priorities, it was raised by COBAs gradually taking control of the to be an important factor in motivating the local people themselves without any means of transportation. Transportation local people, even the most resistant, external pressure. has a considerable multiplier effect on and in gradually raising their awareness their daily life, in that the partial or total of conservation. Did a wise old man Nonetheless, this means that more resolution of transportation problems from Salonga not say after a workshop effort has to be made with regards will make it possible to improve the that if one wants to take a nut away to raising awareness so that COBAs living conditions of communities that are from a child, s/he should be given better understand the benefi ts of linking suffering from, amongst other things, something similar in exchange? In other their development to conservation. shortages of basic commodities such as words, the way to motivate COBAs The reconstruction of the Lokolama salt and sugar, the prices of which are to take part in the CBNRM process, to Bisengebatwa road should not for scarcely affordable even when they are is to focus on the socio-economic example become an opportunity to available. security that may be obtained from increase the bushmeat trade. Control supporting their livelihoods. A lack of mechanisms have to be developed and In Lokolama, the communities have concrete support for micro-projects monitored by COBAs. shown their willingness to carry out road focusing on livelihoods would hinder repairs – at least the one leading to the their commitment to the process. The It was with this concern in mind that Lokolama port. Such initiatives can, for enthusiasm of COBAs at work observed the programme devoted a signifi cant a time, alleviate the diffi culties they face during the village workshops is tangible amount of time to education and especially with the hope of increasing proof of the chances and prospects raising environmental awareness agricultural production thanks to the for success if the conservation of before launching activities to improve intervention of international NGOs. natural resources is mainstreamed living conditions, in order to avoid However, it must be borne in mind into the socio-economic development any confusion and to have some that the opening up of roads and trails of these communities. Without the assurance that the local population has to be accompanied by control accompanying fi nancial resources, the have understood the basis for rational measures, through the natural resource motivation observed in the elaboration management of natural resources management committees, in order of the management plans, with without losing sight of their priorities. In to prevent the development of the communities sometimes giving up ten practical terms, it will entail identifying bushmeat trade, and thus obtaining the days or more of their time to take part in livelihood activities that are compatible opposite effect from that desired. workshops, may turn into frustration or with conservation and setting up even revolt in extreme cases. Thus there structures to monitor environmental Meanwhile, the prospect of increasing is a need to fi nd a fi nancing framework, impact, so as not to fail in the objective agricultural production in this an annual donor’s round table where of contributing to poverty alleviation landlocked zone has to be guaranteed while conserving biological diversity. by securing the ways and means of

158 Chapter Five: Role of Alternative Livelihoods in a People-Centred Approach to Conservation

shipping out agricultural produce. If foundation and the prerequisite for during a feasibility study of the copal conditions are not met or if access the development of any activity with sector. For the groundnut project, this to transportation is interrupted, grass-roots communities. Acting with meant identifying and bringing together communities will run the risk of serious individuals alone would be a dissipation innovative farmers. For the copal over-production because of the lack of of effort, and restrict the number of project, an association in Monkoto a nearby market and other possibilities beneﬁ ciaries of any particular project (CPFNLEA: Commercialisation des of supply. That is why any plan for or activity. Constituting COBAs into Produits Forestiers Non-Ligneux, marketing agricultural produce has to associations would give them a legal Elevage et Agriculture) issued a signed go beyond the current restricted vision status different from that of individual authorization to PACT Congo to set of sporadic or opportunistic shipments, members. This legal status would give up a trading contract between an and include the drawing up of a them the power to sign contracts with import company in Madagascar and transport strategy that will guarantee individuals or companies within the this association. This local association viable trade in the land. framework of the prospective trading acts as an intermediary between the networks they have identiﬁ ed, and to be grass-roots communities and the copal Structuring and institutionalizing able to act in legal matters. buyers. ' grass-roots communities, imperative for the success of any alternative While such capacity building is still project on-going, intermediary solutions had Capacity building, achieved through to be found during the execution of the structuring of communities, is the a groundnut agricultural project and

159 SECTION TWO: ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND GOVERNANCE

Chapter 6

The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development: Lessons Learned

Kenneth Angu Angu

1. Introduction

1.1 Overview It is often said that policy and legislative issues are the bedrock of any socio- cultural and political structure – be it a small village community at the heart of the Congo Basin forest or a large state in central USA. This is obvious because they help control and maintain any structure, facilitate cohesion among actors, reduce conﬂ icts and, above all, ensure the effective management of natural resources. While it is also true that most policies and legislations are in the form of written documents – as in modern States, others are not – as in village communities. However, whether they are written or unwritten, one thing is clear – they often manifest themselves in the form of unwritten norms, actions, behaviours, roles and statuses that help determine whether a person is acting conventionally or unconventionally. If not, cultural or political custodians tap from these policies and laws to come up with some corrective measures (sanctions, etc.) to ensure that deviants are brought back on track.

The diversity and complex nature of socio-political structures make it very challenging to put in place, and implement, appropriate policies and laws that effectively take into account both “modern” and local knowledge in natural resource management (NRM). To guarantee that the effective implementation of these laws and policies will have a signiﬁ cant impact on the ground, indicators need to be put in place that can prove that the rational use of these natural resources is fostering sustainable regional, national and local development. Some say that this is possible only if modern laws and policies are not only consistent with customary laws but also keep on adapting to innovative conservation dynamics.

Although most countries in Central Africa have taken giant strides in reforming most of their NRM codes, especially the forestry codes, there is still plenty of progress to be made. There has been a call for the various stakeholders to work alongside government ofﬁ cials to ensure that some of these laws are either reformed or adapted, or that implementation decrees are passed if this has not been done yet, as is the case with some countries.

This is why the CARPE Phase IIB programme, notably its governance components commonly known in our jargon as IR2 (Intermediate Result 2), has been focusing on good governance issues in natural resource management because it is an invaluable tool to avert forest degradation and the loss of biodiversity in Cameroon,

163 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Republic of Congo (RoC), Gabon, makers are very uncomfortable Although sound policy and legislative the Democratic Republic of Congo with the persistent rate of forest reforms aimed at reversing forest (DRC), Burundi, Rwanda, Sao Tomé degradation and loss of biodiversity degradation and the loss of biodiversity and Principe, the Central African in the region. Current NRM policies are currently in force in most countries Republic and Equatorial Guinea. A and legislative frameworks have not in the Congo Basin, especially in major objective of the CARPE Focal been able to effectively balance local Cameroon, Gabon, RoC and the DRC, Points and Country Team members and national development needs a quick look at the various national is to facilitate good governance in and the conservation of biodiversity. policy and legislative agendas shows the management and use of natural Some observers strongly believe that that their elaboration, implementation resources by focusing on strategies increased human population and lack and monitoring differ from one that will subsequently facilitate policy/ of development opportunities are country to another. For example, legislative change and/or reforms. the major drivers of this unfortunate most observers are of the opinion that Another crucial issue for CARPE is to phenomenon. Other dominant although Cameroon is regarded as “far push for a “people-centred approach” dynamics include: unsustainable advanced” in putting in place a robust to conservation by facilitating the agriculture, irrational forest and environmental policy and legislative implementation of key reforms so that mineral exploitation, armed confl icts, agenda (1994 Forestry Code; 1995 they can have sustainable impact on road construction without adequate Implementation Decree; 1995 Forestry the lives of populations in terms of environmental impact assessment, Policy, etc.), much still has to be done reconciling the conservation of natural unsustainable hunting, poaching, fi re, to facilitate their implementation, resources and sustainable livelihoods. large population movements in times notably on community involvement of war (refugees) etc., invasive alien in natural resource management and To share their experiences with others, species and climate change. The armed illegal logging. These tools not only CARPE Focal Points have come up confl ict in DRC and RoC, the increasing failed to put in place appropriate with four case studies on lessons problem of arid lands in the northern implementation mechanisms, but learned from Cameroon, Gabon, RoC part of Cameroon as well as the vast, also showed inconsistency between and DRC. The goal of these studies complex and enormous territory of some articles and laws. Also, there is to show that a good national policy DRC, have all made it very diffi cult to are outright incompatibilities in some and governance agenda is the bedrock implement most of these policies and environmental policies and legislations of sustainable resource management laws. Also, the creation of enormous when it comes to who is actually and local development. They show tracts of protected areas in Gabon in control of certain resources. For how they have used concrete fi eld (13 national parks), without putting in example, some stakeholders and data to help infl uence policies, laws place consistent institutions and policy government offi cials in most countries and various regulatory frameworks mechanisms to manage them, has only are still confused as to their roles and (through advocacy, communication, fuelled additional pressure on these responsibilities in managing various etc.) or conversely have helped to resources, creating discord between sectoral issues such as forestry, create enabling policy and legal local populations, government offi cials agricultural, land and mineral resources, frameworks to facilitate work at the and international organizations. etc. Some of these gaps were not landscape level. The aim of this paper noticed when the laws and policies is to provide a synthesis of these four However, on analysis, some observers were drafted. To help remedy this, the studies, showing some similarities are of the opinion that the root cause Cameroonian Government, for example, and differences, followed by some key of forest loss in Central Africa is the has already put in place the necessary recommendations. diffi culty some decision makers have structures to reform its forestry law. in coming up with, and implementing, Although their forestry codes have been 1.2 The importance of promoting effective, consistent, harmonized and updated in recent years, countries like a national policy and governance feasible conservation and development Gabon and the Republic of Congo have agenda for conservation policies and laws which aim to still to step up their national strategies Although Central Africa harbours the satisfy current human practical needs to effectively involve community-based richest biological diversity in Africa without compromising the use of structures in government efforts in and is the second largest continuous these resources by present and future natural resource management. Also, expanse of tropical forest in the world generations. because of its vast and complex after Amazonia, most environmental nature (over an area of 2,345,000 specialists and policy/decision km2), the DRC is currently struggling

164 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

in its fi ght against poaching and illegal therefore set for sustainable forestry component (IR2). Since then our major logging, mainly because of the lack management in all four countries. approach has focused on strengthening of manpower, resources, funds and partnerships with existing governance adequate modern technology to control At the regional level, there has been structures, and encouraging host their resources in spite of the adoption some consensus in Gabon, Cameroon, countries and COMIFAC/Congo of their new forestry code in 2002. DRC and the RoC to join their other Basin Forest Partnership partners to six neighbours in elaborating a participate in the decision-making However, although there are obvious consolidated Central African Forest process of the programme, use the problems, there is ample evidence Commission (French acronym small grants to build the capacities that most countries in the region are COMIFAC) Convergence Plan – an of civil society organizations (CSOs) taking giant strides to strengthen their outcome of the 1999 Yaoundé Heads to advocate for policy and legislative good governance strategies to ensure of State Summit and the 2005 Second actions, and increase communication effective natural resource management. Heads of State Summit that produced between various stakeholders. With For example in DRC, the Government, the COMIFAC Treaty. Most stakeholders this new role, a CARPE-IUCN Regional through its Growth and Poverty were aware that laying down a Program Manager is coordinating Reduction Strategy Document, has harmonized regional policy framework the efforts of CARPE Focal Points identifi ed the forest as a key sector for was the only way to achieve effective to convene and coordinate Country development. This explains why the 2002 natural resource management both at a Team meetings aimed at implementing Forestry Code is the base for all forestry national and sub-regional level. and monitoring activities in order to operations in the country. In the Republic promote short and long-term policy of Gabon, the 2001 Forestry Code (Law 1.3 CARPE’s approach to promoting and legislative reforms. Country N° 16/2001 of December 31) as well as a national policy and governance Team members include designated the 2007 Law on National Parks (Law agenda for conservation government offi cials, parliamentarians, N° 003/2007 of September 11) brought CARPE’s approach has been very national and international conservation in a lot of innovations in terms of forest proactive ever since its inception organizations, bilateral and multilateral and wildlife management as well as in 1995. In order to facilitate the organizations, research institutes, etc. In community-based natural resource implementation of its Strategic addition to the organization of Country management (CBNRM). In Cameroon, Objective which is to reduce the rate Teams, Focal Points organize a policy, seen as the pioneer of forestry reform of forest degradation and loss of regulatory and legislative agenda aimed in Central Africa, the impetus came biodiversity through increased local, more especially to build the capacity of before and immediately after the 1992 national and regional NRM capacity in local CSOs in their advocacy and social Rio Conference with the creation of the nine Central African countries, CARPE mobilization roles. Through Country Ministry of the Environment and Forestry and its partners have concentrated their Teams, the CARPE Focal Points also (MINEF) for the effective management efforts on capitalizing on the results of work with CARPE-funded Landscape of fl ora and fauna. To this effect, the the fi rst phase which focused on the and cross-cutting partners as well groundwork was set for the elaboration increase of conservation knowledge, as other conservation actors in the of the fi rst draft document on forest institutional development and capacity countries. While some members seek to policy in 1993 while one year later, the building of the various actors. This use their fi eld research results to lobby 1994 Forestry Law (Law N° 94/01 of second phase has highlighted for policy/legislative change in order to January 20) was promulgated. This three main objectives – elaboration facilitate the sustainable management provided adequate material for the and implementation of sustainable of natural resources, others engage publication of the Cameroonian Forestry NRM practices; the improvement of in advocacy activities to facilitate Policy in 1995. The Republic of Congo environmental governance; and the the implementation of fi eld-based has not been lagging behind because the strengthening of natural resource conservation programmes. Government has been at the forefront monitoring capacity. in defi ning sustainable management This approach has proved very policies and laws. The Government was Following the recommendations successful over the years as Country praised when it produced its new 2000 of a mid-term evaluation report in Team members have contributed Forestry Code (Law N° 16/2000) and February 2006, IUCN has become a signifi cantly to the elaboration of new the 2008 Law on the Conservation and core partner and, since October 2006, laws and policies and the updating of Management of Wildlife (Law N° 37-2008 has been responsible for the “natural archaic laws. of November 28, 2008). The stage was resources governance strengthened”

165 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

2. Review of the policy and and their fi scal status to ensure women’s networks. Once this was done, governance case studies transparency and sustainable use of Country Team members were quite natural resources; the recruitment of happy with the dynamism and results of 2.1 Lessons learned from the international independent observers the entire team. It has been quite easy Democratic Republic of Congo to oversee the implementation of to discuss issues and give technical, With a surface area of close to the forest exploitation reform; etc. fi nancial and strategic inputs to facilitate 2,345,000 km², the forests of the Also, the recruitment of an observer the elaboration or implementation of Democratic Republic of Congo cover to support forestry control and the some draft laws. close to 60 percent of its territory preparation of the implementation and constitute about 50 percent of decree of the Forestry Code was an To give some examples: representatives the entire Congo Basin forest area. important step taken by the Food and of the Country Team worked very However, although these forests are Agricultural Organization of the United hard with other actors as members of among the most biodiversity-rich in the Nations (FAO) and other partners a validation committee put in place world in terms of fl ora and fauna, its who supported the process. The by a Ministerial Degree to elaborate population is still poor with the majority Government has also initiated reform of a draft implementation degree of the living on less than a dollar a day. The Law N° 069 on the protection of nature 2002 Forestry Code. Their views as reason for this unfortunate paradox as well as participatory elaboration of expressed in the Committee were was clarifi ed by the authors of the a national forestry and conservation simply a refl ection of the views of Poverty Reduction Strategy Document policy. Country Team members. The text who identifi ed bad governance was eventually signed and published as one of the major causes of this However, despite all these efforts, most under the coordination of FAO. Also, poverty and suggested some critical national and international conservation Country Team members facilitated the issues that needed to be addressed and development actors are strongly fi nalization and validation of the manual to promote good governance. Most of the opinion that poor governance on the procedures for the attribution and people identifi ed armed confl ict as a is still a very important issue in DRC. management of Community Forests. contributory factor to poor governance The issue of transparency, weak in the management of natural resources capacity at all levels of government Since the implementation of the 2002 because it destabilized the capacity administration to monitor illegal actions, forestry code was an uphill task, of public institutions and the local lack of human resources and viable Country Team members supported populations to manage these resources. environmental information to foster (technically and fi nancially) the Since the wars, the Government has good decision making, illegal logging elaboration and publication of a been concentrating most of its efforts in forest concessions, bad tax recovery commented version of the forestry on seeing how their rich resources systems, lack of some implementation code by Government experts. When could be sustainably used to promote decrees, numerous confl icts between published, this commented version development. forest exploiters and local communities (which will be prefaced by H.E the because of the inadequate gazetting Minister in charge of forestry) will be However, most observers believe that system, etc. – all still prevail. widely disseminated to all pertinent the on-going democratization process forestry stakeholders. It will be should be pursued to promote good Most of these policy and legislative translated into two national languages governance. The new constitution shortfalls were identifi ed by DRC by the Country Team to facilitate its of the Republic, the new mineral Country Team members who ownership by the local populations. and investment codes, the 2002 participated in the February 2007 forestry code, the decentralization CARPE Inception Workshop that Also, Country Team members carried laws, etc., are all evidence of this launched Phase IIB and who have since out a lot of lobbying activities to make process and the good intentions of then endeavoured to discuss some of sure that civil societies (such as a the DRC Government. With the help these priorities with decision makers member of the coalition of NGOs) of partners like CARPE, measures and other actors. Some members like are represented in pertinent NRM have also been taken to ensure the the CARPE Landscape partners and structures like the National Forests and implementation of these NRM reforms. others suggested that some important Conservation Programme, the Forest These include the cancellation of policy actions could only be properly Consultative Council, the Steering close to 25 million hectares of illegal undertaken if the Country Team was Committee in charge of revising the law forest concessions; the periodic enlarged to include MPs, the private on nature conservation, etc. publication of lists of forest contracts sector, and strong indigenous and

166 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

As regards capacity building, Country in policy and legislative debates is very commitment at the highest level. This Team members have been very important because it ensures that their facilitated the creation of COMIFAC, instrumental in building the capacities interests are taken into consideration formerly known as the Conference of of DRC MPs, notably those of the when elaborating and implementing Ministers in charge of the conservation environmental commission. This was these laws. and sustainable use of the Central done through the organization of training African Forest Ecosystems (up to sessions on the Forestry Code (its 2.2 Lessons learned from the January 2005) and later the Commission vision and environmental challenges), Republic of Cameroon for the Forests of Central Africa, illegal logging, the importance of Some observers are of the opinion immediately after the Second Central ratifying and implementing international that the Cameroon 1994 Forestry African Heads of State Summit in conventions, etc. Along the same lines, Law is the legacy of her three colonial February 2005 that was organized in CSOs have been in the forefront when masters – Germany, France and Britain. Brazzaville by the RoC Head of State. it comes to the conception, elaboration, In fact, it was adopted two years after implementation and monitoring of the Rio Summit and the creation of Unfortunately, in spite of this policy, legislative and development the then Ministry of the Environment background, some observers are projects. Country Team members help and Forestry in 1992 which was the strongly of the opinion that although them lobby so that the results of their main government body in charge of Cameroon is at the forefront in NRM projects are better appreciated. the management of environmental reforms, there is still a lot to be done issues. The 1994 Forestry Law, or Law in terms of putting in place appropriate Over the years, Country Team N° 94/01 of January 20 as it is often governance structures to facilitate members have been working with other called, and the 1995 Forestry Policy their implementation. Numerous institutions such as the US Forestry document promoted some sustainable studies and observations have Service in a bid to make sure that the management practices such as the fi ght shown that corruption in the forestry DRC government starts to consider against illegal logging; the gazettement sector is still rife, especially in forest elaborating a forestry zoning plan for the of protected areas; reforestation; the concessions. Local communities are whole country. It is believed that this is recognition of the rights of indigenous still complaining over their 10 percent vital in the fi ght against illegal logging and local populations; the need to share of forest royalties while women because the information in a zoning reconcile conservation and sustainable are yet to effectively take on their role plan would facilitate control of these development objectives; the recruitment in sustainable forest management, etc. concessions. of independent observers to monitor The technology, manpower and funds sustainable harvesting in forest to effectively manage the resources are A summary of the lessons learned in concessions; and the setting up of still not suffi cient. DRC is as follows. Firstly, in order effi cient government institutions to to effectively play their role, Country ensure the effective implementation The Cameroonian Country Team knew Team members should work in close of these laws and policies. The that they had a big task ahead if they collaboration with each other so that they Cameroonian Forest and Environment wished to reverse these trends. Through can act as a joint force to lobby for policy Sector Programme was adopted in 2004 various strategies such as lobbying, and legislative reforms. Secondly, it will and is considered a consolidated and capacity building, outreach, etc., be very diffi cult to attain their objectives comprehensive policy document that Country Team members have done if the various actors do not develop and facilitates cohesion in the drive towards a lot in terms of improving the legal implement a robust communication sustainable forest and environmental and policy framework (1994 Forestry strategy that facilitates the exchange of management. Law and its implementation Decree of experiences and lessons learned as well 1995, ratifying the Ramsar Convention, as capacity building to promote policy Also, in 1999 when the Cameroonian etc.). They lobbied for the update of and law changes and reform. Thirdly, President convened his peers in the document Manual of the Procedure in order to make the deliberations of Yaoundé to attend what is now known for the Attribution and Norms for the Country Team members as effective and as the First Central African Heads Management of Community Forests. relevant as possible, the Focal Point of State Summit for the Sustainable An advanced draft is currently on the and other members should organize Management of Central African table of the Minister of Forestry and preparatory meetings. This will help Moist Forest, most conservation and Wildlife for signature. The draft decree create synergy, save duplication and development stakeholders knew regulating the management of wildlife, avert possible confl icts. Fourthly, it has that things would never be the same especially the norms and procedures been noted that the involvement of CSOs again in Central Africa because of this for the attribution and management

167 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

of Community Hunting Zones, is also people, women, indigenous and local confl icting interests among other available. It was a unique opportunity populations, etc.) participated in the actors. Sixthly, although the small to discuss the Ministerial Order No. 122 entire CEFDHAC reform process and grants scheme is an effective way on the setting up of equitable access is still very committed to assisting in to support CSOs, it can be a source and benefi t-sharing regimes for forest implementing its recommendations and of confl ict if not managed properly. resources. Currently, Country Team fostering its links with COMIFAC. Also, Seventhly, although the legislative arm members and other partners have the Team facilitated the activities of of government is supposed to balance been involved in discussions with the Access Initiative Network, a CSO that some actions of government, they often Cameroonian authorities to revise the promotes public access to information, compete with some local organizations 1994 Forestry Law. At the demand of participation and justice in decision to manage these resources. the Ministry, members have contributed making that affects environmental in the elaboration process of the ToR for management. 2.3 Lessons learned from the a Consultant that will take the lead in Republic of Congo the process. The Country Team also supported local With its surface area of 325,000km², the communities in establishing sustainable Republic of Congo harbours one of the As regards Ramsar, the Team provided wildlife management activities. For important segments of tropical forest of the necessary technical support to example the Committee to Valorise the Congo Basin. Because almost 60 the Cameroonian Government which Wildlife Resources (COVAREF) in percent of its territory is forested, the subsequently led to the ratifi cation of eastern Cameroon is doing a great job country is host to some of the richest the Ramsar Convention in 2006. in managing their community hunting biodiversity in the world. Over the years, zones to obtain the necessary funds to these resources have been subjected Although information generation and build schools, hospitals and other local to numerous human activities such as sharing have been handicapped for development structures. forest exploitation, mining, agriculture, some time now in Cameroon because etc. Unfortunately, these activities have of the lack of adequate capacity and A summary of lessons learned in often been carried out without adequate information technology, Country Team Cameroon is as follows. Firstly, concerns for their sustainability. Studies members have, for example through to successfully push for good have shown that if adequate precaution Global Forest Watch, helped the governance it is important to start is not taken, these rich resources will be Ministry in charge of Forestry (French by enhancing the legal, policy and severely depleted over the years which acronym MINFOF) to collect, process regulatory frameworks. Secondly, will be very detrimental not only to the and publish data each year on forest lobbying for good governance in NRM growth of the Congolese population, but cover in forest concessions. Here, data is a painstaking exercise because it also to the Congo Basin and the world on illegal logging and mining in forest takes a lot of time and energy – one at large. With the climate change debate concessions were collected and handed needs to work very hard to change now being taken seriously by most to MINFOF for appropriate decision predominantly negative habits which are countries in the world, the Congo Basin making. Along the same lines, the deep in the fabric of some stakeholders. forest is seen as a public international Cameroon Country Team has set up Thirdly, in order to achieve meaningful good that could help avert the negative the Environmental Journalist Network involvement of CSOs in policy/legal consequences of climate change in the to facilitate the generation, production oriented issues, it is very important world. and dissemination of environmental to simplify these numerous laws and information. policies and translate them into the To address this situation, the Congolese national languages. Fourthly, it is not Government was quite aware that with In the fi eld of participation and easy to work with some stakeholders these emerging dynamics, the old capacity building, Country Team in the Country Team who are not forestry law needed to be updated. It members took the necessary steps directly funded by CARPE because was because of this that after some to facilitate the effective involvement they do not feel obliged to implement participatory consultation among of CSOs in relevant national and some of the activities outlined in their most relevant actors including local sub-regional meetings such as Country Matrix. Fifthly, enhancing the and indigenous populations, Law CEFDHAC (Conférence sur les capacity of CSOs is a prerequisite to N° 16/2000 came into force in 2000. Ecosystèmes de Forêts Denses et ensuring their effective participation Alongside Law N° 48/81 of April Humides d’Afrique Centrale). The and involvement in natural resource 21, 1981 on the Conservation and Cameroon component of the CEFDHAC management since they will acquire Management of Wildlife (revised by network (parliamentarians, young the necessary skills to compete with Law N° 37-2008 of November 28, 2008

168 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

on Wildlife and Protected Areas) and the preparation of Law N° 37-2008 resources, and national growth. Law N° 003 of April 23, 1991 on the of November 28, 2008 on Wildlife The elaboration process was fairly Protection of the Environment, most and Protected Area Management. participatory since the Government stakeholders were certain that the The draft law on Fisheries and took into account the opinions, views management of these resources would Continental Aquaculture was adopted and preoccupations of all relevant certainly be ensured. At the regional by Parliament on December 10, 2008 actors. For example, the 2001 level, the Congolese Government and now members are lobbying for Gabonese Forestry Code (Law N° has often been at the forefront in its promulgation by the President of 16/2001 of December 31, 2001) and facilitating the setting up of a regional the Republic. They have also lobbied the 2007 Law on National Parks (Law structure that would ensure regional alongside CSOs for the suspension of N° 003/2007 of September 11 2007) collaboration in the management of Ministerial Order N° 7053/MEF/CAB facilitated the effective involvement of the Congo Basin forest. In 1996, the which authorized the killing of elephants all actors in the management of forest Congolese Government hosted the fi rst at the periphery of the Odzala-Kokoua resources and national parks. The Conference on Central African Moist (around Miélékouka) and Nouabalé- laws sought to fi ll certain gaps found Forest Ecosystems (CEFDHAC) which Ndoki (around Bomassa and Kabo) in Law N° 1/82 of July 22, 1982 on laid the foundations for coordinated National Parks. the management of water and forest, management of forests not only among and brought in some innovations States but among all relevant actors Lessons learned from the Republic such as combating illegal logging and such as parliamentarians, the private of Congo can be summarized as poaching, community management sector, research institutions, women, follows. Firstly, the Country Team is an of natural resources, the link between indigenous and local populations, invaluable catalyst for NRM policy and conservation and local development, etc. In order to consolidate some of legislative reform or change because sustainable management of forest the achievements brought by about of its diverse and expert membership. concessions, transparency and CEFDHAC, the Congolese Government Secondly, it will be very diffi cult, if not information sharing, etc. The law also also organized the Second Central impossible, to lobby for policy and laid down some hunting rules. To hunt, African Heads of State Summit in legislative change and implementation one must have one of the following Brazzaville that culminated with the if there is no collaboration between permits: for small or large-scale signing of the COMIFAC Treaty which all necessary partners such as local hunting, for scientifi c hunting or for is currently responsible for streamlining administration, parliament, civil society, capturing wild animals alive. All these the management of the Congo Basin research centres, etc. Thirdly, dialogue permits can be issued to both nationals Forest. and consultation among various actors and non-residents. However, this does remain a key factor to reducing confl icts not abrogate customary user rights for In an ideal situation, one would expect related to the management of natural subsistence purposes. that all of these regulatory frameworks resources. Fourthly, since man is at would stop the unsustainable use of the centre of all conservation efforts, However, all has not gone well with natural resources. Unfortunately, this the success of all our endeavours will the 2001 Forestry Code and that is has not been the case because illegal depend on how well man is treated why it was supplemented in 2004 by logging and corruption still prevail, in terms of socio-economic-health Decree N° 689/PR/MEFEPEPN of unsustainable hunting and farming are development. Fifthly, awareness raising August 24, 2004 which clarifi ed the still causes for concern, mining has and sharing of information are vital for technical management norms and the not complied with existing norms, the the sustainable use of natural resources sustainable management of productive manpower and funds to implement because they help change attitudes forests. But this did not seem to satisfy these policies and laws are still lacking, and belief systems. Sixthly, it will be some managers who still fi nd the law the management of protected areas has very diffi cult to implement all of these silent on important socio-economic been very diffi cult, local communities policies and laws if we do not have a issues. Also, the implementation of have still not yet benefi ted from their sustainable funding mechanism and the the code has encountered numerous rights, and decision makers have necessary manpower. problems: illegal logging and poaching not been able to obtain adequate because of inadequate control by the information to take sound decisions. 2.4 Lessons learned from the administration, corruption because of Republic of Gabon poverty and lack of ethics, ineffi cient Given these circumstances, CARPE The current NRM regulatory conservation techniques, etc. Most Country Team members went to frameworks in Gabon seek to facilitate observers are of the opinion that work. For example, they took part in the sustainable use of natural poaching is still on the increase because

169 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

of the lack of an implementation decree implementation of appropriate policy confl icts among themselves. outlining measures for effective law and regulatory frameworks, there is Country Team members have enforcement. some common ground. Below are some learnt from past experience and lessons learned which are common to are now working very hard to The Country Team in the Republic of all four countries: create synergy in their activities. Gabon has been very active – they 1. Lobbying for the adoption It is therefore very important to played a key role in the elaboration and promulgation of new laws continue along this line if we want and promulgation of Law N° 03/2007 and policies by Country Team to be both time and cost-effective. of August 11, 2007 on National Parks. members is not the only answer It is very important to note that this to sustainable natural resource 3. Although they lack the necessary law has been long awaited, especially management. It is very important capacity and funds to be after the Presidential Decree of August to ensure that these new or effectively involved in natural 30, 2002 creating 13 National Parks. reformed laws and policies are resource management, CSOs are Conservation partners have always implemented on the ground still very important actors because been calling for the creation of a and their impact felt by local they facilitate buy-in from local National Park Agency to better manage populations and other actors in populations and act as a counter these parks. terms of socio-economic and weapon to some government conservation benefi ts. Past actions which try to undermine A summary of the lessons learned in experience shows that often their involvement. The IUCN- policy and governance in Gabon can when some conservation NGOs, CARPE Small Grants Program be summarized as follows. Firstly, governments and community- has shown that with just a little management decisions that do not based organizations have seed money, CSOs can be helped take into consideration the interests succeeded in having a new NRM to undertake very productive of the local population are destined to law adopted or promulgated, activities, with local, national and fail. Secondly, decisions that do not most of them feel that they have regional impacts. incorporate economic realities will be “delivered the goods” – which very diffi cult to implement. Thirdly, is not necessarily the case, 4. In order to facilitate synergy information campaigns should always because a law or policy that is and reduce confl icts, timely go hand in hand with the adoption not fully implemented is just as communication and information of any NRM law. Fourthly, because bad as no law or policy at all. A sharing among the various actors funds given to national NGOs are strong recommendation would is very important to ensure effi cient not sustained, conservation and therefore be that in collaboration programme delivery. It is therefore development efforts are quite vulnerable with governments, Country Team very important for members to after these funds are stopped. Fifthly, members should always formulate formulate a simple but appropriate ministerial instability and frequent an appropriate strategy to make communication strategy to be transfers of senior civil servants have sure that these new policies implemented amongst themselves. a negative impact on natural resource and laws have an impact on the management. Sixthly, partners should ground. 5. The process of elaborating, be patient because the adoption and adopting and promulgating promulgation of laws takes a lot of 2. To successfully achieve good NRM policies and laws can be time. Seventhly, because conservation governance in sustainable NRM, very time-consuming. At times requirements do not often tie in with Country Team members should there are confl icting interests political and economic objectives, there build on each other’s comparative and viewpoints, and a lack of are bound to be confl icts between technical and advocacy the necessary funds and other NGOs and politicians. experiences and advantages. If resources to effectively engage some members undermine the and involve all the relevant actions of other stakeholders actors. It is vital that partners 3. Conclusion and (like competing NGOs) because exercise patience because any recommendations they are competing for funding hasty measures will surely be From the above we can see that from donors or for favour from detrimental to the objectives of although each country has its own Governments, most of their such an important process. specifi cities and philosophy in terms resources are diverted towards of the identifi cation, elaboration and irrelevant competition and latent

170 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

6. Capacity building of CSOs is a be a source of confl ict if not well framework because it is diffi cult to prerequisite to ensuring policy managed. This is because some have a good and comprehensive change or reforms; however, most CSOs are often competing for cash understanding of laws and CSOs do not often have the means and will not hesitate to denigrate policies which are written in or capacity to play their role fully. any competing organizations. It English or in French. It is therefore The Small Grants Program is is therefore very important for very important to translate some gradually fi lling this gap. donors to help create a friendly of these documents into national environment amongst CSOs. languages and promote peer 7. Although the small grants scheme capacity building. ' is an effective way to support 8. Some stakeholders, including CSOs in lobbying for policy and local communities, have been less legislative change, it can also supportive to the legal governance

171 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Case Study 1 Lessons Learned on the Promotion of a National Policy and Governance Agenda for Cameroon

Antoine Eyébé and Guy Patrice Dkamela

Overview of the policy and charge of the management of forestry environment and the preservation governance context in and wildlife issues. The fi rst forestry of biodiversity in a permanent way; Cameroon policy document was drafted in 1993, • To improve the populations’ The forest and wildlife policy in force leading to the development and involvement in conservation and in Cameroon is a combination of the adoption of Law N° 94/01 of 20 January the management of the forest consequences of its colonial history 1994, which lays down forestry, wildlife resources in such a way as to raise with Germany, Great Britain and France. and fi sheries regulations in Cameroon. their standard of living; After the reunifi cation of the former This law is considered one of the most • To enhance the forest resources Federated States of East and West progressive in Central Africa for the in order to increase the share Cameroon in 1972, the construction following reasons: fi rstly, the way forest of forest production in the GDP of a United Republic led to the concessions were allocated, taxed while maintaining its productive nationalization of the judicial framework and managed changed signifi cantly, potential; (forestry and land tenure) in order to giving way to the introduction of market • To facilitate the renewal of the begin to create harmony and coherence pricing for timber through competitive resource by regeneration and between the two systems, especially in auctioning of concessions. There reforestation in order to perpetuate terms of reconciling the fragile rights of are provisions for two independent the potential; local communities. observers to monitor transparency and • To rekindle or reactivate the compliance both during the allocation forest sector by putting an After the Rio Summit in 1992, the of forest concessions (fi rst level) and effi cient institutional system in State’s leading objective was that the during the exploitation of the timber place with the participation of all government should meet its national in the fi eld (second level). Secondly, stakeholders. and international obligations, i.e., the classifi cation of the national forest to curb practices detrimental to the heritage into Permanent Forest Estate Another important crossroads in the sustainable management of forest (PFE) and Non-permanent Forest Estate history of Cameroonian and Central resources and to ensure economic (NPFE) is another important innovation. African forest management is March development of the country through The PFE is the private domain of 1999 when presidents and leaders forest exploitation. During this fi rst the State, and designated to remain from Central Africa met in Yaoundé period, forestry and wildlife policy forested in the long term. This includes and made a commitment to enhancing could be summarized as follows: more production forests dedicated to timber forest management. Cameroon emphasis was placed on regulating exploitation, protection forests for the immediately adopted an action plan extractive activities like logging, with conservation of natural resources, in November 1999 that was revised in a few compulsory provisions on research forest and recreation forest. June 2000. It focused on the following reforestation and a target of 20 percent themes: controlling illegal forest of the country’s surface area to be In 1995, the National Forestry Action exploitation including poaching; and gazetted as protected areas. Local Programme (PAFN) was presented as the increasing involvement of local communities’ user rights, which had part of the broad National Programme populations in forest conservation. been identifi ed as being fragile and for Environmental Management – PNGE In 2002, at the World Summit on vulnerable to withdrawal (Obam, 1992), (MINEF, 1995). The 1995 forestry policy, Sustainable Development (WSSD, also began to be taken into account. which is still in force, has the following Johannesburg), they signed up to the fi ve objectives: Congo Basin Forest Initiative which The Ministry of Environment and • To ensure the protection of the included commitments to better timber Forestry (MINEF) was created in 1992 forest heritage and to participate harvesting and processing technologies; and was the only government body in in the safeguarding of the ecotourism; increasing capacity for

