Appendix 1 The Uses of South Australian Data on Causes of Death

I chose to analyse South Australian voyages because the manuscript summary reports of the surgeon superintendents (about whom much more in Chapters 4 and 5) were kept together and conserved by the Public Record Office of South Australia, now State Records (SA). These reports are a summary of the medical jour­ nals (sometimes called medical logs) mandatorily kept on government-assisted voyages, only a few of which survive at the National Archives, Kew (formerly the Public Record Office) and on microfilm. 1 The manuscript summary reports held in South Australia, detail the name, age, cause of death and date of death of emi­ grants, and, in many cases, the date of birth and name of mothers of infants born on board, and the date of death of newborn infants who died. The reports also contain a summary analysis of the emigrants' hygiene, cleanliness, and behaviour, and detail the efficiency of, and the sums paid to, the personnel on board. Comments about the efficiency of apparatus on board, such as the water distillers, ovens, and ventilators, are also included, as are comments on particular events during the passage. Unfortunately, only a handful of these summary reports for voyages to other Australian colonies survive in the public record offices of their respective states - too few for systematic analysis. Hence the existence of the summary reports in South Australia represent a unique documentary source, particularly in relation to death causation.2 As for the dates: although there are surgeons' reports for South Australian ships before 1848, the surviving data are not robust enough for inclusion, and 1885 was the final year of assisted immigration into South Australia for the nineteenth century. It is probable that the long incumbency (1849-1878) of an efficient and zealous Immigration Agent and health officer at Port Adelaide, Dr Handasyde Duncan, had much to do with the survival of this and other manuscript sources that has proven so important to this study. He, like the Immigration Agents in the other colonies who published annual reports in their respective Parliamentary Papers (PP), produced regular reports, with tables and appendices, in SAPP. As well, he published quarterly reports in the South Australian Government Gazette (SAGG), and in 1866 he prepared a retrospective analYSis of maritime deaths between 1849 and 1865, also published in the SAGG.3 In short, we have a wealth of data on ships arriving in South Australia between 1848 and 1885, as well as passenger lists for verification and com­ parison. Readers interested in the raw information, presented in easily accessi­ ble, illustrated, and readable form, can consult my CD-ROM, Bound for South Australia: Births and deaths on government-assisted immigrant ships 1848-1885. There, as well as contemporary illustrations and documents, textual informa­ tion for each ship includes the name of its surgeon, births on board, and the name, age, date, and cause of death on each of the 323 ships arriving at Port Adelaide in that period.

180 Appendix 1 181

As for the question of whether South Australia bound ships are representative of those heading for the other two major immigrant colonies, Victoria and New South Wales (including Queensland before 1860), we can look at aggregate tables published in each of the major colonies' PP. From these tables we can establish that the experience and outcomes were common to all colonies. Ships carrying government-assisted emigrants were chartered by the same Colonial Office agency (the Colonial Land and Emigration Commission, or CLEC), were scrutinised by the same personnel before departure, and carried similarly qualified practitioners some of whom travelled on ships to all destinations for decades.4 Another excellent source confirms the uniform experience of vessels bound for each Australian colony. This is a three-volume register of immigrant deaths, compiled by clerks in the Emigration Commission's office in London, following receipt of the surgeon superintendents' official medical journals (or logs), dis­ cussed below. The surgeons' medical journals were compiled on the voyage, and audited by colonial officials on arrival. They were then forwarded to London for inspection and auditing by the Emigration Commission. Often the journals were sent on to the Physician General of the Admiralty, Sir William Burnett, for scrutiny after the details of deaths on each ship were entered in the formal Emigration Commission registers of births and deaths. It was also from these journals that earlier surgeons compiled their summary reports of the voyage at the completion of the passage as emigrants disembarked. Colonial immigration departments filed these summary reports with their own records, although South Australian authorities appear to be the only ones to preserve and archive them systematically. S The three-volume register of births and deaths on immigrant ships, compiled by Emigration Commission clerks in London from the returned surgeons' jour­ nals, is an extraordinarily rich source. The first register covers the years 1848-54, the second 1855-60, and the third 1861-69.6 The registers include all govern­ ment-assisted emigrant voyages to each Australian colony, New Zealand, Cape Colony, and Natal. However, like the other sources, these registers should be used with caution. My comparison with manuscript South Australian reports and passenger lists show that there is some confusion over surnames and Christian names, ages, and causes of death. For some years, particularly before 1850, the deaths of babies born on board were only given in summary numerals (such as 4 born, 3 died). Other details regarding the ships are, however, given in these registers, and they can be checked against passenger lists. I have used an amalgam of the sources described above, as well as published tables in the various colonies' PP and the tabular appendices to the annual reports of the Emigration Commissioners published in BPP, to fill in gaps in the surgeons' reports, and for verification purposes. 7 Surviving reports offer us a unique glimpse into life on board from the perspective of the surgeon superin­ tendents who were hired to reduce mortality and to improve the health and well being of families travelling the longest transoceanic route.8 They explain why ships carrying government-assisted emigrants to Australia achieved a far lower mortality record than ships sailing the far shorter Atlantic croSSing from the United Kingdom to America in the nineteenth century. I have investigated this theme in rather more technical terms, in several articles with my colleague Ralph Shlomowitz.9 Appendix 2 Individual Causes of Death as Reported by Surgeons on Voyages to South Australia 1848-1885*

Cause No. of deaths

Non-infectious diseases# 1. Accidental death accident (in consequence of sloughing from severe cold) 1 accident (drowned) 7 accident (overlaid by mother in a gale of wind) 1 accident (scald of the arm) 1 accident (scald) 3 accident (suffocation) 4 accident (suffocation, supposed to be overlaid) 1 exposure (cold) 3 found dead 4 found dead in bed after very rough night 1 fractured cranium 1 fright 1 sudden death 3 suicide by drowning 2 sunstroke 2 supposed to have taken laudanum 1 36 2 Kidney, liver, bowel, abdominal disease albuminuria 2 blood poisonous from constipation 1 bowel inflammation 5 Bright's disease, chronic, and dropsy 1 chronic hepatitis 1 diabetes 1 dropsy (anasarca) 6 gangrene 2 gastritis and cerebritis 1 hernia 1 hernia operation (infection) 1 intestinal obstruction 1 jaundice 1

182 Appendix 2 183

Cause No. of deaths

kidney inflammation 1 liver disease and chronic dysentery 1 liver, enlarged, and dropsy 1 mesenteric disease 28 mesenteric disease (bowels, supposed) 1 mesenteric inflammation 2 organic disease (over length of voyage) 1 peritonitis 4 stone in bladder 1 ulcer in pyloric end of stomach, perforation, peritonitis 1 ulceration of intestines 1 worms 6 worm fever 2 74 3 Heart disease, cancer, natural causes, joints and limbs abscess, tooth 1 asthenia and heart disease 1 cancer in the breast 1 heart disease 5 heart disease (congestion from enfeebled circulation) 1 heart disease (morbus cordis) 3 heart disease and kidney disease 1 heart disease, oppression 1 inflammation of cellular structure of arm and foot 1 knee diseased 1 mitral disease 1 morbus caeruleus 1 natural causes 1 pericarditis 1 rheumatic fever 1 rheumatism (acute) with pericarditis 1 rheumatism, acute 1 spina bifida 1 24 4 Brain/cerebral disease brain (congestion) 8 brain disease 2 brain effusion 3 brain inflammation 4 cerebral disease 1 cerebral exhaustion 1 cerebral haemorrhage (apoplexy) 3 cerebral tumour 1 chorea 1 coma 2 184 Appendix 2

Cause No. of deaths

convulsions 65 convulsions (ill developed twins and could not take food) 2 convulsions and hydrocephalus 2 convulsions and inanition 1 delirium tremens 1 encephalitis 1 epileptic fits 2 epistaxis (nose bleed) 1 exhaustion (and hydrocephalus) 1 heat apoplexy (stroke) 1 hydrocephalus 21 hydrocephalus (water on the brain) 3 hydrocephalus and convulsions 1 hydrocephalus and sunstroke 1 meningitis (brain fever) 1 130 5 Wasting and deficiency diseases abscesses and debility 1 anaemia 1 aphthae 9 aphthae and asthenia 1 aphthae and debility 1 asthenia 6 atrophy 17 atrophy and malnutrition 2 cachexia 1 debility 46 debility (consequent on an attack of phrenitis) 1 debility from chronic disease 1 emaciation (took no food) 2 exhaustion 2 exhaustion (nervous) 1 exhaustion following chronic disease 1 exhaustion from vomiting 1 exhaustion with prostration 1 inanition 6 loss of mother 1 malassimilation of food 1 malnutrition 2 malnutrition (general wasting) 1 malnutrition (want of proper nourishment) 1 marasmus 58 marasmus (born on voyage) 2 marasmus, worms 1 melancholy, acute 1 neglect 1 Appendix 2 185

Cause No. of deaths

old age 1 rickets 1 seasickness 2 stomatitis 1 stomatitis, general wasting 1 thrush and debility 2 want of breast milk and thrush 1 179 6 Maternal mortality abortion and debility 1 childbirth (bowel inflammation after confinement) 1 childbirth (haemorrhage caused by placenta praevia) 1 miscarriage 1 miscarriage and haemorrhage 1 post natal 1 premature labour and exhaustion from seasickness 1 puerperal haemorrhage 1 seasickness (severe) in pregnancy and dementia and exhaustion 1 9 7 Premature and stillborn infants debility - a 7 month foetus 2 marasmus (prematurely born) 1 premature birth 31 premature birth (debility) 5 premature birth (twin) 4 stillborn 12 stillborn (immature foetus 6 months) 2 57 8 Perinatal death debility from birth 7 atrophy soon after birth, twins 2 14 hours after birth 2 gradual decay because the child never sucked 1 umbilical inflammation and mortification 1 13 9 Unknown/unclassifiable no cause given 153 unclassifiable 6 159 Infectious diseases 10 Diarrhoea related deaths cerebritis, the ultimate result of teething 1 convulsions and diarrhoea 3 186 Appendix 2

Cause No. of deaths

convulsions from dentition 6 debility and diarrhoea 1 dentition 18 dentition and diarrhoea and exhaustion 2 dentition and diarrhoea 12 dentition and fits 2 dentition and pulmonary effusion (12 hrs) and suffocation 1 dentition and worms 2 diarrhoea 220 diarrhoea (bilious) 1 diarrhoea (chronic) and exhaustion 2 diarrhoea (infantile) 2 diarrhoea (twin) 2 diarrhoea and convulsions 2 diarrhoea and debility 4 diarrhoea and dentition 2 diarrhoea and eczema infantile 1 diarrhoea and exhaustion 11 diarrhoea and exhaustion and convulsions 1 diarrhoea and exhaustion and general wasting 1 diarrhoea and fever 3 diarrhoea and intestinal worms 1 diarrhoea and large round worms 1 diarrhoea and meningitis 2 diarrhoea and neglect of parent 1 diarrhoea and scurvy 2 diarrhoea and vomiting 1 diarrhoea following thrush 1 diarrhoea from dentition 4 diarrhoea with symptoms of hydrocephalus 1 enteritis 8 exhaustion (consequent on disordered bowels from dentition) 1 exhaustion and diarrhoea 1 exhaustion following diarrhoea 1 gastric fever 2 gastro enteritis 3 inanition and diarrhoea 3 marasmus (?), diarrhoea 1 stomatitis and diarrhoea 2 stomatitis, dentition 1 thrush and diarrhoea 1 338 11 Fevers: water/lice borne cholera maligna 49 cholera maligna and miscarriage 1 cholera, Asiatic dysentery 1 dysentery 57 Appendix 2 187

Cause No. of deaths

dysentery and enteritis and phthisis 1 dysentery and general debility 1 fever, continuous 1 seasickness and typhus fever 1 typhoid fever 16 typhus fever 11 139 12 Fevers: low, inflammatory or unidentified debility after fever 1 exhaustion following fever 1 ? fever 2 fever 65 fever (inflammatory) 1 fever (low and retention of urine) 1 fever (low) 1 fever (low, continued, synocha) 3 malignant fever 1 76 13 Measles and measles-related deaths brain effusion and dentition with measles 1 convulsions following measles 7 convulsions from measles (rubeola) 1 debility after bronchitis and measles 1 diarrhoea after measles 15 fever following measles 3 gangrene following measles 1 lung inflammation and measles 2 marasmus after measles 2 measles 65 measles (malignant) 1 measles (sequel of) 3 measles and croup 1 measles and abscesses 2 measles and debility 1 measles and diarrhoea 5 measles and dropsy 1 measles and dysentery 5 measles and pneumonia 2 measles and pneumonia followed by atrophy 1 measles and whooping cough 2 measles, whooping cough and mesenterica 3 pneumonia and measles 2 rubeola (measles) 4 scarlatina after measles 2 tabes mesenterica following measles 3 136 188 Appendix 2

Cause No. of deaths

14 Respiratory diseases (excluding pulmonary tuberculosis) asthenia and diphtheric ulceration 1 bronchitis 40 bronchitis (capillary) 2 bronchitis (died on hospital ship) 1 bronchitis (senile) 1 bronchitis and convulsions 2 bronchitis and effusion of lungs 1 bronchitis and hydrocephalus 1 bronchitis and whooping cough 2 bronchitis following measles 17 bronchitis from congestion of lungs and diarrhoea 1 broncho-pneumonia 2 catarrh 1 chest inflammation 1 croup 24 dentition and pneumonia 3 diarrhoea and bronchitis 8 diphtheria 3 diphtheric inflammation of throat (tracheotomy performed) 1 diphtheric ulceration 6 exhaustion and diphtheric ulceration 1 exhaustion from bronchitis 1 fever and pneumonia 1 hydrothorax 1 laryngitis 7 lung (congestion) 4 lung, congestion (oedema) 1 lung, effusion and bronchitis 1 lung, inflammation 13 lung, inflammation following dentition 1 mesenteric disease and bronchitis 2 pleurisy 3 pleuro pneumonia 1 pneumonia 38 pneumonia (a condition greatly impaired by drunkenness) 1 pneumonia and consumption 1 pneumonia and convulsions 2 pneumonia and debility 1 pneumonia and inflammation of lungs 1 pneumonia and intestinal obstruction 1 pneumonia, hepatitis 1 quinsy 2 quinsy and pneumonia 1 suffocation, catarrh 1 tabes, bronchitis and convulsions 1 throat inflammation 1 thrush and pneumonia 1 Appendix 2 189

Cause No. of deaths

tracheitis 2 ulcerated throat 2 212 15 Whooping cough marasmus and pertussis 1 whooping cough 40 whooping cough and bronchitis 1 whooping cough and convulsions 2 whooping cough and diarrhoea 6 whooping cough and exhaustion 1 whooping cough, pneumonia, convulsions 1 52 16 Tuberculosis-related causes consumption 16 consumption (pulmonary) 2 haemoptysis (spitting of blood) 1 meningitis (tubercular) 6 phthisis 26 phthisis (acute) 1 phthisis and diarrhoea 3 phthisis pulmonalis 4 scrofula 4 scrofula, abscess 1 tabes mesenterica 33 97 17 Fevers: infantile (including remittent fever and cholera) fever (infantile remittent and cholera and worms) 1 fever (infantile remittent and cholera) 2 fever (infantile remittent) 12 fever (infantile) 3 18 18 Chickenpox and smallpox chickenpox 1 smallpox (confluent) and variola 2 3 19 Scarlatina and scarlet fever convulsions and dropsy following scarlatina 1 scarlatina (including cyanche maligna) 51 scarlatina (congestive) 1 scarlatina (maligna) 9 62

20 Skin infections erysipelas 2 erysipelas (phlegmonous) 1 "3 190 Appendix 2

Cause No. of deaths

21 Maternal deaths (relating to infections) childbirth (diarrhoea succeeding to premature labour) 1 debility after confinement 1 diarrhoea and debility 6 days after confinement 1 dysentery and parturition 1 miscarriage and fever 1 premature confinement, diarrhoea 1 premature labour (haemorrhage and diarrhoea) 1 puerperal convulsions 2 puerperal fever 2 11 22 Sexually transmitted causes syphilis, 4 hours after birth 1 1 Total 1,829

* The causes are as reported by surgeons. # The inclusion of some causes of death, including those under convulsions, in the non­ infectious groupings is open to objection, as discussed in Chapter 3. I have included as 'non-infectious' those deaths where no infectious cause is mentioned. However, as dis­ cussed in the text, an unknown proportion of convulsive deaths among infants, and those deaths attributed to marasmus, inanition, etc. may well have occurred following an infec­ tious illness such as diarrhoea, measles, scarlet fever, or other causes not mentioned by the surgeon (see, for example, the causes under group 13). Hence, it could well be argued that a proportion of these deaths could well appear under group 10, 'diarrhoea-related deaths'. Given the potential for incorrect diagnosis, and problems related to analysing the data, other causes may well be reassigned for similar reason; the differentiation between the 'infectious' and 'non-infectious' headings are offered as a guide only. Similarly, the differ­ entiation between infectious and non-infectious maternal deaths is based upon available information; the purpose is to attempt to differentiate between deaths caused during, or as a result of, birth, and pre-existing causes. Source: Surgeons' reports, SRSA, GRG 35/48. Notes

Chapter 1 'It would be very satisfactory to land them all in good health': Emigrants and their superintendents at sea

1 William Usherwood's journal on board the Beejapore from Liverpool to Sydney, 12 October 1852 to 5 January 1853, Mitchell Library, B784 (CY Reel 1117). H.G. Alleyne, the Health Officer, in Sydney, reported that there were 1,023 souls on board inclusive of crew. See 'Report from the Health Officer of Port Jackson for the Year 1853, 1 June 1854', NSWPP, 1854, vol. 2, 3. 2 H.H. Browne's evidence, 26 July 1854, before the SC on Immigration, NSWPP, 1854, vol. 2, 3. 3 Cited in Foley, In Quarantine, 56. See also, 155, where the period in quaran­ tine is reported as 34. 4 Foley, In Quarantine, 55-57. 5 'Report from the Health Officer of Port Jackson', 1 June 1854, NSWPP, 1854, vol. 2, 3. 6 R. Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail: the passage to Australia, UNSW Press, Sydney, 70-1, passim. 7 For comparative voyage loss rates (NSW, Vic, SA, Queensland, according to contemporary official published data), see Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, Tables 1 and 2, 29-30. 8 R. Haines and R. Shlomowitz, 'Explaining the modern mortality decline: What can we learn from sea voyages?', Social History of Medicine, April 1998, 15-48. 9 The other half of the nearly l.5 million immigrants from the UK who arrived between 1831 and 1900, also benefited from the reforms on assisted immigrant ships. Most ship owners voluntarily adopted the Emigration Commission's mandated routines and instructions to sur­ geons. However, we have very little systematic evidence on those ships carrying unassisted immigrants in steerage in the nineteenth century, although letters and diaries written on board suggest that the procedures, regime, and experience were little different. 10 For Redfern's report, see Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, vol. viii, 274-327. For death rates, see J. McDonald and R. Shlomowitz, 'Mortality on convict voyages to Australia, 1788-1868', Social Science History, 13:3, 285-313; idem, 'Mortality on immigrant voyages to Australia in the 19th century', Explorations in Economic History, 27, 1990, Table 6, 96. These and other articles on maritime mortality can be found in Shlomowitz, Mortality and Migration in the Modern World, Variorum, London, 1996. 11 Flora Tristan, Peregrinations of a Pariah (trans., ed., Jean Hawkes), Virago, 1986, first pub. 1838. 12 Journal of Dr W.D.P. Swain, surgeon on the King William from Plymouth to Adelaide, 1851, Mitchell Library, B 1654 (CY 1388). 191 192 Notes to pages 14-19

13 Voyage diary of James Cooper Stewart, 27 September 1857, La Trobe Collection, MS 12507, Box 3395/l. 14 See labourers' diets in Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, 220. 15 Although about half of all immigrants from the UK were assisted, the data are skewed by the huge influx of unassisted immigrants to Victoria. By breaking up the colonies, we can see that assisted immigrants represented three-quarters of arrivals from the UK in NSW; 23 per cent in Victoria; 88 per cent in Queensland; 66 per cent in SA; 55 per cent in Tasmania; about three-quarters in W A. See Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, Appendix3.1,266.

