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UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology UCLA UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology Title British Egyptology (1882-1914) Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7nt9d23q Journal UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 1(1) Author Sheppard, Kathleen Publication Date 2021-07-06 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California BRITISH EGYPTOLOGY (1882 – 1914) ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﯾﺎت اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﻲ (1882 – 1914) Kathleen Sheppard EDITORS RUNE NYORD WILLEKE WENDRICH Editor, History of Egyptology Editor-in-Chief Emory University, USA University of California, Los Angeles, USA SOLANGE ASHBY ANNE AUSTIN Editor, Nubia Editor, Individual and Society University of California, Los Angeles, USA University of Missouri-St. Louis, USA MENNAT –ALLAH EL-DORRY WOLFRAM GRAJETZKI Editor, Natural Environment Editor, Time and History Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Egypt University College, London, UK JUAN CARLOS MORENO GARCÍA TANJA POMMERENING Editor, Economy Editor, Domains of Knowledge Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Germany UMR 8167 (Orient & Méditerranée), Sorbonne Université, France ANDRÉAS STAUDER Editor, Language, Text and Writing École Pratique des Hautes Études, Université Paris Sciences et Lettres, France Short Citation: Sheppard 2021, British Egyptology (1882-1914). UEE. Full Citation: Sheppard, Kathleen, 2021, British Egyptology (1882-1914). In Rune Nyord and Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles. ISSN 2693-7425. http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz002kp4nv 49664 Version 1, July 2021 http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark= 21198/zz002kp4nv BRITISH EGYPTOLOGY (1882 – 1914) ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﯾﺎت اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﻲ (1882 – 1914) Kathleen Sheppard Britische Ägyptologie (1882 – 1914) Égyptologie britannique (1882 – 1914) The period from 1882 – 1914 has been called the “Golden Age” of Egyptology, but that term is problematic in light of the fact that it was a Golden Age only for Europeans and Americans. In Britain, the founding in 1882 of the Egypt Exploration Fund (EEF, now Egypt Exploration Society [EES]) and the beginning of the Great War in 1914 bookend this tumultuous period of Egyptology. During this period, political, religious, economic, and institutional structures impacted the intellectual development of British Egyptology as practiced both in Britain and in Egypt. The establishment of Egyptology as a university-taught subject was crucial to the field. By 1904, the signing of the Entente Cordiale between France and Britain meant that France recognized diplomatically that Britain occupied Egypt. In turn, the French had control over the direction of the Antiquities Service; however, that service was ultimately under the control of the British. ﺳﻤﯿﺖ اﻟﻔﺘﺮة ﻣﻦ 1882 — 1914 ﺑـ "اﻟﻌﺼﺮ اﻟﺬھﺒﻲ" ﻟﻌﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﯾﺎت، ﻟﻜﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ - ﯾﻤﺜﻞ إﺷﻜﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻷﻧﮫ ﻛﺎن ﻋﺼ ًﺮا ذھﺒﯿًﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻸوروﺑﯿﯿﻦ واﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﺎن ﻓﻘﻂ. ﻓﻲ ﺑﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﯿﺎ وﺧﻼل ﻋﺎم 1882 ﻛﺎن ﺗﺄﺳﯿﺲ ﺻﻨﺪوق اﺳﺘﻜﺸﺎف ﻣﺼﺮ (اﻵن ﺟﻤﻌﯿﺔ اﺳﺘﻜﺸﺎف ﻣﺼﺮ) وﺑﺪاﯾﺔ اﻟﺤﺮب اﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ (اﻟﺤﺮب اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ) ﺧﻼل ﻋﺎم 1914 ﻣﺘﺰاﻣﻨﺎ ً ﻟﮭﺬه اﻟﻔﺘﺮة ﻣﻦ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﯾﺎت. ﺣﯿﺚ أﺛﺮت اﻟﻜﯿﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ واﻟﺪﯾﻨﯿﺔ واﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﺧﻼل ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻔﺘﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻄﻮر اﻟﻔﻜﺮي ﻟﻌﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﯾﺎت اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺑﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﯿﺎ وﻣﺼﺮ. وﻛﺎن إﻧﺸﺎء ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﯾﺎت ﻛﻤﻮﺿﻮع ﯾﺪرس ﺑﺎﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ أﻣ ًﺮا ﺣﺎﺳ ًﻤﺎ ﻟﮭﺬا اﻟﻤﺠﺎل. ﺑﺤﻠﻮل ﻋﺎم 1904، ﻛﺎن ﺗﻮﻗﯿﻊ اﺗﻔﺎق اﻟﻮﻓﺎق اﻟﻮدي ﺑﯿﻦ ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ وﺑﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﯿﺎ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أن ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ اﻋﺘﺮﻓﺖ دﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﯿﺎً ﺑﺎﻻﺣﺘﻼل اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﻲ ﻟﻤﺼﺮ. ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ، ﻛﺎن اﻟﻔﺮﻧﺴﯿﻮن ﯾﺴﯿﻄﺮون ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﺟﮭﺎت ﻣﺼﻠﺤﺔ اﻵﺛﺎر .وﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ، أﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﻣﺼﻠﺤﺔ اﻵﺛﺎر ﻓﻲ ﻧﮭﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﺎف ﺗﺤﺖ ﺳﯿﻄﺮة اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﯿﯿﻦ. n 1882 two major events took term is problematic, so we must always place that impacted the practice of question for whom this period was a Golden I British Egyptology—the first Age. It was so for the West: primarily Britain, meeting of the Egypt Exploration Fund France, Germany, and the United States. (EEF, renamed Egypt Exploration Society Because of the colonial situation in Egypt, [EES] in 1919) in London in March and the these countries had unprecedented control British bombardment of Alexandria in July. over, and access to, the historical artifacts of The next 40 years would comprise what many the country’s entire history. By 1914, call the “Golden Age” of Egyptology. This hundreds of thousands of artifacts of British Egyptology (1882 – 1914), Sheppard, UEE 2021 1 Egyptian history had been excavated from the remain so over the next three years. By early ground and dispersed to collections all over 1882, ‘Urabi had forced Tewfik to dismiss his the world (Stevenson 2019). In that same year, cabinet, strengthen the people’s the Great War (World War I) began, tearing representation, and strengthen the army; the up lives, land, and much of the world for the nationalist ‘Urabi Revolt had begun (Cole next five years. 