172 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

natural resource management in both However, although this may still for wildlife crimes. Thanks to the the public and private sectors; and appear an uphill task, efforts have activities implemented under this improving legal and law enforcement been made both by the Cameroonian agreement, over 50 court cases infrastructures. Targets are provided by Government and its multilateral, bilateral have been initiated and wildlife an updated regional master plan being and international partners. Several crime is gradually being perceived developed by the Central African Forest assessments of their implementation as being as bad as other types of Commission in which Cameroon has have already been carried out (Bikié crime in Cameroonian society. played a key role. et al., 2000; I&D, 2000; Global • The WRI-Global Forest Watch/ Witness, 2002; MINFOF, 2005; FGF, MINFOF agreement to monitor Cameroon also adopted the Forest and 2006; Karsenty et al., 2006). From forest cover by teledetection has Environment Sector Programme (FESP) these reports, some of the country’s enabled the mapping of different in 2004 which has been supported efforts, and positive results that land-use options and delimiting by donors since 2005. The FESP is a have strengthened environmental forest concessions while at ten-year programme (2005–2015). It is governance, can be highlighted: the same time controlling the a comprehensive and coherent policy • The allocation of forest implementation of management document that facilitates sustainable concessions to concessionaires plans. forest management in Cameroon. through public bids with the • The Ministry also put in place a Based on both forest and environmental presence of an independent computerized system of forest legislation, the FESP prioritizes fi ve observer to facilitate transparency management information (SIGIF) components: and competitiveness in the followed later by the Global Law 1) environmental management, process; Information Network (GLIN). The including environmental monitoring and • The recruitment of an independent “Network” is a public database awareness; observer in charge of monitoring of laws, regulations, decisions, 2) production (concession contracting forestry activities in the fi eld which judicial and other complementary and supervision, promotion of industrial has helped in the reduction of legal sources, compiled by processing, etc.); illegal logging, poaching and the governmental agencies and 3) wildlife and protected areas (focusing fi ght against corruption; international organizations. This more especially on the development of • The implementation of transparent system will surely reinforce access a network of protected areas properly practices such as the tri-monthly to information by all stakeholders. fi nanced and managed with local publication of forestry infractions • Involvement in the Forest Law participation; and sanctions and the publication Enforcement, Governance and 4) community forest management, with of the amount of annual forestry Trade (FLEGT) process. In a bid to three sub-components: community royalties dedicated to local facilitate good governance in forest forest management, community forest councils (40 percent) and local management, the Cameroonian regeneration and fuelwood wood supply communities (10 percent). Government hosted the First in the northern regions; and • The increased contribution of the African Ministerial Conference on 5) institutional strengthening, training forestry sector to the GDP. To African Forest Law Enforcement and research, focusing on the Ministry make it workable, accessible and and Governance (AFLEG) in of Forestry and Wildlife (MINFOF) and transparent, a special institution Yaoundé in October 2003. The the Ministry of Environment and Nature – the Forestry Revenue Security outcome of this very important Protection (MINEP). Programme (PSRF) – was put in meeting was to provide Cameroon place to trace and collect revenue with the necessary conditions from the sector. to start its negotiations with Environmental policy and • The Last Great Ape Organization the European Union (EU) for a governance successes over (LAGA)/MINFOF agreement to Voluntary Partnership Agreement the past ten years fi ght commercial poaching and (VPA) that will make it possible Alhough the current forestry and all related trade in endangered to reduce or even eradicate the wildlife policy and laws in Cameroon animal species by ensuring the illegal logging and trade in timber are an exceptional achievement in the prosecution of large-scale illegal exported to the EU. Central African sub-region, the major wildlife exploiters, and running • Cameroon also contributed to challenge is to develop governance public awareness campaigns to the setting up of a network of structures that will enable their effective increase the enforcement of wildlife experts on forest policies in the implementation by all stakeholders. law and the risks and penalties Congo Basin (Réseau des experts

173 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

en politiques forestières dans le a logging company in Cameroon The same lack of coordination bassin du Congo – REPOFBAC). Its (Karsenty et al., 2006). leads to inconsistencies between main objectives were to promote • The weak decentralization policy the data on logging activities (SIGIF information exchange between for timber extraction, intended database from MINFOF) and the governments, while at the same to enable local communities to data on forestry revenues collected time identifying priority areas for increase their benefi t from forest by the PSRF in the Ministry of action, including forestry planning, exploitation. This approach was Finance. the valuation of non-timber forest put in place to help communities • Insuffi cient funding to facilitate the products, community participation, to exploit and sell their forest enforcement of forestry laws and and decentralization. resources by themselves rather policies. One of the reasons for • The Cameroon Ministry of than going through local mayors the poor performance mentioned Forests and the Environment who are frequently guilty of above is the lack of suffi cient and annually publishes the names mismanagement. Though this long-term funding for the forestry of forestry corporations that are was a good approach in theory, sector. Though a Special Fund guilty of illegal practices in forest in practice, the process seems to for Forestry Development (FSDF) concessions. be controlled by local elites and was put in place following the • The Government’s desire to ensure authorities. Also, many studies enactment of the 1994 Law, the transparency and participation have shown that the share of disbursement of money from the in the management of protected forest taxes transferred by the State Treasury to this fund doesn’t areas through co-management State to local councils (40 percent always comply with the law, partly has received a strong boost for the councils and 10 percent because of the weak political from framework and individual for communities) continues position, and hence bargaining agreements signed with the to be rarely invested in local power, of the Forestry and Wildlife World Wide Fund for Nature development. This contributes Minister. In 2005, 3.5 billion CFA (WWF), aimed at improving the to the failure of the State to meet were to be disbursed to the FSDF, management of Cameroon’s the second objective of its 1995 but only 1.5 billion eventually got wildlife and protected areas. forest policy, thereby putting into there. question the social legitimacy of its forest regulation and policies. Some shortcomings in forest The lack of transparency and The CARPE strategy for governance accountability in the use of forest promoting a policy and Despite the above-mentioned advances, royalties by local councils remains governance agenda in there are important weaknesses and a serious thorn in the side of Cameroon: activities outstanding challenges with regard to equitable revenue sharing. undertaken and results forest and wildlife law enforcement and • The weak institutional performance achieved governance: of the administration. The fact that After the WSSD, CARPE’s activities • The persistence of corruption in many illegal forestry activities are were concentrated on six countries and the forestry sector has been a neither reported nor sanctioned the programme’s strategy was updated. matter of debate and frequent could be explained by the lack of Three intermediate results were criticism for several years. A capacity (human, organizational, anticipated, including forest governance World Bank report, for instance, material) within the MINFOF. and policies strengthened. To address indicated that during the October This also raises the issue of this, CARPE relied on its partners to 1997 allocation of concessions, the ownership of forestry reform by the put in place a coalition of technical and specifi ed allocation criteria were administration. The multiplicity of strategic members to work towards not fully respected. Because of administrative bodies in charge of improving environmental governance behind-the-scenes shady dealings, forestry and environment is one of in the region, and strengthening their competition among the bidders the causes of weak performance. capacity to monitor natural resources. was not fair and as a result, a huge The confl ict between MINFOF and Under this approach, it was also amount of forestry revenue for the MINEP is an interesting illustration. anticipated that NGO/civil society State, the local councils and local MINFOF and MINEP have failed to initiatives would specifi cally address communities was lost. The costs of put in place a functional framework illegal logging, bushmeat poaching, corruption are estimated at 0.5–5 for involving other stakeholders in and other natural resource governance percent of the “coût de revient” of the implementation of the FESP. abuses by bringing public attention to

174 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

a given problem and generating public international conventions and in setting by working with other stakeholders to support at the national level for remedial up norms and procedures for access identify the most pertinent indicators. actions by government through policy/ to wildlife resources. For example, the legislative reform or change. To facilitate Government’s ratifi cation of the Ramsar The concept of “community forest” has the host country’s participation, the Convention in 2006 came immediately been problematic since the process Country Team group has worked in after the Country Team adopted an started ten years ago because some close collaboration with members advocacy approach, contacting various elites have been requesting forests of parliament, representatives from stakeholders to explain the importance purely for their own benefi t. To avoid this the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife of the Convention. The Country Team unsatisfactory situation, the outdated and the Ministry of Environment and also provided the necessary technical manual for the designation, attribution Nature Protection, etc., under the support through the elaboration of and management of community forests supervision of CARPE Focal Points the Ramsar Information Sheets that is currently being revised. The Country (FPs). The Country Team is a think-tank allowed the designation of a Ramsar Team members contributed directly to on pertinent issues related to policy site around the Nyong area as a this process with their inputs during and governance in natural resource wetland of international importance strategic, technical and awareness- management (NRM), and its major upon accession. In addition, the raising meetings. For instance, objective is to involve all relevant Country Team organized a series members insisted on some critical partners in the planning, implementation of brainstorming meetings on the aspects such as the responsibility and monitoring of NRM projects and subject to present the usefulness of for the Ministry of Environment and programmes in the country to facilitate a the Convention to Cameroon, Central Nature Protection (MINEP) to assist change or reform in policies and laws. It Africa and the world. The Country communities in the realization of has a wide range of activities including Team also worked to elaborate Environmental Impact Assessment data collection and analysis, advocacy, norms and procedures that would studies. Through the CARPE and the communication, etc. ensure the devolution of forestry Country Team support, CSOs were and wildlife management powers able to insist on some points which To make their work as effective as to local communities (Community will certainly enhance the process. For possible, the group meets three times Hunting Zones) by advocating this instance, reducing the administrative a year. The fi rst meeting helps to to the Ministry in charge of Forests burden through a decentralized system identify and agree on: priority areas on and Wildlife. The group contributed in that will empower local MINFOF staff in governance and policy issues; a range defi ning and facilitating a participatory remote areas was raised. of broad-based activities; and the role process from which the draft norms and responsibility of each organization. and procedures for the attribution and Information sharing At the second meeting, each Country management of Community Hunting Governance and policy improvement in Team member presents his/her report Zones was developed. The Team also the sub-region have always faced the based on activities on which he was worked closely with the Ministry of problem of suffi cient accurate data due the lead. One of the objectives of this Forestry and Wildlife to rally civil society partly to the high costs of collection, second meeting is to help partners to organizations (CSOs) to participate in analysis and dissemination. carry out any necessary adjustments the review process of the Norms and before the end of the year. The last Procedures for Community Forestry, Through Global Forest Watch (GFW), the meeting helps to assess achievements and the Arrêteé 122 for the setting up of Country Team has helped the Ministry as per the plans made during the fi rst an equitable access and benefi t-sharing of Forestry and Wildlife to collect and meeting, and also start planning for the regime for forest resources. These process data which has resulted in activities of the next CARPE fi scal year. texts have since been presented to the the publication of annual (Interactive MINFOF for endorsement. To improve Atlas) maps on the logging situation Below are some of the results that forest management in Cameroon, a in Cameroon and this has helped the CARPE and its partners have achieved working group was put in place to Government to take the necessary within the framework of the Country fi nalize the criteria and indicators in actions to improve governance in Team. the Cameroonian context, merging the forestry sector. The Interactive the ITTO (International Tropical Timber Forestry Atlas produced by GFW in Improving the legal framework Organization) and ATO (African Timber close collaboration with the Ministry The Country Team has contributed Organization) criteria. The CARPE personnel was very helpful in tracking signifi cantly in terms of promoting the Country Team played a key role here illegal logging. Other data collected on Cameroon Government’s accession to fraud and illegal exploitation of natural

175 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

resources were also shared with the the Conference signed an MOU with to make. The Country Team further Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife and the Central African Forest Commission contributed to the setting up of these with the Head of the Cameroonian (COMIFAC). The group’s contribution committees with a rigorous and government (the Prime Minister). We to the CEFDHAC reform process was transparent supervision of the elections had at least two meetings each year invaluable, notably because it will of their members. with the Minister of Forestry and Wildlife facilitate the sustainable management of not only to share information in our the Central African forest ecosystems. Access to justice possession but also seek advice and Access to justice has been troublesome support from him on the way forward. The Team was also involved in other because most members of the judiciary coalitions or networks such as The have not fully mastered the provisions The Country Team has also been Access Initiative (TAI) process, a global of the 1994 forestry code and its instrumental in organizing the annual civil society coalition promoting public subsequent 1995 implementing Decree fi eld trip with donors to assess the access to information, participation and and hence they are scarcely competent main programme in the forestry sector justice in decision making that affects to dispense justice. Also, it was believed (PSFE). Findings from this trip are the environment. Under this project, a that some members of the judiciary shared with the public and policy database of information was designed were corrupt, and therefore wildlife makers. and several training workshops were traffi ckers and illegal loggers could conducted. Several networks such easily “negotiate” in court to obtain To enhance communication and as the Network of African Women for favourable judgements. information sharing, the CARPE FP Sustainable Development (Réseau also organized a gathering of journalists des Femmes Africaines pour le To address these problems, the Country involved in environmental issues in développement durable – REFADD) Team organized two major training Cameroon. This was the fi rst ever working to improve resources sessions with magistrates to explain workshop seeking to enhance the management and transparency also the forestry code where about 20 capacity of media practitioners in received input from the Country Team. individuals were trained. effective environmental reporting with the aim of promoting participatory Accountability Some partners such as LAGA management of resources in Cameroon. Accountability has improved in the investigated corruption within the The workshop covered several topics forestry sector with the support of the judiciary in relation to wildlife traffi cking. including approaches for measuring CARPE Country Team. The Group has For the fi rst time, this resulted in the standards through statistical analysis of assisted local communities to set up conviction in May 2008 of a Senior media output; fi ghting corruption; and management committees in charge Magistrate who was helping traffi ckers. informing the public of sustainable forest of development plans from revenues The magistrate had been receiving and wildlife management approaches. received from the community-based money and ivory in exchange for his wildlife management committees illegal services to them. Participation (Comités de Valorisation des To ensure effective good governance, Ressources Fauniques – COVAREFs) Also, with CARPE fi nancial and the participation of all stakeholders, in south-east Cameroon. These technical support for special projects including civil society, is absolutely committees are independent of local such as Cameroon Environmental key. The Country Team promoted the government administrative structures Watch, and with the interactive forest participation of parliamentarians in the and accountable to communities atlas regularly produced by GFW, we process. This participation has enabled because they have to justify helped the Ministry to track the illegal decision makers to take into account investments (health centres, schools) bushmeat trade and illegal logging. rural communities’ voices in forest against incomes received. Due to a This resulted in several court cases, management initiatives. One example is lack of transparency in the existing and eventually some convictions the Conference on Central African Moist management of forestry taxes, other (see Annex 1). Forest Ecosystems (CEFDHAC), a forum committees are also following this open to all relevant forestry stakeholders example. Although mayors will still have Access to justice is also hampered by in the region. Ideas and refl ections to play a key role in the management of the general public’s lack of knowledge from the Conference contributed to these royalties, they will be accountable of the law. CARPE and the Country decision making by political authorities to the committees in terms of the Team liaised with Citizen Initiative involved in environmental and forestry utilization of funds. The committee will Governance (CGI), a non-profi t-making issues in Central Africa. For instance, also decide on the type of investment association that publicizes citizens’

176 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

rights. CGI is currently setting up small activities of some CSOs, aimed It is necessary to facilitate the offi ces in three regions including the at achieving policy and legislative legalization of the COVAREF and east and the south where more attention change and reform; to fi nalize the community forest needs to be paid to levels of forest • Building CSO capacity is manual by including those civil exploitation. The purpose of these a prerequisite for effective society observations which support offi ces is to assist local communities governance; most CSOs do not communities’ rights in this process. in court cases. Most communities, have the means or capacity to NGOs and CGI staff themselves have play their role fully. The IUCN appreciated the Country Team’s help Small Grants Program for CSOs is Recommendations in setting up these offi ces. Lawyers gradually fi lling this gap; The 1994 Forestry Law aims to enhance from this association will help the • Although the Small Grants Program forest management in Cameroon but communities in cases which include, is an effective way to support still has not been fully implemented to but are not limited to, land disputes, CSOs, it can also be a source of date, therefore non-practical segments forest infractions, alienation of human confl ict if not well managed. This of the law need to be reviewed. The rights etc. is because CSOs often compete fact that the right of indigenous or local for cash, often blackmailing each populations to use land and forest other. Also, some of them seem not resources is restricted could impact Lessons learned to understand that transparency negatively on their willingness to control • Good governance in NRM is not in small grants management and contribute to sustainable forest well established and this has needs some stringent measures management. had a negative impact on natural on the part of managers which at resource exploitation in general times might be looked upon as If reviewed, the Forestry Law should and the forest sector in particular. “unconventional”; strongly consider other sectors such as This is because it takes a lot of • The decentralized approach put in mining which could impact forest cover time and energy to deal with place to make local populations and biodiversity. the problem, especially as it is a more responsible for forest phenomenon that is deep-rooted in resources can be effi cient if local It is important to implement systematic the psyches of some stakeholders; élites do not prevent the people’s audits in the use of forestry taxes by • To achieve good governance, it is participation in both forest decentralized structures (mayors). important to start by enhancing management and forest revenue the existing legal framework investment; It is also necessary to conduct because some laws governing • Community representatives like Environmental Impact Assessments with natural resource management have members of parliament must use recognized international standards for only recently been put in place their infl uence to question the all projects that may have forest cover/ and at times do not fully take into executive arm of government on biodiversity impacts. consideration the context where natural resource management they will be implemented; during sessions of the National Conservation initiatives in Cameroon • Some stakeholders, including Assembly as this would certainly are supported mostly by contributions local communities, have been improve governance practices; from the international community, less supportive of the legal • Local radio stations have been set and as such are constrained in their governance framework because it up throughout the forest area, but effectiveness by their short-term nature. is diffi cult to have a very good and did not really play the expected To achieve stronger policy reforms in comprehensive understanding of role in governance due to a particular and establish conservation laws which are written in English or shortage of effi cient technical staff programmes in general, Cameroon in French; and the necessary funds. In order needs to increase the effi ciency of the • Working with different stakeholders to allow them to play their role self-fi nancing mechanisms that the within the framework of the fully, these shortages should be Forestry Revenue Securing Programme Country Team without funding is addressed; (PSRF) has already put in place. ' a continuous challenge in a region • Both the COVAREF and the where most stakeholders are used community forest programme to working for cash. CARPE needs could improve forest governance to explore the possibility of funding if local populations were fully the existing targeted governance involved in these processes.

177 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Annex 1

16 sociétés forestières suspendues

Décision No. 0145/D/MINFOF/CAB Du 20 mars 2008

Le ministre des Forêts et de la Faune décide :

Art. 1. Les sociétés qui ne se sont pas présentées pour justiﬁ er de la provenance de leurs bois à l’issue des saisies effectuées au Port de Douala en octobre 2007 sont, à titre conservatoire, suspendues de leurs activités à compter de la date de signature de la présente décision. Il s’agit de :

• BK BUSINESS • CAMFOREST • EGB • LL • SOCIETE NOUVELLE FORESTIERE (SNF) • TLC • TT • ETS JA BOIS (EJB) • FZ • ROCKFIELD TRADING CAMEROUN (RTLC) • STE FORESTIERE ET DES SERVICES DU CAMEROUN (SFSC) • TCS • ETS TF BOIS (TF BOIS) • TRANSATLANTIQUE CAMEROUN (TRANSCAM) • TRANSPORT REPRESENTATION COMMERCIALE (TRECOM) • ETS WOOD SUPPLY AND SERVICES (WSS)

Art. 2. La suspension ne pourra être levée qu’après production des justiﬁ catifs valables de la provenance des produits saisis.

Art. 3. Le directeur des Forêts, le directeur de la promotion et la transformation des produits forestiers, le chef de brigade nationale de contrôle, le chef de la cellule juridique, les délégués provinciaux et le coordonnateur du programme de sécurisation des recettes forestières sont, chacun en ce qui le concerne, chargés de l’application de la présente décision.

Art. 4. La présente décision sera enregistrée et communiquée partout où besoin sera.

(é) Elvis NGOLLE NGOLLE

Cameroun Tribune : Mardi, 25 mars 2008

178 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

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Bikié, H., Collomb, J.-G., Djomo, L., Minnemeyer, S., Ngoufo, R. and Nguiffo, S. 2000. An overview of logging in Cameroon. Washington, DC: WRI. Brunner, J. and Ekoko, F. 2000. « Environmental Adjustment: Cameroon Case Study ». In: Seymour, F. and Dubash, N. (Eds). The Right Conditions: The World Bank, Structural Adjustment and Forest Policy Reform, pp.59–82. Washington, DC: WRI. Cerutti, P.O. and Assembe, S. 2005. “Cameroon Forest Sector. Independent Observer. Global Witness End of Contract Project Review”. London: DFID.

Egbe, S. 1997. Forest Tenure and Access to Forest Resources in Cameroon: An Overview. Forest Participation Series No. 6. London: IIED. Ekoko, F. 1997. “The political economy of the 1994 Cameroon forestry law”. CIFOR Working Paper No. 4. Eyébé, A.J. 2007. “Revue de la gestion des ressources naturelles au Cameroun”. RCGG/IGC. Forest Governance Facility (FGF). 2006. “Introducing a multi-stakeholder approach in Cameroon’s forest and environment sector”. Project Document, SNV/DFID. Global Witness. 2002. “Forest law enforcement in Cameroon”. 1st Summary Report of the Independent Observer, May–November 2001. I&D. 2000. « Bilan diagnostique du secteur forestier camerounais ». Mission revue institutionnelle du secteur forestier. Document de travail, MINEF. Independent Monitoring. 2006. “Progress in tackling illegal logging in Cameroon”. Annual report, March 2005–February 2006, Yaoundé. Karsenty, A. 2006. « L’impact des réformes dans le secteur forestier d’Afrique centrale ». In : Nasi, R., Nguinguiri, J.C. and Ezzine de Blas, D. (Eds). Exploitation et gestion durable des forêts en Afrique centrale, pp.25–60. Paris : L’Harmattan. Karsenty, A., Roda, J.-M., Milol, A. and Fochivé, E. in assocation with the Cameroon National Institute of Statistics. 2006. « Audit économique et ﬁ nancier du secteur forestier au Cameroun ». Yaoundé : MINEFI and CIRAD.

Lescuyer, G. 2005. « La biodiversité, un nouveau gombo ? ». Natures, Sciences, Sociétés 13 : 311–315. Mandjem, Y.P. and Bigombe Logo, P. 2007. Governance of Natural Resources for Peace. Mertens, B., Minnemeyer, S., Neba Shu, G., Nsoyuni, L.A. and Steil, M. 2007. Atlas Forestier Interactif du Cameroun. Version 2.0. Document de synthèse. Washington, DC: WRI. MINEF. 2004. Programme sectoriel forêts et environnement (PSFE). Document du programme, Yaoundé. MINEF. 1996. Law N° 96/12 of August 1996 relating to environmental management. MINEF. 1995. Politique forestière du Cameroun.

MINEF. 1995. Document de politique forestière: Programme d’action forestier national du Cameroun (PAFN). MINEF. 1994. Law N° 94/01 of 20 January 1994 laying down forestry, wildlife and ﬁ sheries regulations. MINFOF. 2005. « Séminaire sur les dix années de gestion forestière et faunique au Cameroun (1995–2005): bilan et perspectives ». Communiqué ﬁ nal, Yaoundé, Palais des congrès, 25–28 avril 2005.

Nguiffo, S. 2007. Evaluation indépendante du processus EITI au Cameroun, septembre. Nguiffo, S. 2004. « La réforme de la législation forestière a-t-elle amélioré la transparence ? » Terroirs 1–2 : 191–202. Obam, A. 1992. Conservation et mise en valeur des forêts au Cameroun. Yaoundé : l’Imprimerie nationale. Observateur Indépendant, 2006. « Forêts communautaires ». Rapport n° 050/OI/REM, issu d’une mission conjointe entre la BNC et l’OI du 16 mai au 02 juin 2006.

179 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Case Study 2 Evolution of Gabonese Regulations on Natural Resource Management

Constant Allogo

Introduction and background development, and improving the living resources that are the Congo Basin’s to forestry policies and conditions of the population. transboundary wealth, and draft and legislation in Gabon develop relevant legal texts. “The Long March” towards the rational Since the Yaoundé Declaration in 1999, management of natural resources countries of the Congo Basin have of Central African countries remains committed themselves to rational and The new trends and intimately linked to the evolution of the sustainable management of their natural limitations of the Forestry legislative and regulatory framework resources. This commitment aims at Code in these countries. During the colonial harmonizing all forestry laws with a The 2001 Forestry Code, that abrogates period, the discovery of Okoumé, view to joint management of the second the provisions of Law No. 1/82 of 22 Gabon’s most valuable wood, and the largest forest complex in the world. In July 1982, has brought about innovation ease of cutting veneer from it, made order to achieve this, they have to adopt in several areas of which the most it possible to exploit it to satisfy the several new laws that enhance the use signifi cant are: forest management, wild needs of all the countries of the north. and management of natural resources. fauna management and the issue of The development of veneer cutting led community forests. to the standardization of the process Gabon has reformed its legal framework by defi ning the exploitable diameter by adopting two major laws based on Unlike the old forestry law that was of the tree’s trunk, i.e., the precise the concept of sustainable management silent on the principles of sustainability diameter at which an okoumé tree can of natural resources. These are Law No. in the use of forest resources, the be exploited. The technology used at 16/2001 of 31 December 2001 on the 2001 Forestry Code emphasizes forest the time made the impact on nature forestry code of the Republic of Gabon management with the aim of rational insignifi cant. In a bid to perpetuate and Law No. 003/2007 of 11 September and sustainable exploitation. the logging potential of the forests 2007 on National Parks. of Gabon, Okoumé plantations were In fact, in Article 18 of the Forestry created. The concern for conservation Since its launch in 1995, the Central Code, before any logging, the was also extended to wildlife with the African Regional Program for the logging company is required fi rst of creation of rational exploitation and Environment (CARPE), whose all to develop the concession using conservation areas for wild fauna. objective is “to identify and create a plan that has to be validated by conditions and practices necessary the administration. This includes In view of the enormous potential that to reduce deforestation and biological management of wild fauna. the forest offers, African countries diversity loss” has been committed are increasingly adopting policies to helping States formulate effi cient In addition, the management plans that address the economic and national strategies that contribute of forest concessions, called Forest social development concerns of the to the conservation of resources Management Units (FMUs), include, population. and to building the organizational beyond the technical aspects, two new capacities of civil society actors in concerns: a socio-economic analysis Thus, concerns about the sustainable order to make them active partners for and the designation of a conservation management of natural resources are conservation. Members of the CARPE zone within the concession. still strong today. There is an urgent Country Team, and their partners, need for a form of management that are sharing their expertise with the The socio-economic analysis will make guarantees the sustainability of the various administrations as they defi ne it possible to take into consideration resource and contributes to sustainable national strategies for the rational and the interests of the local communities sustainable management of the natural living close to the concession

180 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

(hunting grounds, farmlands …), and exercising customary usufruct rights training of conservation offi cials takes the conservation zone allows for in the areas of forest, fauna, hunting place and if local communities are made participation in the management of and fi shing. The economic aspects of more aware of all aspects of the law. fauna found in the concession. these products are not covered by the law. Exploitation of rattan is beyond the Under the Code, three types of permits scope of usufruct rights. Community forests are are henceforth recognized: forest another important innovation concession under management (CFAD), Hunting out of protected areas is of the Forestry Code for an area of 50,000–200,000 ha – controlled by the issuing of permits or Unlike previous forestry regulations, mostly issued to large companies. The licences. The Forestry Code provides the Forestry Code recognizes the rights associated forest permit (PFA), reserved for six types of permits: small-scale of the local population to exploit their for nationals, for an area of 15,000– hunting permit, large-scale hunting forests. Seven articles describe how to 50,000 ha. Finally, the mutual agreement permit, scientifi c permit, permit to create and manage a community forest. permit (PGG), also issued only to capture live wild animals, licence for Such a forest, usually situated in a rural nationals for local processing, allows for commercial capture of live wild animals, area, is the property of a village, a group logging up to 50 trees. and photo safari licence. These various of villages or a canton. The procedure permits and licences subdivided into for its attribution has been simplifi ed for Whichever the size of the area, the categories are granted both to nationals the decision is taken at the level of the logging company must carry out an and foreigners (Article 173). However, provincial inspectorate of forestry. inventory of all forest resources and they do not override the customary evaluate them in order to determine usufruct rights of village communities to According to the Code, the Head of the zones meant for felling, with a logging hunt for their subsistence. provincial inspectorate of forestry is the plan, and those to be retained for competent authority to whom members conservation. These documents In spite of these provisions, illegal of a village community should address must be presented to the appropriate hunting occurs in Gabon (Article 14 and themselves when they wish to designate authorities to be checked. Further 163) and is on the increase. Increasingly a community forest for exploitation. He/ verifi cation may be carried out by sophisticated networks of poachers are she will give an opinion on the matter forestry offi cials on the ground. developing both inside and outside the while forwarding the fi le to the Minister conservation zone. in charge of forestry for a decision. The The Forestry Code, supplemented provincial services are also charged with by Decree No. 689/PR/MEFEPEPN For provisions on the exploitation of assisting communities in developing the of 24 August 2004 to defi ne the wild fauna to be complete, they have management plan for the community technical standards for the sustainable to be accompanied by implementation forest. development and management of decrees that will help organize and registered productive State forests, control the bushmeat sector, and make The provisions of the forestry code, remains ambivalent on the socio- offi cial the practice of hunting and relating to community forests, are economic analysis specifi ed in Article marketing of hunting products. The supplemented by a regulatory 21 – the text does not provide any increased presence of forestry offi cials, instrument that is intended to guarantee explanation of this term. more staff training, and game wardens transparency in the attribution and patrolling the conservation zone may management of community forests for The implementation decree, mentioned help deal with illegal hunting. exploitation purposes. above, stipulates the role of each actor in the process of logging FMUs and In order for the major principles In the long term, it would be benefi cial extends to technical provisions. contained in the forestry code to for local communities to organize become operational, they therefore themselves into associations or As regards non-timber forest products, require the enactment of specifi c cooperatives for more cohesive action. “obtaining a permit does not confer the decrees to implement them. In order for them to be real community right to exploit forest products including forest managers, they need to have timber” (Article 148). Their exploitation Initiatives supported by partners, mastered the texts that govern the remains under the area of customary aimed at effective management of wild exploitation of community forests. usufruct rights and is defi ned by Decree fauna, will only be sustainable if the No. 692/PR/MEFEPEPN of 24 August appropriate decisions are taken at the 2004, laying down the conditions for appropriate time, if comprehensive

181 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

It is not uncommon for tensions to In the end, they were transformed in them. In Article 3, paragraph 8, the mount in villages where community into wildlife reserves. The legislation National Park is defi ned as a “protected forests are exploited on a rental basis. provided for two types of reserves: area created in a portion of the those devoted to rational exploitation territory where terrestrial and marine They generally arise as a result of the of fauna and those devoted to integral ecosystems, geomorphological sites, management of revenues paid to local conservation. Unfortunately, the historical sites and other forms of communities. economic potential of these protected landscape have special protection with areas, other than their fauna, could the aim of preserving biological diversity Those who “know the system” (i.e., make them liable to be exploited. and the processes of regulating natural those who are or have been involved Moreover, in these reserves, only the ecology by authorizing regulated in local government) may commit their fauna was ever protected and not its ecotourism activities, scientifi c research whole community and be the fi rst habitat. and educational activities, while to benefi t from the effects of these contributing to the economic and social commitments. Before the 2001 Forestry Code, the development of local communities”. provisions contained in the 1982 At the level of provincial inspectorates, Forestry Law had already set the basis This new law does not impinge on the apart from the provincial inspector, for the management of protected areas rights of the local population for whom most of the offi cials have been recruited with the introduction of an important the park is an opportunity to improve locally and do not necessarily have the innovation: “the wildlife reserve is a their living conditions, through income- requisite expertise to carry out the tasks perimeter wherein fl ora and fauna have generating activities. entrusted to them. absolute protection” (Article 38). This law also authorizes scientifi c activities, In order to achieve sustainable In spite of the law’s imprecision on tourism activities and recognition of development, the national park socio-economic analysis, Article 251 of customary rights (Article 5). associates conservation of biological the Code provides for the establishment diversity with economic and social of a fi nancial contribution fed mostly by When the creation of the network of development of local communities. forest concessions whose objective is 13 national parks was announced, the Its management plan, drawn up after to fund development actions initiated Government enacted Ordinance No. consultation with all stakeholders, takes by local communities. This provision will 2/2002 of 22 August 2002 to modify into consideration data related to the effectively allow the population to deal some of the provisions of the 2001 history, physical features of the area, with their general needs (electrifi cation Forestry Code. This ordinance creates biological diversity, etc. (Article 21). of rural areas, building primary health the National Council of National Parks, care centres and schools …). placed under the direct authority of the Articles 4 and 7 state that local President of the Republic (Article 2). communities should play an important This council, an inter-ministerial body, is role in the management of the park and The law on national parks charged with managing national parks Article 18 recommends that community National parks, formerly governed by an and the activities carried out therein representatives are appointed onto the ordinance, are today regulated by Law (scientifi c and tourism activities). It is local consultative committees for the No. 03/2007 of 27 August 2007. This headed by a Permanent Secretary and management of the parks. law specifi es the provisions contained in the parks are under the responsibility of the Forestry Code and the Environment conservators (Article 3). Within the park, exploitation of natural Code. resources is not allowed. This is only Pursuant to this ordinance, decrees to possible in the peripheral zones, subject Historically, Gabon already had national create each of the 13 national parks to prior conduct of an environmental parks before it became independent. were passed. These decrees give the impact assessment (Article 17) In 1946, the Okanda National Park geographical situation of the parks, that must be presented to the park was created and in 1956 the Loango specifying their surface areas and management body, for review and National Park was created. After boundaries. approval. independence, the Wonga Wongue National Park was created in 1967. Law No. 03/2007 of 11 September 2007 Thus, the biodiversity of the park These parks only exist in the letter of the on national parks starts by defi ning benefi ts from integral protection and law, because no structure has ever been what a national park is and outlines the integrity of the park is guaranteed designated to manage them. the activities that may be carried out by law. This law makes it diffi cult

182 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

to degazette all or any part of the the carrying out of a social and senior civil servants, and is appointed park. If all or part of the park is to be environmental impact assessment. by decree taken during the Council of degazetted, then a new zone must Ministers. be gazetted that has the equivalent ecological features and biodiversity Administrative organization of Due to its role in the management of (Article 8 and 12). This same national parks national parks, the designation of the degazettement provides for fi nancial In addition to the major principles Executive Secretary of the agency compensation to the national parks. related to natural resource management, follows a special procedure. He/she This provision for degazettement is this law stipulates the three types of is appointed during the council from unlikely ever to be applied because of organizational bodies charged with the amongst candidates previously selected the very specifi c nature of the biological management of National Parks, namely: by the management committee, after a wealth of the zones designated as political, technical and scientifi c. public call for candidatures (Article 33). national parks. It would be almost This provision ensures that the output of unimaginable to contemplate the Article 24 institutes the High Council of the Executive Secretariat, chosen based degazettement of all or part of the Protected Areas, whose role is to assist on competence and moral qualities, is Monts de Cristal National Park, since the President of the Republic. This body likely to be good. the same ecological features such is placed under the authority of the as the clouds and an abundance of Prime Minister and brings together all The accounting agent, appointed on orchids, which are so peculiar to this technical ministries and local elected the proposal of the Minister of Finance, zone, could not be found elsewhere. offi cials. It defi nes the national policy guarantees the fi nancial autonomy of Each national park has its special and on national parks and conditions for its the agency. unique features. implementation. An implementation decree, Decree No. Articles 8 and 12 of the law on national A specifi c text has to be passed to 19/PR/MEFEPPN of 9 January 2008, parks attempt to resolve the confl ict describe the powers, organization and stipulates the real powers of these between the concern for conservation functioning of this council. It is also the bodies. of the biodiversity of national parks and appropriate body to resolve the confl icts the economic needs of contributing to between conservation and exploitation Finally, the scientifi c committees the country’s development, through of natural resources. Its members, of national parks, made up of well the exploitation of natural and mineral all administrators, have to discuss known scientifi c personalities, resources. However, this attempt and assess projects that may impact provide opinions on issues related to is doomed to failure because of social development and exploitation of biodiversity conservation in national the multiplicity of decision-making resources. parks. Their members are chosen by centres and the absence of a national the management committee, on the consultation framework for actors. The National Agency, an administrative, proposal of the Executive Secretariat, Each ministry takes decisions without technical and fi nancial body, with with a mandate of three years taking into consideration the regulations corporate status and fi nancial and (renewable). governing other administrations. administrative autonomy (Article 27), is the body in charge of national parks The “realistic” opening of Article 12 and charged with the execution of Contributions of CARPE and that provides for the degazettement of national policy on the protection of its partners national parks in the case of discovery natural resources and valorization of The multi-faceted participation of of petroleum or minerals is suffi cient the natural and cultural heritage of CARPE in the process of improving proof that the exploitation of minerals national parks. environmental governance in Gabon supersedes biological conservation. is enabled through a constructive Brainstorming on an integrated and The agency is made up of the partnership with the administrations sustainable management model for management committee, a deliberative in charge of natural resource conservation zones that mainstream body, the Executive Secretariat, the management. This partnership extends the exploitation of mineral needs to management body and an accounting to international NGOs and is engaged be carried out. The experience of the agency (Article 31). in initiatives such as the management Gamba protected area complex can of wild fauna, combating poaching in be applied in protected areas currently The chairman of the management forest concessions, and banning the under exploitation with, as prerequisite, committee is chosen from amongst transportation of bushmeat by train.