Chapter 2 'May it be the last of our sorrows': Disease and death at sea

1 On emigrant ships wrecked at sea or at landfall, see Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, 39-40. 2 M. Cannon, Perilous Voyages to the New Land, Loch Haven Books, Mornington, 1996; R. Scally, 'Liverpool and Irish emigrants in the age of sail', Journal of Social History, XVII, 1983, 5-30; T. Coleman, Passage to America: A History of Emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland to America in the Mid-Nineteenth Century, London, 1972; D. Hollett, Passage to the New World: Packet ships and Irish famine emigrants 1845-1851, P.M. Heaton Publishing, Abergavenny, 1995; A. Lemon and M. Morgan, Poor Souls, They Perished: The Cataraqui - Australia's Worst Shipwreck, Melbourne, 1986. 3 See references to Mark Staniforth cited in the bibliography. 4 Ellen Moger to her parents, 28 January 1840, MLSA D6129(L). Her perspec­ tive on the voyage, in her own words, can be found in Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail. 5 J. McDonald and R. Shlomowitz, 'Mortality on Immigrant Voyages to Australia in the 19th Century', Explorations in Economic History, 27, 1990, tables 1 and 2, 89-91 (reproduced in Shlomowitz, Mortality and Migration in the Modem World. See also M. Staniforth, 'Dangerous Voyages?', unpub. MA thesis, University of Sydney, 1993, for an account of some high mortality voyages in the late 1830s. 6 Sarah Brunskill to her parents, 12 December 1838, 10 January 1839, MLSA, D5203(L). See also Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, for Sarah Brunskill's account of the voyage. 7 Emigration Commissioners to H. Merivale, 11 February 1853, Ene. in no. IS, in despatches from Newcastle to Latrobe, 1 April 1853, in 'Correspondence relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1852-53 (1627) vol. LXVIII, 189. For one memorial signed by 92 signatories, demanding that ships be sent to Port Fairy and Portland Bay to avoid the loss of the wool clip see (92 signatures) to Earl Grey, Ene. in no. 3, in despatches from Latrobe to Sir John Pakington, 31 December 1852, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 74. 8 Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, Chapter 8. 9 The shipping shortage was partly related to the boost given to private pas­ senger shipping by the Victorian gold rush. The goldfields also drew male Notes to pages 19-26 193

labour from Australia's farms and sheep runs, precipitating an extreme shortage about which colonial authorities and their British investors were panicking. 10 Emigration Commissioners to H. Merivale, 11 February 1853, in despatches from Newcastle to Latrobe, 1 April 1853, in 'Correspondence relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1852-53 (1627) vol. LXVIII, 188. 11 See evidence ofT.W.e. Murdoch to SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163), vol. XIII, 31 passim. 12 For the immigration agents' reports, correspondence with the CLEC, and enclosures, see despatches relating to emigration to New South Wales and Victoria, BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVIi Emigration Commissioners report to H. Merivale, 11 February 1853, Enc. in no. 15, despatches from Newcastle to Lt. Governor Latrobe, 1 April 1853, in 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP, 1852~53 (1627), 185-90, passim. 13 McDonald and Shlomowitz, in 'Mortality on immigrant voyages' (Table 7, 102-103), found that for infants and children, but not for adults, on ships to all Australian colonies, 'the tonnage of the vessel, the length of the voyage, and crowding are significant variables' correlated with mortality. 14 Annual Report of Victorian Immigration Agent Edward Grimes, 9 June 1853, AppendiX no. 4, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 164. 15 Report of Immigration Board, Geelong, 22 September 1852, in 'Papers rela" tive to emigration to the Australian colonies, Enc. 4 in no. 22, in despatches from La Trobe to Pakington, 21 October 1852, BPP 1852-53 (1627), 169-171. 16 Report of Immigration Board, Geelong, 22 September 1852, ibid. 17 CLEC to Merivale, 11 February 1853, Enc. in no. 15, 'Papers relative to emi­ gration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1852-3 (1627) vol. LXVIII, 190. 18 On contemporary connections between ships and slum dwelling, and for a discussion of reforming sanitary campaigners from the late 18th to late 19th centuries, see Haines and Shlomowitz, 'Explaining the modern mortality decline', 16-17,46-47, passim. 19 CLEC to Merivale, 11 February 1853, enclosure in no. 15, Latrobe to Newcastle, in 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP, 1852-1853 (1627), LXVIII, 188. 20 T.W.C. Murdoch's evidence to the SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163) voL XIII, 35-36. 21 Immigration Agent's Report, SAGG, 20 October, 1853, 690. 22 CLEC to Merivale, 11 February 1853, enclosure in no. 15, Latrobe to Newcastle, in 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1852-53 (1627), vol. LXVIII, 188. 23 Report of the CLEC, 10 October 1853, enclosure in no. 15, in despatches from Newcastle to Latrobe, 2 January 1854, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI. 24 For an analysis of tonnage and its impact on mortality see McDonald and Shlomowitz, 'Mortality on Immigrant Voyages to Australia in the 19th century', 94-95. 25 Haines, "'Little Anne is very low"', Table 21. 194 Notes to pages 27-31

26 T.W.C. Murdoch and Frederic Rogers to H. Merivale, Enc. 1 in no. 6, 23 August 1853, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436.1) vol. XLVI, 33. 27 Immigration Agent's quarterly report, 4 April 1853, in Ene. in no. 5, 'Papers relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436.1) vol. XLVI,S. The usual surgeon's summary report is not with the ship's papers in SRSA, and the list of gratuities fails to include his. Thus, at this point, we have no information on Dr Allison's experience, or the sum he ought to have received. 28 Enclosure 1 in no. 7, Despatch from Lt. Gov. La Trobe to the Right Hon. Sir John Pakington, 26 January 1853; Sub-Appendix no. 1 to Annual Report of Edward Grimes, Immigration Agent for Victoria, 9 June 1853; Appendix no. 4, Victoria: Immigration, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP, 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 79, 172. 29 The numbers who died were: on board, 14 married women and 22 married men; three single women and seven single men; 15 males, and 24 females aged one to 14, 5 male and 10 female infants. In quarantine were: 14 married men and nine married women; six single males and six single females, 7 males and 17 females aged 1 to 14 years, and 4 male and 4 female infants. See enclosure I, in no. 7, Latrobe to Pakington, 26 January 1853, in despatches from Lt. Gov. Latrobe, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 79. 30 T.W.C. Murdoch and C. Wood to H. Merivale, 29 June 1853, Enc. in no. 5, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 52. 31 Immigration Agent, G.V. Butler's Report for the quarter ended 30 September 1851, 11 October 1851, Enc. in no. 11, despatches of Governor H.E.F. Young to Earl Grey, in 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies: South Australia', BPP 1852-53 [14891, vol. XXXIV, 89. 32 Surgeon's report of the Atalanta, 26 April 1866, SRSA, GRG 35/48/66. For an account of this voyage from the perspective of an immigrant, see Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, 245-61 33 Latrobe to Pakington, 26 January 1853, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 78. 34 Latrobe to Pakington, 26 January 1853, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 78. 35 Murdoch and Wood to Merivale, 29 June 1853, Enc. in no. 5, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies: NSW', BPP, 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 52. 36 Extract from Report of the Immigration Board at Melbourne, upon the ship 'Ticonderoga', Melbourne, 25 January 1853, Sub-enclosure in no. 5, Newcastle to Fitzroy, 9 July 1853, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies: NSW despatches', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 52. 37 Annual report of the Immigration Agent for Victoria, Edward Bell, 12 August 1854, Ene. in no. I, Hotham to Grey, in despatches from Governor Sir Charles Hotham, Victoria, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1857 (144) vol. X, Sess. 2, 38. 38 Murdoch and Rogers to Merivale, 24 January 1856, ene. in despatches from H. Labouchere to Gov. Sir Charles Hotham, 29 January 1856, in Notes to pages 31-37 195

'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1857 (144) vol. X, Sess. 1,86. 39 Murdoch and Rogers to Merivale, 28 March 1856, Enc. in no. 14, in despatches from H. Labouchere to Governor Sir Charles Hotham, 29 January 1856, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1857 (144) vol. X, Sess I, 88. 40 Report by H.H. Browne (no. 54/302) Enc. in no. 5, in despatches from Governor Fitzroy to Sir George Grey, 26 November 1854, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1857 (144) vol. X, Sess 1,7-8. 41 Murdoch and Wood to Merivale, 29 June 1853, Ene. in no. 5, in despatches from Newcastle to Governor-General Fitzroy, 9 July 1853, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 53. 42 Other islands in other bays were used at various times including Woody Island in Hervey Bay, and Peel Island. 43 Health Officer's report on the Erin-go-Bragh, Queensland State Archives, COL/A31; 62/1944. I would like to thank Mr Kevin Wood for sending me a copy of this report. See also J .H.L. Cumpston and F. McCallum, The History of the Intestinal Infections (and Typhus Fever) in Australia 1788-1923, Commonwealth of Australia, Melbourne, 1927, 334. This superb text offers concise accounts of quarantine for typhus and typhoid for all colonies. 44 Cumpston and McCallum, The History ofIntestinal Infections, 336. 45 Cited in Cumpston and McCallum, The History ofIntestinal Infections, 336.

Chapter 3 'The obstinately dirty character of the people': Origins, children, and epidemics at sea

1 J.B. Standish Haly, Secretary of the Edinburgh Committee of the Highland and Island Emigration Committee, to Sir Charles Trevelyan, 13 July 1852, in Emigration from the Highlands and Islands, Trelawney Saunders, London, 1852. 2 'Return showing the names of ships chartered for the conveyance of im­ migrants ... births and deaths on board', sub-enclosure no. 1 in Appendix no. 1 to Annual Report of Edward Grimes, Immigration Agent for Victoria, 9 June 1853; Appendix no. 4, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP, 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 79, 172. See also Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, 236, 244-7. 3 Haines, "'Little Anne is very low"', tables 3, 4. 4 T.W.C. Murdoch and C. Alexander Wood to Earl Grey, 12 June 1850, Enc. in no. 7, 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1851 (347.II) vol. XL, 98. 5 T. Lipson (Harbour Master), c.P. Brewer (Immigration Agent), H. Duncan (Health Officer), to Colonial Secretary, 14 November 1849, Enc. in no. 5, H.E.F. Young to Earl Grey, 19 November 1849, in 'Papers relative to emigra­ tion to the Australian colonies', BPP 1851 (347.II), vol. XL, 9. See other letters and reports in this series. The emigrants were from the Shirley estates in Monaghan. 196 Notes to pages 37-46

6 Evidence of T.W.C. Murdoch to SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163), vol. XIII, Q 394-396, 25. 7 Evidence of T.W.C. Murdoch to SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163), vol. XIII, Q 394~396, 25. 8 J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, Cambridge, 1993, 237-8. 9 A. Hardy, 'Rickets and rest: child-care, diet and the infectious children's diseases', 1850-1914', Social History ofMedicine, 5:3, 1992,389-92; 395-396. 10 P. Mein Smith, Mothers and King Baby, Macmillan, London, 1997,39, also argues for a debilitating cycle of infection in Australia due to the synergism between respiratory illness and diarrhoea. 11 R. Haines and R. Shlomowitz, 'Causes of death of British emigrants on voyages to South Australia, 1848-1885', Social History of Medicine, 16:2, August 2003,193-208. 12 Hardy, 'Rickets and rest'. 13 The terms 'Scarlatina' and 'scarlet fever' were used interchangeably but since there was a general perception, contemporaneously, that scarlatina was a milder form of the disease, it may be the case that some maritime sur­ geons used the term 'scarlatina' to denote what they thought was a milder form, or that some preferred to use one term over the other. See also A. Hardy, The Epidemic Streets, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1993, 70. 14 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, 23 April 1853, Ene. in no. 6, 'Papers relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP, 1854 (436.1) vol. XLVI, 7. 15 For one of many examples, see the Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, for comments on the Hooghley, which left Plymouth in January 1855, in Ene. in no. 12, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP, 1857 (144), vol. X, Sess I, 112. 16 R. Haines and R. Shlomowitz, 'Causes of death and their time-patterning over voyages carrying British emigrants to South Australia, 1848-1885', Social History of Medicine, 16:2, 2003, 193-208. 17 Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail. 18 R. Haines, 'Therapeutic emigration: some South Australian experiences', Journal of Australian Studies, 33, June 1992, 76-90. 19 J.D. Pringle, Have Pen Will Travel, London, 1973. 20 F.B. Smith, The People's Health 1830-1910, Croom Helm, London, 1979, 106, 136, 143, 156, 245, for discussions on mortality rates for whooping cough, scarlet fever, measles, smallpox, and typhoid fever. See also R. Woods and N. Shelton, An Atlas of Victorian Mortality, Liverpool University Press, 1997. 21 For one such case see the story of Mary Watson, in Haines, Life and Death in the Age ofSail, chapter 3. See also F.B. Smith, The Retreat of Tuberculosis, 1850-1950, London, 1988, for a comprehenSive analysis of the ravages, treatments, atti­ tudes to, and decline of tuberculosis in the nineteenth and twentieth century, and L. Bryder, Below the Magic Mountain: A social history of tuberculosis in Britain, Oxford University Press, 1988; Haines, 'Therapeutic emigration'. 22 R. Millward and F. Bell, 'Infant mortality in Victorian Britain: the mother as medium', Economic History Review, LIV:4, November 2001, 70S. 23 W.H. Archer, Nosological Index or Guide to the classiftcation and tabulation of the various causes of death; compiled principally for the use of the Registrar- Notes to pages 46-53 197

General's Department; with Instructions to Deputy Registrars by the Registrar­ General of Victoria, 1862-3 (ed. Marjorie Morgan, 1987). 24 On government-assisted ships travelling to SA between 1848 and 1885, there were 24 deaths involving croup or quinsy. See Appendix 2. 25 K.F. Kiple (ed.), The Cambridge World History of Human Disease, Cambridge University Press, 1993, 682. 26 F.B. Smith, 'Comprehending Diphtheria', Health and History, 1:2&3, 1999, 139-40; Hardy, The Epidemic Streets, 296; Kiple (ed.), The Cambridge World History ofHuman Disease, 680-83. 27 ]. Sundin, 'Child mortality and causes of death in a Swedish city, 1750-1860', Historical Methods, 29:3, Summer 1996, 93. 28 Smith, 'Comprehending Diphtheria', 1999, 139-40. 29 'Register of births and deaths on emigrant ships', 1848-1869, PRO, Kew, 386/170, PRO Microfilm 6887. 30 Surgeon's report on the Lochee, SRSA, GRG 35/48. 31 See Smith, 'Comprehending Diphtheria', 143-4, for an account of Melbourne's case fatality rates. 32 Personal communication with Professor F.B. Smith, Australian National University. 33 See surgeon's report and ship's papers for the Queen of Nations, SRSA GRG 35/48/77. Surgeon superintendent Frederick Henry Kynsdon was fined £32.10.0 of his £132.10.0 gratuity, and the captain was fined £6.10.0 of his £26.10.0 gratuity with no explanation other than 'disregarding instruc­ tions'. It is possible that emigrants complained about the rations. Returns were tabled occasionally in the CLEC annual reports on the conduct of surgeons superintending voyages to all colonies, including a column for the Immigration Agents' remarks. 34 Hardy, 'Rickets and rest', 395. 35 Hardy, 'Rickets and rest', 395. 36 Haines, "'Little Anne is very low''', Tables 7 and 8. 37 N. Williams, in 'The reporting and classification of causes of death in mid-nineteenth century England', Historical Methods, Spring 1996, 29:2, 63, points to the vague terminology encountered in infant death certification. 38 Numerically, diarrhoea and convulsions were the most important causes of infant death on land, but as Williams argues, in 'The reporting and class­ ification', 65, as symptoms, they 'often accompanied the final stages of many fatal diseases of infancy and childhood'. 39 See Smith, The People's Health, 86-100, on the under-reporting of diarrhoeal deaths on land, due to the exclusion of deaths from atrophy and debility. 40 G.F. Alter and A.G. Carmichael, 'Classifying the dead: towards a history of the registration of causes of death', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 54:2, April 1999, 13l. 41 Mein Smith, Mothers and King Baby, 43. 42 Mein Smith, Mothers and King Baby, 40-43. 43 Williams, 'The reporting and classification', 64-65, infra. See also Hardy, "'Death is the cure of all diseases''', 472, on death certification as an approx­ imation of the truth. 44 Williams, 'The reporting and classification', 60. 45 Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, 75-77. 198 Notes to pages 54-58

Chapter 4 'A most efficient body of officers': Surgeon superintendents and their responsibilities

