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L9waagfc..Ift G F W * A.Gfttfi.Flfc Bfbi: •Civoix.' Uiviv L9waagfc..ift g f w * A.gfttfi.flfc Abdul Karla i'uregr *h#D. Thesis ^ondon 1 9 7 1 BFBi: •CiVOIX.' UiVIV. ProQuest Number: 10672921 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672921 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 ABSTRACT Loanwords from other African as well as non- African languages form a substantial part of the Tenne lexicon# Despite the importance of loanwords in historical and comparative linguistics howevert the study of loanwords in African languages has received Inadequate attention in the paety and there has been a lack of comprehensive case-studies into the sources and processes of borrowing within individual African languages# involving inter-African loanwords as well as loanwords from European languages and/or Arabic# The present thesis is designed to provide such a comprehensive case-study, based on Temnef the major language of northern Sierra Leone and the writer's mother-tongue* The first chapter is an introduction to Temne language and society* A majority of words borrowed into Temne from other African languages relate to the cultural Institutions of the Temne and it has been necessary to provide cultural as well as linguistic data in examining the assimilation of these loanwords* The following methodological introduction discusses the problems of the historical study of an unwritten language# together with a proposed methodology for the identification of loanwords in Temne# The source languages are discussed under chapters with introductory sections on the phonology of each language on the historical and cultural contacts between the Temne and speakers of each language* Loanwords are arranged and discussed under separate semantic categories v demonstrating the areas of culture where each source language has had its greatest impact* Items from Handing, Susu and Pula (and from Arabic via these languages) illustrate the impact of Islam on traditional Tonne culture, while items from Hende relate largely to the major Temne 'secret1 societies* Limba and Bullom are dealt with briefly* The final chapters cover non-Sierra Leonean sources# i*e* Engliah/Krio and Portuguese, involving mainly trade and technology# but having little impact on indigenous culture# together with Yoruba# introduced via Krio# involving 'secret' society terminology* V 3 INDEX Abstract 3 Index 4- ¥) Conventions 5 Acknowledgements 6 I. Introduction to the Temne Language and Society 7 2* Methodological Introduction 3* Manding and Susu Loanwords S 9" 4» Pula Loanwords l O 5 * Mende Loanwords 6* Limba and Bullom Loanwords 7. English/Krio Loanwords 203 8. Oku (Yoruba) Loanwords 305" 9* Portuguese Loanwords ^2J G c m s m K W B A capital letter immediately before a source item indicates, wherever necessary,the source language: A. Arabic B* Bui lorn E* English P. Pula K. Krio 1* Limba M* Manding Me. Mende P. Portuguese S* Susu Te* Temne Y* Yoruba (via Krio) SY* Yoruba (Modern standard) > or ^ derived from (in direction of loan) replaced by * corresponds (phonologically) to =s Verbal stem in Temne — Nominal or adjectival (non-verbal) stem in Temne ~ Extension suffix Phonemic orthography for African languages,spelling orthography for European languages and Arabic (unless phonetic orthography in square brackets)* English glosses are cited with a capitalised initial* AGKEommamm is My sincere thanks are due to my tutor, Dr David Dalby, for having so tirelessly guided and advised me throughout the preparation of this thesis* My acknowledgements are due, for their specialist advice, to Dr Herman Bell, Dr Humphrey Pisher, Dr G-ordon. Innes, Mr Ian P.Hancock and Professor W.H. Whiteley, all of S.O.A.S., and to Professor Eldred Jones of Pourah Bay College. I owe a special debt of gratitude, for their financial assistance during the course of my research for this thesis to the School of Oriental and African Studies, Hjala University College, the Cassell Educa- Trust tio^/, end Dr Davidson Hicol. Above all to my father, An sum ana Turay, and to my mother, for their encourage­ ment and support throughout my education. CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION TO TEMNE LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY 1.1 Temne: Belated Languages and Geographical Location Temne /kq^-t hemne/is the major language spoken in _ i Northern Sierra Leone,with ahout 648,931 native speakers! It is also used as a second language among other ethnic groups in the Northern Province,making the total number of speakers of Temne probably over 800,000* Temne is one 2 of a group of class languages known as fMclf spoken in Guinea,Sierra Leone and Liberia: Landuma and Baga (spoken in Guinea)*form,with Temne,the northernmost sub-group of these languages,the other members being Bullom,Krim,E:issi and Gola. The Temne today occupy a wide area in the centre of Sierra Leone stretching eastwards from Port Loko and Kambia Districts into southern Bombali and Tonkolili Districts,sharing a common boundary with the Mende to the south of them. The Limba, Loko and Susu form the northern neighbours of the Temne. 