183 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

mines. Gabon has to combine mineral projects are inextricably linked to the Also, for more than 15 years, CARPE exploitation and conservation in several sustainability and level of funding has been funding the activities of of its national parks. obtained. environmental NGOs, to the tune of US$ 30,000 per NGO per year. This Information campaigns have to Partnerships with the administration support aims at involving civil society accompany the adoption of laws The quality of collaboration with public in the process of managing natural For better appropriation of the terms authorities depends on the behaviour resources and making its participation contained in a law on management/ of the individuals concerned. Changes relevant. The IUCN Small Grants use of natural resources by local effected in some administrations, as Program has made it possible to fund communities and other stakeholders, a result of professional mobility, can a wide range of sectors: environmental information and awareness have a great infl uence on the quality of education, research, training, production campaigns must be organized for the relations between these administrations of documents, etc. populations. This will facilitate a better and partners. The previous encumbent understanding of legal provisions and may have been open and receptive, but real implementation of those provisions there is no guarantee that the person Lessons learned on the ground. A law that is not well replacing him/her will be of the same understood will not have any impact on character and, under the new regime, Decisions that do not take into the ground and repressive sanctions will partners may fi nd themselves excluded consideration the interests of local not help – people will continue to do as from consultation frameworks within communities are bound to fail they have always done. which discussions on improving policies The rational and sustainable and on the formulation of strategies management of natural resources is Apart from information campaigns, for concerted management of natural a complex process that requires the within the framework of laws, the resources are held. acceptance of a great number of actors implementation decrees also have to be in order to attain set objectives. The enacted. Experience has often shown Also, public offi cials are becoming less administration has to open up to local that following the promulgation of a able to participate in the meetings of communities and to NGOs that work law, the enabling instruments are not partners, due to their ever-increasing in the area of conservation in order systematically enacted. This makes administrative burden. They may also to defi ne together the main guiding implementation diffi cult. show little interest in some of the principles organizing the exploitation activities of their partners. of resources and integrating the Unsustainability of their funding interests of all stakeholders. Involving makes NGOs vulnerable A long process to enact laws and civil society organizations and local The involvement of civil society in the implementation decrees communities in decision making makes process of rational and sustainable For a law to be promulgated and the implementation of those decisions management of natural resources published, it must follow a painfully much easier. remains precarious, because of a lengthy process with potential obstacles shortage of funds and the way the at every stage. This “long march” Decisions that do not take into projects of national NGOs are funded. starts with its drafting by the initiating consideration economic realities are There are not yet any mechanisms administration. In a participatory diffi cult to uphold for the sustainable funding of NGO process, drafts are discussed and The concern for development and activities. CARPE remains a shining enriched by all stakeholders. At the end improving the living conditions of the example in Gabon. It is the only of the exercise, the bill is examined by population compels African countries programme that has provided support both houses of parliament (National to exploit, at all costs, their mineral to civil society since its creation, in Assembly and Senate) that may wealth. The opening in the defi nition of a permanent manner. These funds, propose amendments or vote it through conservation zones is multidirectional. though limited, enable NGOs to without any amendments. The draft text In as much as it takes into consideration execute fi eld projects and to build their is then re-introduced into the channel the interests of civil society, it also has to organizational capacities. If another for signature by legal councillors and take into consideration the concerns of mechanism could also be put in place, the ministries concerned, the Prime other ministries. Collaboration between with substantial funds, the involvement Minister’s offi ce and the Presidency. administrations will lead to a consensual of civil society would be greater. Thus, a text may easily spend a year defi nition of conservation zones, in full The relevance of the interventions of in the pipeline before being signed off respect of the geographical situation of NGOs and the performance of their by the President of the Republic for

184 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

publication. It is a process that requires and any guarantee to respect the management of natural resources has patience and endurance. Once the draft environment, may seriously affect these started and is irreversible. This process law is adopted, the next step is to enact parks. makes local communities active implementation decrees – a process participants and aims at improving their that follows the same course. The mining of the Belinga iron is to social conditions. be accompanied by the construction, The law on national parks is a good over the Ivindo River, at the level of the Civil society, hardly mentioned in the illustration of this process. The Kongou falls, a hydro-electric dam. This regulatory instruments, should develop enactment of implementation decrees huge investment will cause the Kongou its activities around the interests of local of this law has not yet occurred. Several falls, situated at the heart of the Ivondo communities and build their capacities provisions still cannot be implemented National Park, to disappear, and has so as to intervene in a relevant manner. today, in spite of the existence of the created an access road that is useful to law. poachers. The tendency for some administrations to cause all stakeholders to take Primacy of politics and economics After clearly manifesting their part in the formulation of some legal over conservation exigencies opposition to these two projects by instruments on the management of The Government of Gabon has demanding that certain prerequisites be natural resources is appreciated and responded swiftly to the positions respected – such as an environmental has to be maintained and encouraged in taken by NGOs concerning issues impact assessment, and the choice other sectors of activity. All stakeholders related to the exploitation of natural of an alternative site for the hydro- deﬁ ning the content of legal instruments resources. There has been some electric dam – the NGOs were initially that orientate and organize the controversy about the exploitation of suspended by the Government which management of natural resources is the iron deposits at Belinga, situated accused them of being manipulated a very good way of appropriating the in the Ogoue Ivindo Province. For its by foreign organizations. However, process by all and a guarantee for exploitation, NGOs require that the subsequently the NGOs were conservation projects to succeed. legislative framework be respected summoned to a meeting by the (environment code) that requires an President of Republic for a direct For greater harmony and national environmental and social impact exchange of views. As a result of this, cohesion, this approach has to be assessment as a prerequisite. Since the President decided that the NGOs extended to other ministries involved in the company retained to exploit this should take part in all discussions the management of natural resources: deposit has not carried out any impact related to the exploitation of the Belinga Planning, Mines and Land Management. assessment, NGOs are opposing iron deposits. the operation. This is in keeping with The management of forests requires regulations on the subject. The iron a legal framework that commits deposit of Belinga is situated at the Conclusion and States to jointly protect their common crossroad of three national parks: recommendations heritage. ' Minkébé, Mwagna and Ivindo. Its The march towards an adequate legal exploitation, without security measures framework for rational and sustainable

185 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Case Study 3 Lessons Learned on the Promotion of Policy and Governance in the Conservation of Natural Resources in the Republic of Congo

Marcellin Agnagna

Background due to exploitation of resources, exploitation and rarely or almost The Republic of Congo (ROC) has a with a consequent signifi cant loss of never as protected areas. The total surface area of 325,000 km2 with 60 biodiversity. The main causes of this surface area of exploitable forests is percent forest cover, distributed in degradation are deforestation caused about 22,471,271 ha (FAO, 2005) of two major blocks: the Mayombe and by forest exploitation and shifting which 16,167,109 ha, more than 70 Chaillu massifs and the great forest cultivation (bushfi res), subsistence percent, are open to logging and this block of Northern Congo. Congolese hunting and poaching (commercial fi gure is constantly on the increase. forests that are an integral part of the hunting). The practice of subsistence • The country has 14 protected Congo Basin are home to the greatest hunting is a tradition that has always areas representing about 11 biological diversity in Africa. They been perpetrated from generation to percent of the national territory, but contain many species of wild fauna of generation to satisfy the animal protein only those receiving fi nancial and which some are rare and spectacular needs of the rural population; the technical assistance from abroad like the Gorilla, the Chimpanzee, the noble traditional rules of management are operational. Those that do Mandrill, the Leopard, the Elephant, guarantee sustainability of this practice. not have any foreign assistance the Buffalo, the Bongo, the Grey parrot, This balance is today being disturbed are effectively abandoned and the Abyssinian ground hornbill, the with the adoption of new management they are in a state of serious Aardvark, the African manatee, etc.; mechanisms that do not take into degradation resulting from there are also high-value plant species consideration traditional know-how. This poaching and wanton exploitation such as okoumé, sipo, sapele, oroko, imbalance is found at various levels: of resources; this is the case with longui, ebony, etc. Because of their • Logging and mining companies the Léfi ni Faunal Reserve some exceptional importance at a global have opened new roads thereby 200 km from Brazzaville, the level, the forests of the Congo Basin facilitating access to areas Domonika Biosphere Reserve, in general and those of the Republic hitherto inaccessible and that had the Mont Fouari Wildlife Reserve, of Congo in particular require great served as refuges and zones of the Tsoulou Faunal Reserve, the conservation efforts. The conservation repopulation for animals. Nyangs Sud Hunting Ground and of these forests is not only essential • The staff needs of these the Mont Mavoumbou Hunting for the wild fauna and fl ora but also companies have led to a Ground. The Government lacks the for the millions of people for whom demographic explosion and an political will to promote protected they are the only source of satisfying increase of human pressure on areas and only contributes a the most basic of needs – the need forest resources (poaching and trivial amount to their protection for food, medicinal plants, shelter, marketing of bushmeat). and enhancement. Out of the 11 fuelwood and other products. • The gradual exploitation of new percent of the ROC’s surface area The forests play a leading role in concessions accentuates pressure covered by protected areas, only maintaining the world’s ecological on natural resources to the about half of this area receives balance and hence are indispensable detriment of indigenous village partial protection thanks to support for the wellbeing of humanity as a communities that continue to live in from foreign partners including the whole, directly and indirectly through a state of perpetual poverty. Central African Regional Program various ecological functions that they • In Congo, the forest is subdivided for the Environment (CARPE). fulfi l. Their continued existence has into Forest Management Units or Very few protected areas have to be guaranteed by sustainable and FMUs, in accordance with Law been created after independence equitable management. No. 16/2000 of 20 November 2000 whereas forest concessions on the forestry code. For reasons are constantly on the increase. However, the Congolese forests are of economic interest, these FMUs Protected areas attract very little facing ever-increasing human pressures are primarily designated for timber interest from policy makers in spite

186 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

of the important role that they public (due to lack of awareness and concessions may contribute to improving play in the maintenance of both little popularization of legal texts). At an forest management in Congo. animal and plant species and the institutional level, the Ministry of Forest The question asked is: What needs to be preservation of ecological balance. Economy is both player and referee for done for logging to be sustainable and This lack of interest is mostly it is in charge of forest exploitation and economically profi table in Congo? The because, to date, no protected of the management of biodiversity and answer to this question will undoubtedly area has been put to good use protected areas. This situation does come from partners such as CARPE. (e.g., through the promotion of not favour the promotion of protected ecotourism) in order to generate areas, especially as the Ministry’s appreciable economic revenues. priorities seem to be geared towards CARPE strategy for there are no management plans. accelerated exploitation of the forest the promotion of policy • Even if the deforestation rate (for timber) without any guarantee of the and governance for the resulting from logging only conservation of other resources such conservation of natural averages 0.5 percent per year, as wild fauna and non-timber forest resources the rate of biodiversity loss is products. The lack of capacity within CARPE has been active in the Republic reaching alarming proportions. the public services to monitor and of Congo since 1995 by providing The exploitation of logs affects control logging activities encourages substantial support to the management the composition of forests and fraud and causes inestimable losses of protected areas and their peripheries modifi es the quantitative and in kind and in cash. It is estimated that through a key partner – American qualitative availability of habitat for about 40 percent of the timber exported NGO, the Wildlife Conservation Society the animal species that depend on from Congo is illicit. The forestry (WCS) – that has given large amounts the forest. sector, though a revenue generator, of money to develop activities for only contributes a trivial amount to the conservation and the sustainable The national legal arsenal supporting economic development of the country management of natural resources in the sustainable management of and to the wellbeing of communities three protected areas, two peripheral biodiversity and the environment is that continue to live in perpetual zones, and a protected area under made up essentially of three basic laws: poverty. The redistribution of revenue creation. These are the Nouabalé- Law No. 16/2000 on the forestry code, derived from logging amongst local Ndoki National Park, the Lac Télé Law No. 48/81 of 21 April 1981 on the communities is a real problem. Community Reserve, the Conkouati- conservation and management of wild Douli National Park, the peripheral zone fauna and Law No. 003 of 23 April 1991 This legal and social shortfall in of the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park on environmental protection, together terms of biodiversity management (Kabo, Pokola and Loudoungou FMUs), with their subsequent ancillary texts. at a national level is gradually being the south-east peripheral zone of the The Republic of Congo has also signed overcome with the country’s adherence Odzala-Kokoua National Park (Ngombe up to several international and regional to regional and sub-regional initiatives FMU) and the national park under conventions such as the Convention such as COMIFAC, the CBFP (Congo creation in the Batéké Plateau. WCS is on International Trade in Endangered Basin Forest Partnership), RAPAC the main partner of the Government of Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, the (Réseau des Aires Protégées d’Afrique Congo on issues of nature conservation UN Framework Convention on Climate Centrale or Network of Central and protected area management. Change, the UN Convention to Combat African Protected Areas), CARPE, etc. Desertifi cation, the Convention on Voluntary partnership initiatives with A CARPE Congo Country Offi ce has Biological Diversity and sub-regional the private sector over issues such been operational since May 2006, and conventions such as the COMIFAC as timber certifi cation, and on the is run by a Focal Point. It serves as (Commission des Forêts de l’Afrique legality of marketed timber (Forest Law a base for carrying out the strategic Centrale or Central African Forest Enforcement, Governance and Trade objectives of the programme that Commission) etc. There are some (FLEGT)) are tools that exist to help include, inter alia, the reduction of the problems concerning implementation correct the persistent shortcomings rate of deforestation and slowing down of the law because of the very weak of the forest sector in Congo. These the rate of biodiversity loss through capacity of the public services initiatives and partnerships create good governance of natural resources responsible for its implementation; consultation frameworks and can also and institutional capacity building; and the transitory nature of some texts or lead to the revision and harmonization also for monitoring the activities of its some provisions; poor knowledge of of policies and laws. On-going partners. CARPE is more and more well the law on the part of the majority of the management plans in some forest known within the local administrations,

187 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

scientifi c and public institutions as well on issues of concern (and sometimes communities so that they are able to as amongst civil society, thanks to its of a sensitive nature) to the Ministers benefi t from revenues derived from efforts to promote and disseminate in charge of the environment, forestry logging and assisting them to carry information about its activities. and biodiversity, which have often had a out community projects. At the level of positive effect. these two concessions, a village fund A local consultation and discussion was created provisioned by part of the forum bringing together the main actors Partners surface area tax that the company pays involved in environmental and nature The Country Offi ce and the Country directly to the account of communities. conservation issues has been set up. Team play a role in monitoring and There also, the CARPE Focal Point has This forum is called the Country Team. guiding partners that receive funds supported a local NGO in drawing up a The role played by the Country Offi ce from CARPE for carrying out activities proposal to be submitted for funding to and Country Team is key – it consists on the ground. In Congo, the key the IUCN Small Grants Program. It has of infl uencing national policies and privileged partner is the American NGO, to do with preparing village communities governance on the management of WCS, that has signed memoranda of of the Ngombe forest concession natural resources in order to achieve the understanding with the Government to take up their rights and manage objectives of the programme. To this of Congo to manage biodiversity in a the revenue derived from logging end, activities are undertaken at various number of protected areas and their in a sustainable manner, especially levels, and with various groups. peripheries. At this level, the Focal the village fund. The purpose is to Point (FP) plays the role of facilitator strengthen these communities so that Local administrations in charge between WCS and local administrations they fully participate in the management of environmental and biodiversity as well as other institutions working in of the resource. management issues the same fi eld and helps disseminate In the Republic of Congo, two scientifi c information gathered in the The Country Team is also a strategic ministries are directly concerned fi eld to other conservationists, so that instrument. By its very composition with environmental and biodiversity they can take advantage of it in their (actors and partners infl uential in management issues. They are the conservation activities. With local conservation), it indirectly infl uences Ministry of Forest Economy on the NGOs and other institutions, the FP has national policy and government one hand and the Ministry of the instituted various fora for discussion decisions on the management of natural Environment and Tourism on the other and consultation on the management resources. Members of the Country hand. The CARPE Focal Point works of biodiversity such as the network of Team, in their professional capacity, are closely with the two ministries by local environmental NGOs, the CARPE directly involved in decision-making putting at their disposal its expertise Country Team. The FP takes part in bodies in environmental and natural in the treatment of issues related guiding local NGOs and strengthening resource management. to environmental and biodiversity their operational capacities for management problems and by actively them to be able to play their role of There is permanent contact with taking part in technical meetings counterweight to the Government and local nature conservation NGOs and and other activities of common actively take part in the management associations through the network interest organized by these ministries. of natural resources. It is the same for established by the Congo CARPE Working sessions are regularly village communities especially those Offi ce. Capacity building for local organized between the Focal Point that live in and around protected areas NGOs is a key issue given the role they and the technical departments on and in forest concessions. At the level of should play in infl uencing government issues of concern. The Focal Point protected areas, the CARPE Focal Point decisions and policies. The results has encouraged the nomination supports actions aimed at organizing are very encouraging: two local of CARPE correspondents within grass-roots communities, raising NGOs – Conservation de la Faune each administration to maintain the their awareness on environmental Congolaise and Association pour la momentum for collaboration and preservation and community Protection des Ecosystèmes Tropicaux information sharing. Also, these development initiatives. In collaboration et Développement de la Sangha – are administrations are represented in the with the management units of two large infl uential members of the independent Steering Committee for the selection of forest concessions in northern Congo, body that oversees the Kabo, Pokola micro projects (Small Grants) and in the notably in Ngombe (IFO Danzer) and and Loundoungou FMUs (CIB) and CARPE Country Team. The Focal Point, Pokola (CIB: Congolaise Industrielle actively participate in the processes who has a not insignifi cant audience, du Bois), the FP has initiated activities of certifi cation and of establishing the regularly addresses technical papers aimed at organizing and preparing local legality of marketed timber. These two

188 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

A SUCCESS STORY: ACTIONS UNDERTAKEN BY THE CARPE CONGO FOCAL POINT TO INFLUENCE THE SUSPENSION OF THE MINISTERIAL ORDER NO. 7053/MEF/CAB AUTHORIZING THE KILLING OF ELEPHANTS IN THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE ODZALA-KOKOUA NATIONAL PARK (MIÉLÉKOUKA ZONE) AND NOUABALÉ-NDOKI NATIONAL PARK (BOMASSA AND KABO ZONES)

Background: Over the past fi ve years, human-elephant confl icts have increased in Congo, especially in the vicinity of, or within, protected areas where elephants enjoy protection. The sites affected by this problem are the Odzala-Kokoua National Park and periphery, the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park and periphery, and the Conkouati-Douli National Park and periphery. These three sites are the best protected from poaching in the country. The fi rst is managed by EU-funded regional environmental programme ECOFAC with support from WWF and WCS; the other two sites are managed by WCS with funds from CARPE-USAID, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and other donors. Conservation efforts made in these areas have been successful, leading to an increase in the animal population. Large mammals in particular are increasingly abundant in the periphery and in areas of human occupation. As regards the elephant population, fi eld data do not show an increase in the population except for migration to areas of human activity including the vicinities of villages and farmlands. This trend is observed at all three sites. Why elephants prefer the edges of villages to the depths of the forest is unknown. Some people, such as Forestry Administration staff, claim that the population has increased but there has been no inventory to confi rm this. On the other hand, data analysis from game warden patrols has led to the following hypothesis: that pressure from poaching carried out deep in the forest pushes elephants to seek refuge around and sometimes in villages where they have more security because of the regular presence of game warden patrols. Poachers do not dare kill elephants in areas that are close to human settlement for fear of attracting attention.

The presence of elephants in villages is certainly spectacular and attractive to visitors (tourists ) who come. In Bomassa, for example, tourists have a 100 percent chance of seeing an elephant in the WCS base camp and in the village, and a less than 60 percent chance of seeing one in Mbeli bay for example. But this coexistence has advantages and disadvantages. In Bomassa, for example, people stopped planting cassava (a staple food) over ﬁ ve years ago because of the destruction of their farms by elephants. The WCS Nouabalé-Ndoki project has since then subsidized cassava for the entire population of Bomassa, something that is not sustainable. On the other two sites, crops are regularly destroyed by elephants, and the local people are demanding compensation. The farmers’ anger is ﬁ erce, and can lead to attacks on conservationists and representatives of the administration in charge of wildlife and protected areas, to whom claims are addressed. In Miélékouka, for example, farmers locked up the conservator in exchange for compensation by the Forestry Administration for farms destroyed. However, it is necessary to ask if it was not a hoax by poachers to leave them free to rescue the ivory tusks from their hidden booty. The Miélékouka area is one of the hottest elephant poaching spots. About ten years ago, a mass grave was discovered with more than one hundred elephants, massacred almost at the same time in the Moadjé clearing. This massacre will be engraved in the annals of wildlife conservation in the Congo.

It should be noted that there has been no attempt on human life (no cases of human death).

Although conservation partners and managers operating on these sites initially downplayed the scale of the situation, they have recently begun to think and try to ﬁ nd solutions to this problem. In Bomassa, WCS launched an experimental pepper barrier to protect crops, which unfortunately has proven not to work. At other sites such as Conkouati, they thought of putting up electric fences to protect crops. The fences have been ordered and supplied; the farmers just need to install them and then wait for the results.

While partners were brainstorming and looking for solutions, the technical services of the forestry administration opted for killing the elephants without any reference or assessment and without consulting other stakeholders and partners. They submitted, without valid arguments, a draft order for signature by the Minister of Forest Economy. Despite the lack of arguments, the Order was signed by the Minister with immediate effect.

Faced with this momentous decision, which could trigger the killing of elephants on other sites already threatened by poaching, the Focal Point upon analysis of the situation began to take steps to engage with the Minister of Forest Economy in order to avoid disaster. He wrote to the Minister of Forest Economy seeking suspension of the Order and consultation with other stakeholders. The Minister responded by convening an urgent meeting with partners. The meeting took place in a tense atmosphere, but the outcome was favourable – the Order in question was simply suspended.

For the record, this is how the Congo CARPE Focal Point was able to save elephants and at the same time inﬂ uence the position of the Forestry Administration, which now always asks for the opinion of the Focal Point and partners in such circumstances. The elephant in question in Bomassa (WCS Nouabalé-Ndoki).

189 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

NGOs have received CARPE training habitat degradation and the impacts of for copies of the fi lm which is not and were recipients of the Small logging on the survival of indigenous available locally. Grants Program in 2006. They promote communities, etc. have thus become CARPE’s vision in any discussions in quite common in the local press. The which they have the opportunity to take Focal Point is involved with the NGO Some lessons learned part. Local NGOs have begun to assert INCEF (International Conservation and Lessons learned are summarized as themselves and have in some cases Education Fund) in the production follows: become indispensable to the private and distribution of documentary fi lms • The country offi ces of CARPE sector. Their advice is sought in the to raise public awareness on issues generally not only contribute to development of management plans for related to the environment and nature the promotion of the programme forest concessions, something that was conservation and on advocacy of in the host country, they play an rare and almost taboo a few years ago. indigenous peoples. The same is important role in national policies true for awareness on legislation and on environmental management. Parliamentarians national policy on conservation and They become to some extent The CARPE Focal Point and the Country natural resource management. The indispensable. Team interact very closely with the documentaries produced by INCEF • Close collaboration with local Parliamentary Commission in charge of are distributed across the country by administrations, political bodies environmental issues with which working partners involved in conservation and such as Parliament, civil society, sessions are held fairly regularly to raise serve as tools for public awareness. the media, research institutions, topical issues and examine the status A weekly programme called “espace international agencies and other of fi les related to the management of environnement” involving the Country stakeholders is crucial in resolving natural resources and the environment Offi ce of CARPE Congo is broadcast environmental issues. that have been submitted to the once a week on national television. • Consultation and dialogue among Assembly. They have worked to revive National and local radio are also used to actors remain an essential element the process of promulgating the new disseminate environmental information. of a harmonized approach to the law on wildlife, which has just been put This is especially because the people in resolution of confl icts and differing back on the agenda of the next session the hinterlands listen to the radio more views on environmental issues and of parliament for transfer to the General than anything else. sustainable management of natural Secretariat of Government, the fi nal step. resources. The creation of the network of • Man is central to all issues; the Local media environmental communicators and the success of actions undertaken is The Congo CARPE Offi ce has workshops organized for them have had refl ected fi rst of all in the interests contributed to the establishment of a a signifi cant impact in the local press of communities being satisfi ed. communications network specializing in relation to the increase of articles • Good conservation and sustainable in environmental issues. This network and column inches on environmental management of natural resources receives the regular support and issues. Through this network, CARPE is not possible without taking into supervision of the CARPE Offi ce in is becoming better known to the consideration the interests of local Congo, which has already organized Congolese public. communities. two capacity-building workshops for • Awareness and information its benefi t. The press is widely used to The public awareness campaign dissemination as well as sharing disseminate environmental information; on climate change launched by the of experiences are essential in it has a signifi cant impact on the public ROC CARPE Focal Point has had a changing habits and attitudes to and the government. The CARPE Offi ce considerable impact. Public meetings environmental issues. in Congo contributes, and supports the held in halls and the screening of • Multi-faceted support and publication of, articles on environmental the fi lm “La vérité qui derange” has assistance of partners (donors issues and nature conservation in the impressed more than a thousand people and other funding bodies) remain local press. The same channel is used of all social levels on this important the main and essential sources of to some extent to attract the attention issue. This has had a ripple effect on support to conservation efforts and of the public and policy makers to other institutions such as UNDP and sustainable management of natural issues of concern in the management Médecins d’Afrique who have requested resources. The countries of the of forest resources. Articles on forest that the CARPE Country Offi ce assist sub-region in general and Congo management issues, such as sharing them in the screening of the fi lm. The in particular can not do without revenue from logging, deforestation and Focal Point has received many requests these. '

190 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

Case Study 4 Lessons Learned on Policy and Governance in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Serge Osodu Omba

Background The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) covers an estimated surface area of 2,345,000 km2 of which more than 60 percent is covered by forest which contains a very high level of animal and plant biodiversity. Indeed, it ranks as the fi fth richest country in the world in terms of biodiversity. The country is endowed with several natural resources that unfortunately, because of problems of governance and the recent armed confl icts that have plagued the country, are not benefi ting the majority of its people who live in abject poverty. The DRC is among the poorest countries in the world and the majority of its population lives below the poverty line, on less than a dollar a day.

The government’s Strategic Growth war DRC is today looking towards tools of modern governance. Several and Poverty Reduction Document reconstruction. The forests which fundamental texts for the management (Document Stratégique pour le used to be protected from industrial of various sectors have been drawn Croissance et la Réduction de Pauvreté logging, as well as the country’s other up or are being revised, including the or DSCRP) has identifi ed improving natural resources, are now the focus Constitution of the Republic, the new governance as a priority. The DRC for exploitation. The government of the mining code, the new investment is a post-confl ict country, which is DRC is strongly committed to exploiting code, the law on the management of emerging from several decades of the forest and natural potential of the portfolio companies, the appointment mismanagement of public resources, country in order to successfully carry of new agents/representatives, the including natural resources, followed by out its fi ve-pronged programme of draft agriculture code, the law on a decade of instability characterized by reconstruction, and improve the living decentralization, etc. confl icts that have been disastrous for conditions of its people. This all the the population. The cumulative effects more so, as the DSCRP identifi ed In the forest and nature conservation of this negligence and these wars have natural resources, especially forests, sector, with the support of its had a disastrous impact on the capacity as a crucial sector in the drive towards conservation and development partners, of the country’s public institutions, the growth. the government has drafted a new living conditions of its local populations Forestry Code since 2002. This new and the wealth of its biodiversity. Social Alongside this keen interest, the code enshrines the principles underlying and economic infrastructures have country is undergoing institutional a modern vision of its forestry policy. deteriorated, and the systems of forest reconstruction with the putting in The government has also initiated a management, of access to benefi ts, place of democratic institutions, priority reform programme geared of control and follow-up have been which has entailed a formidable towards transparency, law enforcement disrupted or are non-existent. Post- process of acquiring the appropriate and increased participation of the

191 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

public. This reform programme has led information and monitoring; a more of the implementing instruments of inter alia to the withdrawal of 25 million effi cient tax collection system; and more the Forestry Code; monitoring the hectares of forest concessions from the effective implementation of the benefi t- decentralization process; fi nalizing forest tax system in a bid to re-orient sharing mechanisms laid down by the the law on nature conservation; the tax regime towards taxes that are Forestry Code (from the central to the promoting the creation of reserves and easier to recover and control, and that regional and district administrations, community management; developing have a positive incentive effect. Other and all the way down to the local an environmental framework law; elements of the reform programme communities living around the forest establishing a land-use planning include periodic publication of the concessions). Confl icts are arising process; developing a new hunting list of forest contracts and their fi scal between communities and loggers law; popularizing the Forestry Code, status, in order to keep the general as a result of land being allocated and contributing to the process of public informed on the management without a land-use plan (LUP) leading to legal review of forest titles, to mention of the country’s natural resources; encroachment onto local communities’ just a few. In addition, a strategic setting up a Technical Working Group lands. The issue of indigenous recommendation aimed at broadening (Groupe Technique de Travail – GTT) peoples’ rights also needs to be dealt it was formulated. The DRC Country to undertake a legal review of old with, and general capacity building Team is made up of the following: forest titles with the participation of an is required so that all stakeholders, offi cials of the six protected landscapes independent international observer, the especially within civil society, are funded by CARPE DRC, the CARPE private sector, civil society and local better able to play an effective role in Focal Point, the National Coordinator of and indigenous communities; recruiting natural resource management. Legal the Central African Forest Commission a third-party observer to support forest instruments need to be fi nalized and (Commission des Forêts de l’Afrique control; and drafting the text of the implemented, including those that will Centrale – COMIFAC), a National main implementing instruments of enable the enactment of the Forestry Assembly representative, a Government the Forestry Code, with the support Code. Poverty in forest sites must be representative (from the Ministry in of the FAO. The European Union will addressed, and cooperation between charge of forestry), a representative continue the process of fi nalizing the government sectors and between of the Congolese Institute for Nature texts of the 11 priorities that have instititutions must be fostered in the Conservation, and a civil society been identifi ed to accompany the post course of developing the necessary representative. Recently, in light of conversion. In terms of biodiversity programmes and policies. It is against the challenges and realities thrown protection, the government is in the this background that the Country Team up during the implementation of the process of reforming Law No. 069 on of the Central African Regional Program programme, the Country Team has Nature Conservation. In accordance for the Environment (CARPE) has made decided for strategic reasons also to with the Convention on Biological its contribution to the promotion of include representatives from the private Diversity, a priority action plan with 11 national laws and policies aimed at the sector, the Senate and two international priority actions has been validated. sustainable management of natural organizations working in the Alongside these efforts, in a bid to be resources, and to attaining the strategic landscapes, to collaborate on aspects consistent with the logic of the new objectives of CARPE. such as community participation fora. Forestry Code, a national forestry and conservation policy (politique nationale Contribution to the process of forêt et conservation – PNFOCO) is Methodology promoting laws being formulated, using a consultative and participatory approach at a national The Country Team as a tool for The Forestry Code and its level. CARPE to take action on governance implementing instruments and policy The Country Team has participated in In spite of all these efforts, the path The inaugural meeting of Phase IIB of the process of promoting new laws towards better governance remains a CARPE, held in Yaoundé in February by contributing ideas, lobbying and long one given the challenges that need 2007, enabled some members of the also by providing fi nancial support. to be overcome – lack of transparency; CARPE Country Team in each country The CARPE Country Team has actively the lack of capacity within the forest to identify and plan priorities in terms contributed to the process of producing administration to monitor and control; of governance agendas in the form implementing instruments for the under-valued and aging staff; and of laws and specifi c national policies Forestry Code through its engagement the problem of illegal logging. There to be addressed. These priorities with the validation committee put is a need for more environmental included: contributing to the fi nalization in place by an Order of the Minister

192 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

in charge of forestry. Points of view into two national languages for wider commission and on the appointment put forward by the Country Team distribution. of commission members. The Country were a refl ection of the consensus Team also assisted in the drafting of obtained within the team during The process of converting forest titles a ministerial decree on the terms and previous discussions. The validation in the DRC conditions of management of those committee was headed by the FAO The Forestry Code allows the titles that remained unconverted after within the framework of its project. This conversion of old forest titles (letters the review, because the current Code contribution facilitated the signing and of intent and guarantee of supply) does not cover this eventuality in the publication of these legal instruments. into forest concession contracts. To text of its implementing instruments. this end, a two-phase process was Furthermore, having identifi ed as a instituted, the fi rst of which was the As a result of these activities, civil priority the fi nalization of instruments setting up of a Technical Working society has been strengthened, and on procedures for allocating community Group and an independent observer partners and the general public have forests and for their management, respectively for identifi cation work and been kept informed about the process. the CARPE Country Team supported data collection on titles submitted for Altogether, the Team facilitated the validation of these instruments by conversion. The second component of the designation of 195 community ensuring the presence of their Focal the process concerns the work of the representatives including many from Point at the relevant meeting. This made inter-ministerial commission in charge amongst the indigenous peoples, and it possible for two draft instruments to of the review within which there must be local communities have learnt about the be validated while waiting for them to representatives of the local communities Forestry Code. be published. and indigenous peoples living around these titles. A total of US$ 250,000 was Institutional representation Contribution to the implementation raised by the World Bank and managed The Country Team (Focal Point, SNV and popularization of the Forestry by CARPE. and civil society) has lobbied the Code ministry on several occasions for The Forestry Code, besides its The contribution of the CARPE Country representation in a number of national dissemination and popularization, Team represented by the Focal Point, governance processes. These include remains both a need and an SNV (the Netherlands Development the PNFOCO Coordination Unit where unprecedented challenge. Moreover, Organisation), and civil society was a member of the Coalition of NGOs there is also the problem of differing to guide and support members of is represented; the forest advisory interpretations. In the past, the Rural the Coalition of NGO Networks in council instituted by the Forestry Code; Development Service, together the implementation of the strategy to the steering committee in charge of with some local and international designate community representatives. revising the law on nature conservation; organizations (including CARPE), The team supported the administrative and the validation committee for has launched several initiatives to and technical management of the legal instruments (the African Wildlife disseminate, translate and popularize project and carried out lobbying Foundation and the Focal Point are this code. The CARPE Country activities with partners on legislative members). The Country Team also Team supported (both technically aspects accompanying the process. contributes actively to various national and fi nancially) the preparation of an The ministry and other partners were fora and meetings on governance in annotated version of the Forestry Code kept informed at all stages of the terms of endorsing policies, operational by Congolese Government experts. process. guides, and national and sectoral action This document, that has already been plans related to governance and forests. submitted to the Minister in charge of Several radio and television programmes forestry for comment and fi nal approval, and newspaper articles were produced Capacity building will enable popularization of the Code on the process. The CARPE Country and will allow all stakeholders access Team also facilitated the designation National Assembly to the spirit of the Code. It will be a of a permanent indigenous peoples’ Since 2006, the DRC has set up working tool on which all user rights can representative to take part in the inter- democratic institutions for its governance be based, but also a teaching support ministerial commission. The same including a two-chamber parliament. for popularizing activities identifi ed team also lobbied the ministry over This budding National Assembly, that within the PNFOCO framework. The the signing and publication of two will be playing a key role in the country’s Country Team intends to translate it ministerial decrees on how to modify governance, approached CARPE for the composition of the inter-ministerial assistance with capacity building.