1 North American Passengers' Act of 11 Vict, Cap. 6, sections 11 and 12 (1849). See Despatches between Governor Fitzroy and Earl Grey, 27 April 1849, 12 October 1849, in 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', EPP 1850 [1163] vol. XL, 24, 124. See also evidence of T.W.C. Murdoch and Captain Schomberg to the First and Second Reports of the SC on Emigrant ships, Q 277-280, 3469-3472; index to surgeons, 226, in EPP 1854 (163) and (349), vol. XIII. For quote see Woolcock, Rights ofPassage, 115. 2 For a full account, see Haines and Shlomowitz, 'Explaining the modern mortality decline', 33, 43, esp. notes 53 and 87. See also, MacDonagh, A Pattern of Government Growth. 3 Board of Trade report on Emigrant Accommodation on board Atlantic steamships, EPP, 1881 [c.2995], vol. LXXXII, 18, 2l. 4 R. Haines and Ralph Shlomowitz, 'Explaining the decline in mortality in the eighteenth-century British slave trade, Economic History Review, LIII:2, 2000,262. 5 Cited in MacDonagh, A Pattern of Government Growth, 224. 6 MacDonagh, A Pattern of Government Growth, 235. See also Pickstone, 'Dearth, dirt and fever epidemics', on the effects of crises, like epidemics of fever, on sanitation and hygiene in the eighteenth century'. 7 For Redfern's report of 30 September 1814, see Historical Records of Australia, series I, vol. viii, 274-327. For analyses of convict mortality see John McDonald and Ralph Shlomowitz, 'Mortality on convict voyages to Australia, 1788-1868', Social Science History, 13, 1989,285-313, reproduced in Shlomowitz, Mortality and Migration, II. 8 On Dolben's Act and its aftermath, see O. MacDonagh, A Pattern of Government Growth 1800-60, MacGibbon Kee, London, 1961. 9 A brief sample of the most relevant and influential publications of these prolific pioneering maritime surgeons include J. Lind, An essay on the most effectual means of preserving the health of seamen in the Royal Navy, 1757, 3rd edn 1774; T. Trotter, Medicina Nautica: an essay on the diseases of seamen, 2 vols, 1797-9; G. Blane, Observations on the diseases of seamen, 3 edns, 1785-99; J. Veitch, A letter to the Commissioners for Transports and Sick and Wounded Seamen, 1818; S. De Monchy, An essay on the causes and cure of the usual diseases in voyages to the West Indies, 1762; J. Pringle, A discourse upon some late improvements of the means for preserving the health of mariners, deliv­ ered at the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society, 30 November 1776, in ]. Cook, A voyage towards the South Pole and round the world, 4th edn, 1784; A. Stewart, Medical disciplinei or rules, and regulations for the more effectual preservation of health on board the honourable East India Company's ships, 1798. 10 See, for example,]. Pringle, Observations on diseases in the army, 1752. 11 Surgeon Archibald Dalziel's evidence, in S. Lambert (ed.), House of Commons Sessional Papers of the eighteenth century, Wilmington, 1975, vol. 68, 33. 12 Jeremiah Fitzpatrick was a pioneering campaigner for health reforms on slave and convict ships, prisons, and other institutions. He developed Notes to pages 58-60 199

instructions to surgeons on convict ships in 1801, which were later reformed by William Redfern, confirming the constant revision of regula­ tions as new methods and ideas came to light. See Oliver MacDonagh, The Inspector General: Sir Jeremiah Fitzpatrick and the politics of social reform, 1783-1802,London, 1981,267-87. 13 See R. Haines and R. Shlomowitz, 'Explaining the Mortality Decline in the eighteenth-century British Slave Trade', Economic History Review, LIII:2, 2000,262-83. 14 See, for example, Lind's summary of the 'means of stopping the progress of contagious diseases when introduced on a ship', in An essay on the most effectual means, esp. 131-44. 15 See medical texts cited above, and C. Lloyd (ed.), The health of seamen, Navy Records Society, London, 1965,2-6; 132-135; 214-216. 16 Trotter inoculated volunteer seamen against smallpox in 1795. See Lloyd (ed.), The health of seamen, 215. Slaves may have been inoculated only after an outbreak of smallpox. See the testimony of William James, John Taylor, and Captain William Sherwood in Lambert (ed.), He Sessional Papers, vol. 69, 138; vol. 72, 200-1, 205. For experimentation with various citrus see T. Aubrey, The sea-surgeon, London, 1729, 64. 17 J. Veitch, MD (former President of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh; staff officer of the Navy; Principal Surgeon of the Royal Naval Hospital, Antigua), A letter to the commissioners, 64. 18 Quoted in S. Behrendt, "Crew mortality in the transatlantic slave trade in the eighteenth century', Slavery & Abolition, 18, 1997, 64. 19 Lambert (ed.), He Sessional Papers, vols 68-9, 71-3. 20 S. Behrendt, 'The British slave trade, 1785-1807' unpub. PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1993, 186. 21 Veitch, A letter to the commissioners, 64. See also xix-xxi, 54, 162. 22 Lind, An essay on the most effectual means, 86-96. See 104 on the benefits of a refrigeratory. 23 See J. Pringle, Observations on the diseases of the army, London, 1752, 133, for plans and drawings; idem, A discourse upon some late improvements, 391; Lind, in An essay on the most effectual means, 48, 331. Trotter doubted they were used in slave ships, in 'Minutes of Evidence on the Slave Trade', in Lambert (ed.), He Sessional Papers, vol. 73, 84, but A. Falconbridge, in An account of the slave trade on the coast of Africa, London, 1788,24, describes ventilators on slave ships and the consequences of their closure during storms. 24 Pringle emphasised that Cook's sanitation and hygiene regime was merely following good practice; W. Renwick, in An enquiry into the nature and causes, London, 1792,37-43; 49-52, criticised his predecessors and contem­ poraries; Solomon De Monchy (City Physician at Rotterdam) whose prize­ winning An essay on the causes and cure of the usual diseases in voyages to the West Indies (1762), appeared in translation, tested the hypotheses of his Dutch, French and British peers, recommended British designed ventilating eqUipment, and typically performed post mortems on board in an attempt to classify disease, 44, 69. 25 Lloyd (ed.), The health of seamen, 2. Aubrey, The sea-surgeon, used citrus as an anti-scorbutic on slavers before 1729. I.D.R. Bruijn, 'The health 200 Notes to pages 60-61

care organisation of the Dutch East India Company', Social History of Medicine, 7, 1994' (note 83), 380, traces successful experimentation on Dutch and British ships with citrus. See also Stewart and Guthrie (eds), Lind's treatise on scurvy, v, 249-351 for other texts written between 1534 and 1753. 26 Typically, Pringle, in Observations on the diseases of the army, iv-xii, passim demonstrates an extensive knowledge of the 'antient physicians' and debates with a number of contemporary authors, 114, passim, on the classification and nature of disease. John Clark, in Observations on the diseases in long voyages to hot countries, London, 1784,281, tests the work of McBride (on malt infusion for scurvy), and refers to knowledge of methods used by the Danish navy, 333; James Clark (MD, FRSE, Fellow of the College of Physicians, Edinburgh), in A treatise on the yellow fever as it appeared in Dominica in the years 1793-4-5-6, London, 1797, 20, 161, includes numerous references to other texts. Clark published a number of papers in the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries series; A. Elliot, in The seamen's medical advocate, London, 1789,236-41, argues with a number of published surgeons, esp. on the subject of slaves, crew, and yellow fever. Veitch, in A letter to the commissioners, xxvi, 4, 92,162-7, also quotes from letters and essays by doctors and, typically, was familiar with the work of Dr Rush, whose treatise on Philadelphia's epidemic of yellow fever in 1793 influenced many naval surgeons. See e. McLean, Suggestions for the prevention and mitigation of epidemic and pestilential dis­ eases, London, 1817, v. Lind's An essay on the most effectual means demon­ strates an enthusiastic exchange of ideas with contemporaries. He also consulted the logs and journals of surgeons on the West India stations, and was indebted to Pringle's observations on the army, 57, 68, 187. He knew the work of Russian and French surgeons, including Poissonnier's TraWl de maladies des gens de mer, and referred to the Gentlemen's Magazine, April 1755, on the efficacy of daily cold bathing, 323-30. 27 M.e. Buer, Health, wealth, and population in the early days of the industrial revolution, London, 1926, reprinted, 1968, 5-6. 28 See, for example, H. Gavin, Sanitary ramblings, London, 1848,93,68-9,89, passim. Gavin's alarming analysis of slum conditions pre-empted Mearns's famous The bitter cry of outcast London by 35 years. See A. Wahl's edition of Mearns; See also Wahl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain, Methuen, London, 1983,4-5; See numerous references to Pringle, Lind, and Blane, in M.W. Flinn (ed.), Report on the sanitary condition of the labouring population of Gt. Britain by Edwin Chadwick, 1842, Edinburgh, 1965; John Howard's influential State of prisons, London, 1784, joined canonical texts mentioned above by Pringle, Lind, Blane, and Trotter all of whom published widely. 29 Lloyd (ed.), The health of seamen, 214; e. Bateson, The convict ships, 1787-1868, Glasgow, 1969, 38, 44. 30 Renwick, An enquiry into the nature and causes Of sickness on ships of war, 52. 31 e. Lawrence, 'Disciplining disease: scurvy, the navy, and imperial expan­ sion, 1750-1825', in D.P. Miller and P.H. Reill (eds), Visions of Empire: voyages, botany, and representations of nature, Cambridge, 1996,85. Notes to pages 62-67 201

32 R.M. Acheson, 'The origins, content and early development of the curricu­ lum in state medicine and public health, 1856-95', in S. Farrow (ed.), The Public Health Challenge, Hutchinson, London, 1987, 19-36. 33 S.R. Johannson, 'Food for thought: rhetoric and reality in modern mortality history', Historical Methods, 27, 1994, 113. 34 A catalogue of medical books chiefly those upon diseases of seamen, 1793. See, typically, Munro, Observations. 35 Customs house returns (1791-97),17-19 June 1799, House of Lords Record Office (HLRO), Main Papers, folios 15329-15439. See also extracts from log books of African slave ships in the same years, in Slave Trade Papers, 1 July 1799, HLRO 5/J/11/2; House of Lords Journals, XLII, folios 218, 287, 293, 303, 323. For the influence of the voyages and record-keeping of Cook and Lind on regulating systematic recording of journals on slave ships, see the evidence of Archibald Dalziel, 'Minutes of the Evidence taken (in the last session of parliament) before the committee of the whole house, to whom the bill for providing certain temporary regulations respecting the trans­ portation of the natives of Africa, in British ships, to the West Indies, and elsewhere, was committed, 20 April 1789', in Lambert (ed.), HC Sessional Papers, vol. 68, 32-33. 36 See Liverpool Papers, British Library Add Ms. 38345/Folio 17. 37 See HLRO, Main Papers, 28 June 1799 [15716]; 9 July 1799 [15901/15903]; HL Journals, 1799, xlii, 296a. 38 See instructions to surgeons and masters of transport ships, 1801, on keeping logs to record the outcomes of sanitary and health regulations on board, as drawn up by Inspector General Fitzpatrick, in Bladen (ed.), Historical Records of New South Wales, vol. IV, 399-402; MacDonagh, The inspector general, 277; Historical records of Australia, Series I, vol. III, 97-98; Bateson, The convict ships, 40, 44. 39 Stewart, Medical discipline, vi-2; 4-9. 40 See, for example, Elliott, The seamen's medical advocate, 156~7. 41 R. Haines and R. Shlomowitz, 'Mortality and the transatlantic slave trade: a re-evaluation', unpublished paper, Flinders University, 2000', table 17. 42 Veitch, A letter to the commissioners, 60-62. 43 For a demonstration of theory succeeding at the expense of practical achievement, see M. Ramsey, 'Public health in France', in D. Porter (ed.), The History of Public Health and the Modern State, Rodopi, Amsterdam, 1994, 35-6, 69, 73, 82, 85. 44 Haines and Shlomowitz, 'Explaining the modern mortality decline', 44-8. 45 N. Williams, 'The reporting and classification of causes of death in mid­ nineteenth-century England: The example of Sheffield', Historical Methods, 29: 2, Spring, 1996, 60. 46 See, for example, 'Instructions to the surgeons of convict ships', Appendix no. 26, 'Report from the SC on Transportation', BPP 1812 (341), vol. II, 106; 'Instructions for Surgeon Superintendents on board convict ships proceed­ ing to New South Wales or Van Diemen's Land', BPP 1834 (81), vol. XlVII, 1; 'Instructions .. .', Appendix no. 20, SC on Transportation', BPP 1837 (15) vol. XIX, 344; 'Instructions for surgeon superintendents of government emigrant ships going to New South Wales', 6th enclosure in no. 1, 'Reports and Correspondence respecting emigration to the colonies', BPP 1839 202 Notes to pages 67-70

(536-1) vol. XXXIX, 12; 'Instructions for surgeons of emigrant ships under the superintendence of Her Majesty's Colonial Land and Emigration Commissioners', in 'Papers relative', BPP 1850 [1163] vol. XL, Appendix, 224-233. There were few modifications to the instructions after 1850. For the adoption of these instructions by the Queensland Immigration Service, 1860-1900, see Woolcock, Rights of Passage. 47 ADM 101/76-79. 48 Staniforth has used a few of these for the years 1837-39 for convict and emigrant voyages. See the bibliography. 49 South Australian reports can be found on microfilm at SRSA GRG 35/48; for NSW scattered reports are housed in the Archives Office of NSW (AOT) (9/6283); other than the odd one, reports for Victoria, the other major destination, have not survived. SO Newspaper reporters kept a look out at the Semaphore Station for incoming ships, sailing out to board them as they approached Port Adelaide. Having boarded, the reporters then carried the ship's documents to Health Officer (and Immigration Agent) Handasyde Duncan, who then boarded the ship, following its arrival in dock, or at anchorage. This gave the news reporters privileged access to the ships' documents, including the surgeons' reports. See Duncan's evidence to Legislative Council's SC on Colonial Estimates, SAPP, 1855-56, no. 158, Q 5329-5335, p. 237. See also, for a few examples of many, the report in The South Australian Register, 16 February, 1853 on breaches of contract on recently arrived ships, and on 16 November 1854 on the arrival of the James Fernie which suffered 28 deaths, mostly from cholera; and on 16 February 1863, on the arrival of the Morning Star which suffered an epidemic of measles with high mortality; the Adelaide Observer, 24 November 1849, on the arrival of cholera. 51 For one such incident in 1849, see Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, 137. 52 For Queensland ships after 1860, the journals and logs were returned to Queensland's Agent General in London for aUditing. See Woolcock, Rights of Passage. From the early 1860s, the Agents General of the other colonies also assumed responsibility for mobilising emigrants and scrutinising the paperwork. 53 In 1857 the CLEC reported that in the 62 ships it had supervised in 1856, there were no untried surgeons; two were the veterans of nine voyages, one of eight, one of seven, two of six, four of five, nine of four, five of three, 17 of two, and 21 of one. 17th General Report of the CLEC, BPP 1857 [2249. Sess. II] vol. XVI, 14. 54 See the 62 page 'Return showing for the six months ending the 30th day of June 1882, the Names of all Ships carrying Emigrants from the United Kingdom', BPP 1882 (404), vol. LXII, 32. One example is Surgeon John C. Sanger whose voyage on the Atalanta in 1866 was his 20th voyage, for which see SRSA, GRG 35/48, Reel 10, and Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, 234-41. See above in relation to his superintendence of the Ticonderoga in 1852. 55 Diary of Thomas Jones Vallance, Surgeon Superintendent of the Apolline to Melbourne, 1 July to 28 October 1852, La Trobe Collection, MS 12619 Box 3445/3, Typescript. 56 See Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor. Notes to pages 72-81 203

57 Sir William Burnett also signed the journals of naval surgeons who superin­ tended emigrant ships to NSW in the 1830s and 1840s. 58 Haines and Shlomowitz, 'Explaining the mortality decline in the eighteenth-century British slave trade'. 59 25 emigrant surgeons' journals for 1837-39, 2 for 1847, and 2 for 1853, all carrying naval surgeons, have survived at the PRO, Kew in ADM 101/77-79. (A]CP Reels 3213-3214). A far larger number of surgeons' logs on convict ships survive for 1819-1856 in ADM 101/1-75 (A]CP Reels 3187-3213). An extensive search at the PRO, Kew, and discussions with archivists there, sug­ gests that the surgeons' official journals were probably disposed of when the Board of Trade subsumed the CLEC in the 1870s. The crew lists and captains' logs at the Maritime History Centre at the Memorial University of Newfoundland do not include the surgeons' medical journals. A few of the surgeons also made fair copies for relatives and a handful of these survive in regional archives in Australia and the UK. 60 Sub-enclosure 2, to enclosure 1, in no. 3, Earl Grey to Governor Fitzroy, 11 March 1850, in 'Papers relative to emigration, NSW', BPP, 1851 (347) vol. XL, 84-88. 61 Half-pay officers were in semi-retirement during peacetime and were free to seek other employment. 62 'Instructions to surgeons', 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1850 [1163], vol. XL. 63 Sir G. Grey to Sir W. Denison, 25 Apri11855, Enc. in no. 47, in 'Dispatches from the Secretary of State', in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1857 (144) vol. X, Sess. 1, 29. 64 Evidence of T.W.C. Murdoch to the SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163) vol. XIII, Q440, 28. 65 Woolcock, Rights ofPassage, 122-3. 66 Between 1891 and 1900 Queensland assisted 3,928 immigrants whereas the only other two colonial governments still subsidising emigrants were NSW and WA, which introduced 659 and 1,566 immigrants respectively. See Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, Appendix 2, 265. 67 SA Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 26 October 1865, 970. 68 Surgeon Edward Strutt's journal on the Thomas Arbuthnot, 1849-50, and an anonymous article from an unnamed source, which is a published account of Strutt's journal, filed with the Freer Family Papers, Mss 8352, 8345, Box 913/5, La Trobe collection, State Library of Victoria. 69 Strutt's journal.