1. This is the figure recorded in the Official Census figures of April 1 9 6 5 . 2. D.Dalby, ’The Mel Languages:A Reclassification of Southern West Atlantic’African Language Studies,Yl,1965* pp.1-17. GO, r- Dialects Five regional, dialects have been distinguished* The differences a,re mostly lexical and, in the case of the Kunike dialect,in tonology also; there are also minor phonological variations in the Yoni dialect* 1,a 1 Western ,including two sub-dialects: a) North Western is spoken in the i^orth West of Port loko and Kambia Districts,including Koya and Freetown peninsular area* This dialect contains more Arabic and Manding/^usu-derived words than any other Temne dialect* Over half of the Susu speakers in Sierra leone live in Kambia. and Fort loko Districts,these being also the most Islamised of all Temne-speaking areas in Sierra leone, /kg-s ancK/ b) Sanda^is spoken in Western Bombali and Eastern Port loko Districts,in the grassland areas where many Fula herdsmen and Koranic teachers have settled,intermarrying with the Temne. This accounts for the occurence of a larger number of Fula words in this dialect than, the others. 1*22 Bombali /ks-gbambft 11/ is spoken in Southern Bombali District* It is more cosmopolitan than other dialects in terms of items received,containing a wider range of vocabulary from all the surrounding languages (Manding, Fula, Limba, Mend e, Susu) * 1*25 Yoni /kQ-ffinx /is spoken in southern Tonkolili and the south-east border of Port Loko District,being strongly influenced by Mende and Bullom* In pronunciation, it has certain palatal phonemes /J/ and /JJ/, corresponding to /s/ and /fe/ in other dialects, as well as the semi-vowel /y/ before the front vowels /i/ /e/ and /£/,corresponding to /w/ in other dialects,e*g. Other Dialects Yoni w—lr\ Goat^ s. N \ w-er Mouse y-er N S *we.lc Wring *=y£ k 1*24 Western Kunike 1is spoken iq central Tonkolili,its vocabulary being generally similar to that of Yoni* 1* Speakers of Western Kunike do not refer to their dialect s / V*j V** tru>n k3-kanke*in the same way as k§-sanda is not used^for the North Western dialect (see 1*21), 1.25 Eastern Kunike /ka^konke/is/ v Sl ^ / spoken in eastern Tonlaolili District,with Kuranko and Kono as neighbouring languages. Other speakers of Temne often find it difficult to understand this dialect,semantic divergences between Eastern Kunike and other dialects being a principal reason for this,e.g. Other Dialects E, Kunike s \ £.~sa Buttocks £~sa Vagina S. s k3-tit Vagina ka^tit Buttocks Some words occuring in Eastern Kunike are known only to older speakers of the other dialects, e.g. Kunike v^-dCrqt I)oori Open.A major characteristic of Kunike,both Eastern and Western, is that it has a low tone in caes where the other dialects have a falling tone in the final syllable: Other Dialects Kunike ks-dare Door ke~dare b^ Amulet a-e^be* s / ^ a, -pot hr Cup a-ps>thi There are no major grammatical differences among the Temne dialects. 1.3 Structure of Temne This description is not exhaustive,including only those details which are significant in the identifi­ cation of loanwords. Thus the phonology includes the consonant and vowel charts,useful in the establishment of sound correspondences,whil£ the list of positional occurences and the statement on syllabic and tonal structures help in establishing those features which are usually found only in loanwords* The dialect described below is Bombali, the most centrally located and also the writer’s own idiolect* The consonant and vow&l phonemes are shown in the accompanying charts ,using the conventional Temne orthographic symbols* 1* 3 1 Consonants A:t,uv<fw,AR fALHTAL V£*-AR ^iofTAU 3>£M7AL 'SfiMTAl* Plosives p b th t d (t^ k gb 2 Affricates Pricatives f s (£) h Rasals m n tj Laterals 1 Roll rr Semi-vowels w t y 1 )[t!JandfJ>J S0m*^^-meS occur as allophonic variants of /t/ and /s/ respectively,before the front vowels/i/, /e/ or /£/* 2) /*) / is homorganic before Cf 13 3) /2 / and /}%/ occur only in loanwords 4) /w/ before /i/ /e/ or /e/ occurs as /y/ in Toni* 1»33l.
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