193 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Conscious of the strategic importance Diplomacy driving force, a melting pot of ideas and of this institution, the Country Team In the course of implementing a facilitator of discussions. organized a training and discussion the programme, several strategic session on the Forestry Code and its partnerships have been developed Achieving acceptance of CARPE and vision, as well as the environmental with public institutions and partners, as its objectives challenges ahead, for 20 Members of well as contacts in various ministries During Phase IIA, the programme was Parliament (MPs) from the environment whose activities could be considered to neither well perceived nor understood commission. The success of this interact directly with those of CARPE. by the Government. It was viewed training is visible today with the active These include the Ministry of the Interior with much suspicion, as something participation of MPs in environmental and Decentralization, the Ministry of from the Americans, and what was debates in the parliament. Planning, the Ministry of Agriculture, the being done in the landscape was Ministry of Mines, the Ministry of Public shrouded in obscurity. But the Country Civil society Works and Reconstruction, the Ministry Team has made it possible for there One outcome of Phase IIA of CARPE of Rural Development, and the Ministry to be a rapprochement not only was the creation of a Coalition of in charge of forests. with the government (the Ministry Networks of environmental NGOs. This of environment), but also with other platform had neither legal status, nor We have also been privileged to work government agencies and other a strategic vision, nor a programme of in collaboration with the National institutions such as the Presidency and activities. The Country Team helped Assembly through its commission and Parliament. Through their representation with the drawing up and legalization of the Presidency of the Republic in the in the Country Team which facilitates the Statutes of the coalition, organized execution of our activities. Thanks to information sharing, and especially as a training session on the formulation the work of the Country Team, CARPE’s a result of seeing the actual activities of the organization’s logical framework reputation and image are strong in the undertaken, the reputation of the and strategic planning, and supported eyes of its partner institutions, and programme has been enhanced and them in carrying out their programme. collaboration is fruitful. In the near CARPE is now well accepted. Relations All of these activities have helped them future, the expansion of the Country with the government and especially become more involved in advocacy Team will allow it to open up to the the Ministry of Forestry have improved aimed at policy change or reform, with private sector, to the Senate and to the signifi cantly. Members thus recruited the objective of further involving the Prime Minister’s Offi ce. undertake advocacy and lobbying for indigenous and local peoples in the the programme and its objectives. process of conversion of forest titles, or Everybody has understood that the the annotated Forest Code. Lessons learned CARPE’s mission is fi rst and foremost to facilitate conservation and the Forest land-use planning process The Country Team as a platform for development of the Congolese people. The DRC has neither a national land-use action plan, nor a forest LUP and has therefore The Country Team has facilitated The principle of member-driven been groping its way in the dark when it the creation of a coalition of various The Country Team facilitates a sense comes to allocating forest concessions. actors of different interests, of diverse of ownership and capacity building This has caused several confl icts on horizons indispensable to governance amongst its members. The sense of usage and occupation between various around CARPE objectives and outputs. ownership is nurtured by allowing stakeholders. With the new Forestry This platform has enabled the team to participation in sessions to identify Code, the DRC wants to have its own capitalize on the contributions from some and plan the programme’s strategic forest LUP. A national workshop was very infl uential actors who have leverage activities, and in core discussions on the organized (with the help of IUCN) in decision-making circles. Partners programme. Capacity building occurs to capitalize on the experiences of come together, discuss the context and by the mere fact that participants several partners on the matter. CARPE the implementation of the programme, are involved in the planning forum of partners as well as the Focal Point gave its strengths and weaknesses as well USAID/CARPE. This principle allows for presentations and pleaded for CARPE as avenues to be explored. All the the validation of the planning matrix in experience of large-scale planning to appointed members were chosen for relation to annual priorities and allows be made use of. Discussions are still their potential to contribute and their for judgment to be passed on the underway. added value. The Country Team is a evolution of the project.

194 Chapter Six: The Promotion of National Policy and Governance Agendas for Conservation and Development

Communication amongst members analysis and a jointly prepared current allowances, a mechanism should be developed response. This is the case with the texts needs to be found to pay members Communication is an important element under preparation on local community for activities carried out within the within the Country Team especially forests, for validation under the Forestry framework of the programme. as it only meets formally twice a Code. A meeting bringing together year. Although a certain amount of strategic members of the Country Team Strengthening civil society information sharing already takes was held and, after heated discussions, The Coalition of eight Networks of place, much effort is nonetheless a common position was adopted. But national environmental NGOs is a required to improve communication in practice, since all members are not member of the CARPE Country Team. both laterally and horizontally within available at all times, there have been It has a strategic vision, strategic plan the Country Team. It would be good for very few meetings of the kind especially and work plan with actions covering members to know what activities are for on-going processes of the law in three CARPE intermediary outputs and taking place in each other’s institutions the country. Efforts will be made to touching on various environmental and organizations, but the Team also have extraordinary sessions to focus on themes including governance. Its needs to ﬁ nd ways of regularly keeping events that come up that are unforeseen functioning is greatly handicapped all members informed on progress but nonetheless must be followed up. by a lack of operational capacity. made on the evolution of activities More resources should be raised in and also giving them vital information Motivation of Country Team members addition to those awarded by the Small on monitoring governance and on The work of the Country Team is Grants Program to further support the identifying priorities within the context time-consuming for its partners operational capacity of the coalition. of the government’s priority actions. (participating in meetings, carrying The Country Team has made a start out activities, reacting to produce by helping provide the coalition with a The need for preparatory technical the means of veriﬁ cation). This fact, vision, a critical analysis of its strengths meetings and acknowledging the quality of the and weaknesses, a strategic plan and a The whole area of forest and natural members facilitating the implementation work plan, and a legalized statute for its resource governance is very dynamic. of the programme, have made the legal recognition. ' New facts and information are emerging subject of motivation of members come all the time that require consultation, to the fore. It is accepted that, besides

195

Chapter 7

Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

Nicodème Tchamou

Introduction Central Africa contains the second largest area of contiguous moist tropical forest in the world. More than 80 million people that live in the forested region depend on their rich forests and other biotic resources for their livelihoods and economic development. The Central African forests form the catchment basin of the Congo River, a watershed of local, regional and global signiﬁ cance. The forest also provides valuable ecological services by controlling and buffering climate at a regional scale, and by absorbing and storing excess carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels, helping to slow the rate of global warming. Nonetheless, the forest is subject to many threats, including slash-and-burn agriculture, indiscriminate harvesting for fuelwood and charcoal production, poaching and logging. All these threats are derived from an underlying factor – human survival. Mitigating these threats is a challenge that goes beyond national boundaries to require regional and international mobilization.

A principal strategy of the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) for creating sustainable natural resource management (NRM) practices in the ﬁ eld is to implement a “People-Centred Approach” to conservation in the ﬁ eld and to foster improved environmental governance in the region. Strengthening local NGOs has been a long-standing CARPE strategy since its inception in 1995.

Conservation efforts will not be sustainable without a strong constituency within civil society as well as government. Hence, CARPE has, since its inception, devised and implemented a small grants component as a mechanism to build civil society capacity to: a) mobilize national and regional constituents to advocate for a strong regulatory framework for good NRM practices; b) engage in robust dialogue with governments to reform forest management policies through the application of empirical data from landscape programmes and ﬁ eld research; c) promote livelihood and income-generating activities in a rural setting; and d) integrate gender considerations into conservation strategies and policies.

The IUCN Small Grants Program, funded by CARPE, acknowledges that painstaking effort is required to build local NGO capacity, but after ten years of consistent support to NGOs, it is clear that the results are exceptional and far- reaching. This is a synthesis of lessons learned from six country case studies, four of which are included in this chapter. It distils some of the major accomplishments

197 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

of the small grants programme as a way 3) Natural resources monitoring and human resource capacity amongst of illustrating what has been learned institutionalized, or the monitoring civil society organizations for NRM from these years of experience in: and evaluation programme. through a sort of learning-by-doing 1) empowering civil society to process; b) increasing Central African advocate for and contribute to participation in CARPE activities and sustainable NRM through the The CARPE approach to small encouraging their buy-in; c) raising promotion of laws and policy grants local awareness of CARPE by providing reform; Conserving the tropical forest of information about CARPE objectives Central Africa is a challenge beyond and strategies; and d) raising awareness 2) supporting livelihood activities that the capacity of national governments, of gender considerations. In the course reduce threats to natural resources; individual donors or international of these fi ve years, approximately 80 organizations alone. A network of actors small grants were awarded (worth an 3) laying the foundations for a working in concert, including national average of US$ 8,000 each) through stable partnership amongst a and local civil society, is essential if a system of proposal submission and multitude of stakeholders for forest CARPE’s goals are to be attained. review. Screening proposals was a two- conservation in the region; and However, when CARPE started in 1995, stage process: fi rst a national review NRM capacity within civil society was by the country Focal Points, followed 4) integrating gender considerations all but non-existent (Pielemeier et al., by fi nal approval from the regional into conservation strategies. 2006). The fi rst Earth Summit in Rio de offi ce. Preparation of proposals and Janeiro in 1992 inspired the fi rst local their subsequent evaluation were based conservation NGOs in Central Africa. on two pages of general guidelines What is CARPE? Before then, one-party governments with intensive exchanges between the The USAID Central African Regional had frowned on any organization CARPE Focal Points and the potential Program for the Environment (CARPE) or association which seemed to grantees to fi ne-tune the content of is a 20-year US Government (USG) pose a threat to State authority or proposals. Awarded grants focused on commitment to help reduce the rate infl uence. Governments believed that small-scale research and fi eld studies, of forest degradation and loss of only they could solve the problems seminars and workshops, education and biodiversity through increased local, facing their country and their people. sensitization, training sessions, policy national and regional NRM capacity This centralization of power reduced studies and publications. The average in nine countries of the Congo people’s enthusiasm for self-help project duration was fi ve months. Basin. CARPE is the principal USG groups, which often develop into NGOs. contribution to the Congo Basin Forest In 2003, CARPE moved (Phase I to II) Partnership (CBFP), established at Notwithstanding, CARPE in its design towards a much larger fi eld operational the World Summit on Sustainable strategy posited that the long-term presence in response to the USG- Development in 2002. CARPE partners sustainability of conservation efforts initiated CBFP. Phase II was designed aim to apply and implement sustainable was impossible without the strong based on the increased USG knowledge NRM practices in the fi eld, improve empowerment and involvement of civil of Central African institutions, forests and environmental governance in the society. Hence, since its inception, the biodiversity gathered from the Phase I region, and strengthen natural resource programme has taken two approaches to experience. The operations of the small monitoring capacity. To achieve its goal, building civil society capacity: 1) support grants programme evolved in this new the CARPE strategy comprises three to the CEFDHAC (Conférence sur les context to capitalize on the civil society integrated elements; three pillars called Ecosystèmes Forestiers Denses et capacity developed over the fi rst fi ve the intermediate results framework:1 Humides d’Afrique Centrale) process years. This allowed the small grants to 1) Natural resources managed which started in 1995 to provide an become more focused as a mechanism sustainably, or the landscape opportunity for the nascent Central to mobilize and motivate civil society programme; African civil society to gain access to a to advocate for good governance in platform for international and regional the forestry sector, foster economic 2) Natural resources governance discourse on environment and to get growth to improve local livelihoods, strengthened (institutions, policies, their voices heard; and 2) implementation and integrate gender consideration into laws) known as the programme for of a small grants programme in six conservation activities. good governance; and Central African countries with the main objectives over the fi rst fi ve years During this phase, grants have been 1 See page 5 of the CARPE Performance and Monitoring Plan (1998–2002) of: a) building institutional awarded to local NGO networks, (PMP).

198 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

community-based organizations from small-scale slash-and-burn logistical and educational challenge. (CBOs) and local associations based agriculture, illegal and unsustainable All too often, the laws and regulation on a “new” comprehensive manual forest harvest operations and general documents are available to the elites in of policy and procedures2 that set ignorance of the consequences of cities but are neither known, nor applied the rules and regulations including unsustainable practices and viable in the fi eld by local communities. environmental compliance, monitoring alternatives. Dealing with these threats Even when some of these documents and evaluation. The amount of each at the local level is diffi cult and awkward become available in print form, literacy grant has increased substantially to to manage for both government is a barrier. Documents written in an average of US $30,000 and the administrations and international NGOs. French for poor and barely educated average project duration is one year. However, in many cases, local NGOs people are ineffective. REFADD This increase refl ects the increased and CBOs, empowered by small grants, (Réseau des Femmes Africaines pour capacity of the recipient NGOs. have shown outstanding responses in le Développement Durable), a regional Proposal selection still involves two addressing this challenge. network of a large number of female steps: the fi rst step is at the country NGOs, identifi ed this weakness, and level led by the national CARPE Focal When the Small Grants Program through a CARPE small grant decided Point charged with coordinating a multi- started in DRC in 2000, the country to take on this challenge. To date, actor National Steering Committee. was just emerging from a long REFADD has translated the entire Proposals shortlisted at the country period of instability and had neither Forestry Code of DRC into Lingala, the level are sent to a Regional Steering a forestry code nor an environmental most commonly spoken language in the Committee for a fi nal decision. Once code. Decrees, arretés and notes forested area of the country and has the grant is awarded, its implementation circulaires regulating forestry activities disseminated more than 500 copies of is monitored by the Focal Points and or environmental compliance were the Code in the Bandundu territories results are included in the CARPE scattered in different offi ces and of Lisala and Bongandanga in the overall reporting system. ministerial departments, and there Equator province. This activity triggered was no single resource document international donor interest – SNV, a that contained the entire regulatory Dutch organization, then translated the On-the-ground impact of the framework for environmental protection. same forestry code into the so-called Small Grants Program A small grant to a local NGO called “Simplifi ed Lingala” and disseminated it The implementation of the Small Grants “Avocats Verts” enabled them to widely in the DRC. Program over the past 12 years has assemble all these decrees and yielded substantial results, exceeding legal regulatory documents into one In the Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape expectations in several ways: source book entitled Recueil des texts in DRC, artisanal illegal logging for a) civil society is much better organized juridiques en matière environnementale charcoal production is a principal and mobilized for advocating common en République Démocratique du Congo. driver of deforestation. With the help interest policy reforms and/or This publication set the stage and of a small grant, a local NGO called implementation of good governance in paved the way for the production and Comité des exploitants et négociants the forestry and NRM sector; endorsement by the government of de Mambasa (CENEM) has mobilized b) the promotion of economic growth the 2002 DRC Forestry Code. Now the these illegal artisanal loggers into and social welfare activities within same NGO is helping the DRC Ministry formal associations hence providing communities is greatly enhanced; and of Environment and Nature to draft and them with a legal status that has turned c) the integration of gender promulgate implementing decrees under their activities into formal operations considerations into NRM and forest this new forestry code. with all that entails, including obtaining conservation has been given a great legal logging permits, paying taxes, deal of attention. Getting the laws and regulations using operational techniques that are guiding the use and management of more friendly to the environment, and Civil society mobilization and natural resources to the grass-roots the production and dissemination advocacy for policy reform and good communities, particularly women that of improved stoves to women. This governance are intimately involved in managing halved the charcoal consumption in Critical threats to the integrity of forest or extracting these natural resources the community. The project was so resources in Central Africa are primarily on a daily basis, is needed if good successful that it was extended to the conservation practices are to be Virunga National Park to address the

2 See the IUCN/CARPE small grant policy and procedure maintained at the grass–roots level, but issue of deforestation due to wood manual at http://carpe.umd.edu/resources/Documents/ this poses a massive administrative, harvesting for charcoal production. IUCN_small_grant_policy_and_procedure_manual_EN.pdf.

199 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Poaching is a serious threat to were well developed, CARPE small In countries like Burundi and Rwanda biodiversity. Harvesting species from grant funding supported environmental where forest areas have been almost the IUCN “Critically Endangered (CR)” education and the dissemination of completely converted into farmland, category and/or endemic species is a legal information governing natural the small grants have supported a crime. However, in Central Africa, many resources. Thus, the Centre d’Actions different approach, emphasizing the poachers are ignorant of the law, and pour le Développement Durable et conservation of the remaining patches hence cannot be held wholly responsible l’Environnement (CADDE) received of protected areas and the restoration for their crime. Therefore, following a small grant to set up a botanical of degraded lands. In Burundi, small on from its work on disseminating the sanctuary with a 2km nature trail in grant activities focused on a) building Forestry Code, REFADD through a small the Mondah forest to train secondary civil society capacity to compile all grant mobilized its entire network to school students from Libreville and the laws and regulations guiding the promote and disseminate wildlife laws. students from the school of forestry management of protected areas; The wildlife law in DRC was translated (Cap Esterias) in environmental b) developing advocacy materials such into local languages and 1000 copies sciences. Aventures Sans Frontières as pamphlets in French as well in local disseminated. Noticeboards featuring (ASF) launched a large environmental languages and to disseminate these wildlife laws in local languages and advocacy campaign through the materials to communities living around pictures of endangered and endemic design and display of photos and protected areas; and c) organizing species were drawn up and posted images highlighting unsustainable information campaigns to stimulate around protected areas in four of the natural resource exploitation in government members including most forested countries of the Congo Gabon and its subsequent impacts on the national police to enforce the Basin (DRC, ROC, Cameroon and CAR). wildlife. implementation of the country’s laws. Hunters/poachers were organized into networks and were trained in wildlife The Association des femmes juristes The development and promotion of laws. Communities were organized du Congo, with a CARPE small grant, economic growth and social welfare into Comités de vigilance in the Ituri produced the fi rst ever Republic of activities within communities area of the DRC (these included local Congo Code de l’environnement. In The promotion and development of associations, police, government Gabon, Les Amis du Pangolin (ADP) economic growth and social welfare territorial administration offi cials and received a small grant to edit and activities as a natural resource judiciary members) for an anti-poaching distribute free of charge several volumes conservation strategy is a fundamental campaign, a sort of local eco-guard of a regional environmental newspaper, requirement but a substantial challenge team. Le Cri du Pangolin. Another NGO in for the large international conservation ROC, ANN (Alliance Nationale pour la NGOs and government agencies In Cameroon, where a forestry code Nature), received a grant to produce alike. However, civil society in several and associated legal forest regulation and disseminate the fi rst newspaper instances has been able to be effective frameworks had been well established specializing in environmental issues. in this role through the Small Grants for many years, local NGOs, with the The newspaper called L’araignée Program. help of CARPE small grants, analyzed publicized provocative information that the constraints of implementing the mobilized the community to combat In DRC, the female NGO network forestry code at local level, which wildlife poaching and illegal logging in REFADD has revived agriculture in highlighted and identifi ed gaps between the Conkouati National Park of ROC. the CBFP Maringa/Lopori-Wamba theory and practice. This information Landscape, helping a network of 50 then informed new written operational Still in the spirit of getting environmental local associations composed of about guidelines and implementing texts, information to the public, the NGO 350 women to organize themselves to essentially with the outcome of called Club des Amis de la Nature de plant 300 ha of improved staple food empowering the local NGOs to serve l’université Marien Ngouabi in 2002 crop varieties. In Gabon, just informing as technical advisors to policy and received a grant to establish a “green” the local communities in the area west decision makers. cyber-café in the Brazzaville University of the Minkébé National Park of their campus open to all students and the rights under the logging concessions’ In some countries like Gabon and public, serving as an internet café cahiers de charges, has allowed these ROC where NGOs were still very weak and interactive information centre for communities to defend and improve and inexperienced, yet established research on forestry and environment to their livelihoods through demanding legal frameworks for NRM such the inform and develop future environmental benefi ts from the logging companies forestry code and the wildlife code advocates. that are laid down in Gabonese law.

200 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

Small grants have enabled civil Centre d’Appui aux Femmes et aux shown that the Small Grant Policy and society organizations to mobilize local Ruraux (CAFER), a local NGO managed Procedure Manual should be revised communities to seek solutions to by women, is conducting research to take into consideration some of the various environmental threats such as on alternatives to slash-and-burn concerns of civil society as refl ected in deforestation for charcoal production. extensive agriculture and unsustainable the last seven years of implementation. In Rwanda, two local NGOs, SERUKA hunting practices with CARPE small and AREDI, have mobilized the Ministry grant support, a challenge that many 1. Proposal preparation, screening in charge of forests, technicians from international research institutes such and award procedures the Institut des Sciences Agronomiques, the World Agroforestry Centre (formerly community leaders in three sites and the International Council for Research in Applications for grants should be done students to develop and put in place Agroforestry – ICRAF), the International in two stages a plantation of about four hectares of Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) et The fi rst stage should just entail a trees, bamboo and rattan. They have al. have been working on for years with project concept, which should only also trained 12 agricultural monitors little effect in the fi eld. These networks be followed by a full proposal if the and 40 student members of the Club de of female NGOs are increasingly the Steering Committee declares the l’Environnement while raising awareness voice of all females among the civil concept worthy of further development. of the threats of unsustainable society network. Several complaints have been recorded practices. from civil society organizations about the fact that too much time and energy In the ROC, an NGO called Association Lessons learned is devoted to developing a full project des Femmes Veuves de Fatima (AFVF) The CARPE strategy of distributing proposal for a small grant which may has organized itself with the support of small grants, fi rst as a tool to strengthen have a low probability of being funded. a small grant to address the challenge civil society’s institutional and human of fuel wood shortage by planting three resource capacity for NRM, and Screening of small grant proposals hectares of fast-growing species such second as a mechanism to capitalize needs to be transparent as eucalyptus, while in Burundi, some on these new capacities to empower The system used during CARPE Phase local NGOs such as Enviro-protect civil society for good governance in I raised doubts over the transparency of have identifi ed the need for and have forest conservation has shown positive the Small Grants Program. The CARPE promoted more effi cient stoves for results. The Central African landscape Focal Point in each country was solely rural households, as another solution has evolved substantially since CARPE responsible for the fi rst screening, and to the same problem. Other successful began in 1995, and at least some of the fi nal decision was made at the livelihood activities supported by the socio-political changes can be discretion of the Regional Coordinator. the Small Grants Program include traced to the Small Grants Program. During Phase II the screening process is the promotion of ecotourism and Today, the emergence of a responsive done at the national level by a national beekeeping. and accountable civil society that steering committee and the fi nal grant provides serious representation in approval made by a regional steering Integrating gender considerations into environmental decision making is committee, which is perceived as being conservation strategies widely acknowledged. Civil society more transparent and even-handed. CARPE recognizes the importance opinion now carries some weight in of promoting gender equity in its forestry and NRM policy making. While Accountability in the use of small strategy of civil society empowerment. these changes can not be attributed grant funds by civil society is greatly In addition to integrating gender solely to the Small Grants Program, improved through close technical considerations into its overall it is reasonable to conclude that the support from the Focal Points and programme, it has specifi cally focused capacity built through the small grants scrutiny by the steering committees efforts on building the capacity of “learning-by-doing” approach over a Embezzlement and misuse of grant two networks of female NGOs. The period of many years has had a major funds are common amongst local network REFADD has had a substantial impact on the sector. NGOs. Many of the organizations lack impact on the management of proper accounting and audit systems. natural resources in Central Africa Despite the demonstrable impacts Having international NGOs and/or by effectively integrating women into shown in these cases, there are still the CARPE Focal Points coach local NRM policies and activities. REFADD possible improvements suggested by NGOs as part of the monitoring and staff have benefi ted from intensive the review and feedback received over evaluation of the grant activities has CARPE mentoring and training. The the past few years. Experience has shown promising results. The Small

201 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Grants Program has not encountered CARPE Focal Points or international decisions with empirical information has the problem of misuse of funds. As NGO support. In Gabon the local NGO inspired the Minister of Environment to further evidence of increased fi scal IBONGA-ACPE (Association pour appoint the CARPE Focal Point as the management capacity, a network of la Connaissance et la Protection de facilitator to compile civil society inputs local NGOs in the DRC called CRONE, l’Environnement) has been successful in the form of policy briefs to inform the a group long supported by the DRC in mobilizing communities around the process of revising the 1994 Forestry CARPE Focal Point, received a grant Gamba network of protected areas code. of US$150,000 from the World Bank to for ecotourism development, mostly assist local communities in becoming because WWF provided them with 4. The capacity of small grants to engaged in logging title conversions. technical support. mobilize civil society for advocacy The money was deemed well spent and properly accounted for, which is Tying the Small Grants Program to Experience of local NGOs in considered a result of the mentorship the CARPE landscape programme implementing projects and mobilizing provided by the CARPE Focal Point. has been very important in integrating public opinion has increased their local associations and CBOs fully into capacity for more structured advocacy Providing grants to networks of local CARPE activities on the ground efforts or regional NGOs has exponential This is the case with IBONGA in the In several instances, local NGOs effects Gamba landscape, REFADD in the have raised objections to government Environmental problems are of a Maringa/Lopori-Wamba, ROSE in decisions. In Gabon, the concession common nature, both nationally and the Lobéké and many others. During to the Belinga iron mine, an throughout the Central Africa region. CARPE Phase I, most of the NGOs environmentally sensitive site REFADD, a network of female NGOs that benefi ted from the Small Grants surrounded by three national parks active in the four main forested Program were based in the capital (Minkébé, Ivindo and Mwagna), was countries of the Congo Basin, has cities. granted to a Chinese company by the tackled the issue of ignorance of government without any provision for the bushmeat law at the grass-roots 3. The capacity of small grants to environmental impact assessment. A level by translating the law into local empower civil society coalition of Gabonese NGOs advocated languages and disseminating the result very strongly for the government to to local communities. This network Local NGOs’ ability and credibility follow its own environmental laws, with approach is effi cient and effective. when addressing subjects of national great success. The government decision interest in the realm of environmental was eventually amended and the Providing grant applicants with protection and natural resource concession agreement was revised to feedback on why their proposals were exploitation has increased with include measures to mitigate potential funded or rejected is crucial for civil “learning-by-doing” experience and negative environmental impacts. society capacity building expanded institutional capacity In CAR a NGO called CODICOM Local NGO voices are heard much Governments have grown to (Comité pour le Développement more than a decade ago. In Gabon for respect the voices of NGOs in Intégré des Communautés de Base) instance they are represented in specifi c making development decisions with fi nally succeeded in being awarded a government structures such as the environmental impacts small grant in 2008 after four separate Economic Council of Gabon and the The site chosen by the Gabon rejections in previous years. Their national park system agency, which are government for the construction of a ultimate success was the result of political decision-making government second airport in Libreville was feared continuous and long-lasting counselling institutions. This offi cial recognition has by citizens to have substantial negative with specifi c feedback each year to turned civil society organizations into consequences such as too much CODICOM on the weakness of their government technical advisors rather noise, impacting on the nearby Akanda proposals. than opponents of government per se. National Park, a site internationally In DRC, a local NGO was appointed well known as a critical nesting site 2. Project implementation as a consultative member to the for migrating birds. Additionally, it was Economic and Social Council of the feared that the airport would destroy Local NGOs implementing small grant United Nations (ECOSOC) on questions a nearby relic rain forest that serves activities need coaching and support concerning local development. In as a site for practical training for the Most projects that have been completed Cameroon, efforts by civil society Cap Esterias forestry school. Again successfully have required either to help the ministry to inform policy the coalition of local NGOs advocated

202 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

for a review of the decision, and the laws to local communities, and setting activities, can be effective tools for law government responded by putting the up networks of comités de vigilance enforcement as well as compliance. ' project on hold. have achieved concrete results. Local communities have reported eight cases Strengthened NGOs can play an of wildlife poaching and/or traffi cking important role in promoting the “rule to the police, and the poachers and of law” by educating citizens on legal traffi ckers were prosecuted and fi ned. requirements and the impacts of illegal This outcome was unprecedented in NRM activities DRC and it shows how small grants, In DRC, REFADD’s efforts to by building civil society capacity and disseminate information on relevant providing some funding for specifi c

Bibliography

“CARPE Performance Monitoring Plan”. USAID/CARPE.

IUCN-ROCA. 2006. “IUCN Small Grant Policy and Procedure Manual for the Support Program for Civil Society Strengthening for Biodiversity Conservation in Central Africa”. IUCN/CARPE.

Pielemeier, J., Sowers, F., Stoney, C. and Milol, A. 2006. “Mid-Term Assessment of the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). Final Report”. Arlington VA: Weidemann Consortium.

Small Grant Case Studies from six countries (Burundi, Cameroon, DRC, Gabon, ROC and Rwanda).

Solem, R. 1999. “BSP/CARPE Regional Ofﬁ ce SOS Grant Program”.

203 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Case Study 1 The Use of Small Grants to Build Civil Society Capacity to Support Conservation in Cameroon

Antoine Justin Eyébé

Objectives of the IUCN Small technically, administratively and communities on conservation Grants Program fi nancially. strategies, exchanges of fi eld The IUCN Small Grants Program, experiences, and success stories funded by the Central African Regional CARPE has been very supportive to between and within landscapes; Program for the Environment (CARPE), CSOs because of their potential key • Promoting and building a has strengthened the role of civil society role in improving natural resource constituency for conservation organizations (CSOs) in sustainable management in the region. The Small among civil society; forest management. Their role is very Grants Program has supported, both • Fostering partnerships between important in implementing CARPE’s technically and fi nancially, a wide landscape consortia and local civil Strategic Objective which is to reduce range of micro-projects submitted society in the fi eld; the rate of deforestation and loss of by local NGOs in areas where they • Enabling Central African biodiversity in Central Africa. Moreover, either had a comparative advantage institutions to participate in CARPE civil society will play a leading role in in implementing them or needed the activities in order to ensure host promoting good governance in natural necessary capacity to improve natural country “buy-in” of conservation resource management – a pivotal resource management. These micro- initiatives; component of the CARPE Phase II projects focused on themes such • Reinforcing the capacities of Results Framework. as understanding the local context local civil society in institutional of natural resource management, development and strategic After the Rio Conference in 1992, the improving transparency in the forestry planning to sustain CARPE importance of CSOs in Cameroon sector, combating illegal logging and activities and objectives in the was recognized because they were poaching, enhancing knowledge of region in the long term; considered by members of the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in • Effectively integrating CARPE Government and other international order to improve livelihoods, assessing activities in the fi eld with host partners as catalysts for local, national the Cameroon logging industry, etc. country institutions; and international development. These projects required precepts which • Fostering gender equity through However, despite this trend, some forest could fi ll the gaps in the activities of the promotion of female-based dwellers were increasingly disappointed some of CARPE’s international partners community organizations and because they still felt excluded. For such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) associations; instance, they resented the fact that which receives funds from CARPE to • Raising local, national and regional the benefi ts they received from the implement the “Sustainable natural awareness of CARPE and therefore forest were insignifi cant compared resource management practices providing knowledge and support to those received by other forest applied” component in two landscapes to the programme objectives. exploiters, notably logging and mining in south-east Cameroon. In general concessions. Due to this imbalance the Small Grants Program targets the between stakeholders, it became following groups: community-based Implementation strategy and very important to design appropriate organizations (CBOs) and associations, results achieved strategies to facilitate their involvement. local populations, research institutions A small grant policy and procedure Hence, CSOs opted to make them and students. The objectives of the manual has been prepared.1 Grants aware of the existing legal and policy Small Grants Program include: are awarded, after a two-tier selection frameworks, and how these could better • Filling gaps in conservation’s process, to local NGOs working within serve the interests of local populations. analytical agenda such as

However, they noticed that this could designing a suitable mechanism 1 See CARPE website for copies of the manual in English only be effective if they were supported to provide feedback to local and in French – http://carpe.umd.edu/Plone/resources/ smallgrants.

204 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

the framework of the natural resources • the promotion of gender equity • Although it may sound lengthy, the governance strengthened components. with the creation of the network two-tier selection process (National The fi rst level of selection is organized of women for the sustainable and Regional Steering Committees) at the country level by the CARPE Focal management of the Central African is key for transparency which in Point who coordinates the National moist forests – one of the dynamic turn is key for confl ict mitigation. Steering Committee. Shortlisted CEFDHAC (Conférence sur les • Involving other donors in the proposals are sent to the Regional Ecosystèmes de Forêts Denses National Steering Committee for Steering Committee for a fi nal decision. et Humides d’Afrique Centrale) proposal selection is essential In both the National and Regional networks; because it avoids duplication Committees, CARPE staff members • alternatives to slash-and-burn of funding and creates synergy play a strictly neutral role as they guide agriculture and unsustainable among donors. participants of the group to better hunting practices. understand the programme’s vision, Implementation objectives and priorities. On the natural resource management • Flexible in nature, the small grant front, activities were geared towards projects have covered a wide Since 1998, about 50 projects have discussions between fi eld researchers range of activities, all relevant been funded by the Small Grants and policy makers on the theme to CARPE’s overall strategic Program in two key areas: a) research “conserving and managing biodiversity objectives, such as biological and b) the natural resource policy and in central Africa: global challenges and research, community mobilization, legal framework. local solutions” to ensure that policy livelihood improvement, good decisions are based on empirical data governance etc. Research has mostly focused on non- and on international conventions. After • Because CSOs are the centrepiece timber forest products (NTFPs) as a this general framework, small projects of the Small Grants Program, their means to improve the livelihoods of tackled specifi c issues such as: success in implementing fi eld millions of forest dwellers. The research a) constraints in implementing the activities can only be effective if topics included: regulatory framework on timber they receive outside technical and • the importance of forest resources exploitation in Cameroon based on fi nancial support, something which used by local communities; the 1994 Cameroon Forestry Code the CARPE Focal Points have been • fi eld testing and training in a and its 1995 implementation decrees; focusing on. methodology for the socio- b) mapping the hunting practices and • The Small Grants Program is an economic valuation of NTFPs; circulation of wildlife products along effective tool to bridge the gap • state-of-the-knowledge studies the Moloundou-Bertoua-Yaoundé road between activities executed within of specifi c NTFPs such as to establish a geographical information the landscape and those at the Tabernanthe iboga Baillon, Prunus system database on the exploitation community level. One concrete africana, Gnetum africanum and and circulation of wildlife products; example is as follows: the Gene G. buchholzianum, threatened with c) contribution to the revision of the Bank that was set up in 2000 is extinction by unsustainable harvest regulation related to the management still producing seedlings for the techniques; of incomes from logging and hunting domestication of endangered • the establishment of a gene bank activities, with a view to improving wild plant species which are of Gnetum spp. in Limbe Botanical the livelihoods of communities living unsustainably harvested in the Garden; around the exploited forest area; and landscapes. • production and dissemination d) constraints related to wildlife law by the National Herbarium of enforcement. Positive and negative impacts of the three volumes of Cameroon fl ora Small Grants Program presenting Orchidaceae and • The Cameroon Government is Dichapetalaceae; Lessons learned making the effort to incorporate • the role of community institutions results from the small grant in the management of NTFPs to The procedures activities into decision making. highlight restrictions and rights in • The manual is essential in helping Part of the decision to review the their harvest at the local level, and civil society identify and write Cameroon Forestry Code of 1994 the co-existence of customary sound project proposals that meet was triggered by civil society rules with legal regulatory CARPE’s requirements. advocacy initiatives. frameworks;

205 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

• The Small Grants Program is an maximum), thereby restricting pour le Développement Durable effi cient way to foster gender their opportunities for long-term (REFADD)) project was submitted equity because it has led to the commitment to action in the fi eld. by a coalition or network of NGOs, creation of a regional network • Dissemination of the results of showing that individualism still of women for the conservation small grant activities tends to be prevails in civil society in the and sustainable use of forest confi ned to the geographical area Congo Basin. ecosystems. This network covered by projects hence there is • Although CBOs that operate in has been able to translate an urgent need for the Focal Point the landscape have a good grasp the Forestry Code into local to help package and disseminate of the local and fi eld context, languages and disseminate it to the results throughout the entire they lack the capacity to develop local communities, especially the country (to decision makers, sound proposals to compete for section on wildlife management donors, etc.). the small grants; hence, there is and poaching in the entire forest • Though CARPE has been still a tendency for most of the zone of the Congo basin. encouraging local NGOs to work small grant funding to go to NGOs • Funds received by NGOs in networks to maximize their based in large cities, managed by are mostly targeted towards impacts on the ground, only one elites. ' short-term activities (one year (Réseau des Femmes Africaines

References

Breteler, F.J. 2001. Dichapetalacées. In: Flore du Cameroun. 37. Paris and Yaoundé: MNHN and Herbier National.