Chapter 5 'His many duties and anxieties': Supervision and discipline at sea

1 See, for example, 'Instructions for Surgeons of Emigrant Ships sailing under the Superintendence of Her Majesty's Colonial Land and Emigration Commissioners', 'Papers relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1850 [1163], vol. XL, 224-223. Apart from periodic modifications as new technology (stoves, distilling apparatus, preserved foods,. etc) these instructions changed little between 1840 and 1885. 204 Notes to pages 81-90

2 For an account of drunkenness and incompetence on a voyage to Queens­ land, see H. Woolcock, 'Medical supervision on nineteenth century emi­ grant ships: The voyage of the 'Clifton', 1861-1862', in John Pearn (ed.), Pioneer Medicine in Australia, Amphion Press, Brisbane, 1988. 3 Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, 96-7, 159-161, 198-9, 245-7, passim. 4 For a completed 1846 application form, see Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, 99. 5 Francis M. Harricks, letter to British Medical Journal, May 1877, 574. 6 Harricks, letter to British Medical Journal, 574. 7 Haines and Shlomowitz, {Explaining the modern mortality decline', 16-17. 8 Letters from a number of former maritime surgeons including A. Hughes Bennett, Litton Forbes, late surgeon superintendent in the New Zealand Emigration Service, W.F. Phillips, Charles G. Beaumont, A. Creswell Rich, and several anonymous letters, The British Medical Journal, 24 December 1881, 1035-37. 9 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG 12 July 1855. 10 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 1 February 1855. 11 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 1 February 1855. 12 SA Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, 11 October 1851, in Enc. in no. 11, {Correspondence relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1852-53 [1489] vol. XXXIV, 101. See also Chapter Three, note 3l. 13 All quotes from SAGG, 1 February 1855. 14 Correspondence of the Emigration Commission, PRO, CO 386/76, 226-30; Votes and Proceedings of the Legislative Assembly of Queensland, 1876, ii, 1137-83, cited in Crowley, {British Migration to Australia, 1816-1914', where other examples are given. 15 Annual report of the Immigration Agent for Victoria, Edward Grimes, 9 June 1853, Appendix no. 4 in {Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 164. 16 A large majority received complimentary comments. See sub-enclosure no. 2 in Ene. 1, in no. 3, {Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1851 (347) vol. XL; T.W.C. Murdoch's evidence to the SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163) vol. XIII, Q 439,28. 17 Woolcock, Rights of Passage, 116. 18 17th General Report of the CLEC, BPP 1857 [2249 Sess II] vol. XVI, 14. Of the 62 surgeons, 21 had completed one voyage, 31 had completed four or less, 10 had completed between 5 and 9 voyages each. 19 Grey to Fitzroy, 15 December 1848, no. 10 in despatches from Grey to Fitzroy, in 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies' BPP 1849 (245) vol. XXXVIII, 94-95. The naval surgeon would have been a half-pay surgeon on forced leave from the navy during peace. Half-pay surgeons were employed in the 1830s at the commencement of system­ atic emigration, owing to their familiarity with convict transportation and the strict regulations of the navy. They were phased out in the early 1840s. 20 T.W.C. Murdoch and Frederic Rogers to H. Merivale, 22 August 1849, Ene. in no. 4, Despatches from Earl Grey to Fitzroy, 10 September 1849, in Notes to pages 90-96 205

'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1850 [1163] vol. XL, 102-3, passim. 21 A 'surgeon of two voyages' to the editor of the South Australian Register, 14 February 1855. 22 See, for one example of many, the SA Immigration Agent's report, 7 January 1851, SAGG, 16 January 1851, referring to the surgeon of the Constance. 23 Reports in the South Australian Register, 9, 10 February 1874, on the arrival ofthe Forfarshire. 24 Gooden and Moore, Fifty Years' History ofKensington and Norwood, Adelaide, 1903,159.

Chapter 6 'The mother's milk generally fails them in about six weeks': Infant and child health

1 See evidence of Mrs Caroline Chisholm, below. 2 SAGG, 20 Oct 1864, 889; ibid., 15 November, 1866; 17 October 1867. 3 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 19 January, 1854, 499. 4 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 13 January, 1859, 29-30. 5 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 25 January, 1866, 99. 6 Evidence of Caroline Chisholm to SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163) vol. XIII, q 2988-2998, 162. 7 Evidence of Caroline Chisholm to SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163) vol. XIII, q 2988-2999, 162. 8 T.W.C. Murdoch and C. Alexander Wood to Merivale, 29 June 1853, Ene. in no. 5, Despatches: NSW, in Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies, BPP 1854 (436), vol. XLVI, 53. 9 Evidence of T.W.C. Murdoch, SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163) vol. XIII, Q 514, 36, italics added. 10 Evidence of Caroline Chisholm, SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854 (163) vol. XIII, Q 3005, 163. 11 He is probably referring to a measurement of preserved, powdered milk to be made up to an adequate volume in fluid. 12 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, 30 June, 1855, Enc. in no. 12, Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies, BPP, 1857 (144), vol. X, Sess. I, 112. 13 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, 30 June, 1855, Enc. in no. 12, Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies, BPP, 1857 (144), vol. X, Sess. 1,112. 14 For the scales of rations in the 1840s and 1850s, see Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, 104-7, 203, passim. 15 Surgeons on ships carrying convict women also tore their hair in despair over maternal neglect of infants, and refusal to follow medical advice. See Jenifer Harrison, 'Indulged with a marine excursion: medical memoranda on women convicts at sea, 1815-40', in Jeanette Covacevich et al. (eds), History, Heritage and Health, Brisbane, 1996, 62, 16 Medical and surgical journal of Surgeon Superintendent James Scott, Bussorah Merchant, 1839, PRO, ADM 101/76 (AJCP Reel 3213). 17 Surgeon's report, Queen of Nations, SRSA, GRG 35/48/77. 206 Notes to pages 97-103

18 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 19 January 1854, 499. Surgeons occasionally brought their wives on voyages; at least one wife accompanied her husband as matron on several voyages. 19 Dr Neil Campbell, Journal on the King William, 1842-43, Mitchell Library, A3234/43-91, CY 1388. 20 See the emigrants' own testimony in Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail. 21 Staniforth, 'Deficiency disorder'. 22 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG 16 October 1856, 910. Duncan included a long disquisition on 'Liebig's discoveries on the loss of nutrition in salted meat'. 23 Surgeon Superintendent Kynsdon's report on the Queen of Nations, SRSA, GRG 35/48/77. 24 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 13 May, 1855, 352. 25 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 15 November, 1866, 1177. 26 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 17 October 1867, 1015. 27 See P. Atkins, 'Sophistication detected: or, the adulteration of the milk supply, 1850-1914', Social History, 16 (1991), 317-39; idem, 'White poison?: The social consequences of milk consumption in London, 1850-1939', Social History of Medicine, 5, 1992,207-28; M.W. Beaver, 'Population, infant mortality and milk', Population Studies, 27, 1973,243-254. 28 For an analysis of different shaped feeding bottles and other types of feeding apparatus, and attitudes to artificial feeding, see V. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles, and Babies: A history of infant feeding, Edinburgh University Press, 1986, esp. chapters 11-17, and for pictures of feeding vessels, see 330-42. 29 I. Buchanan, 'Infant feeding, sanitation and diarrhoea in colliery communi­ ties, 1880-1911', in D.J. Oddy and D.S. Miller (eds), Diet and Health in Modem Britain, Croom Helm, London, 1985, 159; Atkins, 'White poison', 221. 30 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 27 July 1865, 681. 31 For an account of medical and lay attitudes towards 'pap' and 'pan ada' the two most common - and dangerous - methods of feeding infants reared by hand, and for recipes used in these milk and bread based gruels, see Fildes, Breasts, Bottles, and Babies, 224-30, passim. 32 Smith, The People's Health, 85-6, 90, passim. Smith argues that the measure­ ment and adjustment of infant feeding for individual babies was probably first mooted in 1897. 33 Atkins, 'White poison', 222. 34 Smith, The People's Health, 81. 35 Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 27 July 1865, 681. 36 Dr Neil Campbell, Journal on board the King William, 1842-43, Mitchell Library, A 3234/43-91, CY 1388. 37 R. Haines, R. Shlomowitz and L. Brennan, 'Maritime Mortality Revisited', International Journal of Maritime History, June 1996, 157. 38 Dr Neil Campbell, Journal on board the King William', 1842-43, Mitchell Library A3234/43-91, CY 1388. This strategy is frequently referred to in the SA surgeons' reports. 39 Correspondence from Surgeon Superintendent F.W. Johnson, an enthu­ siastic proponent of canvas berths, who concluded his letter, 'Heartily Notes to pages 103-108 207

wishing success to the canvas bottoms, whether on my plan or any other', attached to Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, Ene. in no. 9, Cor­ respondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies, BPP 1847 (306) vol. XXVIII, Session 2, p. 80. See also, for debates about the advan­ tages and disadvantages of canvas berths, iInstructions to Emigration Agents', SAPP 1860 no. 36, 1-3; iImproved Fittings, &e. in Emigrant Ships', SAPP, 1874,no.255, 1-3.

Chapter 7 'The people suffered greatly in consequence': Discomfort, weather, and Great Circle sailing

1 Despatches from Sir H.E.F. Young, 7 December 1849, 11 November 1850, despatches from the Right Hon. Earl Grey,S July 1851, in iCorrespondence relating to emigration to South Australia (on Great Circle Sailing as applica­ ble to emigrant ships)', BPP 1851 (347-1I) vol. XL, 11,57,98. 2 F.J.A. Broeze, iThe Cost of Distance: Shipping and the Early Australian Economy, 1788-1850', Economic History Review, 28, 1975,582-97. 3 For mortality on this and other ships to South Australia in 1849, see despatches from Lt. Governor Sir H.E.F. Young to Earl Grey, in iPapers rela­ tive to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP, 1851 (347.II) vol. XL, 5-99. 4 Despatches from Sir H.E.F. Young, 7 December 1849, 11 November 1850, despatches from the Right Hon. Earl Grey,S July 1851, in iCorrespondence relating to emigration to South Australia (on Great Circle Sailing as applica­ ble to emigrant ships)', BPP 1851 (347-II) vol. XL, 11, 57, 98. 5 R. Haining, Chairman of the Destitute Board, to Governor H.E.F. Young, 3 December 1849, Ene. in no. 7, 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1851 (347.II) vol. XL, 12. 6 For a concise picture of the diet, condition, way of life, and the household economy in mid-nineteenth century Ireland, see L. Kennedy, P. S. Ell, E.M. Crawford and L.A. Clarkson, Mapping the Great Irish Famine: a survey of the Famine decades, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 1999. 7 CLEC to Earl Grey, 12 June 1950, Enc. in no. 7, iPapers relative to emigra­ tion to the Australian colonies', BPP 1851 (347.I1) vol. XL, 98. 8 In 1851, the Reliance sailed as high as 54 degrees South to the detriment of the emigrants. See Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, 11 October 1851, Enc. in no. 11, iPapers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1852-53 [1489], vol. XXXIV, 101. 9 See the Charter Party of the Pestonjee Bomanjee, 1854, SRSA, GRG 35/48/1854/21. 10 Immigration Agent's report, SAGG, 20 October 1864, 889. 11 CLEC to Merivale, 11 February 1853, Ene. in no. 15, iPapers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP, 1852-3 (1627) vol. LXVIII, 186-187 in reference to a 76-day voyage to Melbourne of the Marco Polo. The masters vied with each other for the fastest passage. 12 CLEC to Merivale, 8 December 1855, Ene. in no. 12, iCorrespondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1857 (144) vol. X, Sess. I, 81. See previous references to other shipwrecks. 208 Notes to pages 108-115

13 Health Officer's report, Enc. 1 in no. 4, BPP 1851 (347.Il) vol. XL, 8; Passenger List for the Himalaya; Immigration Agent's quarterly report in SAGG, 17 january 1850. 14 Immigration Agent's report, 22 November 1849, Ene. in no. 6, 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1851 (347.II) vol. XL, II. 15 Immigration Agent's report, SAGG 1 February 1855; 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1857 (144) vol. X, Sess. 1,96. 16 See copies of telegraphic and other communications in 'Correspondence relating to an outbreak of cholera on board the emigrant ship Dirigo', BPP 1854 (492) vol. XLVI, 1-30; 17 T.H. Prior, Lieut. RN, to CLEC 13 july, 1854, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (492) vol. XLVI, 12. 18 Dr C.A. Holcombe to Lt Prior, 4 August 1854, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (492) vol. XLVI, 20; passim. 19 W.L. Echlin to Walcott, 24 july 1854, 'Correspondence relating to emigra­ tion to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (492) vol. XLVI, 23. 20 Walcott to Prior, 15 july, 1854, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (492) vol. XLVI, 16. 21 james Gregory to Walcott; Walcott to Viscount Courtenay, 27 july and 10 August, 1854, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (492) vol. XLVI, 25-6. 22 H. Duncan, Health Officer, to the Colonial Secretary, 9 September 1850, Enc. no. 2 in no. 25, 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1851 (347.II) vol. XL, 51. 23 Two weeks after departure from Plymouth on the Surge an 18-year old woman was seized with 'feverish symptoms', followed by an irruption three days later. She was cured ten days later. Another woman and a man were infected and cured within two weeks. Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report 10 july 1852, Enc. in no. II, 'Papers relative to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1852-3 (1627) LXVIII, 216. 24 See the case of the Tarquin where one case of 'confluent smallpox occurred a few days after sailing' but was immediately isolated and no new case appeared. Of the seven cases of scarlatina, all were cured. Immigration Agent's Quarterly Report, SAGG, 19 jan 1865, 47. 25 On this Society, see Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor chapter 8. 26 C.E. Trevelyan to T.F. Elliot, 20 September 1853, Enc. in no. 5, 'Cor­ respondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436-1) vol. XLVI, 32. See also, anon, Correspondence Relating to Her Majesty's Emigrant ship Hercules, Francis and john Rivington, London, c1854. 27 Duncan to the Colonial Secretary, 12 May 1853, Enc. in no. 7, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436-1) vol. XLVI, 8. 28 See also Immigration Agent's quarterly report, 1 October 1853, Enc. in no. IS, 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436-1) vol. XLVI, 18; see also T.W.C. Murdoch's evidence to the SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP 1854(163) vol. XIII, 35-36. Notes to pages 115-118 209

29 'Circular Despatch on Compulsory Vaccination' ordered to be printed on 21 December 1850. This despatch includes a table from John Simon, MO of the Privy Council showing the fatality rates of smallpox in six classes from persons unvaccinated (the highest) through to persons vaccinated with no scar, vaccinated with two scars, three scars, and four or more scars (the lowest). SAPP, 1870-71, no. 190. 30 The Governor's stern letters to the two senior officials are quoted in full in Philip Woodruff, Two Million South Australians, Peacock Publications, Adelaide, 1984, 16-17. See also Evidence of Immigration Agent Handasyde Duncan to the SC on Ordinary Estimates, Q 535 I, SAPP, Legislative Council Papers, 1855-56, no. 158,238. The vessel was quarantined and a brig hired as a receiving ship for the sick. Healthy emigrants were allowed to disem­ bark from the Taymouth Castle 'a certain number of days having elapsed without any new case of sickness showing itself'. The ship was 'purified' following the disembarkation of passengers. Immigration Agent's Quarterly report, SAGG, 12 July 1855, SIS. 31 'Mosquitoes, snakes and a new world', Advertiser (Adelaide), 7 August 2004, 42-4. 32 By the 1870s, surgeons on SA-bound ships were issued with a 'packet of Vaccine Virus' by the colony's emigration department in London. 'Surgeon superintendent's instructions', 'Report of SC of the House of Assembly on Immigration', Appendix E, xiii. Hardy, in The Epidemic Streets, 118, argues that dry lymph suffered a higher rate of failure than the mOist, and that most vaccinators were unaware that 'there was a time limit within which such lymph should be used'. 33 Evidence of Dr Sawtell and Dr Mackintosh to the SC of the House of Assembly on Immigration, SAPP 1877, no. 102, 19,41-43, passim; 'Third Report of the Central Board of Health', SAPP, 1877, no. 88, 5-8. 34 Evidence of Dr Mackintosh, SC on Immigration, SAPP 1877, no. 102, 43. See Hardy, The Epidemic Streets, 116-7 on the slow acceptance in England, from the 1860s, of the need for re-vaccination during epidemic years. See also E.P. Hennock, 'Vaccination policy against smallpox, 1835-1914: a com­ parison of England with Prussia and Imperial Germany', Social History of Medicine, 11:1, April 1998, 49-71. 35 J.D. Foley, In Quarantine: A History of Sydney's Quarantine Station 1838-1984, Sydney, 1995. For Queensland, see P. Ludlow, 'Quarantine as incarceration', in J. Pearn and P. Carter (eds), Islands Of Incarceration, Brisbane, 1995, 93-109. 36 These were the Bourneuf, Wanata, Chance, and Ticonderoga. Annual Report by Edward Grimes, Victorian Immigration Agent, 8 June 1853, enclosed as Appendix no. 4 in 'Correspondence relating to Emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 164.