1993; Goldschmidt 2004: 44). In March of the same year, on Edwards’ initiative, the Egypt Driven by violent colonial practices and a Exploration Fund (EEF) was founded and pervading sense of cultural superiority, British held their first meeting in London. In July, Egyptology focused on the appropriation and however, in order to fight the nationalist interpretation of a culture not its own, while uprising, the British bombarded the port city at the same time oppressing and silencing of Alexandria, and by August, British forces indigenous voices and labor (e.g., Wortham had moved into the country and taken control 1971; Fagan 1975; James 1982; Reid 2002). of the government, re-establishing a The accepted general storyline of this period subservient Khedivate under Tewfik. This of British Egyptology is one of salvage and situation gave Britain control of Egypt and preservation by heroic men and their crews made it possible for Europeans to continue to (e.g., Drower 1985; Thompson 2015a, 2015b, run roughshod over Egyptian sovereignty for 2018). Due to the important work of current the next seventy years with little to no scholars, the narrative is becoming more repercussions (Reid 1999). The British had accurately inclusive and less colonial, but there also gained safer access to sites and is a lot of work still to be done (e.g., antiquities, meaning that the practice of Carruthers, ed. 2014; Riggs 2014; Mairs and British Egyptology is inextricably bound up Muratov 2015). with violence and exploitation (Mitchell 2002: Controlling and Exploring Egypt 179-205; Reid 2002: 172; Colla 2007). The British maintained a few primary In 1877, Amelia Edwards asserted in her reasons for their interest in Egypt. The first travelogue A Thousand Miles up the Nile that, in and strongest was colonial control, which in Egypt, “The work of destruction, meanwhile, turn impacted the study of ancient Egypt. goes on apace. There is no one to prevent it; When Britain gained control of Egypt in 1882, there is no one to discourage it. Every day, their purview included not only industry, more inscriptions are mutilated—more tombs economics, and politics, but also ancient are rifled—more paintings and sculptures are monuments and their history (Mitchell 1988, defaced” (Edwards 1877: 323). She wrote with 2002; Reid 2002; Colla 2007: 72-165). In fact, urgency to her fellow Britons to save the in 1882, Reginald Stuart Poole, Edwards’ co- Egyptian monuments from the Egyptians secretary of the EEF and the Keeper of Coins themselves. Just two years before this, the and Medals at the British Museum, argued Khedive Isma’il had sold his shares in the that the ancient Egyptian monuments “exist Suez Canal to the British government because for the benefit of the [British] nation, and it is he could not afford payments on the loans he our duty to wake public interest in the matter, had taken out from Western powers to build and to do our utmost to save for future infrastructure and modernize Egypt. This instruction those treasures which, like the acquisition gave Britain majority control in the Egyptian tombs, we may live to lament in Suez Canal Company, and they intended to vain” (Poole 1882: 24). Maintaining their keep it. In 1879, Isma’il was deposed in favor political and economic control over Egypt of his son, Tewfik, who was seen as more would motivate and bolster support for amenable to working with the European British Egyptology for the foreseeable future powers coming into Egypt. Not wanting a (Reid 2002; Colla 2007). Indeed, from the hostile foreign takeover, an Egyptian army founding of the EEF in 1882, Edwards’ main officer named Ahmad ‘Urabi rose up as the goal was to promote Egyptology to the British voice of the Egyptian people and would and American public in order to raise money British Egyptology (1882 – 1914), Sheppard, UEE 2021 2 for the Fund so they could support more Petrie soon became known not just for his salvage and preservation work throughout methodical excavation work, but also for Egypt. She worked closely with a number of being interested in the small finds, like well-known archaeologists and museum potsherds, small statues, and beads, as curators who had expertise all over the opposed to large statues and monuments. Mediterranean world. Significantly, she had Using these smaller pieces others discarded gone from having just a few subscribers for led to one of Petrie’s fundamental the Fund in England in 1882 to having over contributions to the discipline: using pottery 160 in the UK and US by the end of 1886 for dating artifacts and establishing a timeline (Drower 1982; Moon 2006: 211-243). of ancient Egypt. The first excavations funded by the EEF Funding Institutional Egyptology in Britain were not performed by a British Egyptologist at all because, arguably, there were none Most of the money to support not only (Thompson 2015b: 15). Instead it was the exploration in Egypt but also the institutions Swiss Egyptologist Edouard Naville who in Britain that would prepare new excavated for the Fund at their first site, Tell Egyptologists to go out into the field was not al-Maskhuta, in the eastern Delta, beginning public money. Societies such as the EEF and in January of 1883 (Naville 1885).
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