Eyébé, A.J. 2007. “Revue de la gestion des ressources naturelles au Cameroun”. RCGG/IGC.

Nchoji Nkwi, P. 1999. “Conserving and managing biodiversity in central Africa: Global challenges and local solutions”.

Ndam, N. 1999. “State-of-the-knowledge studies of Tabernanthe iboga Baillon, Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman, Gnetum africanum Welw. and G. buchholzianum”.

Ngoufo, R. 2006. “Suivi cartographique de la chasse et circulation des produits fauniques le long des axes Moloundou- Bertoua-Yaoundé”.

Ngoufo, R. 2000. “Contraintes pratiques de mise en œuvre de la réglementation sur l’exploitation forestière au Cameroun”.

Nzoh-Ngandembou, Z. 1998. “Field testing and training in a methodology for socio-economic valuation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in Cameroon”.

Szlachetko, D.L. and Olszewski, T.S. 2001a. Orchidacées Vol. 2. In: Achoundong, G. and Morat, P. (Eds) Flore du Cameroun. 35. Paris and Yaoundé: MNHN and Herbier National.

Szlachetko, D.L. and Olszewski, T.S. 2001b. Orchidacées Vol. 3. In: Achoundong, G. and Morat, P. (Eds) Flore du Cameroun. 36. Paris and Yaoundé: MNHN and Herbier National.

Tchoulack, A. 1999. “Conservation de la biodiversité dans la vallée de l’Inoubou”. van Dijk, H. 1999. “The role of community institutions in the management of NTFPs in Cameroon”.

206 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

Case Study 2 The Use of Small Grants to Build Civil Society Capacity to Participate in the Conservation of Natural Resources in Rwanda

Thaddée Habiyambere

Objectives of the IUCN Small been to the detriment of sustainable of crops by the wild animals that it Grants Program conservation of the Nyungwe forest. harbours. This arouses the anger of the The overall objective of the IUCN Small local populations who complain that Grants Program funded by CARPE is The overall objective of this project was the local authority favours and protects to build the capacity of civil society to reduce the negative impacts on the wild animals at the expense of human organizations (CSOs) to enable them to environment resulting from the wanton beings. Another threat is the shortage of mobilize themselves more effectively exploitation of bamboo and rattan in wood (for energy, construction, crafts, and to support advocacy for rational the Nyungwe natural forest. It was etc.) in the area surrounding the forest. management of natural resources in the implemented by the local NGO “Seruka” Local people are sometimes tempted Congo Basin. (the Association for Promoting the to exploit the forest in order to satisfy Active Contribution of Rwandan Women their need for timber and non-timber Since CARPE began operating in to Development). forest products, even though there is Central Africa, several national NGOs a protection regime (game wardens) in have received small grants from this place. programme. Details of two recent Support for the Makera gallery forest projects (2007–2008) are described conservation efforts below, to illustrate the lessons learned The overall objective of this project was Implementation strategy and from this programme. These are the to put in place an appropriate platform for results achieved “Domestic Production of Bamboo and the sustainable conservation of this forest Rattan” project, carried out in three by involving the local population, local Domestic production of bamboo and sectors located close to the Nyungwe government services and environmental rattan National Park in the Nyaruguru experts. It was implemented by the local The following four expected outputs District in the South Province; and the NGO “AREDI” (Association Rwandaise were selected for this project: “Support for the Makera gallery forest pour l’Environnement et le Développement • Twenty ofﬁ cials and opinion conservation efforts” project in the Intégré). leaders, 40 major bamboo and Kirehe District in the West Province. rattan users (young house builders, This small forest (74 ha) is one of the makers of household utensils, Domestic production of bamboo and gallery forests in the eastern part of etc.) and 600 conservation rattan the country that up until now has activists living in the three sectors The Nyungwe natural forest, recently managed to maintain its integrity surrounding the Nyungwe forest designated the third National Park in almost intact in spite of the multiple are made aware of the magnitude the country, has suffered widespread threats that it faces. It is surrounded of the negative impacts on the destruction caused mainly by the by very poor communities, including environment caused by the wanton harvesting of bamboo and rattan by the those repatriated or chased away from exploitation of bamboo and rattan local population from the surrounding neighbouring Tanzania, who have no in this natural forest. areas. The products derived from these adequate means of subsistence and not • The 600 conservation activists of two species are commonly used in the enough arable farmland. Nyaruguru are trained in small- local construction and craft industries. scale growing and exploitation of Trade in these products has increased There are a number of problems bamboo and rattans; since the war and the genocide that threatening the integrity of the Makera • These activists commit themselves took place in the country. This has gallery forest. One is the destruction to growing bamboo and rattan and

207 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

to ensuring that 60 hectares of the three sectors, were all made from the three sectors have so far bamboo and rattan farms will be aware of the rationale of the been declared eligible to receive a developed on 12 target sites before project, its objectives and their certain number of these shoots for the end of the project. need to collaborate; planting. • Monitoring and coordination of • Training: Twelve agricultural activities are carried out thanks to instructors (four per sector) were Support for the Makera gallery forest a strong organizational structure recruited and trained for six conservation efforts with sound bodies responsible for days on the growing of bamboo The following three expected outputs decision making, implementation and rattan (in nurseries and were selected for this project: and ﬁ nancial auditing. then plantations), and on the • A workshop is organized to laws governing environmental validate the action plan drawn up The following achievements are worth conservation and management. by the project, bringing together mentioning: • Establishment of nurseries: representatives of the Mpamga • Awareness raising: Using A nursery for the production of sector, of the Kirehe District, of the individual visits and group deep-rooted bamboo cuttings was Pupils’ Environment Club of the meetings, the Forestry unit of developed in each of the three Nyawera School, local NGOs, ISAR the Ministry in charge of forestry sectors of the project (see Table 1). researchers and the CARPE Focal (MINITERE), local authority and • Engagement of local Point, amongst others. technical personnel at all levels, communities: There has been a • A nursery of forest plants is the bamboo research unit at the massive demand for the bamboo developed and placed under the Institute of Agronomic Sciences of and rattan shoots produced in responsibility of the Nyawera/ Rwanda (ISAR) as well as opinion the nurseries, but due to a lack Nasho Primary School. leaders within the populations of of availability, only 564 people • Equipment and materials (microphones and loudspeakers, etc.) are put at the disposal of Table 1. The number of cuttings planted and available for cultivation, as of the Pupils’ Environment Club and October 2008 teachers of the local primary school.

Number of Number of Number of Number of beds Number of shoots that shoots that didn’t shoots available The following achievements are worth Sector (site) developed cuttings planted sprouted survive for planting mentioning: Nyabimata 36 16,854 6,989 6,367 622 • Establishment of a nursery: Muganza 37 16,008 4,043 2,683 1,360 An agroforestry nursery was Ruheru 33 16,757 2,153 1,773 380 developed near the Nyawera TOTAL 106 49,619 13,185 10,823 2,362 Primary School and the day-today management (watering) was entrusted to the pupils under the supervision of a technical staff member recruited by the project. Various agroforestry species were sown as seedlings (Grevillea

Table 2. Seedlings produced in the nursery

Species Number of seedlings Grevillea robusta 18,000 Cedrella serrata 2,500 Jacaranda mimosaefolia 5,500 Sena siamea 1,500 Sena spectabilis 4,500 TOTAL 32,000

Mihanda nursery in the Samiyonga Cell, Muganza Sector.

208 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

Pupils of the Club are in white T-shirts, singing and dancing.

• Development of an action plan: An action plan for the conservation of the Makera gallery forest was drawn up for the period 2009– 2013.

Lessons learned Rwanda is a densely populated country with around 9.7 million inhabitants over an area of about 27,000 km2 (close to 360 inhabitants/km2) in 2008.1 Potential forestland is estimated at a total of 190,000 ha of which 140,000 ha could be used for agroforestry and 50,000 ha for traditional reforestation. Meanwhile, the existing forested area, including dense montane natural forests, eastern The nursery while under development – the seedlings inside are still at an early stage of cultivation. natural formations, plantations and potential reforestation and forestation zones, is 888,660 ha. robusta, Calliandra callotyrsus, pupils of the school supervised Markhamia sp., etc.). Thirty-two by their teachers, and it is raising In spite of their apparently small thousand seedlings produced awareness of the conservation of contribution to the country’s economy, in the nursery were speciﬁ cally the Makera gallery forest especially the important role played by forests in planted in the primary school through songs, poems, dances and the country is unquestionable. Wood farm over a surface area of about games. is the household fuel of the great 4 hectares and each pupil has • Distribution of equipment and majority of the population. Also, forests planted 20 trees that he/she has to materials: Seeds, watering cans, contribute in terms of incomes derived care for. shovels, hoes, plastic bags for from job creation for rural people. • Establishment of a school club: the nurseries, T-shirts, etc. were A Friends of the Environment distributed to members of the 1 World Bank. (2008). World Development Indicators. Club was formed, made up of 40 Friends of the Environment Club. Washington DC: World Bank.

209 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Conclusion The potential for the Small Grants Program to help mobilize CSOs, build capacity and raise awareness of issues of sustainable management of natural resources is obvious. In the case of Rwanda, the crucial problem of management of natural resources is the loss of forest cover through deforestation and soil degradation. Sustained activities such as those of the above-mentioned two environmental NGOs can slow down or reverse the trend of forest cover destruction, the main objective of CARPE in Central Africa. Therefore, the IUCN Small Grants Program should be reinforced and the size of grant per project After the 1994 war, the appearance two projects described above have increased to overcome constraints such of the forested land has changed contributed to this need by helping as the massive and increasing demand somewhat given that it is estimated local communities to reforest 60 ha of for bamboo and rattan shoots in the that 15,000 ha of plantation forest bamboo, and encouraging 40 primary Nyaruguru District in Rwanda. ' were destroyed while 35,000 ha were school pupils to plant 32,000 seedlings seriously damaged. of ﬁ ve different tree species on four hectares of land. If guided well by their The result is an acute need for teachers, these pupils represent an reforestation and afforestation. Thanks important long-term potential in the ﬁ eld to the Small Grants Program, the of forest conservation.

210 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

Case Study 3 The Use of Small Grants to Build Civil Society Capacity to Support the Conservation of Natural Resources in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Serge Osodu Omba

Introduction determining role that civil society could national advocacy either to reform The Central African Regional play with regard to advocacy in the them or to draw them up; Program for the Environment interests of communities. Civil society (CARPE) is undertaking activities for has proven its ability to work to support 5. Raise awareness at local, national the conservation and sustainable the government, and also to promote and regional levels on forest management of natural resources in the interests and build the capacities of governance issues; nine forest countries of the Congo local communities. Basin. To this end, one of the 6. Encourage gender equality. programme’s key strategies is building The SGP has been operating in the the capacity of civil society actors Democratic Republic of Congo since with the aim of stimulating their active 2002 and has supported several small SGP projects implemented involvement in policy reform through civil society (local NGOs, associations, and their impacts advocacy and the development of etc.) projects. Though not exhaustive, income-generating activities at a local this document is a synthesis of lessons The compendium of legal instruments level, in a bid to reduce pressure on learned from the implementation of the on the environment in the DRC forest resources. The IUCN Small SGP in the DRC. The DRC is a post-confl ict country. Grants Program (SGP), funded by For some time all the legal instruments CARPE, is intended to support this governing its natural resources sector strategy. Objectives of the Small were widely dispersed and almost Grants Program inaccessible to most interested parties The Democratic Republic of Congo The SGP aims to promote and create a except for the legal profession. Thanks (DRC) is facing mammoth challenges in platform within civil society to support to help from the SGP, a national NGO terms of natural resource management. conservation and specifi cally to: called Avocats Verts (Green lawyers) In order to overcome these challenges, 1. Build the capacities of civil society was able to produce the fi rst version of the involvement of all stakeholders in in institutional development the compendium of legal instruments a participatory and inclusive approach and strategic planning, as a is imperative. Civil society is essential prerequisite to the sustainability of to this process. It can contribute CARPE activities and objectives in signifi cantly to improving forest the region; governance, facilitating the organization and structuring of communities, 2. Promote social welfare through developing income-generating the development of income- activities to improve social welfare, and generating activities; promoting gender considerations. 3. Effectively mainstream CARPE The contribution of the Coalition activities into the institutions of of Environmental NGO Networks the host country; (Coalition des Réseaux des ONGs de l’Environnement – CRON) to 4. Identify natural resource the government’s legal review of its management policies that require forest titles clearly demonstrated the

211 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

on the environment. This document This challenge was taken up by an paid for the translation into Swahili was distributed to all the actors in NGO, the national branch of a women’s of the law governing hunting and its the environmental sector at national, NGO called the Nework of African annexes, and disseminated 1,000 provincial and local levels. This exercise Women for Sustainable Development copies around the hunter communities has been very successful in terms of (Réseau des Femmes Africaines pour in the forests of Mambasa around training and raising public awareness le Développement Durable – REFADD). the Okapi Faunal Reserve. This has on regulatory instruments governing This NGO translated the Forestry Code raised the level of awareness and environment management. The into a national language (Lingala), knowledge amongst hunters as well document was even used as a reference thanks to support from the SGP, as communities, the majority of whom throughout the process of developing the and undertook an awareness-raising up to now had only been interested in DRC’s Forestry Code, produced in 2002. campaign in the Bandundu Province in the hunting calendar and the types of the Lisala and Bongandanga territories species to be hunted. Following the enactment of the Forestry in the Equator Province. This initiative Code, several implementation decrees has been really successful in raising The same NGO (SOS Nature) enabled were promulgated and in the process the the communities’ awareness of their the creation of a multi-stakeholder matter of updating the compendium was rights and duties with regards to forest platform for the management of wildlife raised. Consequently, the same NGO, management, and several international resources, involving several territories still supported by the SGP, produced a partners, notably SNV (the Netherlands and provincial government authorities. second edition of the compendium with Development Organization) and Care This platform monitors and guides the support of other partners. International, have produced revised female bushmeat sellers, and reports and improved versions of the document cases of poaching protected species. Translation of the Forestry Code into in Lingala, Swahili and Kikongo in order This platform has also become the body Lingala and its dissemination to extend the dissemination of the in charge of wildlife issues in the land- Good governance also entails Forestry Code all over the country. use planning process undertaken by the transparency through the dissemination CARPE-CBFP-WCS Ituri Project. of laws and regulations governing Promotion of wildlife laws forestry activities to grass-roots Poaching is still a major concern In addition to these activities promoting communities. This is a real challenge affecting all biodiversity conservation laws and regulations, the SGP has also for those communities living in forested efforts in the DRC. One of the factors contributed to reducing deforestation, areas in the DRC, who represent about that aggravate poaching is ignorance of promoting rational management of 70 percent of the country’s population, the law and, even more so, ignorance forest resources and alleviating poverty. and most of whom have received little of which species are totally or partially education. protected because they are on the IUCN Poverty alleviation through the Red List of Threatened Species. promotion of development actions Local NGOs work directly with grass- Again with the help of a small grant, roots communities and consequently REFADD, which had already gained they know their socio-economic realities the trust of the communities in the and their development imperatives Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape, developed in relation to the conservation and posters showing the protected species sustainable management of resources. of the DRC and posted them around Two NGOs (including an association protected areas. This resulted in local of six NGO networks – Protection de communities reporting to the police l’écosystème et des espèces rares du eight cases of poachers who had in sud-est de l’Equateur (PERSE); Initiative their possession whole specimens or locale de développement intégré parts of integrally protected species (ILDI) ; Faune, ﬂ ore et santé à Yahuma (Okapi). (FFSY) ; Centre de développement intégré de Lomako (CEDILO); Centre The success achieved by REFADD de Développement Agro-Pastoral through their awareness-raising de Djolu (CEDAP) and Action pour le campaign and production of visual aids Développement et la Conservation (posters) has inspired other partners, de la Nature (ADCN) – operating in notably the NGO SOS Nature that has six territories of the ﬂ agship Maringa/

212 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

inventory in the Lake Tamba Landscape has succeeded in demonstrating the unique value of the site in terms of biodiversity. The results of this project will serve as a useful tool when advocating for the gazettement of the zone as a nature reserve.

Lessons learned The outputs obtained from the projects supported by the SGP are tangible and fall in line with CARPE’s strategic objectives in the region: (a) The compendium of legal instruments on the environment in the DRC, fi rst published in 2000, was the very fi rst document that comprehensively put together all environmental legal instruments (decrees and others) in force in the country. This compendium served as a legal basis in the process of Lopori-Wamba Landscape (Djolu, have since formed themselves into an developing the fi rst Forestry Code Bongandanga, Befale, Lomako, association. Thanks to these efforts of the DRC, which replaced the Yahuma, Basankusu)) have through made by civil society, the administration Royal Decree of 1949. the SGP supported the revival of can now control this group of small- sustainable agriculture (agroforestry), scale exploiters and raise revenues (b) Translating the Forestry Code with more than 300 ha planted with through imposing taxes. from French into Lingala and varied foodstuffs, affecting more than disseminating it has made it 300 women. A second project has (b) The NGO called Programme d’action possible to pass on, to the supported grazing and fi shing activities pour le développement intégré des communities living in and around in the Monkoto Territory in the Salonga- paysans (PADIP) is working towards the forest massif, the legal Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape. These two fi nding alternatives to deforestation for instruments on the management of projects have enabled the communities the sake of satisfying energy needs by forest resources. Lingala is a very to improve their livelihoods and to producing and popularizing improved popular vernacular language that is engage in conservation activities. stoves destined for women of the Ituri- understood by village communities Epulu-Aru and Virunga Landscapes. that more often than not have Still more projects supported by the More than 500 households have received little education. SGP… received improved stoves of which (a) A local NGO called Comité des about 1,000 were distributed to women. c) The promotion of the wildlife law exploitants et négociants de Mambasa using visual aids such as posters (CENEM) has tackled small-scale (c) The Coalition of Environmental NGO in Lingala placed around protected illegal logging in the Ituri Landscape, Networks (CRON) areas has served as a catalyst for a growing problem on this site, by Within the framework of the quest strengthening law enforcement and identifying the small-scale exploiters for alternative uses of forests in the encouraging local communities and raising their awareness of the DRC, CRON has collected scientifi c to report cases of poaching of legal instruments governing forest data in Bongo in the Inongo Territory, protected species. As of today, exploitation. In addition, CENEM a zone that was being logged before eight cases have been recorded organized the illegal loggers by assisting the government’s legal review of in Ituri around the Okapi Faunal them in the process of formalizing their forest concessions declared it no Reserve. This proves that NGOs activities with the local administration longer suitable for this purpose. This have the capacity to mobilize local by obtaining legal permits. The loggers wildlife and non-timber forest products communities to combat poaching,

213 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

transforming them into game Through the SGP, an association effective in building the capacities wardens. of six networks of NGOs (CEDAP, of civil society organizations and PERSE, ILDI, FFSY, CEDILO and mobilizing them to raise awareness and (d) The SGP has helped civil society ADCN) has revived sustainable undertake advocacy through; to collaborate effectively with agriculture (agroforestry), with more (a) the dissemination of legal government institutions, thus than 300 ha being planted with instruments governing the management breaking the myth that has always varied foodstuffs, impacting more of forest resources; classifi ed civil society as a source than 300 women in six territories (b) the promotion and/or development of nuisance to the government. (Djolu, Bongandanga, Befale, of income-generating activities for the This is seen from the action of the Lomako, Yahuma and Basankusu) wellbeing of local communities; and NGO SOS Nature that has not in the Maringa/Lopori-Wamba (c) promoting gender considerations only created a multi-stakeholder Landscape and encouraging reporting of damages platform involving several territories caused to biodiversity. and provincial government The work of promoting and building authorities for the management the capacities of civil society through These are areas in which several of wildlife resources in the Ituri, the SGP is already bearing fruit with international and even governmental but also trained it to monitor several multiplier effects. For example, partners generally lack expertise and and evaluate as well as provide the signifi cant role that CRON played hence they have often failed to include guidance to female bushmeat in the entire process of converting these concerns in their strategies sellers with the aim of reducing the forest titles into forest concessions in for the conservation and sustainable poaching of protected species. the DRC with the support of the World management of natural resources. Bank; and the CEDAP platform, that is (e) The promotion and development active in the Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Therefore, the SGP should not only of income-generating activities Landscape in the Djolu Territory, being be strengthened fi nancially to satisfy to improve social welfare goes granted the status of advisory body to increasing demand in the sub- hand in hand with the strategy to the Economic and Social Council of region, but its approach should be conserve biodiversity. While several the United Nations (ECOSOC) for local mainstreamed into the programmes of international partners either lack development-related issues. government and international donor the expertise or the willingness organizations, given that CARPE itself to invest therein, the SGP has was only conceived to last for 20 been an effi cient mechanism for Conclusion years. ' bridging this gap by mobilizing The Small Grants Program (with its village communities through grants ranging from US$15,000–40,000) local NGOs and associations. has shown itself to be extremely

214 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

Case Study 4 The Use of Small Grants to Build Civil Society Capacity in Advocacy and Promotion of Laws for the Rational Management of Natural Resources: What Can Be Learned from Experiences in Gabon?

Constant Allogo

Objectives of the IUCN Small The quality of this involvement is directly management of natural resources Grants Program related to the technical capacity of NGO through the development and promotion For national NGOs, insuffi cient fi nancial leaders. of income-generating activities in a bid and technical resources are a serious to arrive at cost-effective management handicap hampering their development The support given to national NGOs and of natural resources. This involvement and their participation in national, other civil society actors is mostly in of local communities is done through regional and international efforts for the form of capacity building, enabling raising awareness and providing the conservation and sustainable them to better master the problems information while taking into account management of natural resources. of natural resource conservation and the potential and specifi city of the area. management. Building the capacity of In order to address this situation, the local NGOs also includes training (of Around the Lope National Park, Central African Regional Program for various kinds) for managers as well as communities are organizing themselves the Environment (CARPE), since its the purchase of state-of-the-art working to enhance their livelihoods through launch in 1995, set up a fund through equipment. the development of cultural tourism. In the IUCN Small Grants Program Kasamabika, special emphasis is put on for national NGOs with the aim of masked traditional dances. supporting them directly in their efforts Civil society actors to contribute to the process of rational Gabonese civil society has received management and use of Central African support from CARPE on several fronts. forest ecosystems. This support, direct or indirect, is Within the periphery of the Batéké Plateau National Park, several local the outcome of the work of CARPE’s community associations have been In its objectives, CARPE has made partners and it makes visible the work created and their officials trained. environmental governance one of the that national NGOs are carrying out on Some of these local associations are key avenues for the sustainable and the ground. developing ecotourism activities based profi table management of natural around elephants. After a WCS study resources for all. Its founding principle is Communities living close to protected of how often elephants visit the bay to involve all stakeholders in the various areas (national parks and reserves) have (shoreline) of the River Mpassa, the local stages of the decision-making process a huge responsibility in the use of the communities decided to open channels relating to issues of environmental forest that surrounds them. In as much along the river in order to enable tourists governance. as these communities can contribute to to visit the shores where a great number resource degradation, so too can they of elephants are found. This experience has galvanized the local communities Identifying and putting in place take part in their protection. of the Kessala group of villages that conditions and practices necessary to presently are still developing ecotourism reduce the rate of deforestation and Thus, in landscapes, CARPE partners, around the elephant. This activity biodiversity loss in Central Africa is the the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the makes it possible to combat elephant driving force behind CARPE. To this Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), hunting and poaching in general. end, the involvement of all stakeholders, have directly (without direct grants) These elephants, thus protected, are especially civil society, in the given priority to local communities more economically profitable for the management of forests is indispensable. within the framework of community community concerned alive than dead.

215 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

Several young people visit this educational corridor at Combat II, Cap Estérias.

In Ebel Abanga, in the south of the Within the framework of the Small several students from Libreville and its Monts de Cristal National Park, WWF is Grants Program, CARPE puts funds at periphery. doing some brainstorming with the local the disposal of national NGOs, aimed communities on exploiting the manatee at helping them develop and implement The same Small Grants Program has for ecotourism purposes. their projects. The goal is to encourage ﬁ nancially supported environmental civil society to initiate activities that will education projects initiated by All of these CARPE initiatives within guarantee the rational and sustainable Aventures Sans Frontières (ASF). This landscapes are pertinent ways of use of natural resources. The funds NGO has made presentations on the involving local communities in the are there to reinforce the efforts that exploitation of natural resources in management and use of natural national NGOs are already making in Gabon and on the threats caused by resources. Meanwhile, better terms of the conservation and rational wildlife exploitation, in several primary coordination of the actions of all management of natural resources. schools in Libreville. stakeholders (business operators Thus, projects that are funded are those and the administration) increase the identiﬁ ed and executed by the NGOs For several years, the Amis du Pangolin income (still low) generated from these themselves. (ADP) has received funding from the activities. Small Grants Program for the publication Projects submitted to the Small of the environmental newsletter Le cri du Alongside this process of developing Grants Program are mostly in the pangolin (The cry of the Pangolin). These alternative income-generating activities, areas of environmental education and funds have made it possible to publish CARPE and its partners take part in the information. The Centre d’Actions and distribute free of charge this sub- training of national NGO leaders. The pour le Développement Durable et regional newsletter devoted exclusively World Resources Institute (WRI) has l’Environnement (CADDE) received a to environmental information. for more than a year been organizing a small grant to establish an educational series of training courses in cartography corridor more than 2 km long in the Within the Gamba and Mayumba and satellite imagery for better Gazetted Forest of Mondah. The regions, the Program has co-funded management of forestry information. biodiversity of this forest can be seen all information and awareness campaigns This is to support forest control through along the corridor. This environmental run by IBONGA and Mayumba Nature. the Interactive Forestry Atlas of Gabon education project has enabled CADDE These campaigns, geared towards the Project. to organize visits to the forest for hunting of turtles, invite children and

216 Chapter Seven: Using Small Grants as a Strategy to Mobilize and Empower Civil Society to Strengthen Natural Resource Governance

The ASF environmental education programme in schools and on the Pongara beach.

adults to change their attitudes towards on the design and management of environmental NGOs to be represented this endangered species. micro-projects that favour biodiversity in several national structures. Thus, they conservation and socio-economic have a member who takes part in the Other areas of activity are also development. Social and Economic Council of Gabon covered, such as local community and in the Management Committee of rights or research. On the issue of local the National Agency for National Parks. community rights, the Program supports Lessons learnt the Brainforest initiative whose goal is Up to now, many environmental NGOs National environmental NGOs, to make the population aware of their have aimed to focus their efforts on organized into a platform, are rights with regard to forest logging. The speciﬁ c areas. However, although increasingly being listened to. It was Brainforest project entails popularizing individual NGOs will always specialize they who pointed out the inadequacies to the population around Minkébé to some extent in the projects that they of the iron mining project in Belinga. National Park the legal provisions of develop and activities that they carry This project was to be carried out the Forestry Code, namely that logging out, there is also a strong willingness without a preliminary environmental companies are obliged to invest in the on their part to come together at times impact assessment. Its mining activities communities situated close to their and form a platform in order to work would seriously impact the three forest concessions. together to raise some of their concerns national parks situated close to the and better coordinate their actions. site: the Minkébé, Ivindo and Mwagna Still through the Small Grants Program, National Parks. It also includes building the Forêt-Développement NGO has At a national level, it has been a hydro-electric dam on the Kongou carried out a study on “the conservation observed that there has been a marked Falls. The internationalization of this of humid ecosystems and sustainable improvement in the interventions and project, through the actions of the NGO, development in the Etimboué District”. positions of national NGOs on delicate has caused national authorities to revise This project’s goal is to come up with a questions related to the preservation the project in a number of ways that map of the Etimboué humid ecosystem, of the environment and exploitation of includes doing an environmental impact raising the awareness of the population natural resources. assessment. on the socio-economic and ecological challenges of the conservation of humid The decision to combine efforts The project to construct a second ecosystems, and providing training has made it possible for national international airport in Libreville has

217 Section Two: Environmental Policy and Governance

also prompted some reaction from 2. The legal framework governing NGOs need more fi nancial resources national NGOs. The State is proposing and organizing associations is not and technical guidance to promote the to construct this airport in the Mondah adapted to the context. The big principles of sustainable and rational Gazetted Forest (FCM), situated within changes that associations have management of natural resources. the northern periphery of Libreville. known, with the coming of national organizations and the execution In order to build on the work already The construction of this airport and the of large-scale activities, require a undertaken by CARPE, and moving development of related activities will legal framework that is in line with beyond national initiatives, greater lead to the complete destruction of the the realities of the day. In terms coordination of the efforts of members FCM. This forest plays a key role in the of the legal provisions of Law No. of the Congo Basin Forest Partnership training of National Forestry School 35/62 of 10 December 1962, on is needed, to help strengthen the students, as their practicals are carried the creation and organization of capacity of NGOs at the organizational out there. Also, the new airport will associations, many NGOs are and fi nancial levels. To achieve this, the seriously impact the Akanda National working illegally. Commission for the Forests of Central Park, a site that is well known worldwide Africa (COMIFAC) may, through its for the thousands of migratory birds that specialized bodies, create a project visit it annually. Conclusion development fund for national NGOs. As mentioned above, several national and international actors have criticized A sustainable funding mechanism Criticisms local NGOs on matters of form and for national environmental NGOs will Out of the various criticisms levelled content. inevitably contribute to building up at national NGOs by both national and their organizational capacities, and international actors, we will comment on Administrative authorities assert that quantitatively and qualitatively improve two that could be solved if the will was local NGOs are mere mouthpieces their participation in the sustainable there: for their international partners, i.e., management of natural resources. 1. The present level of capacity they only express the thoughts of the building of NGOs, though “foreigners” on whom they depend. In spite of these inadequacies, civil appreciable, still falls far short Apart from this, these same authorities society has already undergone a of what is needed. Their weak often accuse NGOs of being involved remarkable evolution, with a marked structure means most of them lead in politics, even though they are improvement in the activities carried out. a very precarious existence which constituted as “apolitical associations”. can have a negative impact on This criticism was used to justify the The CARPE strategy of involving all their activities. Very few national suspension of Gabonese NGOs in of civil society in the management NGOs have permanent staff; January 2008. Besides these criticisms of natural resources and in the several of them work mostly on a from the authorities, development improvement of the living conditions voluntary basis and only exist due partners think that national NGOs are of local communities underlies all to the dedication of their leaders. “weak” and “not well structured”. They effi cient fi eld activities that play a part A sustainable funding mechanism may not have the required capacities in environmental conservation as well for NGOs would help stabilize them to face the challenges of achieving as the rational and sustainable use of and make their activities more sustainable development. resources. It is essential for national visible. NGOs to be committed to acquiring The experience of the Small Grants adequate skills and to shouldering their Program shows clearly that national responsibilities. '

218 SECTION THREE: MONITORING OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Chapter 8

THE MONITORING OF NATURAL RESOURCES TO SUPPORT CONSERVATION PROGRAMMES

221 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

Case Study 1

USAID’s Monitoring and Evaluation System for CARPE: Lessons Learned from a Large-Scale Regional Environmental Conservation Programme

David Yanggen and Jacqueline Doremus

Introduction: The goals and a landscape programme of fi eld-based a total of 148 “macro-zones” as they are challenges of monitoring and improved natural resource management; known in CARPE terminology. evaluating CARPE and monitoring. For simplicity this Virtually all donors require some chapter focuses on the landscape and Each of the 12 Landscapes is headed system for monitoring and evaluation monitoring components. up by a institutional landscape (M&E) of their grants. The most leader from one of four international fundamental goal of any donor M&E The landscape programme is vast. It conservation NGOs that include system is to create a conduit of includes 12 different Landscapes in the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the communication between the donor seven countries1 and covers roughly Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), and the programme implementers. 80 million hectares, approximately the Conservation International (CI) and These systems seek to increase size of the US state of Texas. These the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF). the transparency of implementation 12 Landscapes were prioritized for Each landscape lead institution heads while simultaneously gathering data conservation in an international forum a consortium of institutional actors to provide a basis for assessing the by a large number of national and with competencies in diverse areas results of the project. The results international experts based on the level such are wildlife monitoring, botanical assessment provides a feedback of intact forest, biodiversity richness inventories, forestry, community mechanism for adaptive management and presence of endemic species. development and institutional capacity based on successes and failures, and building that are needed for an thereby for restructuring the on-going The idea of the landscape approach is integrated conservation approach. In project and/or future projects of a that ecosystems, and in particular wide- addition to the four lead institutions, similar nature. In addition, a donor ranging animals such as elephants, there are currently 14 other consortium uses this information to inform decision need larger spatial areas than those partners (many of whom work in making about continued funding by covered by a typical protected area multiple landscapes) and a signifi cantly policy makers within the agency and, (PA)-focused strategy. A CARPE larger number of other institutional in the case of most government donors Landscape therefore includes not only collaborators including notably national such as USAID, with the legislative PAs but also forest concessions (and government institutions. branch of government and taxpayers. other extractive resource zones or ERZs) and community-based natural A further challenge has been that many CARPE presents some unique resource management (CBNRM) zones, of the conservation NGOs and the challenges for M&E given its large and explicitly considers the ecological individuals working within them did not scale and complexity. The programme interactions between these zones. The have a depth of experience of working has been going for 20 years and has 12 Landscapes are made up of 37 PAs, on the large-scale fi eld implementation contributed over US$100 million in 68 CBNRM zones and 43 ERZs, giving of a conservation project such as funding during its seven years of fi eld CARPE. Much of the institutional culture implementation to date (2004–2010). and individual experiences related The programme consists of three more to working on fi eld research, often 1 Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic components: governance and policy; of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Republic of Congo and relatively narrow in scope. Rwanda.