Chapter 8 'The Dr is supreame over all on board bar the Capton and Officers': Matrons, constables, and emigrants

1 The ships were: Joshua, Chowringhu, Sir Robert Sale, Lady Macdonald, Bourneuf, Marco Polo, Dominion, John Davies, Chance. 210 Notes to pages 118-128

2 Report from the Victorian Immigration Agent, Edward Grimes, 23 December 1852, Ene. in no. 2, Despatches from Lt. Gov. Latrobe to Sir john Pakington, 18 March 1853, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 73. 3 K.E. F[erguson}, Hints to Matrons, Emigrant Tract 3, SPCK, London, 1850, 234. 4 Ibid. On the BLFES, see Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, 186, 192-4,221,240. 5 Report of South Australia's Immigration Agent, 23 October 1866, SAGG, 15 November 1866,177. 6 Report from Edward Grimes, Immigration Agent, 7 january 1853 to the Colonial Secretary, Ene. in no. 4, Latrobe to Pakington, 19 january 1853, in 'Correspondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 75. 7 T.W.C. Murdoch and Frederic Rogers to H. Merivale, 9 May 1853, Enc. in no. 3, in despatches from Newcastle to Latrobe, 15 May 1853, in 'Cor­ respondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 123. 8 T.W.e. Murdoch and Frederic Rogers to H. Merivale, 9 May 1853, Enc. in no. 3, in despatches from Newcastle to Latrobe, 15 May 1853, in 'Cor­ respondence relating to emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 436, vol. XLVI, 123-4. 9 On Kingston's activities and his numerous publications, see Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, esp. chapters six and seven, and 369-70. 10 Mrs Ferguson and other ladies of the BLFES produced 11 tracts published by the SPCK in a series titled Emigrant Tracts in 1850. At least two can be identified as hers: K.E. F[erguson}, Parting Words for Emigrant Parents: Emigrant Tracts: Tract no. 2, and Hints to Matrons of Emigrant Ships: Tract 3, SPCK, London, 1850. 11 K.E. F[erguson}, Hints to Matrons, 8, W.H.G. Kingston, How to Emigrate; or, The British Colonists: a Tale for all classes with an appendix, forming a complete manual for intending colonists and for those who may wish to assist them, Groombridge & Sons, London, 1850, 234; Letter from Charlotte Daly to Revd. T.e. Childs (SPCK Chaplain at Plymouth), in Kingston, How to Emigrate, 228. 12 Dr Neil Campbell, journal on board the King William, 1842-43, Mitchell Library, A 3234/43-91, CY 1388. 13 See his evidence to the SC on Colonization from Ireland, BPP 1847(737) vol. VI, 315. 14 Sub-enclosure to Enclosure in no. 3, CLEC to H. Merivale, 9 May 1853, in despatches from Newcastle to La Trobe, 15 May 1853, in 'Correspondence relating to the Australian colonies', BPP 1854 (436) vol. XLVI, 124 15 Report of SA Immigration Agent, 1 October 1856, SAGG, 16 October 1856, 909. 16 Ship'S papers for the Lady Jocelyn, SRSA, GRG 35/48a/75/9. 17 F.K. Crowley, 'British Migration to Australia 1860-1914', unpublished D. Phil. TheSiS, Oxford University, 1951, 167-172. 18 See, for example, W.H.G. Kingston, The Emigrant Voyagers' Manual: Preparations for the Voyage, Trelawney Saunders, London, 1850. 19 Diary of Hugh Wilson on the Sarah, 1849, Mitchell Library, B1535 (CY 1024); See Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, 146-65, for Hugh Wilson's commentary of the voyage. Notes to pages 128-133 211

20 Diary of Allen Aitken on the 55 Chyebassa, 1887, Oxley Library, OM 82-71. For accounts by Aitken and other diary-writing constables, see Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail. 21 Francis M. Harricks, Government Medical Officer, letter to The British Medical Journal, May,. 1877, 574, writing of his recent experience as a surgeon superintendent. See also Woolcock, Rights ofPassage, 320. 22 Diary of Rosamund Amelia D'Ouseley, Oxley Library, State Library of Queensland, M 828; Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail. 23 James Bowley, 'Remarks on a voyage from London to South Australia, April 1840', private unpublished typescript. I wish to thank Joyce Bayley of Victor Harbor for giving me a copy of this typescript. Bowley, a builder, went on to build the first bridge over the River Torrens,. and the Lunatic Asylum on North Terrace, which later became the infectious diseases hospi­ tal. The voyage dates are 4 April to 7 July 1840, and on this voyage Dr McFarlane brought an assistant surgeon, Mr Ward. 24 Adelaide Hospital Admissions Register, SRSA, GRG 78/49. For a succinct account of the amalgam of philanthropic and publicly-funded welfare in each of the colonies, see B. Dickey, 'Why were there no Poor Laws in Australia?', Journal of Policy History, 4:2, 1992, 111-133. See also Dickey, Rations, Residences, Resources - a history of social welfare in South Australia since 1836, Wakefield Press, Adelaide, 1986; idem, No Charity There: A short history of social welfare in Australia, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1987. 25 Diary of Mary Anne Bedford, on The Champion of the Seas, 1864, La Trobe Collection, MS 10362/MSB 205. 26 The Emigrant and Colonial Gazette (London), 13 October 1849, 895; Minutes of the Marylebone Board of Guardians, Greater London County Record Office, P89/MRYl/533, 1 October 1849, 115-117, 26 October 1849,125-6. For the original selections, training, outfitting, and departure of the 13 young women, see ibid., P89/MRYI/532, Nov.-Dec., 1849, 133-89; Despatches 3 and 4 from Earl Grey to Governor Young, November 1849, and enclosures, in 'Papers relating to Emigration to the Australian colonies', BPP 1850 [1163] vol. XL, 212-214, passim. For a full account of this episode, see Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, 135-9. See also, Haines, "'The priest made a bother about it": the travails of "that unhappy sisterhood" bound for colonial Australia', in Trevor McClaughlin (ed.), Irish Women in Colonial Australia, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1998, 43-63. 27 SA Immigration Agent's report, 23 October 1866, SAGG, 15 November 1866, 177. 28 SA Immigration Agent's report, 7 January 1851, SAGG, 16 January 1851, 30. 29 Journal of Surgeon Superintendent Strutt on the St Vincent, Freer Family Papers, MSS 8352 and 8345, Box 913/5, La Trobe Collection, State Library of Victoria.

Chapter 9 'Firmness and indulgence, consideration and strictness': Dr Stroll's management of families and Irish girls

1 The appendices to the annual reports of the CLEC for the relevant years show that the ships were: St Vincent to NSW, 1848, Thomas Arbuthnot to 212 Notes to pages 133-164

NSW, 1849, Harry Lorrequer to Victoria, 1850, Lady Elgin to Victoria, 1851. For his 1882 voyage see the return of emigrant ships, in BPP 1882 (404), vol. LXII, 32. 2 See reports and correspondence in BPP, I85:&--3 (1627), vol. LXVIII. 3 Journal of Charles E. Strutt on the St Vincent bound for NSW, 1848, typescript, bound with Freer Family Papers, La Trobe Collection, MS 8352, Box 913/5. 4 See J.D. Foley, In Quarantine: A History of Sydney's Quarantine Station 1828-1984, Kangaroo Press, Sydney, 1995, ISS, for details of the Steadfast's voyage. 5 See Foley, In Quarantine, 155. 6 Journal of Charles E. Strutt on the Thomas Arbuthnot bound for NSW, 1849, typescript, bound with Freer Family Papers, La Trobe Collection, MS 8352, Box 913/5. 7 Anonymous article, based on Surgeon Superintendent Strutt's official manuscript journal, and filed with it. 8 For a full discussion of the debilitating seasickness suffered in the early and late stage of the voyage, particularly by women, see Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail. 9 Anonymous undated newspaper article, based on Strutt's official journal and filed with it. 10 Journal of Charles E. Strutt.

Chapter 10 'I held a court in the ward': Dr Ayre and democracy at sea

1 Journal of J. Ayre, MD on the Cheapside, Plymouth to Adelaide, 1849/50, in Wilson of Sandbach Papers, Cheshire Record Office, DWS/MTD/12/35 (DWS 23/2), also on AJCP MicrofilmM847. I wish to thank Hanna Law for transcribing Dr Ayre's journals on the Cheapside and the Duchess of Northumberland. 2 For a discussion of the roles of Sir Thomas Murdoch and James Wilcocks, see Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, 106-8,235-6,242-3, passim. 3 Anonymous acc.ount of a voyage to Australia on board the Digby from Liverpool to Melbourne 1852~53, La Trobe Collection, MS 9033/MSB 450. For accounts of women (and men) cooking and caring for families see Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail. 4 The Sacramento, after a 122-day voyage carrying 241 emigrants (103 women, 49 men, and 89 children), arrived at Port Phillip on 26 April 1853. Besides the surgeon superintendent, Dr T. Hardy, six children were buried at sea. Tbe captain and voluntary constables did well to contain the deaths on a voyage in the absence of the surgeon's disciplinary tactics and medical knowledge. 5 This petition was enclosed with Dr Ayre's diary on the Cheapside. William Roberts was probably related to Rosanna Roberts, aged 30 and James Roberts, aged one, who died on the voyage. 6 Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, 87, 184-7, passim. 7 Journal of Dr John Ayre, MD on Duchess of Northumberland, Plymouth to Moreton Bay, September 1850, in Wilson of Sandbach Papers, Cheshire Record Office, DWS/MTD/12/35 (DWS 23/2), and also on AJCP Reel M845. Notes to pages 167-178 213

8 I wish to thank John Jelfs, Pharmacist, for transcribing Dr Ayre's Latin prescriptions.

Chapter 11 'The passengers are falling sick every day': Epidemics and quarantine

1 For an account of the Highland and Island Emigration Society's mobil­ isation of selected families, see Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, chapter 8; for a full account of the arrival of the Persian, see Richard Lord, Impression Bay: Convict probation station to civilian quarantine station, being the story of the fever immigrant ship 'Persian' ... in 1857, Richard Lord and Partners, Taroona, 1992. Impression Bay is now known as Premaydena. 2 Lord, Impression Bay, 26-30. 3 Cited in Lord, Impression Bay, 38. 4 Immigration Agent James Loch's report on the ship Persian, tabled in the Journals of the Tasmanian House of Assembly, 1857-58, vol. II, no. 67. Some extracts from this sympathetic and fulsome report, are also repro­ duced in Lord, Impression Bay. 5 Persian: Statement of Immigrants, tabled in the Journals of the Tasmanian House of Assembly, 1857-58, vol. 2, no. 79. Here, extracts of the immi­ grants' interviews, and the surgeon's responses to their complaints, are printed verbatim. Some of these are extracted in Lord, Impression Bay. 6 Immigration Agent John D. Loch's, 'Report on the ship Persian', 8. 7 Immigration Agent John D. Loch's, 'Report on the ship Persian', 10. 8 Immigration Agent John D. Loch's, 'Report on the ship Persian', II. 9 Immigration Agent John D. Loch's, 'Report on the ship Persian', II. 10 See 81 page manuscript report by Immigration Agent James D. Loch, Archives Office of Tasmania [AOT], CB 7/40-43, which includes a summary report, and accounts and other ephemera related to the Trade Wind; Immigration Agent John D. Loch's half-yearly report, Tasmanian Legislative Council Journals, 1858, vol. 3, no. 5; Addenda to Immigration Agent's report for half year ending 30 June 1858, Tasmanian Legislative Council Journals, vol. 3, no. II. 11 James Loch's manuscript report, AOT, CB 7/43. 12 James Loch's manuscript report, AOT, CB 7/43. 13 Addenda to Immigration Agent's Report for Half Year Ending 30 June 1858, Tasmanian Legislative Council Journals, vol. 3, no. 11, 4. 14 Addenda to Immigration Agent's Report for Half Year Ending 30 June 1858, Tasmanian Legislative Council Journals, vol. 3, no. 11, 5. 15 Immigration Agent's Report for Half Year Ending 3D June 1858, Tasmanian Legislative Council Journals, vol. 3, no. 5, 4. 16 Extracted in Addenda to Immigration Agent's Report for Half Year Ending 30 June 1858, Tasmanian Legislative Council Journals, vol. 3, no. 11, 8. 17 Trade. Wind Voyage, 1858: Diary of William Fordham, Hobart, (Patricia Quarry, ed./trans, 1993), TasmanianaCollection, Crowther Library, State Library of Tasmania, PQ 910.45. 18 For a history of the Cascade Station, see Lord, Impression Bay. 214 Notes to pages 180-181

Appendix 1

1 For a concise analysis of manuscript and published records, and for relevant microfilms of official records held at the Public Record Office, Kew, and else­ where which are included in the Australian JOint Copying Project (AJCP) series, see R. Haines, 'Causes of death on ships bound for Australia: Records in Australian archives and libraries', Australian Family Tree Connections, July 2003, 27-30. 2 These are now available on a fully searchable CD-ROM data base with intro­ duction and illustrations. See R. Haines, J. Jeffery and G. Slattery, Bound for South Australia: births and deaths on government-assisted immigrant ships 1848-1885, Gould Genealogy, Adelaide, 2004. 3 This retrospective tabular report, apparently compiled from the summary reports of the surgeon superintendents, listing the ship, name of the deceased, date of death, cause of death, and where buried, was published in the SAGG on 25 January 1866. However, my research has shown that it needs to be used with caution. Surnames are occasionally mis-spelled and Christian names confused (for example, Jane transcribed as James). Two infants· on the list, named as stillborn, in fact died after a week of life. Though this report is an excellent place to start, far more accurate data can be found in the surgeons' summary reports held at SRSA, GRG 35/48. 4 See tables 1-4, Haines, Life and Death in the Age of Sail, 29-41. 5 The surgeons' journals of 160 convict ships bound for NSW and Tasmania between 1816 and 1849, and 26 convict voyages to Tasmania and WA between 1850-56, and 29 emigrant voyages between 1837 and 1847, are housed at the PRO, Kew at ADM 101. These can also be found on the Australian Joint Copying Project (AJCP) microfilms, and are listed in AJCP Handbook 7. Most are very difficult to read. 6 'Register of births and deaths on emigrant ships, 1848-1869', PRO, Kew, CO 386/170-172. They can be viewed in manuscript or microfilm at the PRO, Kew, and can be found in major Australian libraries in the Australian Joint Copying Project (AJCP) series, PRO 6887-6888. See AJCP Handbook 1st, 3rd edition, 1990, 10. 7 The colonial Immigration Agents' reports can be found, for each year from the late 1840s, in each colony's Votes and Proceedings, housed in state and university libraries. The 33 annual reports of the CLEC, and their massive tabular appendices, 1840-1872, are published in BPP and the 33 reports have also been collected and printed sequentially by the Irish University Press (IUP) series of BPP, in successive volumes of the IUP Emigration series, which can also be found in state and university libraries. A great deal on individual voyages, especially where high mortality or other problems occurred, can be found in the correspondence between the Colonial Office and the various colonies, in sequential volumes of the IUP Colonisation series of BPP, usually found with the Emigration series. These, too, are well worth investigation. 8 For a full set of working tables on the SA voyages, see Haines, '''Little Anne is very low'". This is a long working paper setting out in far greater detail than is possible here my research methods, and details problems related to analysis of the data. Also appended are numerous tables. Notes to page 181 215

9 See references to Haines and Shlomowitz, and to earlier aggregate work by McDonald and Shlomowitz, listed in the bibliography. For an analysis of the numbers of assisted and full fare-paying immigrants, by colony, and year, 1831-1900, and the various schemes by which they were assisted, see Haines, Emigration and the Labouring Poor, Macmillan, London, 1997,261-83. Readers who wish to know more about voyages in the earlier and later decades of the nineteenth century, can turn to my Life and Death in the Age of Sail, which follows the emigrant perspective between 1820 and 1950, and they can turn to Helen Woolcock's excellent Rights of Passage: Emigration to Australia in the nineteenth century, Tavistock Press, London, 1986, which analyses voyages to Queensland between 1860 and 1900. Queensland was the major destination of all government-assisted emigrants to Australia in the latter decades of the nineteenth century, as the other colonies gradually withdrew funding for assistance. See also D. Charlwood, The Long Farewell, Penguin, 1981, Burgewood Books, 1998. Those interested in the two high mortality years, 1837-38 on convict and emigrant voyages to NSW, can turn to the work of M. Staniforth (listed in the bibliography), who has focused on the passage in those atypical years, when mortality temporarily soared. Bibliography

Manuscript Sources

Official AONSW: 9/6283 Surgeons' summary reports on voyages to NSW AOT: CB 7/40-43 Report by Tasmanian Immigration Agent James Loch GLCRO: on the arrival of the Trade Wind P89 /MRYI/ 533 Minutes of the Marylebone Board of Guardians. HLRO 5/J/11/2 Main Papers: 15716; 15901; 15903 NA (PRO): Surgeons' logs and journals, convict ships, 1819-1856 ADM 101/1-75 (AJCP Reels 3187-3213). NA (PRO): Surgeons' logs and journals, emigrant ships, 1837-1853 ADM 101/76--79 (AJCP Reels 3213-3216). NA (PRO): S Walcott, Memo no. 5208/Domestic 1031, 1877. CO 384/116 NA (PRO): Correspondence of the Emigration Commission. CO 386/76 NA (PRO): 'Register of deaths on emigrant ships', in three volumes, CO 386/170--172 1847-54; 1854--60 and 1861-69; also on PRO Microfilms 6887-8. NA (PRO): Manuscript summary of births and deaths at sea, CO 386/184 1854-60. QSA: COL/A31; 62/1944 Health Officer's report on the Erin Go Bragh SRSA: GRG 24/1 Ships' papers: letters 428, 445, 451, for 1840 SRSA: GRG 35/48 Summary Reports of the Surgeon Superintendents. SRSA: GRG 41/18 Port Adelaide Manifest Book, vol. I, Feb. 1838-Sept. 1839; vol. 2, August 1839-August 1840. SRSA: GRG 78/49 Adelaide Hospital Admissions Register.

Private: letters and diaries

British Library Liverpool Papers, BL Add Ms. 38345/Folio 17.

Cheshire Record Office Journal of Dr John Ayre, MD, on the Cheapside, Plymouth to Adelaide, 1849/50, in Wilson of Sandbach Papers, DWS/MTD/12/35 (DWS 23/2). Also on AJCP Microfilm M84 7. Journal of Dr John Ayre, MD, on the Duchess of Northumberland, Plymouth to Moreton Bay, September 1850, in Wilson of Sandbach Papers, DWS/MTF/12/35 (DWS 23/2) Also on AJCP Microfilm M845. 216 Bibliography 217

Crowther Library of Tasmaniana, State Library of Tasmania, Hobart Trade Wind voyage: Diary of William Fordham, PQ 910.45, Patricia Quarry, trans/ed.

La Trobe Collection, State Library of Victoria, Melbourne Anonymous account of a voyage to Australia on board the Digby from Liverpool to Melbourne 1852-53, MS 9033/MSB 450. Mary Anne Bedford: Diary on The Champion of the Seas, 1864, MS 10362/MSB 205. James Cooper Stewart: Voyage diary, 27 September 1857, MS 12507, Box 3395/1. Dr Edward Strutt: Journal on board the Thomas Arbuthnot, 1849-50, Freer Family Papers, Mss 8352, 8345, Box 913/5. Dr Edward Strutt: Journal on board the St Vincent, 1848, Freer Family Papers, Mss 8352, 8345, Box 913/5. Thomas Jones Vallance: Diary of Surgeon Superintendent of the Apolline to Melbourne, 1 July to 28 October 1852, MS 12619 Box 3445/3, Typescript.

Merseyside Maritime Museum, Liverpool, UK Mary Anne, to 'my dear Mama', November 1853, from Yass, Isabella Hercus file, Folder 2.

Mitchell Library: State Library of New South Wales, Sydney Anonymous Surgeon Superintendent's log on the Warrior, Plymouth to South Australia, 16 November 1839 to 18 April 1840, B824 (CY479). Dr Neil Campbell: Journal on the King William, 1842-43, A3234/43-91 (CY 1388). J. Patchill, Medical Journal of Emigrant Ship Crescent 3 October 1839-12 February 1840, A3633 (CY 1117). Dr W.D.P. Swain: Journal on the King William from Plymouth to Adelaide, 1851, Mitchell Library, B 1654 (CY 1388). William Usherwood's journal on board the Beejapore from Liverpool to Sydney, 12 October 1852 to 5 January 1853, B784 (CY 1117)

State Library of South Australia, Adelaide (formerly Mortlock Library of South Australiana) Ellen Moger to her parents, 28 January 1840, D6129(L), typed transcript. George and Sarah Brunskill, 'Letter written on the Voyage to South Australia' to her parents in Ely, Cambridgeshire, 1838-39,27 November 1838, D5203(L), typed transcript. Hugh Watson to his parents, 9 September 1839, D6075(L).

Oxley Library, State Library of Queensland, Brisbane Allen Aitken: Diary on the SS Chyebassa, 1887,.oM 82-71. Rosamund Amelia D'Ouseley: Diary on board the SS Great Britain, 1869, M828. 218 Bibliography

Private hands James Bowley, 'Remarks on a voyage from London to South Australia, April 1840'

Printed sources

Of{lcial Bladen, F.M. (ed.), Historical Records of New South Wales, Sydney, 1896. Board of Trade report on Emigrant Accommodation on board Atlantic steamships, BPP, 1881 [c2995], vol. lxxxvii. General Reports and appendices of the Colonial Land and Emigration Commission, BPP, 1840-72. Report (including instructions from surgeon superintendents) from the Select Committee on Transportation, BPP 1812 (341), vol. II, 106. Report (including instructions for surgeon superintendents on board convict ships proceeding to New South Wales or Van Diemen's Land), BPP 1834 (81), vol. xivii. Report on Select Committee on Transportation, BPP, 1837 (15) vol. xix. Reports, returns, papers and correspondence relative to emigration to the Australian colonies, including: BPP 1839 (536-1) vol. xxxix BPP 1847 (306) vol. xxvii BPP 1849 (245) vol. xxxviii BPP 1850 [1163] vol. xl BPP 1851 (347.II), vol. xl BPP 1852-53 [1489] vol. xxxiv BPP 1852-53 (1627) vol. lxviii BPP 1854 (436) (436.1) vol. xlvi. BPP 1854 (492) vol. xlvi. BPP 1857 (144) vol. x, Sess. I. BPP 1882 (404) vol. lxii. Circular despatch on compulsory vaccination, 21 December 1850, in SAPP, 1870-71, no. 190. Historical Records of Australia. House ofLords Journals Immigration Agents' Annual Reports, NSW, Vic, SA, V&P, various. Improved fittings &c. in emigrant ships, SAPP, 1874, no. 255. Instructions to Emigration Agents, SAPP, 1860, no. 36. Report from the Health Officer of Port Jackson for the Year 1853, 1 June 1854, NSWPP, 1854, vol. 2. Report on the ship Persian by Immigration Agent James Loch, Journals of the Tasmanian House of Assembly, 1857-58, vol. II, no. 67. Reports (half-yeady) by Immigration Agent James Loch, Tasmanian Legislative Council Journals, 1858, vol. iii, nos 5, II. SC on Colonial Estimates, SAPP, 1855-56, no. 158. SC on Colonization from Ireland, BPP, 1847 (737) vol. vi. SC on Emigrant Ships, BPP, 1854 (163) (349), vol. xiii. SC of the House of Assembly on Immigration, SAPP, 1877, no. 102. Bibliography 219

SC on Immigration, NSW, NSWPP, 1854, vol. 2. SC on Transportation', BPP, 1812 (341), vol. ii. SC on Transportation', BPP, 1837 (15), vol. xix. South Australian Government Gazette. Third Report of the Central Board of Health, SAPP, 1877, no. 88.

Books, articles and newspapers before 1900

A Catalogue of medical books chiefly those upon diseases of seamen, as well as those incident to hot climates and in long voyages, London, 1793. Adelaide Chronicle. Adelaide Observer. Anon, Correspondence relating to Her Majesty's emigrant ship Hercules, Francis and John Rivington, London, c1854. Archer, W.H., Nosological Index or Guide to the classification and tabulation of the various causes of death; compiled principally for the use of the Registrar-General's Department; with Instructions to Deputy Registrars by the Registrar-General of Victoria, 1862-63 (facsimile ed. Marjorie Morgan, 1987). Aubrey, T., The Sea-surgeon, or the Guinea man's vade mecum, London, 1729. Blane, Gilbert, Observations on the diseases of seamen, 3 edns, London, 1785-99. British Medical Journal. Clark, James, A Treatise on the Yellow Fever as it appeared in Dominicia in the years 1793-4-5-6, London, 1797. Clark, John, Observations on the diseases in long voyages to hot countries, and particularly on those which prevail in the East Indies, London, 1784. Correspondence Relating to Her Majesty's Emigrant ship Hercules, Francis & John Rivington, London, c1854. The Dictionary of Medical and Surgical Knowledge and Complete Practical Guide in Health and Disease for Families, Emigrants, and Colonists, Houiston & Wright, London, 1864. Elliot, A., The seaman's medical advocate, London, 1789. The Emigrant and Colonial Gazette, London. Emigrant Tracts, vols 1 and II, SPCK, London, 1850-51. The Emigrants' Guide containing practical and authentic information, and copies of original and unpublished letters from emigrants, to their friends in the counties of Mayo, Galway and Roscommon, John Hoban, Westport, 1832. Emigrants' Letters: Being a collection of recent communications from settlers in the British Colonies, Committee of the Emigrants' School Fund, London, 1850. Emigrants' Letters from the British Colonies: Letters from Schoolmasters on Board Emigrant Ships, Trelawney Saunders, London, 1850. Emigration from the Highlands and Islands, Trelawney Saunders, London, 1852. Falconbridge, A., An account of the slave trade on the coast of Africa, London, 1788 K.E. F[erguson], Hints to Matrons, Emigrant Tract 3, SPCK, London, 1850. --, Parting Words for Emigrant Parents: Emigrant Tracts: Tract no. 2, SPCK, London, 1850. Gavin, Hector, Sanitary Ramblings, London, 1848. Howard, John, State of Prisons, London, 1784. 220 Bibliography

Kingston, W.H.G., How to Emigrate; or, The British Colonists: a Tale for all classes with an appendix, forming a complete manual for intending colonists and for those who may wish to assist them, Groombridge & Sons, London, 1850. --, The Emigrant Voyagers' Manual: Preparations for the Voyage, Trelawney Saunders, London, 1850. Lind, James, An essay on the most effectual means ofpreserving the health of seamen in the Royal Navy, 1757, 3,d edn, London, 1774. McLean, C., Suggestions for the prevention and mitigation of epidemic and pestilential diseases, London, 1817. DeMonchy, Solomon, An essay on the causes and cure of the usual diseases in voyages to the WestIndies, 1762. Munro, D., Observations on the means ofpreserving the health of soldiers, and of con­ ducting military hospitals, and on the diseases incident to soldiers in the time of service, and on the same diseases as they have appeared in London, London, c. 1793. Pringle, J., A discourse upon some late improvements of the means for preserving the health of mariners, delivered at the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society, 30 November 1776, in James Cook, A voyage towards the South Pole and round the world, 4th edn, London, 1784. __, Observations on theDiseases of the Army, London, 1752. Renwick, W., An enquiry into the nature and causes of sickness on ships of war, London, 1792. South Australian Register Stewart, A., Medical discipline; or rules, and regulations for the more effectual pre­ servation of health on board the honourable EastIndia Company's ships, London, 1798. Tristan, Flora, Peregrinations of a Pariah (trans., ed., Jean Hawkes), Virago, 1986, first pub., Peregrinations d'une Paria, 1838. Trotter, Thomas, Medicina Nautica: an essay on the diseases of seamen, 2 vols, London, 1797-99. ' Veitch, J., A letter to the Commissioners for Transports and Sick and Wounded Seamen, London, 1818.

Books, articles, newspapers and theses, 1900-2004

Acheson, R.M., 'The Origins, content and early development of the curriculum in state medicine and public health, 1856-95', in S. Farrow (ed.), The Public Health Challenge, Hutchinson, London, 1987, 19-36. Adams, Annmarie, Architecture in the Family Way: Doctors, Houses, and Women, 1870-1900, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal, 1996. Alter, George C. & Carmichael, Ann G., 'Classifying the dead: towards a history of the registration of causes of death', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 54:2, April 1999, 114-32. --, 'Reflections on the causes of death', Continuity and Change, 12:2, 1997, 169-74. __, 'Studying causes of death in the past: Problems and models', Historical Methods, 29:2, Spring 1997, 44-8. Arrizabalaga, Jon, 'Medical causes of death in preindustrial Europe: Some histo­ riographical considerations', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 54:2, April 1999, 241-60. Bibliography 221

Atkins, P., 'Sophistication detected: or, the adulteration of the milk supply, 1850-1914', Social History, 16, 1991,317-39. --, 'White poison? The social consequences of milk consumption in London, 1850-1839', Social History of Medicine, 5, 1992,207-8. Barritt, Emma Rose, (((Strong in health and spirits?": European morbidity in colonial Adelaide (1836-1846)" BA (Hons) Thesis, Flinders University, 2002. Beaver, M.W., 'Population, infant mortality and milk', Population Studies, 27, 1973,243-54. Bell, Frances & Millward, Robert, 'Public health expenditures and mortality in England and Wales, 1870-1914', Continuity and Change, 13:2, 1998,221-49. Behrendt, S.D., 'The British slave trade, 1785-1807: volume, profitability, and mortality', unpub. PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1993. __, 'Crew mortality in the transatlantic slave trade in the eighteenth century', Slavery & Abolition, 18, 1997, 49-71. Broeze, F.J.A., 'The Cost of Distance: Shipping and the Early Australian Economy, 1788-1850', Economic History Review, 28,1975,582-97. Bruijn, I.D.R., 'The health care organization of the Dutch East India Company', Social History of Medicine, 7, 1994, 359-81. Bryder, Linda, Below the Magic Mountain: A social history of tuberculosis in Britain, Oxford University Press, 1988. Buchanan, Ian, 'Infant feeding, sanitation and diarrhoea in colliery communi­ ties, 1880-1911', in D.J. Oddy & D.S. Miller (eds), Diet and Health in Modem Britain, Croom Helm, London, 1985, 148-77. Buer, M.C., Health, Wealth, and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution (1926, reprinted Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1968). Burnett, John, Plenty and Want: A social history offood in England from 1815 to the Present Day, London, 1985. Bushman, Richard 1. & Bushman, Claudia 1., 'The Early History of Cleanliness in America', Journal of American History, 74, March 1988, 1213-38. Cannon, Michael, Perilous Voyages to the New Land: Experiences of Australian pioneer families on the high seas, Loch Haven Books, Mornington, 1996. Carter, K. Codell, 'Causes of disease and causes of death', Continuity and Change, 12:2, 1997, 189-98. Cartwright, F.F., A Social History of Medicine, Longman, London, 1977. Charlwood, Don, The Long Farewell, Allen Lane, Ringwood, 1981 (reprinted by Burgewood Books, Warrandyte, 1998). --, Settlers Under Sail, Department of the Premier, Melbourne, 1978. Coleman, Terry, Passage to America: A history of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland to America in the mid-nineteenth century, London, 1972. Condran, Gretchen A. & Cheney, Rose A., 'Mortality trends in Philadelphia: Age- And Cause-Specific death rates 1870-1930', Demography, 19:1,February 1982,97-123. --, 'What Fatal Years tells us that we did not already know', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 68, 95-104. --, Henry Williams, & Cheney, Rose A., 'The decline of mortality in Philadelphia from 1870-1930: The role of municipal services', The Pennsylvania Magazine, CVIII:2, April 1984, 153-77. Crowley, F.K., 'British migration to Australia: 1860-1914: A descriptive, analyti­ cal and statistical account of the immigration from the United Kingdom' unpublished D. Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1951. 222 Bibliography

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adult mortality assisted emigrants see on double-decked ships, 22 government-assisted emigrants food and diet and, 98 Atlantic passages on Forfarshire, 91 medical examination prior to on Pestonjee Bomanjee, 85 departure, 83 surgeon superintendents and and Passenger Acts, 54-5 reduction of, 87-8 pay of surgeons on, 77, 90 adult mortality rate Ayre, Dr John, 69 1850s, 31 called on to diagnose and report on age of emigrants illnesses on Tasman, 150 causes of death by, 44-5 career of, 147 and mortality, 35 on Cheapside, 147-63 Aitken, Allan and activities and instruction, voluntary constable on Chyebassa, 148, 149 128 births at sea, 147, 153, 157-8, Alleyne, Haynes Gibbes 162 and quarantine procedures, 5-6 mortality, 158, 161 American ships and cleanliness, 152~3 and British ships, 31-2 and courts on board, 153, 155-6, mortality on, 32 158, 159 Passenger Acts and, 54-5 daily routine, 149, 151, 152 see also double-decked ships and dealing with complaints, 159 Arney's concentrated milk, 100 illness of, 158 amusements on board, 153-4 and injuries to crew members, Anglican British Women's Emigration 157 Association, 125 medical examination of Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk emigrants prior to departure, Company, 100 147-8, lSI Apolline, 69, 70 and petition re timing of tea, child mortality on, 71 154-5 Art Union punishment without trial, 160-1 and Dr Edmond's ventilating summary report, 162-3 apparatus, 93 treatment of illnesses, 149-50, health hazards of sailing in higher 152, 161 latitudes, 107 treatment of seasickness, 149 mortality on, 107 on Duchess of Northumberland; 147, artificial feeding of infants, 11,99-100 163-9 and infant mortality, 100-1 bathing, 168 risks of, 101 births at sea, 164, 165, 167, 169 Ascendant courts on board, 167, 168 cholera and, 108, 109 daily routine, 167 health conditions on, 109 discipline mortality on, 108-9 withholding of food and, 165 229 230 Index

Ayre, Dr John - continued breast-feeding, 101 and injuries to crew members, British Enterprise 168-9 in quarantine, 116 and matron, 168 smallpox on, 117 medical examination of emigrants British Ladies Female Emigration prior to departure, 164 SOciety (BLFES) and smoking below decks and and duties of matrons, 120-1 danger of fire, 167-8 and professional matrons, 124-5 treatment of illnesses, 165, 167, and provision of wool and sewing 168 materials, 142 on Tasman, 147 and selection of matrons, 118, 119 and training of matrons, 118, 121, babies 125 mothers and health of, 9 and welfare of women emigrants, 119 nurture of at sea, 9, 10 bronchitis see also births at sea; infants epidemic, 39 bakers on emigrant ships, 97, 110 and mortality, 28 Barnett, Dr A. and season of departure, 39, 40 on Bee;apore, 1, 2 Browne, H.H. bedding and American and British built and suffocation of infants, 103 ships, 31-2 Bedford, Mary Anne on voyage of Bee;apore, 2 on punishment of surgeon Brunskill, Sarah superintendent for striking on death of children, 18 emigrant, 129 Buckley, Mrs Beejapore, 1-6, 6-7, 20 giving birth prior to departure, 164 child mortality on, 1 burial at sea, 157, 158, 159, 169 Bell, Edward Bussorah Merchant on mortality and numbers of parental neglect of infants on, 96 emigrants on board, 31 Bemicia Campbell, Dr smallpox on, 113 digestive upsets from rich food, births at sea, 27, 35, 64, 86, 134, 147, 101~2 153, 157-8, 162, 165, 167, 169 Campbell, Dr Neil mortality, 1, 35, 47, 91, 109, 158, and organisation of activities of 161, 164 young women on board, 122 Blane, Gilbert causes of death of assisted emigrants and health reform in navy, 61 by age, 44-5 and maritime medical research, 57 classifications of, 48 Blundell reported by surgeons on voyages to professional matron on, 125 South Australia 1848-1885, Bone, Dr 182-90 on Constance, 176-7 by sex, 45, 50 books uses of South Australian data on, provision of on board, 163 180-1 Boumeuf, 20 Celtic peripheries health conditions on, 21-2 emigrants from mortality on, 20, 21, 28 communication/language bread, 96,97,109-10 problems, 25, 35, 106 Index 231

mortality, 34 on Shackamaxon, 27 susceptibility of to disease, 25, 34-5 on Surge, 114 see also Irish emigrants; Scottish on Thetis, 64 emigrants on Ticonderoga, 29 Chadwick, Edwin on Trade Wind, 174 and health reform, 61 whooping cough and see under Chance whooping cough matron on, 120 children charter party, 25 Colonial authorities and emigrant fining of ship owners for failure to workers with, 19 honour, 86-7 cyclical nature of infectious diseases prohibition of sailing in higher on voyage and, 41 latitudes, 107-8 diet of, 94-6, 98 under-provisioning and, 97 employers and emigrant workers Cheapside with,14 Dr John Ayre on, 147-63 and infectious diseases in ports of see also Ayre, Dr John departure, 15, 40 mortality on, 147, 157 medical examinations of prior to child, 148, 155, 159 departure, 41 infant, 155, 158, 161 parental neglect of, 102 scrutiny of ship and its emigrants Dr Charles Edward Strott and on arrival, 162 health of on St Vincent, 135 child mortality, 7, 17-18,31 susceptibility of to infectious on Apolline, 71 diseases on board, 41 on Art Union, 107 ventilation and health of, 92-3, 98 on Ascendant, 108 water quality and health of, 93, 98 on Beejapore, 1 and worms, 102 on Cheapside, 148, 155, 159 see also babies; health of infants convulsions and see under and children; infants; convulsions restrictions on numbers of diarrhoea and see under diarrhoea emigrants on board diet and, 95 Childs, Revd Thomas Cave diphtheria and see under diphtheria visits to emigrants ships prior to on Dirigo, 109 departure, 13, 70, 150, 164, 165 on Duchess of Northumberland, 148, Chisholm, Caroline 164, 169 and importance of space for infant on For(arshire, 91 health,94 on Himalaya, 108 and importance of ventilation for on Holmesdale, 49 infant health, 92 measles and see under measles and infant diet, 94-5 on Pestonjee Bomanjee, 85 cholera, 11 on Queen of Nations, 49 on Ascendant, 108, 109 on St Vincent, 134 on Dirigo, 110-12 scarlatina and see under scarlatina epidemic, 39, 109, 110-12 scarlet fever and see under scarlet on Himalaya, 39,108 fever and mortality, 27, 28, 110, 111 at sea and on land, 22 in ports of departure, 34, 108, 109, and seasonality 110 on land, 38 seasonality of, 39 232 Index