222 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

Given the large number of institutional The USAID/CARPE approach these indicator species so that spatial actors working across a large and to monitoring and evaluation and longitudinal comparisons would be widely dispersed geographical area, meaningful. A working group involving the USAID/CARPE team sought to use CARPE objectives the lead international conservation the M&E system as a means to provide To introduce CARPE’s M&E system it is NGOs was set up and has addressed coherence to the overall programme. fi rst necessary to discuss the specifi c this methodological issue. The very word programme implies objectives set by USAID for CARPE, there is a desire to have a coordinated in order to understand what exactly is The work on deforestation and and consistent approach to attaining being monitored and evaluated. There wildlife indicator species, along with conservation objectives, and not simply are in fact two levels of objectives: the parallel work that monitors logging a large number of disparate and isolated ultimate objectives known as strategic concessions, constitute the component projects. Furthermore, disparate and objectives (SOs) and the shorter- of capacity strengthening for monitoring isolated projects tend not to leave a term objectives know as intermediate of natural resources in the programme lasting impact. An additional goal of results (IRs). The strategic objectives (though obviously the M&E aspects CARPE and its M&E system is to leave of the programme are to slow the of the programme go substantially structures in place that the national rate of deforestation and to conserve beyond this particular component). governments and NGOs as well as other biodiversity. An important initial observation is that donors can build upon in the future. results concerning both these strategic In order to measure the rate of objectives (deforestation and wildlife The funding given to each landscape deforestation over a large area such populations) are long-term in nature is in the form of what USAID calls a as the Congo Basin, CARPE has and therefore do not permit a shorter- “Cooperative Agreement”. USAID relied upon satellite data provided by term feedback on progress from the Cooperative Agreements specify the National Aeronautics and Space CARPE M&E system. It was therefore that the USAID management team Administration of the United States, necessary to defi ne intermediate has a “substantial involvement” role interpreted by researchers from the results (IRs) that contribute to reducing which includes approval of annual University of Maryland and South deforestation and biodiversity loss budgets and work plans. The M&E Dakota State University (SDSU). This and track the shorter-term progress of system therefore needed to propose specifi c indicator involves measuring CARPE landscape partners’ work. For a standardized format for a technical forest-cover change over time. The the CARPE landscape management work plan and technical budget in order initial baseline was set at 1990 with programme, these intermediate results to provide for consistent evaluations change measurements for 2000 and revolve around land-use planning across partners and landscapes. 2005 which have been updated annually (LUP) processes for each of the 12 up to 2009 using an automated system Landscapes and for all the macro-zones In sum, the challenge of developing the developed by SDSU. This analysis specifi ed within each Landscape. CARPE M&E system was to create a permits the generation of deforestation structure that harmonized the metrics rates across the basin, within and The CARPE/USAID management for assessing the progress of numerous outside landscapes, and helps to team has defi ned four stages in the actors in a large number of remote sites identify hotspots of environmental LUP process. The fi rst stage is the with different ecological and socio- degradation in order to better plan development of a “strategy document” economic conditions. An additional conservation interventions. and is known as “convening” the LUP objective of the system is to help the process. A strategy document essentially implementing partners coordinate their For the biodiversity conservation describes how to develop a management fi eld-based conservation work over a objective, the chosen approach was to plan and identifi es the data needed, broad range of sites and with multiple select a number of indicator species planning team members, an activity institutions within a landscape. All this and track their population status over timetable, etc. The second stage, known has to be achieved while still leaving time in selected sites in each of the as “design”, involves the development of enough fl exibility to meet a broad range 12 Landscapes. The most common a management plan. The third stage is of site-specifi c conservation challenges indicator species chosen include “adoption” and entails the recognition of across the Congo Basin. elephants and primates such as gorillas, the management plan by the competent chimpanzees and Bonobos. A key national authority. The fi nal stage is challenge has been to standardize the “implementation” and involves carrying methodologies used for measuring out the needed management activities

223 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

specifi ed in the management plan. Each benchmark is listed in percentage terms Continuing to the right in the CARPE of these stages constitute benchmarks such as PA X is 100 percent convened, M&E matrix, the next section is the to assess progress in achieving the CBNRM zone Y is 50 percent designed, actual work plan itself. The work intermediate results. or ERZ Z is 25 percent implemented. plan identifi es six standardized work The size of the zone in hectares is also activity categories. These include: The CARPE M&E system: into the listed in order to calculate the area of data collection and assessment; heart of the matrix land that is engaged at any given stage stakeholder meetings and workshops; The central operational tool of the of the LUP process. training and capacity building; policy CARPE M&E system is known as the advocacy; media and outreach; CARPE monitoring and work planning The next column to the right lists the and implementation. These activity matrix which can be found on the “means of verifi cation” or MOVs that categories are standardized and CARPE website.2 Partners fi ll out and are needed to verify the progress are included for each individual send to USAID annual matrices which of each zone in the LUP process. planning zone unit. The next level of are updated three times a year: prior Partners propose these and the disaggregation in the following column to the beginning of the year with a USAID management team’s review of is for specifi c tasks associated with proposed work plan and budget for the initial work plan approves them each activity category. Typically there USAID’s review and approval; at a or asks for revisions. The MOVs can are several tasks for each activity midpoint in the year with the semi- roughly be divided into three categories category. For example, in the training annual report; and after the end of following the LUP process. Planning and capacity building category, there the year as part of the annual report MOVs during the convening process may be tasks related to community containing an assessment of the year’s typically include reports on activities environmental education, GPS (Global accomplishments. A review of the such as socio-economic surveys, Positioning System) training for eco- individual components of this matrix ecological studies and stakeholder guards, and training in database provides a detailed overview of the meetings that are conducted to inform management for national government M&E system. The matrix is divided into the plans and contain informational collaborators. Finally, each task is three principal sections; a benchmark inputs for the subsequent development assigned to one or multiple institutions monitoring section, a work plan section of the management plan. LUP MOVs in the consortium and a specifi c person and a budget section. The benchmark logically include strategy documents or persons. The last column sets a monitoring section defi nes and breaks and management plans both in target date for fi nishing the task. down the yearly standardized LUP draft and fi nal form. Finally there are benchmarks from fi ve-year established implementation MOVs. These serve The second main component of the targets for each Landscape and every to document the application of the M&E matrix is the budget section. As macro-zone. Each Landscape is a activities specifi ed in the management stated above, CARPE Cooperative reporting unit and fi lls out an integrated plan and include reports on a broad Agreements require the USAID matrix with all the consortium partners range of activities such as eco-guards management team to approve annual contributing. patrolling, environmental education, budgets. A well designed budget tourism, community livelihood activities matrix facilitates programme evaluation The far left-hand side column of the and on-going site-specifi c monitoring. from a fi nancial point of view. The monitoring and work plan section of the budget section is disaggregated into matrix lists all the intervention zones, It is worth underlining at this point, six standard categories which match starting with the Landscape itself as just mentioned above, that all the the work plan standardized activities. followed by each individual macro- individual zonal management plans This alignment therefore provides zone grouped in the three land-use have their own system of monitoring consistent and useful insights into each categories starting with PAs, then and evaluation. These M&E systems Landscape’s technical approach. CBNRM zones and fi nally ERZs. At the track results in each of the Landscapes landscape level, there is a space to list and in each of the macro-zones as a The fi rst disaggregation is between the wildlife monitoring SO indicator of function of the objectives set out in the USAID funding and match funding. The animal population densities. Moving management plans. These systems are level of match funding a consortium to the right across the matrix, the next a more site-specifi c layer of M&E and raises is a performance criterion and column lists the current year’s LUP complement the standardized basin- also allows the US Government to benchmarks for each of the zones. A wide CARPE M&E system. show how much additional funding it has leveraged into the programme. Activities supported by match funding 2 http://carpe.umd.edu/Plone/resources/carpemgmttools.

224 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

must be integrated into the CARPE logical that an important percentage landscape leaders and the USAID/ work plan and must also correspond to of funding should go towards planning CARPE management team. This the landscape programme description activities related to data collection greatly increased partners’ comfort found in the Cooperative Agreement and stakeholder engagement. As the level with the CARPE M&E system between USAID and the landscape LUP process matures, this percentage and signifi cantly improved the quality consortium lead organization. should shrink as more funding goes of reporting. To further reinforce the towards implementation activities. In workshop training, USAID developed a Another level of disaggregation is by some cases, certain institutions and/ CARPE reporting guidance manual (see consortium partner. Each consortium or individuals were more comfortable CARPE website) that explains section partner typically contributes a specifi c with research-related activities and by section how to fi ll out the M&E competency for the integrated continued to emphasize data collection matrix. This manual has been updated conservation programme. The beyond the initial planning stages of the as the M&E system has evolved over institutional distribution of funding LUP process. As CARPE is an applied time. The lesson learned from this therefore gives an insight into the conservation programme, USAID used experience is that a complex M&E weight given to different landscape this budget information for evaluations system needs to provide supplementary programme components providing an and to provide constructive feedback as training and guidance to users in order input to USAID’s evaluation. In addition, needed. to ensure quality implementation. USAID puts a special provision into the landscape cooperative agreements that Secondly, given that the CARPE states that any change in a consortium’s Lessons learned partners are the direct users of the teaming arrangement must be approved CARPE is relatively unique in that it is M&E systems (i.e., they fi ll out the by USAID. This was included principally a 20–year-old programme operating matrix) they have the best knowledge as a guarantee against landscape lead in nine different countries and with of the challenges to actually making organizations taking unilateral action to 18 direct institutional partners in the it operational. By facilitating partner redistribute budgets in a way that could landscape component alone. It would feedback and using their suggestions, undermine an integrated conservation be diffi cult to overstate the level of the USAID/CARPE management approach. Budget disaggregation at complexity of the programme. A team has been able to improve the the partner level allows for this type of number of experiences and innovations effectiveness of the system as well as monitoring oversight. associated with the M&E system could to reduce the time burden needed to prove useful particularly to other large- fi ll it out. The lesson learned here is Finally, budgets are disaggregated scale conservation initiatives. that a participatory approach to M&E by zonal categories (Landscapes, development with end users is critical PAs, CBNRM zones and ERZs) and The M&E system design primarily took to improving the system’s design and by the six standard work plan activity place over a period of two years, from to achieving a greater buy-in from the categories for each zonal category about 2004 to 2006. As this timeframe partners and therefore increasing their (but not for each individual zone). The implies, the design was an iterative willingness to provide the highest- landscape approach seeks to balance process based on trial and error, quality information. conservation interventions between and incorporating feedback from the protected areas, extractive resource CARPE implementing partners. An M&E Another example of the critical zones and community zones. In fact, workshop was held in 2005 for all the importance of technical backstopping USAID/CARPE requires that a minimum landscape leaders. There was a dual involves the development of LUP of 50 percent of fi nancial resources be purpose to this workshop. Firstly, to documents (management plans spent outside protected areas. This teach the landscape leaders how to and strategy documents). As noted level of disaggregation allows USAID use this M&E system and secondly, to previously, LUP planning is at the to evaluate whether a landscape provide a venue for eliciting feedback heart of the programme and therefore consortium is implementing a balanced from the implementing partners on how its M&E system as well. Further, the landscape conservation approach. to improve the system. LUP documents are arguably the most important category of MOV required to The activity category budget The workshop adopted a learning- show accomplishment of established disaggregation also gives useful by-doing approach and partners fi lled benchmarks. However, land-use insights into evaluating a Landscape’s out sample M&E matrices for their planning can mean different things to technical approach. For example, at landscapes and then shared their different people, and certain partner earlier stages in the LUP process it is questions and concerns with the other institutions and individuals have had

225 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

limited experience with this aspect of should be designed to facilitate work- In response to this situation, the conservation. planning and objective-setting activities USAID/CARPE management team in that an implementing organization collaboration with the University of The USAID/CARPE management team needs to conduct regardless of donor Maryland developed the web-based therefore decided to call upon the requirements. CARPE Information Management US Forest Service (USFS) to write a Tool3 or IMT. The IMT organizes and series of technical guides (see CARPE An enormous amount of data has been makes publicly available on the web website) for each of the four CARPE generated by the CARPE M&E system. all the MOV reports generated by zone categories. These guides focus There are a large number of variables, the programme. In order to facilitate on identifying the minimal common numerous sites, and many years of locating the reports, the IMT presents components that should be found data. The USAID management team a Congo Basin-wide map with the in a management plan and strategy developed an MS Access database Landscapes outlined. By clicking on a document while leaving ample fl exibility that facilitates the aggregation and given Landscape, the user is directed to for site-specifi c applications. USAID analysis of the data received. This tool all the information for that Landscape. and the USFS organized two parallel is critical for the evaluation of partners’ The user can then click again to get workshops in Libreville and Kinshasa performance and reporting to USAID a map of all the individual macro- to train landscape partners in LUP. headquarters, the US Congress, other zones within each Landscape. A fi nal The minimal common components donors and interested stakeholders click brings the user to all the reports now serve as a standard by which in general. A typical data query, for for a given macro-zone categorized USAID can evaluate the quality and example, could be how many hectares under the following headings: land- completeness of the LUP documents. of each type of macro-zone are under use planning, ecological information, A lesson learned is that for particularly an operational land-use management socio-economic information and complex endeavours such as land- plan. This database can also be used stakeholder participation documents. use planning, it may be necessary to to engage in more policy-oriented The lesson learned from this experience provide outside technical backstopping analysis, such as the average cost is that information sharing can be that not only trains partners but also per hectare of the development of a critical constraint in any large- provides a clear standard by which their management plans for the different scale conservation programme so a accomplishments will be evaluated. types of macro-zones. The lesson mechanism for sharing is of critical learned from this experience is that importance to facilitate collaboration The institutional cultures of many of the a complex M&E system needs to and to disseminate programme results. conservation NGOs and the individuals establish a database system that can Web-based geo-referenced information within them often were more oriented easily upload data from standardized management tools can be particularly to narrow research and did not include reporting matrices in order to facilitate effective to this end. experience in implementing complex the ability of the management team to large-scale conservation programmes. evaluate and disseminate programme This chapter has previously noted that Many of the partners initially viewed results in a timely fashion. CARPE M&E takes place both within the CARPE reporting system as an different timeframes and at different additional burden beyond their actual Adding together the Landscapes geographical scales. The wildlife conservation work. And yet any applied and macro-zones, there are 160 population and deforestation monitoring conservation or development project zones. For each one of these zones, take place over the long term, whereas needs to set objectives and establish a a CARPE partner typically sends in the LUP process, which contributes to work planning framework. The CARPE several MOV documents per year. reducing deforestation and biodiversity M&E system, as designed, sets clear The CARPE management team thus loss, is a short to medium-term benchmarks and lays out a rigorous receives well over 500 documents each result. The CARPE M&E matrix is a system for planning conservation work. year. There is a tremendous wealth standardized system that covers all With time and training, CARPE partners of information contained within these twelve Landscapes across the Congo came to appreciate the M&E reporting reports. One of the key constraints Basin. The individual management system as a useful tool for structuring the CARPE management team noted plans developed by CARPE and their own activities, in particular for was that these reports were not easily national partners for each Landscape coordinating and integrating the accessible to national governments, and macro-zone are site-specifi c activities of diverse consortium partners other Landscapes in the programme or and adapted to local conditions and within a Landscape. The lesson learned even within a given conservation NGO here is that an M&E reporting system working in multiple sites. 3 http://carpe-infotool.umd.edu/IMT/.

226 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

objectives. The lesson learned from this monitoring and evaluation of results on the web. They permit a sharing experience is that, for a large-scale and achieved by the programme. However, of conservation experiences both long-term programme such as CARPE, this information does not always permit between partners and geographical it is useful to carefully consider multiple a more analytical evaluation of the sites within the programme as well time and spatial scales and to design conservation practices and strategies as with the broader conservation a multi-layered M&E system to capture employed by the different actors in community. The documentation and the full range of spatial and temporal the programme. The USAID/CARPE dissemination of lessons learned add results generated. management team therefore decided to the overall knowledge base and to launch this CARPE Lessons Learned therefore contribute to improving A ﬁ nal lesson learned concerning M&E Initiative covering all the key thematic the effectiveness of conservation involves the generation of lessons components of the programme and programmes in the Congo Basin and learned. The CARPE M&E system of which this article represents one of around the world. ' generates a massive quantity of data many chapters. These lessons learned and information that permits the are published both in book form and

227 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

Case Study 2 Lessons Learned on Forest Concession Monitoring in Central Africa

World Resources Institute (WRI)

Introduction available as a means to hold decision The above highlights the compatibility The objective of this paper is to share makers accountable for their actions. between WRI’s involvement in forest the most relevant lessons that WRI has WRI’s niche is the provision of accurate, concession monitoring in Central Africa learned on forest concession monitoring credible, accessible and timely and USAID-CARPE’s goals. in Central Africa (CA) through its USAID- forest landscape information and the CARPE funded activities with CARPE, promotion of its inclusion in decision its partners, and other stakeholders. making. This information is developed The need for forest through strategic partnerships with concession monitoring national, regional and international Forest monitoring and WRI actors (private sector, governments, Monitoring production forests objectives and goals multilateral and bilateral agencies, Forest concessions and other logging WRI’s overall mission statement is “to research institutes, and local and titles (e.g., council or communal move human society to live in ways international NGOs). WRI’s ability to forests, sales of standing volumes, that protect Earth’s environment and work across multiple levels (local, etc. – “production forests” writ large) its capacity to provide for the needs national, regional and international) and represent the vast majority of classifi ed and aspirations of current and future sectors is crucial to its effectiveness forest in the forested countries of generations”. Its contribution to in connecting forest information to the Central Africa (Figure 1). Within these CARPE falls under WRI’s People and variety of decision-making processes forests exist immense and valuable Ecosystems Program’s goal of reversing focused on strengthening forest renewable resources: from the timber the rapid degradation of ecosystems management in Central Africa. This itself targeted by the extractive and assuring their capacity to provide includes its ability to draw on WRI’s industries to the non-timber forest humans with needed goods and experience in other forest-rich regions, products (e.g., bushmeat, fruits, nuts, services. More specifi cally, through its including Southeast Asia, Russia medicinal plants, etc.) on which local Forest Information and Governance and South America. Other players in populations are largely dependent for Initiative, WRI seeks to: the region typically focus at the site subsistence, to ecosystem services scale (i.e., specifi c protected areas or provided (locally and globally) from an “…increase the capacity of landscapes). intact tropical forest ecosystem. governments, businesses, and civil society to act upon better and more In that respect, WRI’s mission, goals, Additionally, logging titles form much widely-shared information to protect objectives and programmes respond of the connecting forested corridors intact forests, manage working directly to CARPE’s strategic objective, between protected areas. Therefore, forests more effectively, and restore which is to: maintaining current production forests deforested lands”. as integral habitats with viable fl oral “reduce the rate of forest degradation and faunal populations is integral to The main premise behind WRI’s and loss of biodiversity through conservation planning at both the forest strategy is that the provision increased local, national and regional landscape and regional scale. The of accurate, user-friendly information natural resource management monitoring of resource extraction will promote more sustainable forest capacity in nine Central African activities occurring within production management (SFM) practices when countries: the Central African forests is critical in addressing issues of linked to relevant decision-making Republic, Equatorial Guinea, legality and SFM, as well as for providing and capacity-building efforts coupled Gabon, Republic of Congo, Burundi, information on how land use within these with making this information publicly Cameroon, Rwanda, Sao Tome & areas affects the overall landscape. Principe and the DRC”.

228 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

Figure 1. Distribution of forest concessions, protected areas and dense tropical forest cover in Central Africa in forested areas allows stakeholders to address several important issues. Some general environmental and social applications for example include: • Monitoring and measuring forest cover change over time; • Determining drivers of deforestation or forest degradation, notably through slash-and-burn agriculture; • Monitoring and mapping the extension of road infrastructure; • Monitoring environmental compliance; • Combating illegal trade of bushmeat; • Monitoring populations of key indicator species to measure impacts and guide mitigation; • Informing landscape management of plants and animals; • Addressing issues of resource-use overlap with local populations.

When done well, commercial logging ■ Forest concessions can be a sustainable contributor to ■ Protected areas local employment and the national ■ Dense tropical forest cover economy; when executed poorly it can be a purveyor of forest degradation, local impoverishment, corruption and tax evasion. Monitoring commercial logging activities can provide necessary Status of commercial logging in the On the other hand, however, industrial information to support the enforcement Congo Basin logging continues to extend into areas of national laws and development While commercial logging does not of the Congo Basin not previously goals as well as help ensure that these offi cially constitute more than 15 exploited, thus opening up these activities are carried out within the realm percent of GDP in any of the countries new areas to pressures from hunting, of SFM and that they contribute to of the region, it is the most important forest degradation and/or conversion. local wellbeing. With regard to logging sector in terms of occupied forest Furthermore, while some companies activities, the main applications of forest surface area and formal employment have committed to best practices monitoring include: for most of the region’s countries. (environmental and social) in their • Combating illegal logging outside On a positive note, the last 10–15 activities, many continue to operate legally allocated logging titles years have seen improvements in the outside environmental and social dictates, (forest concessions and annual commercial forest sector in Central and institutional capacity to enforce logging coupes) or inside protected Africa, particularly in terms of generally adherence to the law or management areas; adhering to SFM practices, establishing plan obligations remains weak. • Combating illegal activities related a clear defi nition of the legal boundaries to logging such as non- or under- of logging titles, building the capacity Objectives of forest monitoring reporting of logs felled, harvesting to actually monitor logging activities, forbidden species, felling below contributing to the improvement of Forest concession monitoring authorized minimum diameters, local livelihoods and, fi nally, pursuing The monitoring of activities in deliberately reporting wrong certifi cation or other legality standards. production forests and more generally species, etc.;

229 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

• Enhancing the ability of the initiatives. Amongst actual and potential Geographical Information Systems ministries in charge of forests benefi ciaries are: (GIS), Interactive Forest Atlases, to carry out more targeted • Carbon sequestration initiatives Forest Information Management enforcement of logging infractions, related to climate change; Systems (FIMS). thus reducing the overall costs of • The World Bank programme fi eld controls; to reduce emissions from WRI activity in Central Africa over the • Monitoring implementation of deforestation and degradation last several years covers all three of sustainable forest management (REDD); these components, to varying degrees. plans; • Timber trade agreements such as WRI has also provided input and • Monitoring adherence to allotted the European Union’s Forest Law support to the FLEGT and other forest annual volume or surface area Enforcement, Governance and certifi cation processes, thus further restrictions; Trade (FLEGT) process; contributing to forest concession • Informing stakeholders of the • Convention on Biological Diversity monitoring and the fi ght against illegal requirements and effectiveness and other global biodiversity logging. of certifi cation programmes conservation initiatives (e.g., with the aim of moving towards IUCN’s Red List). Remote sensing and fi eld controls more socially responsible and The forest concession monitoring work environmentally sustainable performed by WRI under CARPE in logging; Methodology of forest Central Africa has not been limited • Verifying compliance of logging concession monitoring to forest concessions, but extended companies to the social contracts to include all types of logging titles, (cahier des charges); Integrated approach to forest such as communal and community • Verifying compliance with forest concession monitoring forests and annual logging coupe sales certifi cation and legality processes; Forest concession monitoring, as well as protected areas (national • Monitoring the contribution especially if it aims to combat illegal parks, game ranches, reserves, etc.). of industrial logging to local logging, requires an integrated Consequently it is best to discuss forest livelihoods, notably through the approach that encompasses three un- monitoring at large, rather than simply payment and redistribution of area dissociable components: forest concession monitoring. and volume-based forest taxes. 1. Ways or tools to identify on-going activities: Remote sensing (RS) There are basically two major methods Complementary initiatives and fi eld controls; by which to identify on-going activities In addition to addressing the immediate 2. Indicators to measure or assess in the forests: remote sensing and needs listed above, monitoring those activities: Criteria and fi eld controls. Each method has its production forests and forested areas indicators, notably of legality and advantages and limitations, as can be contributes valuable information of sustainable forest management; seen in Table 1. that informs on-going and proposed 3. Ways to collect, process, verify bilateral, multilateral and international and communicate the information It is important to note that neither collected on the activities: of these methods is a practical or

Table 1. Description, advantages and limitations of the two main forest monitoring methods

Methods Remote sensing Field control Description Interpretation of satellite images or aerial photography to monitor canopy loss, forest Physical inspection of logging activities by technical staff – generally involves degradation, logging activity and road building. the use of maps, GPS and other hand-held tools. • Covers large tracts of forest with limited costs; • Enables one to control a very large number of elements that can not Advantages • Access to remote regions; be seen from satellite images or aerial photography (e.g., logs, stumps, • Limited staff requirements; bushmeat hunting, working conditions, etc.); • Provides global picture; • Information collected stands up legally; • Limited fi eld work needed; • Can be carried out with limited technical training. • Discreet. Limitations • Only able to detect activities visible within resolution ability of images; • Requires large workforce and supporting infrastructure; • Regular cloud-free satellite images diffi cult to get for many areas of Congo Basin; • Expensive and time-consuming; • Resolution of available images often not high enough to detect certain activities; • Diffi cult to construct global picture – site-specifi c; • Technology-dependent – requires certain amount of training, software, hardware • Not capable of measuring land-use change effectively; and ability to acquire necessary images; • Leaves more room for corruption between operator and enforcement • Requires some fi eld verifi cation. agents; • Extremely diffi cult to access remote areas.

230 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

Figure 2. FORCOMS means of assessment architecture complete forest monitoring method in isolation – rather that they are best used complementarily to achieve some Statement of regulatory compliance and engagement in effective results. WRI has limited its sustainable forest management efforts to remote sensing and has not been involved in actual fi eld controls of logging or other forest-related I) The concessionaire respects its II) The concessionaire is engaged legal obligations in the process of sustainable forest activities other than validating limits of management beyond its legal obligations forest titles and forest roads identifi ed through RS, notably through the use of the Global Positioning System (GPS). I) 1 The I) 5 The II) 1 The II) 5 The concessionaire is concessionaire concessionaire is concessionaire is The information generated by WRI with legally entitled respects its seriously engaged in seriously engaged to remote sensing has, however, been environmental the overall process minimize the impact obligations of sustainable forest of its activities on the widely used by other forest actors to management environment actually conduct fi eld controls, notably I) 2 The I) 4 The II) 2 The II) 4 The the ministries in charge of forests as concessionaire concessionaire concessionaire is concessionaire is well as international NGOs involved respects its respects its seriously engaged seriously engaged to obligations regarding obligations regarding to improve its forest improve the socio- in combating illegal logging and poor forest exploitation social matters exploitation activities economic conditions of its employees and forest governance, such as Resource the local population Extraction Monitoring (REM), Global Witness and Greenpeace. I) 3 The II) 3 The concessionaire concessionaire is respects its seriously engaged to obligations regarding improve its wood- Criteria and indicators wood transformation processing activities From 2003–2006, WRI was active in developing and promoting the implementation of a step-wise approach to forest certifi cation in Central Africa, in partnership with IUCN and the Figure 3. Presentation of FORCOMS and step-wise certifi cation scheme InterAfrican Forest Industries Association (IFIA). This Forest Concession Level of forest management Monitoring System (FORCOMS) was SFM – Forest certifi cation conceptualized as a voluntary and independent monitoring system that Superior would provide information on the status of the legality of the logging and wood- processing operations and on the actual commitment to SFM of the participating forest concessionaires. Legality and the meeting of certain environmental and social criteria were to be third- Minimum level of party verifi ed through a specifi c set of sustainable forest FORCOMS management practices targeted indicators (see Figure 2 for Legal outline of structure). This was not meant to be another certifi cation or legality verifi cation system, however; rather, Illegal UNACCEPTABLE it was intended to support on-going initiatives in fi lling the large gap between the certifi ed and non-certifi ed actors in the region. FORCOMS was developed to be the fi rst step towards meeting baseline legality standards and towards the eventual achievement of certifi cation (Figure 3).

231 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

Figure 4. Distribution of production forests, protected areas, mining and oil GIS, Interactive Forest Atlases, FIMS permits in the Republic of Congo

GIS and Interactive Forest Atlases Most WRI activities within CARPE over the last seven years have focused around the development and implementation of remote sensing, GIS and mapping tools to monitor activities within or surrounding logging titles and protected areas. The culmination of these activities is the development and dissemination of the interactive forest atlases and related products (see Figure 4).

The aim of developing these tools and associated activities is to: • Provide and map veriﬁ ed geo- referenced boundaries of all logging titles and protected areas; • Locate, qualify, date and map the forest roads and trails within and outside forest titles and protected areas; • Partner with host country forest ministries to collect, process and disseminate this information; • Build local capacity in remote sensing, GIS and mapping to carry out the monitoring of logging titles.

The GIS and Interactive Forest Atlases databases, and the Forest Information Management Systems, are cross- feeding each other with useful forest monitoring information.

Forest Information Management Source: Spatial data and map developed through the Interactive Forest Atlas 1.0 for Congo. Systems (FIMS) Since 2006, WRI has been working with the Ministry of Forests in both the Republic of Congo (RoC) and the collection, processing, control and the collection, processing and logical Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) publication of data pertaining to (e.g., paper trace) validation of data. to design and implement an integrated commercial logging, log and wood The forest accounting system can, for computer-based Forest Information products declaration, wood processing, instance, trace the various operational Management System (FIMS, or SIGEF and forest taxes (see Figure 5). steps through the value-chain of a – Système d’Information de Gestion The FIMS is comprised of two log ready to be exported, from the Forestière – in French). integrated sub-systems: a computerized actual allocation of a valid logging forest accounting system and a title, to pre-harvesting forest inventory, The FIMS is a an important decision- physical log tracking system. The felling, skidding, transport, storage support tool that allows for the forest accounting system allows for and ﬁ nally loading onto a sea-going

232 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

Figure 5. Presentation of FIMS database interface Results achieved

Interactive Forest Atlases – remote sensing, GIS and mapping The use of the Interactive Forest Atlases as a tool, the dissemination of veriﬁ ed spatial and non-spatial data on logging titles to involved stakeholders and all levels of the forest administration, together with capacity building in remote sensing and GIS, has enabled the participating governments and collaborating partners to better monitor logging titles by: • Assessing where illegal logging might have taken place in recent years; • Improving administration capacities and knowledge for monitoring and control activities; and • Enabling the administration to avoid future conﬂ icts in forest production areas.

Over the course of working with the vessel or entering into wood-processing country as well as over time. Anticipated ministries in charge of forests in fi ve plants. Finished product (sawn wood, results include increased capture of countries of the sub-region over the plywood, etc.) value-chains can also forest tax revenue, improved monitoring past seven years, WRI has achieved be tracked with the FIMS. The log of management plan implementation, some signifi cant results towards tracking system allows for the actual and an overall reduction in illegal improved defi nition of legality in the physical fi eld control of the validity of logging and corruption in the sector. forest sector and the monitoring of the data fed into the forest accounting When fully operational, the FIMS will logging titles. Some of the major system. Log tracking is thus one of the enable countries like RoC and DRC achievements generated through these numerous required fi eld verifi cations more easily to meet the Voluntary activities include: for a complete forest concession Partnership Agreement (VPA)’s legality • Versions 1.0 and 2.0 of the monitoring system. The log tracking requirements being negotiated under Interactive Forest Atlas in system now in use in Central Africa is FLEGT. Cameroon and version 1.0 in RoC based on paint numbering on logs and have helped these respective a set of paper supports for every step Support to FLEGT and forest governments to resolve of the value-chain, such as the DF10 in certifi cation processes commercial disputes over Cameroon to report volumes logged. WRI has been providing direct and boundaries between logging titles More modern log tracking systems use indirect support to FLEGT and forest as well as between logging titles bar-coding with hand-held computers to certifi cation initiatives in Central Africa and protected areas. scan, verify and communicate the data notably through: a) the provision • The Congolese Ministry of the directly to the forest accounting system. of spatial information on forest Forest Economy has been able concessions (Interactive Forestry to make more effi cient use of Through deployment in all Ministry Atlases); b) FORCOMS legality and limited enforcement personnel and of Forestry departments and active sustainable management indicators; resources by using information logging companies, FIMS allows for the c) development and deployment of contained within the Interactive government to monitor logging activities FIMS; and d) participation in sub- Forest Atlas to identify suspected much more effectively throughout the regional meetings. cases of logging encroachment

233 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

and thus more effectively target based surface area calculations. ineffi cient systems in place, as well as the fi eld control missions by the This exercise led to an overall willingness of the Forest Administrations Ministry’s agents. increase in forest tax revenues for to provide the information and allow for it • In Cameroon, the Atlas data and Congo. to be made widely public. Those are very derived products (i.e., maps, GPS • As a result of extensive training signifi cant steps towards transparency points, satellite images, road in GIS and remote sensing, the and improved governance in the forest datasets, etc.) are extensively Congolese Ministry of Forest sector. used by CETELCAF (Centre de Economics is now requiring all Télédétection et de Cartographie logging companies in the country Finally, through a series of capacity- Forestière – the Ministry of to submit their annual logging building and training activities related Forest technical unit in charge coupe requests on a GIS platform to remote sensing, GIS, mapping and of producing forest title maps (as opposed to paper-based). GPS, the forest administrations have and defi nitions) and the Control • An analysis of the current status of been reinforced. Brigades in order to access forest title information conducted information with improved in Gabon provided the impetus Criteria and indicators (FORCOMS) accuracy, and plan and support for the Gabonese government to For numerous reasons, FORCOMS fi eld missions. One of the more dedicate resources and personnel as a system remains non-operational. notable examples was the to collaborate with WRI in the However, work under FORCOMS has identifi cation of logging in the verifi cation and reconciliation of provided impetus and support to the Mengamé Gorilla Sanctuary by the forest title spatial and non-spatial concept of regional frameworks and a neighbouring concessionaire (see data. step-wise process to forest certifi cation Figure 6). schemes. Furthermore, it produced a • GIS mapping tools enabled the Additionally, indirect but very important complete set of indicators on legality Congolese government to verify achievements through this work included and SFM that are being largely used by and revise the taxable area of the generation of political support vis- countries in the sub-region to develop each forest concession using à-vis this decision-support tool and a their own national legality standards, standardized and objective GIS- change in mindset regarding its utilization notably in view of their upcoming in lieu of the existing antiquated and FLEGT VPA negotiations with the EU.

Forest Information Management Figure 6. Presentation of logging road encroachment in a protected area in Systems (FIMS) Cameroon Much work has been invested up-front in the participative development of FIMS in both RoC and DRC with the host-country forest ministries, but only a test ﬁ eld deployment has been carried out so far. However, WRI work has thus far been limited to the forest accounting sub-system of the FIMS, with no action taken on ﬁ eld log tracking.

A pilot deployment of the forest accounting sub-system of the FIMS took place in the RoC during the ﬁ rst half of 2008, with full national implementation to begin following successful execution of the pilot. Implementation in DRC will follow that in RoC.