Chyebassa Colonisation Society, 122 voluntary constable on, 128 communication/language problems of cleanliness and hygiene emigrants from Celtic peripheries, between decks, 127 25, 35, 106 discipline and, 31, 128-9 constables see voluntary constables enforced by emigrants Constance, 176 themselves, 129 and cholera, 39 and disease prevention, 8, 38, 38-9 deficiency of clothing of emigrants and food and diet, 98 on, 107 and 'gospel of hygiene', 84, 153 health hazards of sailing in higher maritime surgeons and, 54, 59-60 latitudes, 36, 104, 105, 107 and mortality, 24-5, 30 mortality on, 27, 28, 36, 105 clergymen record passage of, 36, 105 accompanying emigrants, 83-4 consumption see tuberculosis clippers convict ships record-seeking, 104-5 health conditions on, 58 clothing mortality on, 9, 56 deficiency of that of emigrants on reduction of, 67 Constance, 107 pay scale on and that on emigrant mandatory outfit of, 82 ships (surgeons), 76 coercion on board see punishments, convulsions imposed on emigrants and mortality Colonial Land and Emigration child, 159 Commissioners infant, 51, 155, 161 annual reports, 181 Cook, Captain James and assessment of surgeon and health and hygiene at sea, 57 superintendents, 75 cooking facilities see under food and and Beejapore, 1, 6-7 diet and enquiry into Ticonderoga, 29-30 cooks on emigrant ships, 97, 175, on health conditions on Bourneuf, 177 22 gratuities paid on Thetis, 126 and hiring of naval surgeons for corporal punishment, 129, 130 emigrant ships, 89-90 courts on board, 11 and matrons, 120-2 Dr John Ayre and instructions to, 123-4 on Cheapside, 153, 155-6, 158, register of immigrant births and 159, 162 deaths, 181 on Duchess of Northumberland, and regular service of surgeon 167, 168 superintendents, 76-7, 90 crew members and restrictions on numbers of health and mortality of, 63, 65 young children on board, 23-4 injuries to, 137, 157, 168-9 relaxation of, 18~19, 22 rescue of after falling overboard, and routes to Australia, 3 169 and surgeon superintendents, 56 surgeon superintendents and hiring of, 88 disciplining of, 131 logs, 181 cross-infection Colonial Office soiled nappies and, 53 and relaxation of regulation on trans-shipment of assisted Daly, Charlotte emigrants, 7 matron, 122 Index 233 democracy and maintenance of health and punishment of emigrants dealt out hygiene, 128-9 by emigrants, 153, 162 Scottish and Irish emigrants and, see also courts on board 32,35,36-7 Destitute Board (South Australia) surgeon superintendents and, 76, complaints about Irish emigrants, 81, 98, 128, 131-2, 178-9 105-6 Dr John Ayre see courts on board diaries (of surgeon superintendents), and crew, 131 11 Dr Charles Edward Strutt, 131, 134 of Dr John Ayres, 147 see also punishments, imposed on of Dr Thomas Jones Vallance, emigrants; regulation of health 69-70, 70-1 conditions on emigrant ships diarrhoea disease choleric, 108, 109 prevention epidemic, 38, 108-9 cleanliness and hygiene and, 8, foul water and, 60, 93 38,38-9 improper food and, 101 development of knowledge of, 59 and mortality, 109 rations and, 8 child, I, 18, 38,39,49-50,108 sanitation and, 8, 13 infant, 49-50, 51, 53, 108 susceptibility of emigrants from artificial feeding and, 100-1 Celtic peripheries to, 25, 34-5 and respiratory infections, 38, 39 variability of, 10 and season of departure, 39, 40 see also epidemic infection; and susceptibility of children to infectious diseases infectious diseases on board, 41 disinfectants, 112, 127 and wasting diseases, 51, 53 Dolben's Act (1788) diet see food and diet and slave ships, 57 Digby, 153, 154 double-decked ships, 5, 20-1, 31, 32 diphtheria, 46-7, 49 adult mortality on, 22 in Australia, 47 health conditions on, 21-2 epidemic, 39, 46, 47 medical examinations prior to and mortality, 28, 47 departure of, 90-1 child, 46, 47, 49 mortality on, 20, 24-5, 90-1 in Melbourne, 49 Drake, Revd Benjamin, 173 and season of departure, 39 drunkenness treatment of, 49 emigrants diphtheritis see diphtheria punishments for, 129, 159, 160 Dirigo,20 surgeon superintendents, 24, 81 cholera on, 110-12 Duchess of Northumberland cleaning/purifying of, 112 Dr John Ayre on, 147, 163-9 continuance of voyage of, 112-13 see also Ayre, Dr John mortality on, 109, 110, 111 child mortality, 148, 164, 169 return of to Liverpool, 110-11, measles on, 165 110-12 Duncan, Dr Handasyde, 130 disCipline, 11 annual reports, 180 breakdown of, 81 and artificial feeding of infants, and health risks, 6, 10,30-1, 176 99-100 and mortality, 26, 28 and bedding, 102 enforcement of by emigrants and complaints against themselves, 129 Dr McKevitt, 24 234 Index

Duncan, Dr Handasyde - continued emigrants see government-assisted and death of infants, 101 emigrants; unassisted emigrants and enquiry into Lord Raglan, 86 emigration and enquiry into Shackamaxon, 27 conditions in nineteenth century, and health conditions on emigrant 11 ships, 99 gold and, 7 and matrons, 125 Emigration Commissioners see and pay of surgeon Colonial Land and Emigration superintendents, 78-9 Commissioners and prohibition of sailing in higher employers latitudes, 107 and relaxation of regulation on and smallpox, 113, lIS, 116 numbers of young children on and ventilation and health of board, 14, 18-19 infants and children, 92-3 and relaxation of regulation on and water quality and health of trans-shipment of assisted infants and children, 93 emigrants, 7 dysentery types of emigrants demanded by, and mortality, 28, 108 14,15 and worthiness of emigrant labour, Edhouse, Mrs 70 matron on Duchess of enteritis Northumberland, 168, 169 and mortality, 108 Edinburgh University epidemic infection, 10, 27 and medical training, 62 seasonality of, 38-40 Dr Edmond's ventilating apparatus, 93 see also infectious diseases; specific education and other activities on diseases board, 125, 142, 148, 153 Erin-go-Bragh see also exercise typhoid fever on, 32-3 elderly emigrants, 14, 137 Escott, John Henry Elliot, T.F. illness and death of on Cheapside, and surgeon superintendents 148, ISS surveillance of, 67 Europa emigrant depots mortality on, 20 Birkenhead, Liverpool, 110, 111 exercise emigrant ships and health and well being of American and British compared, 31-2 emigrants, 122, 135, 136 and convict ships, 9 large, 20, 26 Fairlie see also double-decked ships enforcement of discipline on by perils of travel on, 18 emigrants themselves, 129 provisions, stores, etc. on, 95 Family Colonisation Loan Society, 92 regulation of health conditions on family reunion see regulation of health emigration and, 151 conditions on emigrant ships fare-paying emigrants see unassisted shortage of, 19-20 emigrants supplies on see supplies feeding bottles for infants, 99, 100 uniform experience of, 181 Ferguson, Mrs K.E. see also high mortality ships; ship writings of from experience of owners being a matron, 122 Index 235 financial incentives to preserve life and sanitation, ventilation and surgeon superintendents and, 76 water quality, 98 fines and punishments imposed on for Scottish and Irish emigrants, 32, negligent/incompetent surgeon 35,79,97,102 superintendents, 75-6, 81, 85-6, supplies of food, 97 131 cheating of emigrants of by ship deprivation of part or all of owners and/or surgeon gratuity, 85, 86, 87, 172 superintendents, 98 dismissal, 85, 86 shortages of, 97-8 on Flying Cloud, 33, 85 under-estimates of, 96-7 jail, 33, 85 withholding of as punishment, on Mallard, 85 128-9, 134, 165 Dr McKevitt, 24 Fordham, William on Pestonjee Bomanjee, 85-6 in quarantine station, 177--8 public exposure, 75-6 on Trade Wind, 170, 177 on Shackamaxon, 28 Forfarshire, 91 for striking women emigrants, 129, Fortune 130 diphtheria on, 47 Fitzjames Foster, Isaac quarantine hulk, 116 trial and punishment of on Fitzpatrick, Jeremiah Cheapside, 156, 157 and slave and convict ships, 58, fumigation, 32, 112, 114, 127, 134 61 Fitzroy, Gov. Sir Charles Augustus Georgiana and complaints about surgeon care and consideration for superintendents, 88 emigrants from Celtic and recruiting of surgeon peripheries on, 35 superintendents, 89 Girls' Friendly Society, 125 Flying Cloud Gloucester jailing of surgeon superintendent mortality on, 28, 35, 36 of, 33, 85 gold and spread of typhoid fever after and emigration, 7, 14, 16, 19 arrival, 33, 85 government-assisted emigrants, 7, 9, food and diet 12,133 and adult mortality, 98 complaints about and monitoring of adults, 98 of performance of surgeon cooking facilities and, 171-2, 174, superintendents by see under 175 surgeon superintendents and disease prevention, 8 conditions of prior to departure, fish, 161 83-4 hazards of rich and fatty foods, deaths by number of per ship, 23 101-2 determination of to succeed, 15-16 and health of infants and children, hiring of after disembarkation, 139, 11,94-6 140 see also artificial feeding of instruction of in importance of infants sanitation, 37 parents taking food from children, to New South Wales, 12 102 numbers on St Vincent, 135 on Beejapore, 1, 2 236 Index government-assisted emigrants Groveley and Winchester's water - continued distilling apparatus, 93 origins of and mortality, 34-7 guidelines covering payment of preferential treatment of passage money for deaths in fare-paying emigrants over quarantine, 25-6 assisted emigrants on privately Guiding Star chartered ships, 174 wrecked by collision with iceberg, profile, 14-16 108 rate for those landed live, 76-7, 89, 90 Harricks, Dr Francis M. to South Australia, 12 on conditions of emigrants prior to to Victoria, 12 departure, 83-4 see also elderly emigrants; Irish Harry Lorrequer emigrants; Scottish emigrants; mortality on, 146 unassisted emigrants; women health conditions in ports of emigrants departure, 15 gratuities see also Liverpool deprivation of part or all of see health of emigrants prior to departure under fines and punishments and mortality, 32 imposed on health of infants and children, 11, negligent/incompetent surgeon 98-9 superintendents diet and, 94~6 for surgeon superintendents, 27-8, strategies for, 92-4 77, 172 see also under children; infants on Thetis, 126 Herbert, Sydney for those assisting surgeon and emigration of young women, superintendents, 73, 75 70 matrons, 118, 124, 125, 175 HMS Hercules, 20 voluntary constables, 127, 159 mortality on, 114-15 Gray, Dr Joseph smallpox on, 114 on Persian, 170 Hereford, 69, 133 criticism of, 172-3 Hesperus Gream, Dr diphtheria on, 46, 47 and diet of infants and children, 94 high mortality ships, 10, 17 SS Great Britain, 129 and size of ship, 26-7 Great Circle Route, 3, 104-5 high-tonnage ships health hazards on, 11, 104, 105, and high mortality, 26-7 107,108 and mortality, 31 deficient clothing, 107 higher latitudes Grey, Charles, second Earl health hazards of sailing in, 36, and naval surgeons on emigrant 104, 105, 107 ships, 89 prohibition of sailing in, 107-8 Grimes, Edward Highland and Island Emigration on matrons, 118-19, 120 SOciety, 19, 114, 122, 171 on mortality on Ticonderoga, 28-9 Himalaya on Dr Thomas Jones Vallance and and cholera, 39, 108 ApOlline, 71 mortality on, 27, 28, 36, 37, 108 Grimwade's Patent Desiccated Milk, hiring of emigrants after 99-100 disembarkation, 139, 140, 143-4 Index 237

Hobart Town Immigration Society, suffocation and, 103 173 teething and see under teething Holmesdale on Ticonderoga, 29 child mortality on, 49 wasting diseases and see under diphtheria on, 49 wasting diseases hospital assistants, 127 whooping cough and see under Howard, John whooping cough and health reform, 61 infants Howard, Mary ample space and health of, 94 on Duchess of Northumberland, 165 diet and health of, 94 Hugoumont diet of, 94-6 disdplinary action against chief employers and emigrant workers mate on, 131 with,14 matron on, 119 mothers and health of, 9, 162 hygiene see cleanliness and hygiene nurture of at sea, 9, 10 parental neglect of, 94, 95, 96 Immigration Boards (Colonial) ventilation and health of, 92-3 and complaints about surgeon water quality and health of, 93 superintendents see also artifidal feeding of infants; Lord of the Isles, 86 babies; health of infants and Dr McKevitt on Boumeuf, 24 children on Shackamaxon, 27-8 infectious diseases and diet and health of infants and cyclical nature of on voyages, 41 children, 96 development of knowledge of, 61 and health conditions on emigrant in ports of departure, 15, 34-5, 40 ships, 21, 85 rejection of emigrants with prior to Boumeuf, 21-2 departure, 152 Lord Raglan, 86 risk of spreading at ports of call, 32 incentives see finandal incentives to susceptibility of children to on preserve life board,41 infant mortality, 17, 31, 50 see also epidemic infection; spedfic artificial feeding of infants and, diseases 100-1 insurance on Cheapside, 155, 158, 161 of lives of emigrants, 25 convulsions and see under Irish emigrants convulsions complaints about quality of, 105-6 diarrhoea and see under diarrhoea demand for in Australia, 19 diet and, 95 and disdpline on board, 29-30, 35, diphtheria and see under diphtheria 36-7 effect of tuberculosis on mother and double-decked ships departing and,43 from Liverpool, 24 improper food and, 101 and food and diet, 32, 79, 97, 102 measles and see under measles infants, 101 parental neglect and, 96 and medical examinations prior to pneumonia and see under departure, 90-1 pneumonia religion, 79, 119, 141, 165 respiratory infections and see under Dr Charles Edward Strutt and respiratory infections quarrels among on St Vincent, and sanitation, 50 137 238 Index

Irish emigrants - continued Lady Jocelyn susceptibility of to disease, 25, 37 matron on, 125 women, 79-80, 122 mortality on, 26 on Thomas Arbuthnot, 140-6 Lady Milton see also communication/language measles on, 40 problems of emigrants from laissez-faire Celtic peripheries and health reform, 61 Isle of Skye and transport of emigrants, 55, 56 matron on, 119-20 language problems of emigrants from isolation procedures Celtic peripheries, 25, 35, 106 see quarantine; smallpox Launceston Immigration Aid Society, 173 James Fernie lay days cholera on, 39 deaths during, 25-6 mortality on, 28, 36 Lean, Lt., RN James Gibbs, 75 and Cheapside, 148 John Bunyan Levy, Elizabeth mortality on, 28, 36 trial and punishment of on Johnson, Dr O. Cheapside, 168 on Beejapore, 1 Lewis, Capt. Johnston, Dr Robert and courts on Cheapside, 153, 155, report of on Thetis, 64 158 Joseph Soames lime juice disciplinary action against first daily distribution of, 98 mate on, 131 Lind, James journals see logs (sick books/journals) and health reform, 61 jury service on board and maritime medical research, 57 women and, 153, 156 Liverpool departure from and mortality, 24, King William, 101 32 conditions on, 13 cholera, 108, 110 organisation of activities of young Loch, John D. women on board, 122 and criticism of Dr Joseph Gray, Kingston, W.H.G. 172-3 and emigration, 122 and enquiry into Persian in and training of emigrants in various quarantine, 171, 172 activities, 125 report on regulations on privately Klebs, Edwin chartered ships, 175-6 and diphtheria, 46 report on Trade Wind in Koch,Robert quarantine, 174, 178 and tuberculosis, 42 and scrutiny of Trade Wind and its emigrants on arrival, 173-4 La Trobe, Gov. Charles Joseph and treatment of emigrants on and enquiry into Ticonderoga, Persian in quarantine, 173 29-30 Lochee labour diphtheria on, 47, 49 demand for in Australia, 14, 15, 19 mortality on, 26, 28, 36, 47, 49 Lady Elgin LOffler, Friedrich mortality on, 146 and diphtheria, 46 Index 239 logs (sick books/journals), 180 assistant matrons on Thomas and official surveillance of maritime Arbuthnot, 141 surgeons, 63 on Cheapside, 149 of surgeon superintendents on on Duchess of Northumberland, 168, emigrant ships, 67, 68, 72 169 and official surveillance, 67, 68, duties of, 119, 120-1 69,72 gratuities, 118, 124, 125 Lord of the Isles paid on Thetis, 126 surgeon superintendent on, 86 importance of, 11 Lord Raglan instructions to, 123-4 mortality on, 86 and mortality, 118 surgeon superintendent on, 86 problems with some, 119-21 professional, 124-5 Macarthur, Col. Edward selection of, 118, 121 and organisation of activities of and surgeon superintendents, young women on board, 122-3 118-19, 120, 123-4 Mackern, Dr, 164 on Thomas Arbuthnot, 141 Magdalena on Trade Wind, 175 mortality on, 24 training of, 118, 119, 121, 125 Mallard McCreight, Dr W.W.M. diet of infants and children on, 95 and diphtheria on Fortune, 47 fining of surgeon superintendent McKevitt, Dr on, 85 on Bourneuf, 21 malnutrition, 175 on Magdalena, 24 and mortality, 174 measles malt before departure, 39-40, 165 extract of for infants, 99 epidemic, 5-6, 35, 38, 39, 41, 140 marasmus and mortality, 27, 28, 35 and mortality, 27, 28 adult, 40 see also wasting diseases child, I, 18,35,39,40 Marco Polo, 20 infant, 35, 50 mortality on, 20, 105 in ports of departure, 34 maritime medical research, 57-66 seasonality of, 38, 39 maritime surgeons treatment of, 39 and development of medical medical examinations research, 57-66 of children on board, 102 and development of public health prior to departure, 13-14, 14, IS, preventive programs, 66, 72, 76 81-3, 90-1, 110, 147-8, lSI, and disease prevention, 59 164 increase in status and pay of, 61 children, 41 official surveillance of, 63 double-decked ships, 90-1 and personal hygiene of crews, Medical Officers of Health, 66 slaves and convicts, 59 medical research and reform on slave ships,S 7 development of, 57-66 see also naval surgeons; surgeon medical training, 62 superintendents medicines and medical comforts for Marshall Bennett every 50 statute adults, 166 measles on, 40 menstruation at sea matrons management of, 53, 142 240 Index