As with WRI’s GIS and Interactive Forest Atlas work, the FIMS work has generated political support and a

234 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

change in mindset amongst government on the status of forest concessions combating illegal logging. Indeed, this offi cials that has led to increased and titles, planning effective fi eld approach: transparency and improved governance missions, and tracking harvested logs. • Puts the emphasis on law in the forest sector. However, they are not directly capable enforcement while other tools, of monitoring activities which are not such as putting pressure on Also, through a series of capacity- detectable by satellite images (e.g., importers of CA timber products building and training activities related bushmeat hunting, overharvesting only to buy timber from legal to database management and forest trees, creation of skidder trails, and sustainable operations, for statistics, the forest administrations and other social and environmental instance, could have a stronger have been reinforced. obligations) or measuring change impact; on a regular (weekly, monthly or • Does not tackle the issue of the semi-annual) basis. They are also legal and regulatory environment Lessons learned – analysis of limited use for detecting illegal which may not allow proper and recommendations felling of individual trees by chainsaw determination of legality; The most important lessons that can operators. These other activities can • Does not take into consideration be drawn from WRI’s work over the only be detected through on-site fi eld illegal activities related to wood past seven years in its forest monitoring verifi cation, and thus the Atlas and processing, timber trade, and activities are presented below. FIMS tools are most effectively used fi nancial management and fl ows; in conjunction with targeted fi eld • Does not properly defi ne illegal Analysis verifi cation – each one complementing logging; the other. Similarly, the FIMS has to • Is not able to deal with the legal Limitations of monitoring tools include both the forest accounting and and regulatory environment varying WRI’s work in forest monitoring at log tracking sub-systems in order to be from one country to another, large and with concession monitoring fully effi cient. thus making it diffi cult to have a in particular has provided numerous standardized approach to illegal practical and signifi cant results. As shown in Table 1 above, by relying logging in CA (some activities that However, much more still needs to on satellite imagery and GIS-based are illegal in one country could be be done to ensure compliance with monitoring tools, the process is legal in another); legality and SFM requirements by inherently limited by the technological • May be seen as taking over logging operators, as well as to better constraints. In our experience, governments’ responsibilities (e.g., understand how current industrial depending on Landsat images for road law enforcement) and therefore as logging practices are impacting the detection has severely limited our ability interference; forest ecosystem in order to inform to monitor forest concessions remotely, • Is hampered by widespread landscape and national resource due primarily to the malfunction and corruption in the sector; management agendas. The bulk of subsequent discontinuation of Landsat • May not get cooperation WRI’s activities revolve around the 7 in 2003 and lack of an affordable and from governments or logging use of remote sensing, GIS and forest comparable substitute. Furthermore, companies; accounting system (databases) with even when the images are available, • Doesn’t tackle the problem of only limited fi eld control activities in large swathes of the Congo Basin political will i.e., if there is a lack support of data verifi cation and ground are rarely cloud-free enough to be of political will to enforce laws, no control points. effectively observable with visible band amount of tools or methods are imagery. Another type of obstacle faced going to be effective; While the Interactive Forest Atlases is the barrier that this technology may • May generate animosity and and FIMS are highly practical and impose to certain users who are not confl icts with logging companies effective tools, they are limited in the computer-literate. as well as local populations with information they are able to provide whom they have to work if we with regards to forest concession Limitations of the approach are perceived to be engaged in monitoring on the ground as well as the Besides the technical questions law enforcement activities aimed real-time tracking of logging activities. identifi ed above, there are constraints against them; For example, these methods are useful accompanying our chosen approach • Is in real danger of not being able in determining where new roads are that limit our ability to tackle forest to properly and completely identify being built, ensuring there is no overlap concession monitoring, especially for the various illegal activities and between forest titles, keeping tabs

235 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

thus being seen as incompetent or Aménagements Forestiers et Fauniques • Pursue and intensify the FIMS ineffi cient; and in Congo), the private sector (logging work in both Congos, notably • May be unwillingly perceived as companies, the Société Générale de by also getting involved in the green-washing certain logging Surveillance), international NGOs (CI, development and implementation companies since the monitoring is WWF, AWF, IUCN, etc.), local NGOs of the log tracking sub-system not capable of capturing all illegal and, fi nally, parliamentarians. and eventually by expanding to activities and, as such, it may harm the sub-region. This will however the international credibility of the Solid and well-working partnerships require substantial new funding; programme. between WRI and those main actors • Continue working on fi nding have to be established to ensure not solutions to the lack of affordable In conclusion, a wide array of only the collection of data but also cloud-free satellite images; tools and actions are needed to the validation of the end-products, as • Work to promote the involvement be comprehensive and effi cient in well as the integration of the data and of new partners within the combating illegal logging. Table 2 the tools developed by WRI into the programme to assist the provides a general schematic view of decision-making process. governments of the sub-region in various factors allowing illegal activities conducting fi eld verifi cations, in to occur and identifi es the different sets Recommendations collaboration with other donors of actions and tools required to combat Taking into account the achievements involved in that issue (such as the illegal activities. to date, as well as the identifi ed World Bank); constraints and limitations, • Expand forest concession Need for partnerships WRI proposes the following monitoring collaborations with The data required to perform forest recommendations for future forest complementary initiatives concession monitoring has to come concession monitoring conducted under (e.g., REM, Global Witness), where from various stakeholders including: CARPE: feasible; and the ministries in charge of the forest • Pursue the remote sensing, GIS • Work on ensuring continued strong and their specialized services (such as and mapping activities and expand political will so that the tools are the Service Permanent d’Inventaire et their scope both thematically and fully incorporated in the decision- d’Aménagement Forestier in DRC or geographically; making processes. ' the Centre National des Inventaires et

236 Table 2. Main tools and actions to combat illegal logging

Tools or actions to combat illegal logging Convening Field monitoring Advocacy Policy, law stakeholders Factors allowing illegal Examples of illegal activities or problems generated in producing Remote sensing, (including log Capacity and public and regulation and promoting Improving activities to occur countries GIS and FIMS tracking) building information changes dialogue technologies Within producing countries a) Lack of legislation Inappropriate and unfair allocation of forest concessions XXX Inappropriate and unfair allocation of other logging rights XXX Unsustainable extraction (no forest management plan) XXX Unfair benefi t sharing from use of the forests XXXX Socially or environmentally damaging operations XXX Diffi culties in defi ning what is legal or illegal XXX Chapter Eight:TheMonitoringofNaturalResources toSupportConservationProgrammes Unenforceable regulations XXX b) Lack of law enforcement Company is not legally authorized to carry out logging X (FIMS) X Logging outside authorized areas (concession or annual coupes) X X X (GIS) Logging above allocated or authorized volumes X (FIMS) X Logging forbidden or unauthorized species X (FIMS) X Tallying wrong species to pay less taxes X Underscaling of volumes logged to pay less taxes X Not reporting all volumes logged X Not respecting all clauses of concession contract X Not paying taxes due (area taxes, felling, export taxes, corporate, etc.) X Transporting timber products without proper authorization X c) Lack of governance All illegal activities listed in a) and b) above XX X d) Lack of knowledge and Inappropriate and unfair use of natural resources XX X asset sharing Inequity in benefi t sharing XX X All illegal activities listed in b) as logging unchecked XX X Confl icts over use of forest resources XX X Within consuming countries e) Lack of legislation All illegal activities and problems in a), b) and c) above XXX f) Lack of corporate All illegal activities and problems in a), b) and c) above XX accountability g) Lack of legal verifi cation All illegal activities and problems in a), b) and c) above XXXXXXX and monitoring systems Within both producing and consuming countries h) Lack of dialogue and All illegal activities and problems in a), b) and c) above XX engagement i) Lack of appropriate All illegal activities and problems in a), b) and c) above XXX X technology 237 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

Case Study 3 The Use of Satellite Mapping and GIS to Support Large-Scale Conservation: Lessons Learned

Alice Altstatt, Diane Davies, Paya de Marcken, Chris Justice, Erik Lindquist and Minnie Wong

Introduction Forest Resource Assessments (FRAs) Finally, lessons learned regarding the Establishing a reliable baseline of forest provide statistics on forest cover, importance of GIS/RS for CARPE as extent and monitoring forest cover derived primarily from “best estimate” a basin-wide regional conservation change across the Congo Basin is information provided by national forest initiative are summarized. critical to evaluating the progress of ministries, although those published for CARPE towards meeting its strategic 1990, 2000 and 2005 are supplemented objective of reducing the rate of forest by analysis of samples of multi-temporal Satellite mapping for Central degradation and loss of biodiversity. satellite data to estimate deforestation Africa Satellite-derived maps and geographical rates. Variability in forest categories and Since the 1970s, earth-observing information systems (GIS) provide methodologies between assessments satellites have provided data suitable spatial information and analytical tools makes it diffi cult to make statistical for mapping land cover. These essential for large-scale conservation comparisons. The FRA data are not remotely sensed data have become the planning and effective monitoring spatially explicit, making them less predominant means of mapping humid of Congo Basin forests. Analytical useful for baseline assessments, tropical forest on global and regional tools, such as GIS, help conservation monitoring rates of deforestation on scales. Remote sensing data offer planners integrate geospatial data sub-regional scales or evaluating numerous advantages over ground- on land cover, population centres the effect of specifi c programmes in based data: large area coverage; and ecology to inform planning and reducing the rate of deforestation within collection over remote, inaccessible policy decisions. Remote sensing (RS) the Congo Basin Forest Partnership areas; internally consistent and provides the capacity to monitor the (CBFP) landscapes. repeatable measurements; systematic impacts of conservation initiatives on and continuous data acquisition; and, land cover and land use, which in turn In order to address these shortfalls compared to labour-intensive fi eld data relate directly to forest resources and and produce the detailed and spatially collection, low cost. When coupled biodiversity. explicit information necessary to with corroborative ground-based data support CARPE’s conservation and improved geolocation methods, The Food and Agriculture Organization initiatives in the CBFP landscapes, remote sensing data provide the of the United Nations (FAO) compiled CARPE has supported satellite mapping means to produce vegetation maps of the Africover geospatial database in of forest cover in the Congo Basin and unprecedented precision and accuracy. response to the lack of information worked with CARPE partners to use Because remote sensing data capture on land cover for Africa and in geospatial data. The geospatial datasets biophysical and structural vegetation recognition that this defi cit limits produced under CARPE have broader traits, the derived thematic classes are planning, development and sustainable applications beyond the programme’s more general relative to the fl oristic management of renewable natural objectives. detail that can be collected in ground- resources. Africover includes feature based surveys. datasets and land cover classifi cations The following sections summarize land that are derived from the visual cover mapping using remote sensing in There are two classes of satellite1 interpretation of high resolution satellite the Congo Basin and describe recent optical data used for global, continental imagery acquired between 1994 and developments in forest monitoring at the and regional land cover monitoring: 2001. These data are a signifi cant Basin level, including a discussion on moderate (200–300 m) to coarse mapping contribution, but they are the availability of remote sensing data. (1 km) spatial resolution data with not available for all CARPE countries, There is an overview of GIS applications nor can they at present provide rates within CARPE and the development 1 A list of acronyms and a table of earth observing satellites of forest cover change. The FAO of GIS/RS capacity in the region. that provide data for vegetation mapping is provided in Appendix 1.

238 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

Figure 1. Examples of satellite data used for vegetation mapping at different spatial resolutions

SPOT VEGETATION (1 km) MODIS (250 m) Landsat (30 m)

daily/frequent global coverage, e.g., been derived primarily from satellite Republic of Congo (DRC) also based AVHRR, MODIS, SPOT VEGETATION; optical data, either specifi cally for on SPOT VEGETATION data from the and high (15–30 m) spatial resolution the Congo Basin, or as part of larger year 2000 (Vancutsem et al., 2004). A data, e.g., Landsat and SPOT HRVIR, mapping projects. A global tropical 300 m resolution global land cover map, with repeat cycles of 2–3 weeks. forest inventory, the Tropical REsources (GlobCover 2005) derived from Envisat The frequent acquisitions of the low and Environment monitoring by Satellite MERIS data, is being produced by ESA resolution data increase the likelihood (TREES), was undertaken by the in partnership with UNEP, FAO, JRC, the of collecting cloud-free data, which is European Commission Joint Research European Environment Agency (EEA) particularly important for monitoring Centre (JRC) and the European and GOFC-GOLD (Global Observation Central Africa due to persistent cloud Space Agency (ESA) in support of the of Forest and Land Cover Dynamics). cover in the western Congo Basin. International Geosphere-Biosphere Frequent data acquisitions enable Programme (IGBP). That project Satellite radar data are also useful for depiction of vegetation phenology produced a 1:5,000,000 vegetation mapping humid tropical forests because (seasonal effects) which can be very map of Central Africa from 1 km (Local of the ability of the radar signal to useful in discriminating vegetation Area Coverage) and 5 km (Global Area penetrate cloud cover, to discriminate types. However, moderate and coarse Coverage) AVHRR data acquired in inundated forest from terra fi rma forest spatial resolution data with daily 1992 and 1993 (Mayaux et al., 1999). and to estimate forest biomass from coverage cannot capture the fi ne scale In support of CARPE, a similar land radar interferometry. Processing and changes in the forest domain resulting cover map was also prepared from analysis of radar data are considerably from shifting agriculture, a predominant multi-temporal, multi-resolution AVHRR more complex than for optical data. driver of deforestation in the Congo data acquired during the 1980s and There have been two efforts to collect, Basin. Likewise, logging roads are often early 1990s (LaPorte et al., 1998). process and derive forest maps from only detected in high spatial resolution The Global Land Cover (GLC) 2000 satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery and may be the only indication project of the JRC produced a 1 km data across the Congo Basin. The of selective commercial logging land cover map of the entire African ESA/European Commission Central activity. Thus, both low and high spatial continent from SPOT VEGETATION Africa Mosaic Project (CAMP) used resolution data have information of year 2000 data, supplemented by C-band (3 cm wavelength) data from value in monitoring forest cover within radar data to map fl ooded forests and the European Remote Sensing (ERS) an environment such as the Congo a Digital Elevation Model to identify satellites, and the National Space Basin. montane forests (Mayaux et al., 2004). Development Agency of Japan Global The Université Catholique de Louvain Rain Forest Mapping (GRFM) project A number of land cover (UCL) produced a more detailed land relied on L-band (23 cm) data from the characterizations of Central Africa have cover classifi cation for the Democratic Japanese Earth Resources Satellite

239 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

(JERS-1). Both of these mosaic datasets require imagery with a spatial resolution This approach used 10 km x 10 km were used to produce vegetation maps of less than 100 m. The NASA Landsat subsets of Landsat data from 1990 for Central Africa that distinguished Pathfi nder Humid Tropical Deforestation and 2000 distributed every ½ degree periodically and permanently fl ooded Project was a collaborative effort by across the Central African forest forest from lowland forest (Mayaux et the University of Maryland (UMD), the domain to derive rates of deforestation, al., 2002). University of New Hampshire, and reforestation, forest degradation and the National Aeronautics and Space forest recovery (Duveiller et al., 2008). In recognition that discrete categorical Administration (NASA) Goddard Space The FAO has proposed using this depictions of forest cover in the maps Flight Center to map deforestation sampling strategy for future global described above can vary depending using Landsat data (30 m resolution) FRAs. For this method to be effective on forest defi nition, a global map of for three epochs (1970s, 1980s and in a region like the Congo Basin where proportional tree cover at 1 km was 1990s) in Southeast Asia, the Amazon forest cover change is relatively rare, produced from AVHRR data (DeFries Basin and Central Africa. Production of a large number of samples must be et al., 2000). A similar approach was forest cover maps from these data was obtained in order to produce estimates subsequently applied to MODIS data time-consuming and labour-intensive, with reasonable levels of uncertainty. to produce a 500 m resolution global but the primary limitation for mapping For the purposes of CARPE, where the percent tree cover map (Hansen et deforestation was a lack of suffi cient areas of interest, the landscapes or al., 2003). This Vegetation Continuous cloud-free data for each time period. macro-zones, can be relatively small, Fields (VCF) method was modifi ed to Nonetheless, the data archive compiled estimates of change derived by this create a 250 m resolution percent tree by the Pathfi nder Humid Tropical method would not be suffi cient. cover map specifi cally for the Congo Deforestation Project has been essential Basin (Hansen et al., 2008). This map for subsequent high resolution mapping was consolidated with the GLC 2000 efforts. Recent Congo Basin forest map to provide an initial survey of the cover and change mapping Central African forest for State of the An alternative approach to exhaustive, under CARPE: methods and Forest 2006 (CBFP, 2007). i.e., “wall to wall”, forest cover change results mapping is to employ a sample- CARPE has supported the development Detection and mapping of the fi ne- based method such as the systematic of a sophisticated, innovative method scale forest cover changes that are sampling scheme developed by JRC/ to map forest cover and forest cover characteristic of the Congo Basin UCL for estimating forest cover change. change exhaustively across the Basin

Figure 2. Forest cover and forest cover change in the Congo Basin (1990s–2000)

DFCM multi-spectral 1990s to 2000s Landsat composite image for Forested area of the Congo Basin derived from Landsat imagery the Congo Basin superimposed on a grey-scale MODIS image. using the DFCM process (green is forest, black is non-forest). Areas of forest cover change detected between the 1990s and 2000s are shown in red, enhanced for easier viewing. White areas within each mosaic were obscured by cloud cover in either or both of the time periods.

240 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

which combines a consistent regional acquisitions are included for each image within 2 km of a pre-existing forest characterization of forest derived from tile3 to compensate for cloud cover. Two clearing and approximately 50 percent MODIS data with spatially detailed epochs of Landsat data, circa 1990 and of all forest clearing occurred within forest cover and cover change derived circa 2000, are used to produce a forest 6 km of a major road. These preliminary from Landsat data (Hansen et al., 2008). likelihood map and map of forest cover results refl ect what is visually apparent The Decadal Forest Change Mapping change between the two time periods. in the data: most of the deforestation (DFCM) project automatically maps The result is a consistent high resolution is the result of expansion of the rural a forest likelihood variable and forest depiction of forest cover and forest complex (the mosaic of settlements, cover change2 across the Congo Basin cover change for the entire Congo fi elds and degraded forest which exists at 57 m, a resolution that is adequate Basin. It is the fi rst spatially explicit high along the road networks) into the forest. to capture the small-scale changes in resolution representation of forest cover forest cover that are characteristic of change ever produced for this region. Regional analysis of the DFCM data this biome. shows a 1.4 percent overall decrease The consistent basin-wide in forest cover in the Congo Basin A 250 m resolution land cover map characterization of forest cover and from the 1990s to the 2000s. This was produced from multi-temporal forest cover change permits the corresponds to a loss of 25,720 km2 of (2000–2004) MODIS data for the Congo derivation of comparable statistics at an original forested extent of 1.8 million Basin. The MODIS land cover map regional, national and local levels. The km2 at a rate of 0.14 percent per year provides reference data to automatically spatially explicit data enable analysis (Lindquist et al., 2008). This estimate is derive land cover characterizations of forest cover change processes at smaller than but close to the sample- from Landsat imagery. Multiple Landsat different scales, including investigations based change estimate of Duveiller of local drivers of deforestation which (2008) of 0.22 percent per year from

2 Forest likelihood is a measure of the probability, from are important for land-use management 1990 to 2000. Given the very different 0–100%, that a given mapping unit, in this case a 57 m decisions. For example, in the DRC methodological approaches, and the square pixel, meets the defi nition of closed canopy forest. A continuous variable, rather than a categorical depiction, between 1990 and 2000, nearly 98 heterogeneous, fi ne-scale nature of allows the data user to delineate subsets of forest based percent of all forest change took place change within the Congo Basin, the on user-defi ned thresholds. Forest cover change, on the other hand, is defi ned by a DFCM algorithm and is relative agreement of the two estimates assigned a unique value. The forest cover data presented 3 Landsat data is acquired in a fi xed pattern of tiles across is an encouraging sign for monitoring here are based on a forest likelihood value of greater than the earth’s land surface. Each tile is referenced by path or equal to 50 percent. (the orbital ground track) and row (image segment). within this environment. In the DRC, 19,575 km² of forest was converted

Table 1. Forest cover and forest loss between circa 1990, 2000 and 2005 for the 12 CBFP landscapes

1990–2000 2000–2005 Landscape area 1990 Forest cover 2000 Forest cover Forest cover loss 2005 Forest cover Forest cover loss CBFP Landscape (km2) (km2) (km2) (%) (km2) (%) Monte Alén-Monts de Cristal 26,725 26,229 26,101 0.49 NA NA Gamba-Mayumba-Conkouati 46,549 29,153 28,709 1.52 NA NA Lopé-Chaillu-Louesse 34,925 33,845 33,647 0.59 NA NA Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) 192,403 186,065 185,729 0.18 NA NA Sangha Tri-National (TNS) 44,134 42,820 42,743 0.18 42,607 0.32 Léconi-Batéké-Léfi ni 36,077 7,073 6,968 1.48 NA NA Lac Télé-Lac Tumba 131,292 100,285 99,366 0.92 99,177 0.19 Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru 104,670 101,570 101,198 0.37 100,034 0.26 Maringa/Lopori-Wamba (MLW) 72,693 68,756 68,162 0.86 67,938 0.33 Maiko Tayna Kahuzi-Biega 106,210 92,376 91,404 1.05 90,600 0.88 Ituri-Epulu-Aru 41,045 39,663 39,449 0.54 39,310 0.35 Virunga 17,465 3,480 3,279 5.79 3,143 4.14 NA: not available Note: Forest cover is defi ned by a DFCM forest likelihood value of greater than or equal to 50 percent. Forest cover change is determined by a specifi c DFCM algorithm. Where persistent cloud cover obscured the Landsat mosaic, MODIS forest cover data were used to augment the calculation of forest cover area and loss. The landscape boundaries available as of 5 September, 2008 were used for these calculations.

241 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

Figure 3. Examples of forest cover loss from circa 1990 to circa 2000, shown in red, overlaid on a multi-spectral Landsat composite from the same time period

Agricultural expansion into upland forest Expansion of the rural complex and logging Forest loss near Virunga National Park – as areas – ﬂ ooded forest is avoided. roads north of Bumba. forest is lost outside the park, pressure on forest resources within the park increases.

Table 2. Forest cover and forest loss between circa 1990 and circa 2000 inside and outside protected areas in the Democratic Republic of Congo Additional forest characterizations – degraded and fl ooded forest Forested region 1990 forest cover 2000 forest cover Forest cover loss (km2) Forest cover loss Distinguishing degraded (secondary) (km2) (km2) (%) forest from mature (primary) forest is DRC 1,110,092 1,090,517 19,575 1.83 important for habitat conservation, Inside protected areas 147,004 146,006 998 0.68 biodiversity, and estimation of carbon Outside protected stocks. Since the DFCM forest cover is 941,088 920,418 20,670 2.20 areas represented as a continuous variable, it is theoretically possible to initiate characterization of a degraded forest from an original extent of 1.1 million DFCM approach generically handles class based on thresholds of forest km². This represents a 1.83 percent the data gaps to create products for the likelihood values. Forest likelihood decrease in forest cover from the 1990s 2000–2005 epoch. values were compared for fi eld plots to the 2000s. classifi ed as forest, non-forest or Mid-decadal Landsat mosaics have degraded forest as from an FAO Mid-decadal Landsat composites been completed for over 60 percent of National Forest Inventory of Cameroon. and change detection the Basin and seven of the 12 CBFP There was a clear separation of forest Because the DFCM method is an Landscapes. Landsat image tiles for likelihood values for forest and non- automated procedure, the maps can which multiple acquisitions are available forest plots, but degraded forest plots be updated as additional data become produce more consistent results (e.g., comprised a wide range of values which available. Work is currently underway free of scan gaps and scan line artifacts) overlap the forest plot values. Work is to produce forest cover change maps than tiles without such data richness. continuing on the characterization of a for 2000–2005 from recent Landsat Figure 4 shows the current extent of degraded forest class. imagery, despite the Scan Line the mid-decadal forest cover map Corrector (SLC) failure of the ETM+ for the Congo Basin with an example Flooded forest is a crucial cover theme sensor which causes signifi cant gaps of forest cover change as detected for modelling regional hydrology, in the data rendering about 22 percent using the automated DFCM algorithm. assessing habitats and biodiversity, and of each image unuseable. While many Quantitative estimates of basin-wide understanding human impacts on the researchers have purposely avoided mid-decadal forest change are currently forest environment. Most deforestation using the Landsat SLC-off data, the being developed. occurs within terra fi rma forests, due to

242 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

Figure 4. Mid-decadal forest cover map for the Congo Basin with an example of forest cover change

DFCM multi-spectral 2005 Landsat composite for image tiles Example of forest cover loss (in red) detected processed to date using the DFCM algorithm. The 2000 Landsat DFCM between 2000 and 2005 for a site in eastern mosaic is in the background to show the total extent of the study area. DRC (red box on larger map). A MODIS map of Central Africa provides the backdrop.

greater agricultural suitability and easier Figure 5. Preliminary wetland mask for the central Congo Basin access. Flooded forests can be diffi cult to discriminate from terra fi rma forests on the basis of optical (refl ected) data alone. A method currently being implemented, with support from CARPE, employs Landsat image mosaics, elevation data and derived hydrographical parameters from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data, and radar data to map wetlands, including forested wetlands, Dark values across the Basin at 57 m. indicate high likelihood of wetland As a suite of products, the forest cover, occurrence, bright forest cover change, degraded forest values are low and fl ooded forest maps will be valuable likelihood. Lakes inputs for land-use planning, regional Tumba and Mai Ndombe are policy decisions, carbon accounting overlain. initiatives and climate modelling. They will also help to meet the goals of international monitoring programmes, utility of satellite data for land cover can afford, not the data they truly need such as the United Nations Framework mapping in Central Africa. Recent for implementing rigorous monitoring Convention on Climate Change technological advances have made schemes. Therefore, it is paramount (UNFCCC) Reducing Emissions from it easier to process large amounts that future data policies ensure the Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) of data, and methodologies for regular delivery of the data required to initiative. deriving vegetation characterizations meet policy goals. While some recent continue to improve. Limitations to developments suggest a more liberal the derivation of more timely and era of data access, the major hurdle to Remote sensing data access accurate forest cover characterizations producing new satellite-based maps The success of RS-based forest are primarily related to data access. to date has been the cost of acquiring mapping efforts has demonstrated the Researchers typically use the data they remotely sensed data.

243 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

NASA provides MODIS datasets for free Until very recently, Landsat data have not systematic. Although thousands through the United States Geological not been generically free, and pricing of scenes have been acquired over Survey (USGS) Land Processes and distribution policies have varied the Congo Basin since the sensor was Distributed Active Archive Center, and over the duration of the programme. activated in 2000, large areas remain for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric CARPE and its partners have benefi ted which there is no useable ASTER data. Administration (NOAA) AVHRR-derived from NASA-funded acquisitions of The Indian Remote Sensing Resource-1 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Landsat data, under the Pathfi nder Satellite (IRS) and SPOT HRVIR provide (NDVI) is freely available via the Global project and the Science Data Purchase data that are suitable for forest mapping Land Cover Facility. SPOT VEGETATION for the production of the GeoCover but the data are currently prohibitively data that have been archived for three datasets. The GeoCover data consist of expensive. IRS data at 50 m also offer months or longer are also available select, orthorectifi ed Landsat scenes for the added advantage of obtaining free of charge. However, as mentioned the 1970s, circa 1990 and circa 2000, several acquisitions per month. China previously, higher spatial resolution data with near global coverage for each and Brazil announced in November are required to map the forest cover epoch, that are made freely available. 2007 that they would make China Brazil changes that occur in the Congo Basin. These datasets are being reprocessed, Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS) data with improved geometric and available to African countries, but the The NASA/USGS Landsat series of topographic inputs, under the USGS mechanism for data acquisition and satellites have been the workhorses for GLS project. In addition, the MDGLS is transfer for Central Africa has not been high resolution forest cover mapping producing another global orthorectifi ed established. since 1972. Landsat 5, launched in Landsat dataset, the Global Land 1984, is still operational, but data Survey 2005 (GLS 2005), from Landsat To meet the needs of CARPE, radar must be directly downlinked to ground 7 and Landsat 5 data. Both the GLS data may provide the best opportunity stations in view of the satellite, i.e., 2000 and the GLS 2005 datasets for for monitoring CBFP landscapes there is no on-board storage of data. Africa are freely available for download in persistently cloudy regions. SAR Currently, due to the absence of a from the USGS Glovis website (http:// C-band instruments are on two ESA ground station in the region, there has glovis.usgs.gov) as of March 2008. satellites: Envisat and ERS-2. A radar been no collection of Landsat 5 data As of December 2008, the USGS is instrument with multiple polarization over most of the Congo Basin since providing Landsat 7 archival data (both capability (Phased Array type L-band 1999. The NASA/USGS Mid-Decadal SLC-off and SLC-on) and Landsat 4 and Synthetic Aperture Radar or PALSAR) is Global Land Survey (MDGLS) initiated 5 archival data at no charge through on board the Japanese Advanced Land two limited Landsat 5 data acquisition the Glovis website. New Landsat Observing Satellite (ALOS), launched in campaigns which included part of the 7 and Landsat 5 images are also January 2006. A systematic observation Congo Basin in 2008, downlinking to an made available shortly after they are strategy is planned for PALSAR in ESA ground station in Malindi. However, acquired. This is a signifi cant positive order to produce a consistent, global this ground station will most likely not development for forest cover monitoring time-series data set. The ESA and operate continuously due to technical under the CARPE programme. Japanese data can be made available challenges and the fact that the Landsat to researchers on a limited basis. A 5 sensor is likely to fail due to its Cloud cover will always be an issue commercial SAR satellite, RADARSAT-2, advanced age. Landsat 7 was launched for the Congo Basin, and full access was launched in December 2007. in 1999 and produced well calibrated, to the entire Landsat archive will high quality images until May 2003 greatly facilitate the production of a when the sensor SLC failed. As a result, mid-decadal forest change map for GIS and CARPE there are linear gaps in the images Central Africa. Other optical data The integration of remote sensing which cause a 22 percent loss of data can supplement the Landsat data. products with other geospatial in any given image. Aside from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal data using GIS can provide useful data gaps, the image quality remains Emission and Refl ection Radiometer information for conservation and natural unaffected, but additional images are (ASTER) data has been acquired over resource management. Within CARPE, required to compensate for the gaps. the Congo Basin by UMD through the GIS has been used to compile, model, Meanwhile, the NASA/USGS Landsat NASA Science Data Purchase, and analyze and disseminate geospatial Data Continuity Mission is striving to will be used for fi lling data gaps for the data. Outputs in the form of digital have a new Landsat satellite launched DFCM method. ASTER scene footprints and hard copy maps are used for in 2011. are approximately 1/9 the size of a orientation, education, community Landsat scene and data acquisition is discussion and mapping, visualizing

244 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

land cover and land use, highlighting Initial data collection efforts focused on not always compatible, and depending areas of forest change, and land-use collating and digitizing the locations of on the scale of the application, datasets planning. towns and settlements, as well as road may be too coarse or imprecise. To features from paper maps or Landsat help users determine what data are When CARPE was fi rst authorized images. Currently, there are many more available, and whether they are suitable in 1995, there was a dearth of geo- sources of geospatial data for Central for a specifi c application, CARPE II referenced data for the Congo Basin. Africa (Box 1), but these datasets are placed more emphasis on the collection and sharing of geospatial data from Box 1. Geospatial datasets currently available for Central Africa and between CARPE partners. UMD • ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute) global datasets established CARPE Data Explorer to • UNEP-WCMC (World Conservation Monitoring Centre) and IUCN (International Union facilitate this process (see Box 2). for Conservation of Nature) World Database on Protected Areas • UN FAO Africover An on-line central data repository allows • UCL maps of the Democratic Republic of Congo users to easily determine if geospatial • World Resources Institute (WRI) Forestry Atlases for Cameroon, the Republic of Congo data is available and suitable for their and Democratic Republic of Congo (coming soon) needs, and provides data access. For • Data at the landscape level from NGOs and in-situ projects, including ECOFAC geospatial data to be of real value, (Ecosystèmes Forestiers d’Afrique Centrale) ancillary information, or metadata, Key datasets are those that relate directly to CARPE activities; they include priority landscape boundaries, population centres, must accompany the geospatial data. hunting camps, roads, rivers, protected areas, logging and oil concessions, fl ora and fauna inventories, habitat assessments, Metadata, at a minimum, should and more recently delineations of the land-use management zones. include: spatial extent, projection, datum, information on when and how the data was created, and an Box 2. CARPE Data Explorer explanation of attribute fi elds. Metadata CARPE Data Explorer is a customized version of ESRI’s ArcIMS (Arc Internet Map is often compiled as an afterthought Server) Metadata Explorer. Geospatial data and mapping services are organized to enable map-based or keyword searches for geospatial data. These data can when data collection is completed be viewed and downloaded over the Internet. In our experience, users unfamiliar and unfortunately, when resources with geo-portals have found that the search function is not very comprehensive. are limited, the creation of adequate Alternative solutions for accessing data are currently being assessed for improved metadata is not a priority. Partners may functionality. be reluctant to contribute geospatial data through the CARPE Data Explorer due to a lack of adequate metadata, or the datasets are incomplete or partners are waiting to publish results. Datasets are sometimes revised by partners but not re-submitted in a timely fashion. The end result is that many GIS datasets held at CARPE are out-of-date or do not refl ect new information. USAID has encouraged more sharing of GIS data within CARPE, requiring that geospatial data (e.g., shape fi les) be submitted as part of the MOV (means of verifi cation) documents.

GIS integrates RS data and results with other geospatial datasets, which is critical for CARPE monitoring and reporting. Using GIS it is possible to analyze changes in forest cover by, for example, landscape, protected area, administrative area, watershed or distance from roads. An examination

245 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

Box 3. CARPE Mapper of the spatial variability of forest CARPE Mapper is a web-based mapping service for viewing and querying geospatial cover change helps to understand data over the Internet without requiring access to GIS software. Map services are drivers of land cover change such as available for each of the 12 priority landscapes. Each contain data speciﬁ c to that human population distribution, land- landscape provided by the NGOs working there. Four of the 12 landscapes contain use practices, resource management Forest Elephant telemetry data‚ provided by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). policies, and socio-economic factors. CARPE Mapper provides a useful overview of the landscapes and allows users to select and query a range of data layers. Using CARPE Mapper does however require One of the most useful outputs from reasonable Internet access and user feedback has shown that when internet access is intermittent or bandwidth is low, the performance of CARPE Mapper can be GIS are maps that integrate satellite prohibitively slow. CARPE Mapper was developed approximately four years ago using imagery, forest change and local feature ESRI ArcIMS software. Since it was developed there have been a number of advances data to provide users with a bird’s-eye in internet mapping software; alternative mapping services are being considered but view of the landscape. These maps noticeable improvements in performance are unlikely without improving bandwidth in have proved to be a powerful tool for the region. interpreting land cover and land-use dynamics, as images reveal detail that cannot possibly be represented by strictly cartographic elements. The Figure 6. A poster for the Maringa/Lopori-Wamba Landscape which incorporates maps have been used for ﬁ eld work, a Landsat composite and forest cover change map from the DFCM along with engaging local communities and have information provided by the landscape partner provided focal points for discussion. An example of such a map produced for CARPE is shown in Figure 6.

Spatial modelling with GIS is also making signiﬁ cant contributions to CARPE. Simulating how natural resources (such as wildlife population distributions or socio-economic impacts on forest resources) would be affected under different land-use scenarios is useful for guiding land-use planning. An example of spatial modelling used in land-use planning for a CBFP landscape is presented in Box 4.

Regional activities: establishing the capacity and infrastructure to use Box 4. Land-use planning in the Maringa/Lopori-Wamba (MLW) Landscape geospatial data in forest As a pilot project for the CARPE Landscapes, UMD, in partnership with the African management and monitoring Wildlife Foundation (AWF), UCL, the US Forest Service (USFS) and others, are using in the Congo Basin GIS and products derived from remote sensing to build a suite of spatially-explicit Prior to the implementation of CARPE land-use models for the MLW landscape, located in northern Democratic Republic Phase II, it was widely acknowledged of Congo. Modelled outputs include human population distribution and human accessibility in the landscape, as well as identifi cation of biodiversity hotspots and that there was a paucity of reliable and important wildlife corridors connecting existing protected areas. The DFCM satellite- updated information on forest cover derived forest change products have been used to predict land cover change in the and forest cover change. National landscape over the course of the next 50 years. To contribute directly to land-use institutions recognized that accurate zoning initiatives, the team will use a spatially-explicit site selection modelling tool mapping and remotely sensed data, to identify areas most suitable for future human expansion, taking into account in conjunction with in-situ data, were conservation and human needs. essential to producing this information effi ciently and on a regular basis, but no critical mass of experts in this fi eld

246 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

existed in the Congo Basin. Capacity sought recognition as a Congolese technical consultant for OSFAC in the was limited to several individuals NGO concerned with facilitating access DRC since 2005. OSFAC has also and site-specifi c projects scattered to satellite data, building capacity established a close relationship with the across the region and no appropriate and forest cover monitoring. On 17 national university system in the DRC infrastructure existed to support a September 2005, OSFAC was granted and since 2005, OSFAC has maintained regional initiative on forest mapping. authorization to function in the DRC and managed a GIS/RS lab within the by the Ministry of Justice and on 6 School of Agronomy at the University of In 2000, stakeholders concerned with February 2006, OSFAC established a Kinshasa (UNIKIN). using spatial data in forest management technical agreement with the Ministry met in Libreville, Gabon for a GOFC- of the Environment. Currently, OSFAC Building capacity GOLD Central Africa regional workshop, operates as a legally recognized NGO To build capacity for GIS and RS in co-sponsored by TREES, NASA under the direction of a seven-member Central Africa, the OSFAC network (through the Global Change SysTem Board of Advisors. It supports six predicted the need for two levels of for Analysis, Research and Training full-time professionals, including three training: (1) periodic basic training initiative, START), and USAID-CARPE. A high-level GIS programme offi cers courses across the region and (2) more panel of the Global Terrestrial Observing and trainers. Day-to-day management specialized and higher-level training System, GOFC-GOLD works at the is overseen by a small group of courses and exchange programmes global and regional scale to improve advisors. In addition to its technical to develop scientifi c expertise and the quality and availability of forest and administrative departments in introduce new satellite and information observations and produce functional Kinshasa, OSFAC also works to technology to OSFAC staff. products for users of this data. The reinforce their regional network through main agenda of the 2000 GOFC-GOLD voluntary points of contact in countries In 2005, OSFAC began offering basic workshop was to create a Central across the Congo Basin. and more advanced training courses African GOFC-GOLD chapter that to outside agencies (see Box 5). Over would link national agencies and the When OSFAC began, the capacity to 400 individuals (see Table 3) have user community with producers of this develop and implement a methodology participated in technical courses in information. for monitoring forest cover using GIS and RS at the OSFAC lab and ex- remotely sensed data did not exist in situ sites in the DRC, Gabon and the Participants of the workshop agreed Central Africa; however, the need to Republic of Congo. Courses typically that the network would be coordinated establish baseline information was last 1–4 weeks and are designed to from Kinshasa, and that it would critical. The decision was made to increase capacity in GIS software such operate under the French acronym develop a methodology for monitoring as ArcView, ArcGIS and/or the RS OSFAC (Observatoire Satellital des forest cover within a scientifi c image-processing software, ENVI. Each Forêts d’Afrique Centrale). As a regional institution outside of the region while course is adapted to its participants in GOFC-GOLD network, OSFAC’s unique simultaneously building capacity order to prepare trainees to use spatial long-term objective is to build regional within Central Africa to analyze and data in their area of implementation. capacity to use remotely sensed data use the information generated. This OSFAC also provides a limited number and mapping techniques to produce approach made it possible for OSFAC of individuals the opportunity to reliable information on forest cover and to receive continued technical and participate in an internship programme. forest cover change across Central fi nancial support from UMD under the Africa. Simultaneously, OSFAC works “resource monitoring institutionalized” to tackle some of the obstacles to objective of CARPE. Within CARPE, Table 3. Total number of individuals establishing and maintaining operational OSFAC provides technical support to trained by OSFAC forest mapping in the region. These implementing partners and is seen as (June 2005–February 2008) primary constraints have been the primary channel through which identifi ed by national agencies as: a capacity to monitor forests using Men Women Total lack of human and fi nancial resources, remotely sensed data can be transferred poor access to data (imagery) and to the region. information, poor internet access, and a Total 402 69 471 lack of local expertise. As part of CARPE, OSFAC receives technical support from both South * includes both academic and professional interns In order to operate effi ciently within the Dakota State University (SDSU) and ** 16 were university students who worked with OSFAC to DRC and across Central Africa, OSFAC UMD. UMD has maintained a full-time incorporate spatial data into their theses

247 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

Box 5. Institutions and protected areas that have received technical training from OSFAC

• AWF • MECNEF (Ministère de l’environnement, conservation de la nature, • Bombo Lumene Hunting Zone, DRC eaux et forêts) • BCI (Bonobo Conservation Initiative) • SNR/MECNEF (Service national de reboisement) • BEAU (Bureau d’études et d’aménagement urbain) • MECNT (Ministère de l’environnement, conservation de la nature et • CAMI (Cadastre minier) tourisme) • CENAREST (Centre national de recherche scientifique et • MEFE (Ministère de l’économie forestière et l’environnement, technologique) République du Congo) • CIB (Congolaise industrielle des bois) • MINEF (Ministère de l’économie forestière, Gabon) • CICOS (La commission internationale du bassin du Congo- • Mikébé National Park, Gabon Oubangui-Sangha) • Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, Republic of Congo • CNIE (Cadre national de l’information environnementale) • OCHA/UN (Ofﬁ ce for the Coordination of Human Affairs) • CNPN (Conseil national des parcs nationaux, Gabon) • Okapi Faunal Reserve, DRC • COHYDRO (Congolaise des hydrocarbures) • PAIDECO (Programmes d’appui aux initiatives de développement • Conkouati-Douli National Park, Republic of Congo communautaire) • CRGM (Centre de recherche géologique et minière) • PARCAFRIQUE • CTB (Coopération technique belge) • PNLTHA (Programme nationale de lutte contre la trypanosomiase • CTCPM (La Cellule Technique de Coordination et de Planiﬁ cation humaine africaine) Minière) • PROGEPP (Projet de gestion des écosystèmes périphériques du parc • DGF (Direction de gestion forestière) national de Nouabalé-Ndoki) • ECODED (Economie et développement durable) • Salonga National Park, DRC • ERAIFT (Ecole régionale d’aménagement intègre des forêts • SPIAF (Service permanant d’inventaire forestier) tropicales) • SYGIAP (Système de gestion des aires protégées) • FACAGRO (Faculté d’agronomie) • TRIDOM (Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National) • Garamba National Park, DRC • UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund) • ICCN (Institut Congolaise pour la conservation de la nature) • UNIKIN (University of Kinshasa) • IPS (Inspection provincial de la santé) • UNILU (University of Lubumbashi) • IRM (Innovative Resource Management) • Virunga National Park, DRC • ITTO (International Tropical Timber Organization) • WCS • Kahuzi-Biega National Park, DRC • WRI • Lac Télé Community Reserve, Republic of Congo • WWF • Lopé Reserve, Gabon

This programme incorporates both functional products for decision makers and contribute to OSFAC’s long-term professional and academic degree- and managers, using methodologies sustainability. Among the projects in seeking interns who work with the developed by top-level scientists. which OSFAC has participated are: OSFAC staff for up to 12 months. To meet this goal, OSFAC, UMD and • A 2007 workshop co-hosted SDSU plan to transfer capacity for by WWF, the Minister of the OSFAC’s programme to build higher- these activities to OSFAC through an Environment, ICCN, and OSFAC to level capacity continues to evolve. extensive training programme in the prioritize conservation areas in the Remote sensing to monitor forest cover DRC. DRC. Throughout the workshop, is a highly technical and scientifi c OSFAC provided technical support exercise. Long-term exchanges and Currently OSFAC’s capacity for GIS is to create maps of priority areas. partnerships with scientifi c institutions high and it maintains a reputation for • An initiative by the United Nations are the only means to develop the delivering quality support and products. Educational, Scientifi c and level of expertise necessary to develop OSFAC engages in a wide variety of Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to original forest cover change datasets. GIS and basic RS projects as part of establish a permanent GIS lab at Since 2005, OSFAC has successfully its efforts to strengthen conservation ERAIFT. promoted the studies of three students and sustainable development initiatives • Developing a methodology for from the region in doctoral programmes by incorporating the use of spatial monitoring land cover change as in the US and Europe. OSFAC is datasets. These initiatives build part of an environmental impact also working to establish a pool of mapping capacity, provide OSFAC assessment for the World Bank regional experts capable of generating trainees with practical experience PRO-ROUTES project.

248 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

• Partnering with WWF and WCS with information on different types independent assessor of forest change. for a month-long fi eld and lab- of satellite imagery, remotely sensed In the Congo Basin one could imagine based GIS training centred on products and details on data coverage the Central African Forest Commission4 inventorying and mapping the across the region. establishing an independent body to Bombo Lumene Hunting Zone. carry out forest change assessments in • A project to produce posters of Future objectives close collaboration with a university. all the RAPAC (Réseau des Aires Building on its current capacity and Protégées d’Afrique Centrale) sites. on-going activities, OSFAC remains Satellite remote sensing provides a • Projects to map the Kisantu and focused on establishing its own comprehensive means for regional Kinshasa Botanical Gardens. sustainability and developing regional monitoring of forest cover. The • An inter-university project to map capacity to use satellite data in routine convergence of change estimates erosion in Kinshasa. forest cover monitoring of the Congo derived from different RS methodologies • A CTB project to map numerous Basin. OSFAC will be the primary demonstrates that a reliable communes in Kinshasa. conduit by which capacity for using the representation of forest extent and UMD/SDSU methodology is transferred forest change can be produced from Data accessibility to the region and hopes to establish satellite data. The wall-to-wall explicit Since its inception, OSFAC has been itself as an independent organization mapping of forest cover change is committed to working with regional with the capacity to monitor changes more useful for CARPE’s purposes partners to assess and improve the in forest cover. Once the capacity is than results obtained from a sampling state of spatial datasets in Central Africa established, OSFAC will work with local methodology. However, it is useful as well as facilitate regional access to agencies to determine the accuracy of to have simultaneous, overlapping satellite data. OSFAC served as the estimates and combine remotely sensed monitoring activities to corroborate sub-regional partner on the Mapping data with in-situ datasets. These data regional results. Africa for Africa (MAFA) initiative led by and derived products will be provided the Human Science Research Council to forest managers and decision makers Remote sensing provides a relatively and EIS (Environmental Information directly. low-cost solution for monitoring forest Systems)-Africa. The initiative aims cover, but ultimately the derived to create a catalogue of available products must be validated with fundamental geospatial datasets and Lessons learned in the use of ground-truth data. Implementation of do a country gap analysis. Within the satellite mapping and GIS a statistically valid Basin-wide fi eld DRC, OSFAC is an active member of data collection campaign would be the GIS working group established by Regional initiatives such as topic- logistically and fi nancially infeasible, the UN Joint Logistic Committee. The specifi c networks and technical since much of the Congo Basin remains working group provides a platform for bodies are fundamental mechanisms relatively inaccessible. Plans are stakeholders collecting and using GIS for creating rigorous forest monitoring underway to collect fi eld data for the data in the DRC (including government systems validation of the DFCM products in at institutions, UN agencies and NGOs), to Reaching a consensus on rates of least one landscape. This will provide harmonize data. forest cover change across the Congo an opportunity to test and refi ne a fi eld Basin amongst different practitioners data collection protocol which can be Through its affi liation with UMD, OSFAC requires good communication. Regional disseminated to landscape partners to has obtained hundreds of satellite networks provide practitioners a means implement along with their other fi eld images and maintains a database to communicate and compare different activities. Establishing a mechanism cataloguing all distributable imagery. monitoring methodologies to achieve whereby fi eld and forest plot data can OSFAC disseminates these data free a general consensus on estimates of be shared, such as through a regional of charge upon request. Poor internet change. network, would benefi t the development access in the region means that of reliable forest monitoring having data available locally greatly An independent technical body is programmes. facilitates access for many users. In necessary to assess the veracity of addition to physically distributing data national forest change estimates. To be and providing technical assistance to effective, the body will need to have the individuals or organizations interested scientifi c capacity to develop accurate 4 The Commission des Forêts d’Afrique Centrale (COMIFAC), which consists of the forestry ministers of participating in using satellite images, OSFAC also estimates as well as be offi cially Central African countries, coordinates decisions, actions maintains a website that provides users recognized across the region as an and initiatives pertaining to the conservation and sustainable management of the Congo Basin forests.

249 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

There is an urgent need in the Congo The greatest return on investment reports in particular. The data, products Basin to transfer forest monitoring in earth-observing satellite assets and results need to be made available methods developed in the research comes as information derived from to CARPE partners, and to the wider domain into the operational domain sensor data in the form of value-added community, in a timely manner. The institutionalization of methods products. Limited data access limits such as the DFCM is a current CARPE the development and improvement of The regional dissemination of RS data objective. Transferring these tools will methods to derive useful products, and derived products is problematic require intensive long-term training to limits the capacity for monitoring, and due to the large data volumes involved develop in-region technical capabilities. limits the information available for and limited internet capacity in the With increased capacity in the region, making sound resource management Congo Basin; therefore, OSFAC will this method could be the foundation decisions. An international strategy continue to be an important regional of an operational regional monitoring should coordinate data acquisition node for data distribution. Internet programme. from different sensors to maximize dissemination of geospatial feature the potential for obtaining useful data is less of a problem, but for both One of OSFAC’s primary goals is to data (e.g., cloud-free in the case of feature and RS data, there is a need to work with national forest monitoring optical sensors) over the Congo Basin, ensure that geospatial data is shared agencies to use monitoring methods and this data should be made freely among CARPE partners. There should developed in the research domain available. be a routine transfer of satellite data to to create useful products for forest OSFAC and a systematic review of RS management and decision making. In the current limited satellite data data available to CARPE partners. The This will require continuing to build access scenario, researchers use the ability to review, access and update the OSFAC network across the region data they can afford, not the data they geospatial datasets could be improved, and signifi cantly increasing efforts truly need. For example, the DFCM perhaps by implementing an open- to work with government agencies method is robust, repeatable and source geoportal. to understand their needs and could be modifi ed to work with data communicate potential implications inputs other than Landsat, if the data The geospatial and RS data compiled and possible applications of monitoring were readily available. Signifi cant gaps and produced by CARPE are fi lling data. remain in the products largely due a regional data defi cit and will have to a lack of cloud-free Landsat data. applications beyond their contribution Improved acquisition and free and While it is not possible to overcome to CARPE Strategic Objectives. The open access to data would increase historical failures of data acquisition availability of these datasets should be use of satellite data and support the and archiving, other data sources exist brought to the attention of international development of sustainable forest today that can compensate for Landsat environmental monitoring programmes, monitoring systems in the Congo limitations, either by increasing the such as the UNFCCC’s REDD initiative. Basin Region available pool of cloud-free optical data Long-term forest cover monitoring or by providing data from other modes, Map products in poster form are an requires institutional support and such as radar. effective means of communicating access to a continuous data stream. CARPE objectives and results. In While governments continue to support The dissemination of geospatial data particular, the maps based on RS global and regional monitoring by and products, as well as the results image composites are useful for developing and launching satellite- of geospatial analyses, must continue informing stakeholders, engaging borne sensors, data are still under- to be fostered and improved local communities and for public used due to prohibitive data costs. The geospatial and RS data, and education. Integrating the basic Even when individual scenes are the derived products compiled and DFCM products with other geospatial relatively inexpensive, cumulative created under CARPE, are a signifi cant datasets, such as national, landscape costs can be high when data needs are contribution to forest management and and protected area boundaries, intensive. Progressive data policies are planning for the Congo Basin, to the conveys at a glance the forest required so that operational mapping CBFP and to the State of the Forest cover and change dynamic within organizations need not worry about the Congo Basin. Maps of this type problematic data cost or access that data products are available at no more than the cost tailored to specific regional needs policies.5 of fulfi lling user requests (COSUR), meaning that there is should be produced by OSFAC. no effort to recover costs of satellites, ground systems or other capital assets. This COFUR policy could be a model 5 The NASA/USGS Landsat data distribution policy ensures for other satellite data distribution programmes.

250 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

Partnerships with academic courses in the region and in academic from the support of USAID and institutions are essential to develop exchange programmes. partnering academic institutions. This technical expertise and establish Simultaneously, OSFAC has benefi ted support is critical in these initial stages; centres of excellence to meet the by maintaining a close relationship with however, in its aim to establish itself as demand for high technical skills UNIKIN and its School of Agronomy. a local organization, it is imperative that One of the keys to OSFAC’s success This partnership is critical to assure that OSFAC continues to develop its own has been its close relationship with capacity building in remote sensing and management capacity and fi nancial academic institutions both within and GIS will be institutionalized within the sustainability. OSFAC supplements its outside Central Africa. Through CARPE, region and has put OSFAC in contact USAID funding by engaging in short- OSFAC has developed and maintained with a continuous pool of motivated and term income-generating mapping an active relationship with both UMD skilled candidates for training. Working projects, but this income covers less and SDSU in the USA. Both universities through the local university system has than 25 percent of OSFAC’s operating are highly scientifi c institutions with allowed OSFAC the opportunity to partner costs. The aim is to increase this long-term commitments to using remote with supplementary initiatives to establish percentage but it is acknowledged that sensing to monitor forest cover and more permanent training institutions if OSFAC is to have a role in regional working with OSFAC to create a critical such as ERAIFT. Additional centres of forest monitoring, it will continue to mass of RS experts in Central Africa. excellence are necessary to meet the require additional sources of support, These partnerships have provided demand for high technical skills. either through donor agencies or OSFAC with the day-to-day technical through a commitment from national and fi nancial support necessary to OSFAC will only succeed if it can agencies. ' establish itself as a respected NGO attain a measure of sustainability, concerned with mapping resources in including establishing secure the Congo Basin and have provided funding mechanisms and building the best opportunity for OSFAC to management capacity continue to develop its capacity through Since its inception, OSFAC has a combination of higher-level training benefi ted technically and fi nancially

251 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

References

Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP). 2007. The forests of the Congo Basin: State of the Forest 2006. Kinshasa: CBFP.

DeFries, R.S., Hansen, M.C., Townshend, J.R.G., Janetos, A.C. and Loveland, T.R. 2000. “A new global 1-km dataset of percentage tree cover derived from remote sensing”. Global Change Biology 6: 247–254.

Duveiller, G., Defourny, P., Desclée, B. and Mayaux, P. 2008. “Deforestation in Central Africa: Estimates at regional, national and landscape levels by advanced processing of systematically-distributed Landsat extracts”. Remote Sensing of Environment 112(5): 1969–1981.

Hansen, M.C., DeFries, R.S., Townshend, J.R.G., Carroll, M., Dimiceli, C. and Sohlberg, R.A. 2003. “Global Percent Tree Cover at a Spatial Resolution of 500 Meters: First Results of the MODIS Vegetation Continuous Fields Algorithm”. Earth Interactions 7(10): 1–15 [online journal].

Hansen, M.C., Roy, D.P., Lindquist, E., Adusei, B., Justice, C.O. and Altstatt, A. 2008. “A method for integrating MODIS and Landsat data for systematic monitoring of forest cover and change in the Congo Basin”. Remote Sensing of Environment 112(5): 2495–2513.

Laporte, N.T., Goetz, S.J., Justice, C.O. and Heinicke, M. 1998. “A new land cover map of Central Africa derived from multi- resolution, multi-temporal AVHRR data”. International Journal of Remote Sensing 19(18): 3537–3550.

Lindquist, E., Hansen, M.C., Roy, D.P. and Justice, C.O. 2008. “The suitability of decadal image data sets for mapping tropical forest cover change in the Democratic Republic of Congo: implications for the mid-decadal global land survey”. International Journal of Remote Sensing 29(24): 7269–7275.

Mayaux, P., Richards, T. and Janodet, E. 1999. “A vegetation map of Central Africa derived from satellite imagery”. Journal of Biogeography 25: 353–366.

Mayaux, P., De Grandi, G.F., Rauste, Y., Simard, M. and Saatchi, S. 2002. “Large-scale vegetation maps derived from the combined L-and GRFM and C-band CAMP wide area radar mosaics of Central Africa”. International Journal of Remote Sensing 23(7): 1261–1282.

Mayaux, P., Bartholomé, E., Fritz, S. and Belward, A. 2004. “A new land-cover map of Africa for the year 2000”. Journal of Biogeography 31: 861–877.

Vancutsem, C., Pekel, J-F., Evrard, C., Malaisse, F., Mayaux, P., Malingreau, J-P. and Defourny, P. 2005. “A new land cover map of the Democratic Republic of Congo derived from SPOT VEGETATION data”. In: Veroustrate, F., Bartholomé, E. and Verstraeten, W. (Eds) Proceedings of the 2nd International VEGETATION Users Conference, Antwerp, 24–26 March 2004.

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Appendix I

Acronyms

ALOS Advanced Land Observing Satellite ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reﬂ ection Radiometer AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer CAMP ESA/EC Central Africa Mosaic Project CBERS China Brazil Earth Resources Satellite CTB Coopération Technique Belge DFCM Decadal Forest Change Mapping EEA European Environment Agency ERAIFT Ecole Régionale post-universitaire d’Aménagement et de gestion Intégrés des Forêts et Territoires tropicaux ERS European Remote Sensing satellites ESA European Space Agency ESRI Environmental Systems Research Institute ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper FRA FAO Forest Resource Assessment GIS Geographical Information System GLC Global Land Cover GOFC-GOLD Global Observation of Forest and Land Cover Dynamics GRFM Global Rain Forest Mapping HRVIR High Resolution Visible and Infrared IGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme IRS Indian Remote Sensing Resource-1 Satellite JRC European Commission Joint Research Centre MDGLS NASA/USGS Mid-Decadal Global Land Survey MERIS Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA) OSFAC Observatoire Satellital des Forêts d’Afrique Centrale PALSAR Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar SLC Scan Line Corrector SPOT Satellites Pour l’Observation de la Terre satellite series TREES Tropical REsources and Environment monitoring by Satellite

253 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

Earth Observing Satellites with Vegetation Mapping Applications

Satellite Sensor(s) Spatial resolution Revisit frequency Application1 Optical NOAA AVHRR2 1 km daily Global NDVI SPOT VEGETATION 1 km daily Global Terra/Aqua MODIS 250 m–1 km daily Global, regional Envisat MERIS 300 m–1 km 3 days Global, regional CBERS-2 CCD, IRMSS, WFI 3 20–260 m 5/26 days Regional, local IRS-P6 LISS, AWiFS4 5.8–56 m 5/24 days Regional, local Landsat 5/7 TM/ETM+5 15–60 m 16 days Regional, local SPOT-4/5 HRVIR/HRG 6 10–20 m 26 days Regional, local Terra ASTER 15–90 m On demand Local EO-1 ALI 7 10–30 m 16 days Local Radar Orbit overpass8 ERS-2 SAR (C-band) 30 m 35 days Regional Envisat ASAR9 (C-band) 30 m 35 days Regional ALOS PALSAR 7–88 m 46 days Regional RADARSAT SAR (C and X-band) 25 m 24 days Regional 1 For CARPE purposes, regional corresponds to the entire Congo Basin and local corresponds to the CBFP Landscape level 2 The primary purpose for this sensor is meteorological 3 High Resolution Charge-coupled Device (CCD) camera, Infrared Multi-Spectral Scanner, Wide Field Imager 4 Linear Imaging Self Scanner, Advanced Wide Field Sensor 5 Thematic Mapper/Enhanced Thematic Mapper 6 High Resolution Geometric 7 Advanced Land Imager 8 Revisit frequency depends on mode and incidence angle 9 Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar

254 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

Case Study 4 Monitoring of Wildlife Populations: Lessons Learned

Fiona Maisels

Introduction: The need for standardized wildlife monitoring The biodiversity within the humid tropical forests of the world is typically about 50 percent of the global total, although they cover only 15 percent of the earth’s surface. The Central African block is the second largest of these forests after Amazonia, and much of it is still unlogged, closed canopy tracts with continuous cover. These forests contain important populations of large, endangered mammal species such as forest elephant, gorilla, Bonobo and chimpanzees, plus medium-sized mammal species including monkeys, forest antelopes, pigs and buffalo. In addition, the individual trees within these forests are often many hundreds of years old, and maintain a myriad of smaller species of fauna and ﬂ ora, often endemic to small areas within the main forest block (although the degree of endemicity varies tremendously over the area). There have been long cycles of forest retreat and regrowth, caused by climatic cycles; at present the cycle is approaching its maximum for forest cover and would eventually take over the savannah islands within the block if not held back, up to a point, by burning. followed by a human population crash. species of wild plants and animals In the Gabon area (the Ogooué basin), a has far outstripped the rate at which Archaeological record similar human population crash seems they are replaced leading to a net People have lived in these forests to have occurred in about 500 AD, decline in populations. This accelerated for many thousands of years. The after an intensive period of 800 years harvesting of wild species has been archaeological evidence suggests that of iron working, which would have caused by three main factors: (i) great the vegetation was not always simply required a great deal of forest cover improvements in the technology of affected by the climatic cycles, but removal (Mbida et al., 2000; Oslisly, extraction (ﬁ rearms, metal cables, was also greatly changed by people’s 2001; Willis et al., 2004; White, 2001). chainsaws); (ii) rapidly growing human activities. There seems to have been The forests then recovered, at least for populations in the region (about 3 extensive habitation, clearing and a while. In the last few hundred years, percent per year: UNDP (2006), resulting cultivation in the Congo Basin between and especially over the last hundred in a doubling of the population every about 1000 BC to about 400 AD, years, the rate of harvest of many 20 years); and (iii) growing international

255 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

markets for exotic goods such as Bahia and a great many others are all ivory, tropical hardwoods, and even now either considered Endangered bushmeat. China is now the world’s or Vulnerable (IUCN Red List, 2006). most important importer of ivory, The value of ivory has led to a sharp tropical logs and sawn wood (ITTO, decline in elephant numbers across 2006; Milliken et al., 2007) and most the world, and most recently in Central of their ivory and much of their timber Africa (Blake et al., 2007). Wild meat comes from the Central African forests. is considered a traditional luxury in modern Central African cities and it is often served on important occasions Vulnerability (marriages, funerals, etc.). Although it The vulnerability of any given species is more expensive than domestic meat is a function of both its intrinsic rate in cities, people are prepared to pay of reproduction, and of its value to the higher prices if they can afford to humans as a resource. General rules of (Wilkie et al., 2005). thumb are that, for any given taxonomic group, the larger the individual, the year. Likewise, the commonest small slower it reproduces. For example, antelope in these forests, Blue duikers, Relevance to management hardwood timber trees can take many can reproduce after one year and give What does this mean for the more decades to reach maturity and to set birth to one offspring annually. vulnerable plants and animals of the seed, and even then some species Congo Basin? Outside protected areas only fruit once every few years. Small The value of certain products (i.e., national parks and reserves), it is herbs, by contrast, are often annuals. also leads to overharvesting. likely that most of the large mammals The same is true for animals – the Overexploitation of most of the will be hunted out of the forests within slowest to reproduce are the apes and valuable hardwood species currently on the next few decades, unless rapid elephants, which can take up to 15–20 the international tropical timber market and effective wildlife management years to reach maturity, and even then has led to most of them being placed strategies are undertaken immediately. only give birth to one young every four on the IUCN Red List – for example Indeed, in many areas, especially years. Contrast this with rodents, many most of the central African mahogany those in countries with high human of which reach maturity in a matter species (all the Entandrophragmas, population density, this has already of months and can produce litters Afrormosia, Wenge, African mahogany, happened, especially around towns and of several animals more than once a Bossé), plus Okoumé, Moabi, Azobe, larger villages. Even some protected

256 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

areas in the region have effectively animal and human populations are usually detect their presence and move no real protection and exist only on basically the same throughout not only away before they can be recorded. This paper. For the vulnerable plant species the Congo Basin, but in all tropical has led to the development of methods (mostly the hardwood trees), only truly humid forests worldwide. that do not require that the animals sustainable logging will result in the themselves are detected, but rather that long-term survival of their populations. the signs they leave behind are the units By “sustainable” we mean harvesting Methodology of wildlife of census. at or below the rate of recruitment monitoring of young trees into the reproductive Monitoring of elephants and large Since biologists began working in the population, implying protection of seed ungulates in the grasslands of Africa region, we have been producing maps trees, maintaining long felling rotations, has been carried out for decades using of where the different species occur. and maintaining the seed disperser direct counts of individuals or herds Population size estimates for some agents, most of which (80 percent) are during foot surveys, counts from off- species such as elephants and apes mammals and large birds in this region. road vehicles or from small aircraft. All followed. These estimates ranged from these methods assume that most of “best guesses” based on interviews the animals can actually be seen! In with local hunters or foresters at remote Monitoring and evaluation the savannahs this is mostly true and sites, through sample-based methods In order to verify whether the chosen methods have improved over the last aimed at estimating a mean density management strategies are actually 20 years to calculate the numbers of across a large area, to, in the case of having the desired effect on maintaining animals likely to have been missed some populations, fairly accurate head the vulnerable, slow-reproducing, large during the surveys. However, animals counts which assumed that most of species (elephants, apes, large trees) living in a closed canopy forest are not the animals in an area of interest were plus the smaller but targeted species so easily counted. Firstly, they cannot known individually. This latter approach such as forest antelopes, pigs and be counted from an aircraft, because of was really only possible with small ape monkeys, monitoring programmes are the tree cover. Secondly, counts cannot or elephant populations which were the essential. Over the last two decades, be made from vehicles, as the distance subject of intensive study and where many different bodies including one can see into a forest is a few individuals are distinctive. However, it governments, professional researchers metres, and animals move away from is neither feasible nor cost-effective to and conservation organizations have the sound of an approaching car and monitor multiple groups over a large realized that a continuous, permanent are hidden by vegetation. Finally, even landscape. Sampling methods had to monitoring programme across the people walking through the forest can be developed which work under the whole Congo Basin is necessary to see only a short distance, and animals forest canopy. Over the last 20 years, follow changes in the extent and quality of the forest itself, the species living within it, the distribution and abundance of its fauna, and the distribution, abundance and activities of its human populations. Forest cover monitoring is generally most cost-effective using remote sensing, and this has been and continues to be successfully carried out in the Congo Basin (see Chapter 9, CBFP: State of the Forest 2006 and other case studies in this chapter). By contrast, there remains an important need for monitoring of wildlife and human population distribution and abundance within the forest itself. In order to be able to detect change over such a wide area and over long periods of time, the methods of data collection and reporting have become standardized, and the indicators for

257 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

the methods for monitoring large faster, and avoided wetlands and other In the cases where wildlife has been mammal abundance and distribution in habitats difﬁ cult to traverse. Of course intensively hunted over a number of lowland tropical forests have become this resulted in an overestimation of years, we simply cannot do enough standardized. The methods are based human signs and an underestimation of transects to assess animal abundance on calculating the density and/or animal signs, as hunting and trapping without spending huge amounts of abundance of the animals themselves, was usually more intensive near roads. time (and thus money) which could or certain signs (such as nests or dung) Another bias was to carry out an otherwise be spent on activities which which are produced at a fairly uniform intensive survey of one small area and would reduce the hunting pressure. In rate by each individual animal, and then extrapolate to a much larger area these cases a survey design is drawn which are visible no matter what the without good knowledge of different up which consists of lines across the substrate (unlike footprints). Surveys habitats or hunting pressures that might area of interest, which are walked carried out using these methods be present in the areas not surveyed. by ﬁ eld teams, but along which they between about 1983 and up to the For these reasons, modern surveys now collect a smaller set of data than on present day have caused alarm bells try to cover the entire area of interest, transects, and along which they move to be rung for the great apes in Central using an evenly spaced sampling plan, about four times as fast as on transects Africa (Walsh et al., 2003) where it so that the sampling is representative (so the cost of these surveys is about was realized that half of all apes had of the whole site (whether it is a a quarter of that of those designed to died over a twenty-year period due to protected area, a logging concession, a assess density). The results of this type a combination of Ebola and hunting. community forest, or a combination of of survey, known as reconnaissance Similarly, the international elephant these and other land-use types). surveys, are expressed as the number monitoring programme of IUCN/CITES of animals or animal signs (or human (MIKE, or Monitoring the Illegal Killing Don’t jump in and do an intensive signs) per kilometre walked, and of Elephants) showed that even in what survey right away serve as the basis for maps of animal had been believed to be the stronghold In general, any wildlife monitoring and human distribution and relative of forest elephants in central Congo, programme goes through a series abundance over a landscape. there were a mere handful remaining of steps. A short site visit is made (MIKE, 2005; Blake et al., 2007). These to assess logistics, contact local Training people takes time and has to types of surveys were also used to communities, and hear peoples’ be done well inform the Regional Action Plan for perceptions of wildlife in their forests. Over time, we have realized a great the Conservation of Chimpanzees and This is often followed by a pilot study deal of training is necessary for the Gorillas in Western Equatorial Africa consisting of walking for a week or so survey teams to bring back meaningful (Tutin et al., 2005) and the revision in the forest, and if wildlife seems to data. In the early stages of work in of the status of the western lowland be relatively abundant, by a few pilot the region (in the early 1990s), training gorilla from Endangered to Critically transects distributed evenly throughout courses of a week or two were given, Endangered (Walsh et al., 2007). the area of interest (straight lines along after which teams carried out work for which wildlife signs and human activities are recorded and georeferenced). The Lessons learned results of the pilot transect are used to decide whether to do a survey where Avoid bias the objective is to estimate animal Much of this work has been density or whether simply to map spearheaded by groups of wildlife relative abundance of the target species mathematicians, who have examined (and of human activity). For estimating the sources of bias caused by density, a comprehensive survey design pitfalls into which one can easily fall is set up over the whole area, which (Buckland et al., 2001, 2004; Hedley will have enough samples and enough and Buckland, 2004; Sanz et al., 2007; overall effort to estimate animal density Sutherland, 1996; Walsh and White, with an acceptable degree of precision 1999; Walsh et al., 2000, 2001; and (a measure of the intrinsic variability of many others). One of these pitfalls was the data across the area). The results that people would often walk along provide an estimation of animal (or sign) existing roads to collect animal or density, plus the data is set to create human data. It was much easier, much distribution maps.

258 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

months without supervision. However supplies (very isolated rural populations for Central Africa is being constructed subsequent examination of the results are sometimes not so much affected)), (the FORAF project) which will be web- showed that they often made mistakes, and the deterioration of national based and thus not subject to local got lost, or lost data. Since then training infrastructure (railway lines, roads, unrest which has destroyed so much courses have been longer, with a great public buildings such as schools, etc.). of the documentary evidence of past deal of practical work involved, and Importantly, the national documentary surveys. repetition of fi eld tasks so that people storage and/or scientifi c services are get used to the different aspects of the often pillaged during civil war. National Finally, as part of these “Lessons fi eld work. herbaria, museums, ministries, and all Learned”, we present a Decision Tree offi ces that might contain computers which was originally designed as part Back up data and reports in several have been broken into and all useful of the IUCN Best Practice Guidelines places! objects removed, including the paper for Surveys and Monitoring of Great Ape The Central African region is a volatile on which herbarium specimens Populations (Kuehl et al., 2008). The one, to say the least. Most of the were mounted. This has important book will be mainly online and contains countries in the forest block have implications for long-term monitoring. chapters on survey design, fi eld undergone either one or more full-blown All data and reports should be recorded practicalities, and training. It was written civil wars or some kind of regionally electronically, copied, backed up, and using a great deal of the experience restricted civil unrest in the last two kept in several places: at the site of gained in carrying out surveys and decades. Apart from the loss of life, origin, plus in the appropriate national monitoring programmes in the Central the long-term results are a general ministry, plus (if they were produced by African forests from 1990–2007. The lowering of the standard of living for another body) at the local and offshore Decision Tree is laid out like a botanical urban dwellers (food restrictions, loss offi ces of the scientifi c or conservation key, where successive questions lead of access to medical supplies and institution which produced them. At the reader to a series of decisions as to services, cuts in electricity and water present (2008), a monitoring database how to carry out the survey. '

259 Section Three: Monitoring of Natural Resources

What to do when: A decision tree for wildlife surveys in forested environments

I. First let us assume you need to know how many animals are present in the population

Question 1. Are all animals in the population known individually and can they be found within a few weeks AND/OR are they relatively few in number, and found within a small area? This is the case with very few animals. The Rwanda tourist gorillas come close! a. Yes: carry out full count of known individuals, OR use a sweep sample to cover the whole of the area of interest. b. No: go to Question 2.

Question 2. Is the rough encounter rate of nest groups or other signs that will be used to estimate density already known? c. No: conduct pilot study consisting of a few transects throughout the area of interest in order to obtain a rough idea of encounter rate (this should only take a couple of weeks). Then go to Question 3. d. Yes: go to Question 3.

Question 3. Decide on the target coefﬁ cient of variation you require for the survey. If the survey or series of surveys is to be used for monitoring purposes, then a power analysis should be conducted to estimate the probability of being able to detect a trend given the potential variability in the data and the given monitoring design (same can be said for methods based on mark-recapture, etc.). Using the encounter rate derived from the pilot study, calculate how many kilometres of transect you would need to estimate density of nest groups (use the formula found in Chapter 7, section 7.2.2.1. of Buckland et al., 2001). Is the number of kilometres feasible considering the time and resources that you have available? e. Yes: design a transect-based survey using a combination of ArcView or ArcGIS and the DISTANCE program, and implement it using trained teams in the ﬁ eld; use the results to estimate the population of apes in the area surveyed. f. No: go to Question 4.

Question 4. You cannot calculate density without enormous cost. Therefore you cannot estimate numbers of animals using transect methods. Would you be able to use genetic methods? g. Yes: if you have access to trained staff and a partner laboratory to process the information, consider designing a survey using genetic markers and implement it. (NB: A pilot study is advised – this may or may not be more costly than transect methods). h. No: consider index methods (go to Question 5).

II. Either you cannot estimate how many animals are present in the population and/or you do not need to know at this point. However you can calculate area of occupancy (distribution maps) and relative abundance.

Question 5. Are there sufﬁ cient resources to cover the whole area using recce walks?

i. Yes: create a recce sampling design using a combination of ArcView or ArcGIS and the DISTANCE program and implement it using trained teams in the ﬁ eld. Results will provide a distribution map and relative abundance over the area. j. No: consider interview-only surveys.

260 Chapter Eight: The Monitoring of Natural Resources to Support Conservation Programmes

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262 Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned from Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin: Lessons Learned Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) Landscape-Scale Conservation in the Congo Basin Lessons Learned from the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) Edited by David Yanggen, Kenneth Angu and Nicodème Tchamou

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