Mereweathet, Mr enteritis and see under enteritis and scrutiny of St Vincent and its on Europa, 20 emigrants on arrival, 138 on Gloucester, 28, 35, 36 mess constables, 97 on Harry Lorrequer, 146 see also sanitary constables and health prior to departure, 32 Messrs James Baines & Co., 173 on Hercules, 114-15 Midlothian and high-tonnage ships, 26-7, 31 mortality on, 140 on Himalaya, 27, 28, 36, 37, 108 in quarantine, 140 on James Fernie, 28, 36 military medical research, 57 on John Bunyan, 28, 36 milk on Lady Elgin, 146 adulteration of, 100 on Lady Jocelyn, 26 see also powdered/condensed milk on Lochee, 26, 28, 36, 47, 49 Millard, James on Lord Raglan, 86 trial and punishment of on on Magdalena, 24 Cheapside, 159 malnutrition and, 174 Moger, Ellen marasmus and see under marasmus on death of children, 17-18 on Marco Polo, 20, 105 Morning Star matrons and, 118 mortality on, 27, 28, 36 measles and see under measles mortality, 7, 181 on Midlothian, 140 and age of emigrants, 35 on Morning Star, 27, 28, 36 on American ships, 32 and number of emigrants on board, on Art Union, 107 31 on Ascendant, 108-9 and numbers of young children per on Beejapore, 1, 2, 4-5 family on board, 23-4, 29 on Bourneuf, 20, 21, 28 origins of emigrants and, 34-7 breakdown of discipline on board per number of emigrants per ship, and,26,28 23 in Britain between 1861 and 1870, on Persian, 171, 173 43 phrenitis and see under phrenitis bronchitis and see under bronchitis puerperal fever and see under causes of, 11-12 puerperal fever on Cheapside, 147, 157 in quarantine, 4-5, 21, 28, 117, cholera and see under cholera 140, 170 cleanliness and hygiene and, 24-5, respiratory infections and see under 30 respiratory infections conditions in Liverpool and, 24, 32 scarlatina and see under scarlatina on Constance, 27, 28, 36, 105 scarlet fever and see under scarlet on convict ships, 9, 56 fever decline in, 179 at sea and on land, 18,22, 179 diarrhoea and see under diarrhoea seasickness and see under diphtheria and see under diphtheria seasickness distortion of figures by atypical season of departure and, 10 high mortality passages, 17-18 on Shackamaxon, 27, 28, 36 on double-decked ships, 20, 24-5, on ships arriving in South Australia, 90-1 11-12 dysentery and see under dysentery on slave ships, 57 and emigrants from Celtic smallpox and see under smallpox peripheries, 34 on Steadfast, 139 Index 241

tabes mesenterica and see under and reports of misdemeanours and tabes mesenterica incompetence by owners and/or on Tasman, 147, 150 surgeon superintendents, 87, on Thetis, 64 130-1, 131 on Ticonderoga, 20, 28-9 and reports of poor treatment of tracheitis and see under tracheitis women on board, 130 on Trade Wind, 174 nomination schemes, 14 tuberculosis and see under Dr Normandy's water distilling tuberculosis device, 93 typhoid fever and see under typhoid nurture of babies and infant at sea, 9, fever 10 typhus and see under typhus vague terminology and origins of emigrants multiple-causation regarding, and mortality, 34-7 52-3 on Wanata, 20 parental neglect whooping cough and see under of children, 102 whooping cough and health of infants and children, see also adult mortality; causes of 11 death of assisted emigrants; of infants, 94, 95, 96 child mortality; high mortality Parliamentary Papers ships; infant mortality aggregate tables, 181 mortality rate Immigration Agents' annual 1850s, 31 reports, 180 mothers passage costs, 25 breast-feeding, 101 passage money, 25 and health of babies, 9, 162 payment of for deaths in tuberculosis and, 43 quarantine, 25-6 Murdoch, Sir Thomas (T.W.C.), 37 Passenger Acts and laissez-faire, 56 amendments to, 54, 55 visits to emigrants ships prior to and American ships, 54-5 departure, 150 and regulation of health conditions on WCs, 37 on emigrant ships, 17, 178 Murphy, Mrs and surgeon superintendents, 54, matron on Thomas Arbuthnot, 56 141 passenger/tonnage ratio, 20, 26 pay and incentives - surgeon nappies, 53, 92, 142 superintendents, 11, 76, 76-9, 89, naval surgeons 90 pay on convict ships, 76, 77 rate pay on emigrant ships, 89 for emigrants landed live, 76-7, recruitment of for emigrant ships, 89,90 76, 89-90 on ships funded by Queensland New South Wales government, 77-8 emigrants to, 12 see also gratuities, for surgeon newspapers superintendents and reports of good work done by Pemberton, 75 surgeon superintendents, 91 matron on, 122 and reports of health conditions on Perryman, Zachariah, and wife emigrant ships, 68 and trial on board Cheapside, 153 242 Index

Persian, 170 public health preventive programs lack of adequate cooking facilities maritime surgeons and on, 171-2 development of, 66, 72, 76 mortality on, 171, 173 puerperal fever in quarantine, 171-3 and mortality, 108 typhus on, 171 punishments pertussis see whooping cough imposed on emigrants, 11, 128 Pestonjee Bomanjee corporal punishment, 129 fining of surgeon superintendent loss of gratuity, 159 on,85-6 for offences against women, mortality on, 85 129-30 phrenitis withholding of food, 128-9, 134, and mortality, 108 165 phthisis see tuberculosis see also courts on board pneumonia imposed on surgeon and infant mortality, 108 superintendents see fines and ports of call punishments imposed on danger of spreading infectious negligent/incompetent surgeon diseases, 33 superintendents ports of departure and cholera, 34, 108, 109, 110 quarantine, 11, 170 health conditions in, 15, 34-5 of Beejapore, 2-5 see also Liverpool of British Enterprise, 116 powdered/condensed milk, 99-100 guidelines covering payment of Powell, Martha passage money for deaths in, on Cheapside, 151, 152 25 pratique (permission to enter port) hulk Fitzjames, 116 Beejapore, 4 of Midlothian, 140 Flying Cloud, 33, 85 mortality in, 4-5, 21, 28, 117, 140, British Enterprise, 117 170, 171 Trade Wind, 178 of Persian, 171-3 pregnant women of Steadfast, 139-40 and seasickness, 9 Sydney quarantine station, 140 tuberculosis and, 43 Torrens Island Quarantine Station, unmarried, 70 116 press see newspapers of Trade Wind, 174-5, 177-8 Pringle, Sir John quarantine procedures and health reform in army, 61 Haynes Gibbes Alleyne on, 5-6 and military medical research, 57 Queen of Nations privately chartered ships, 170, 173 child mortality on, 49 conditions on compared with those diphtheria on, 49 on government-chartered ships, parental neglect of infants on, 96 13, 171, 175 Queensland government John Loch's report on regulations pay of surgeon superintendents on on, 175-6 ships funded by, 77-8 surgeon superintendents on, 176 provisions, stores, etc. on emigrant rainwater, 157 ships, 95 Ramillies Public Health Act (1872), 66 diphtheria on, 46, 47 Index 243

flogging of girls by surgeon Sacramento, 154 superintendent on, l30 St Vincent, 69 record passage times, 3, 11, 104 daily routine, l36 Constance, 36, 105 disciplinary action against records kept by surgeon emigrants on by, 131, 134 superintendents, 66-9, 72-3 women, 136 and reduction in mortality, 67 exercise on, l35, 136 regulations concerning, 68-9 food and diet on, l35 surviving, 67-8, 72 health of children on, l35 value of, 67-8 injuries to crew members, l37 see also logs (sick books/journals); quarrels among Irish emigrants on, summary reports by surgeon 137,138 superintendents scrutiny of ship and its emigrants Redfern, William on arrival, l38 Report on convict mortality (1814), Dr Charles Edward Strutt on, 9,56 133-40 referees recommending surgeon see also Strutt, Dr Charles Edward superintendents, 88 whooping cough on, l37 regulation of health conditions on Sanger, Dr emigrant ships, 7,8--9, 17, 67, 178 on Ticonderoga, 29 after colonies assumed sanitary constables, 73, 81 responsibility for mobilisation sanitation, 32 of emigrants, 82-4 and disease prevention, 8, l3 and high mortality ships, 17 and food and diet, 98 relaxation of, 7, 14 and infant mortality, 50 by surgeon superintendents, 76, instructing emigrants in importance 98, 178-9 of,37 see also restrictions on numbers Sarah of emigrants on board voluntary constable on, 127-8 Reilly, Thomas Sawyer, Lavinia death of, 169 on Fairlie and in South Australia, Reliance 129 surgeon superintendent on, 86 scarlatina religious sensibilities before departure, 39-40 respect for, 79, 119, 141, 168 epidemic, 30, 41, 114 respiratory infections and mortality, 27, 28, 39 diarrhoea and, 38, 39 child, 27, 35, 40, 114 and mortality, 38, 49 in ports of departure, 34 infant, 50 and scarlet fever, 196 n13 restrictions on numbers of emigrants and whooping cough, 40 on board, 31 scarlet fever young children, 7, 14, 19, 23-4, epidemic, 32 50-1 and mortality, 28, 32 relaxation of, 14, 18-19, 22, 29 child, 1 rickets and scarlatina, 196 n13 epidemic, 38 schoolmasters seasonality of, 38 complaints by schoolmaster on Roland, Mrs Beejapore, 4-5 giving birth on Cheapside, 161 gratuities paid on Thetis, 126 244 Index

Scottish emigrants ships see American ships; convict demand for in Australia, 19 ships; double-decked ships; and diScipline on board, 29~30, 35, emigrant ships; high mortality 171 ships; high-tonnage ships and· double-decked ships departing sick books see logs (sick books/ from Liverpool, 24 journals) and food and diet, 32, 35, 97, 102 single women infants, 101 British Ladies Female Emigration and medical examinations prior to Society and Society for departure, 90-1 Promoting Christian mortality on Persian, 173 Knowledge and, 119 religion, 165 dispute among on Trade Wind, and smallpox on Hercules, 114 174-5 susceptibility of to disease, 25, 37 protection of, 4, 119,124, 125, see also communication/language 129-30,131 problems of emigrants from treatment of after disembarkation Celtic peripheries from St Vincent, 138-9 scurvy, 98 slave ships seasickness health and hygiene on, 57, 58, 59, and breast-feeding, 101 59-60, 65 and mortality, 10 infectious diseases on, 61 treatment of, 10, 149 medical journals kept be surgeons and women, 9-10 on, 63 season of departure/seasonality slums and bronchitis, 39, 40 and medical research, 61 and cholera, 39 smallpox, 11,81-2, 113-17 and diarrhoea, 39, 40 epidemic, 115 and diphtheria, 39 and mortality, 113, 114-15, 115 and measles, 39 preventative measures against and mortality, 10 spread of, 15, 113-14 on land, 38 isolation procedures, 113, 114, 116 and whooping cough, 39 vaccination, 81-2, 113-14, 115-16, sectarianism 117 Dr Charles Edward Strutt on evils smoking below decks, 167 of, 141 Soar, Emma Select Committee on Emigrant Ships on Cheapside, 147, 150, 155 (1854) death of, 157 and sanitation, 37 Society for Promoting Christian sex of emigrants Knowledge (SPCK) causes of death by, 45, 50 and welfare of women emigrants, Shackamaxon, 20 119 enquiry into, 27-8 Society for the Propagation of the mortality on, 27, 28, 36 Gospel (SPG) ship owners and training of emigrants in various cheating of emigrants of supplies of activities, 125 food by, 98 sources, 180-1 fining of for failure to honour South Australian, 12, 180 charter party, 86-7 South Australian Government Gazette, shipping shortage, 19-20 180 Index 245 space and cleanliness, 141-2 importance of for health of and Irish women emigrants, emigrants, 7, 31 79-80, 140-6 importance of for health of infants, and activities and instruction, 94 142 Sprod, Dr John hiring of after disembarkation, on Forfarshire, 91 143-5 Stamp, Dr J.S. homesickness of, 142-3 on Tasman, 150 journey to Yass, 144-5 Star Queen organisation of into messes, master fined for inadequacy of food 141 and medical supplies, 87 routine on board, 142 statutory inspections of convict and Sullivan, Dr emigrant ships, 58 on Pemberton, 75 Steadfast, 75 summary reports by surgeon mortality on, 139 superintendents, 68-9, 72-3, 75, in quarantine, 139 180, 181 steerage passengers contents of, 73, 75, 162-3 on Beejapore, 1 superintendents see surgeon Stewart, Mrs superintendents matron on Cheapside, 149 supplies SS Strathaird ship owners fines for not providing smallpox on, 116 adequate quantity of, 87 Strutt, Dr Charles Edward shortages of, 96-7 career of, 69, 133, 146 Surge on Harry Lorrequer, 146 child mortality on, 114 on Hereford, 69, 133, 146 scarlatina on, 113-14 on Lady Elgin, 146 smallpox on, 113-14 and quarantine of Steadfast, 139-40 surgeon superintendents, 6, 132, 178 on St Vincent, 133-40 cheating of emigrants of supplies of daily routine, 136 food by, 98 disciplinary action against and clothing of emigrants, 82 emigrants on, 131, 134 complaints about and monitoring women, 136 of performance of by and exercise, 135, 136 emigrants, 24, 27-8, 67, 81, 85, and food and diet, 135 88,130 and health of children, 135 fabricated, 90 and hiring of emigrants after conditions faced by, 6 disembarkation, 139 and conditions of women and 'imbecile old woman', 137 emigrants, 79-80 and injuries to crew members, and corporal punishment, 129, 130 137 and disciplinary action against and quarrels among Irish members of crew, 131 emigrants, 137, 138 discipline and regulation of health and treatment of single women conditions on board by, 76, 81, after disembarkation, 138-9 98, 128, 131-2, 178-9 and whooping cough, 13 7 see also under Strutt, Dr Charles and Sydney quarantine station, 140 Edward on Thomas Arbuthnot, 140-6 and disease prevention, 8 246 Index surgeon superintendents - continued Swain, Dr W.D.P. emigrants and monitoring of experiences on King William, 13 performance of, 67 sweets fines and punishments imposed on to get children together for medical see fines and punishments examination, 102 imposed on negligent/ Sydney quarantine station incompetent surgeon Dr Charles Edward Strutt and, 140 superintendents gratuities for, 27-8, 77, 85 tabes mesenterica, 43 importance of, 10 and mortality, 108 and keeping of records see records Tasman kept by surgeon mortality on, 147, 150 superintendents Taymouth Castle and matrons, 118-19, 120, 123-4 mortality on, 115 and medical examinations prior to smallpox on, 115-16 departure, 81-3, 90-1 teething and monitoring of performance of and infant mortality, 108 and making complaints about Thetis, 74 by emigrants, 87 gratuities paid on, 126 Passenger Acts and, 54, 56 mortality on, 64 pay and incentives see pay and Thomas Arbuthnot, 69 incentives - surgeon scrutiny of ship and its emigrants superintendents on arrival, 143 and private practice on voyage, 77, Dr Charles Edward Strutt on, 140-6 78,84 see also Strutt, Dr Charles Edward on privately chartered ships, 176 Tibbetts, Dr punishments imposed by, 11 on Trade Wind, 174, 175 recruitment of, 76, 88, 89-90 Ticonderoga, 20 referees recommending, 88 enquiry into, 29-31 regular service of, 69, 76-7, 90 mortality on, 20, 28-9 role of, 8, 11, 56, 73, 81 withholding of passage money from discussion of by contemporaries, master of for deaths in 84 quarantine, 25 and reduction of adult mortality, Torrens Island Quarantine Station, 87-8 116 skills of, 8, 57 tracheitis status of, 84 and mortality, 47, 49 and supervision of emigrants on tracheotomy, 49 board, 81-2, 84 Trade Wind, 170, 173 and supervision of feeding of dispute among single women, children, 102 174-5 surveillance of by officials, 67, 68, lack of adequate cooking facilities 69, 76, 81, 179 on, 174, 177 and weekly medical examination of mortality on, 174 children, 102 child, 174, 177 surgeons see maritime surgeons; naval in quarantine, 174-5, 177-8 surgeons; surgeon scrutiny of ship and its emigrants superintendents on arrival, 173-4 surveillance of maritime surgeons, 63 surgeon superintendent on, 174, surgeon superintendents on 175, 177 emigrant ships, 67, 68, 69, 76 typhus epidemic on, 173-4 Index 247 treatments, 149-50, 152, 161, 165, Victoria 167, 168 emigrants to, 12 of diphtheria, 49 voluntary constables, 127-8 of measles, 39 on Cheapside, l48, 159 of seasickness, 10, 149 duties of, 127, 128 Treloar, Jeremiah gratuities, 127, 159 assault of on Cheapside, 159 on Thetis, 126 Trevelyan, Sir Charles importance of, 11 and smallpox vaccination of on Queensland government Scottish emigrants, 115 steamships, 128 Tristan, Flora voyages to Australia and seasickness, 10 restrictions on routes, 3 troops travelling to tropical stations successful transport of emigrants, health and mortality of, 63 8-9 Trotter, Thomas see also Great Circle Route; record and maritime medical research, 57, passage times 61 tuberculosis, l4-15, 42-3, 155 wages and mortality, 42-3, 108, 157, 174 of emigrants hired after unassisted emigrants with, 42 disembarkation, 139 typhoid fever Walcott, Stephen epidemic, 32-3 and emigrants on Dirigo, 112-13 and mortality, 32 and flogging of girls by surgeon spread of after arrival of Flying superintendent on Ramillies, Cloud, 33, 85 130 and typhus, 59 and surveillance of surgeon typhus superintendents, 67 epidemic, 173-4 Walford, Selena and mortality, 32, 35, 171 matron on Lady Jocelyn, 125 in ports of departure, 34 Wanata, 20 and typhoid fever, 59 mortality on, 20 wasting diseases unassisted emigrants, 6-7, 12-13 and diarrhoea, 51, 53 preferential treatment of on Trade and mortality Wind,174 child, 49-50 on Trade Wind, 173 infant, 49-50, 51-3 with tuberculosis, 42 see also marasmus Usherwood, William water on conditions in quarantine, 4, 170 distillation/purification of, 60, 93, on conditions on Beejapore, 1-2, 6 98 on enqUiry into complaints by quality of schoolmaster on Beejapore, 5 and food and diet, 98 and health of infants and vaccination see under smallpox children, 93, 98 Vallance, Dr Thomas Jones rainwater, 157 on Apolline, 69-72 water closets (WCs), 21, 32, 37-8 venereal disease, 149, 151-2 Wells, Ann ventilation, 54, 58 on Cheapside, 150, 151-2 and food and diet, 98 rejected from Cheapside with and health of infants and children, signs of infectious disease, 92-3,98 149 248 Index

Wells, Lucy Irish, 79-80, 122, 140-6 trial and punishment of on and jury service on board, 153, Cheapside, 155-7, 163 156 Whaypool, Joseph and seasickness, 9-10 punishment of on Cheapside, 160-1, surgeon superintendents and 163 conditions of, 79-80 whooping cough see also causes of death of assisted epidemic, 38, 39, 41 emigrants, by sex; mothers; and mortality, 28, 39 pregnant women; single child, I, 40, 71, 107 women; young women infant, 50 Wood, Mr in ports of departure, 34 on Cheapside, 148, 152 on St Vincent, 13 7 and baptisms, 157 and scarlatina, 40 and burial rites, 157, 159 seasonality of, 38, 39 and courts, 153, ISS, 158 shortly before landing, 41, 71 worms Wilcocks, James children and, 102 visits to emigrant ships prior to departure, ISO, 164 Yass Wilson, Hugh Irish women emigrants voluntary constable on Sarah, 127-8 accompanied by Dr Charles women emigrants Edward Strutt to, 144-5 disciplinary action against by young women Dr Charles Edward Strutt on emigration of, 70 St Vincent, 136 organisation of activities of on 'imbecile old woman' on St Vincent, board,122 137 welfare of, 121