The Costs and Benefits of Active Fatherhood

Evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice www.fathersdirect.com A paper prepared by Fathers Direct to inform the DfES/HM Treasury Joint Policy Review on Children and Young People

Author: Adrienne Burgess

Sponsored by: The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

Foreword Duncan Fisher, Chief Executive, Fathers Direct

In the UK in 2006, in a ‘Call for Evidence’, the Joint Policy Review on Children and Young People set up by H M Treasury and the Department for Education and Skills expressed a wish to identify risk and protective factors in four areas: family prosperity; parenting and parents’ behaviour; neighbourhood; and public services. A particular focus was to be on ‘Prevention’ (including ‘breaking the cycle of deprivation’) and on the needs of ‘High Cost, High Harm’ families.1 Such policy areas are, of course, of interest to all governments concerned with the well being of children in the context of social justice.

There was, however, a novel If policy makers (and researchers We are grateful not only to our element in this project: in the and practitioners) were to funders - Lloyds TSB, BT and the document on which the Joint include fathers in their thinking, Tudor Trust - who made this Policy Review’s Call for Evidence it was clear that fathers’ impact Research Review possible, but was based - Support for Parents, on children and families needed also to our Reference Group of the best start for children (H M to be laid out in a systematic distinguished and very busy Treasury/DFES, 2005) - way, and in a document which academics. All those whose fatherhood was identified as a could be easily made available names are listed on the next key concern; and the importance to them. page commented on an earlier Duncan Fisher, of public services’ considering Were anyone hoping for simple draft; and most of their Chief Executive, how best to ‘support fathers and headline facts to point the way, enormously useful observations Fathers Direct other male carers as well as we must, sadly, acknowledge in have now been addressed. Of mothers’ was identified. advance their disappointment. In course they have not been able The Research Review we present this context, simple would mean to examine every aspect of such here was at first conceived as simplistic. To help readers a long document; and our Fathers Direct’s response to the negotiate the often complex choice of research, the ways in Call for Evidence. But soon a material, we have made which we have presented the wider function emerged, as we substantial use of bullet-point evidence and the inferences we began to document policy areas lists, with footnotes expanding have drawn from it, must remain where failure to address fathers’2 discussion that would otherwise our responsibility. behaviour and concerns was clutter the narrative Like some of our Reference resulting in less than adequate unacceptably. We have also Group, readers of this Report provision for mothers and created very detailed contents may feel it has been put together children. While the fatherhood pages to assist readers to cherry- in a rather idiosyncratic way, issues raised by the Government pick the material they need at with considerable detail in what in Support for Parents, the best any given time, in the policy, may seem, at times, to be start for children had perhaps research and practice areas that insignificant areas. But there is been conceived out of a are their primary concern. method in our madness: we ‘fairness to fathers’ agenda, our have focused on topics that we vision was rooted in the impact know to be of particular concern fathers were having on their for public policy in the UK and, families, and, in particular, on we believe, in many other their children - an impact that countries. was sometimes positive and sometimes negative, and that was, on the whole, going unrecognized. 02 www.fathersdirect.com

What will you find here? Having In Section 5 - Fathers and Family At the end of our Research 1 At the same time these policy areas set the scene (Section 1 - Active Change our focus becomes Report we broaden our focus out were featuring as key issues for other Fatherhood in Context) and children whose parents do not again, first in Section 8 - departments, including the Home Office, the Department for Work and reviewed key research issues, live together, although much of Fathers, Mothers, Work and Pensions, the Department for including the research base for the research in Section 4 is also Family, and finally in Section 9 - Constitutional Affairs, and the this Report (Section 2 - Rationale relevant to this group, many of Fathering the Future, where we Department of Health. and Research Issues) we take a whom spend formative years look briefly at active fatherhood 2 In line with the National Service developmental approach to the with both parents and/or sustain and community development, Framework for Children, we define father’s role in child and family substantial contact with both and at fathering in older age. ‘fathers’ to include biological dads, stepdads, nonresident dads, dads with functioning. parents in separate households. What you will not find here are and without legal Parental This begins with Section 3 - Section 6 - Vulnerable Fathers implications for policy. Although Responsibility: in fact any man who is Fathers in the Perinatal Period and their Children explores we have derived a substantial important to a child, or who impacts on and is pursued in Section 4 - fathers’ roles in the kinds of programme of policy thier welfare. Fathers’ Roles in Child families described by the recommendations based on the Development where we address government as High Cost / High evidence and insights afforded fathers’ contributions, (mainly in Harm, with particular attention by this Review, these are two parent families) to the paid to ‘breaking the cycle of necessarily subject to change social, emotional and cognitive deprivation.’ Some of the issues and development. Instead of development, the education and raised here are also relevant to including them here we have achievement, and the physical less socially excluded families. made them available on our health of the children in their Because of the importance of website, where you can access care, from infancy, through High Cost / High Harm families them at www.fathersdirect.com - elementary school age, to to public policy, we continue to see ‘Related Documents’ at the adolescence, young adulthood focus on them in Section 7 - bottom. and - in a few instances - to Working with Vulnerable Fathers. middle age.

Reference Group

Professor Jacqueline Barnes Dr Eirini Flouri Professor Jane Lewis Professor Jacqueline Scott Birkbeck, University of London Institute of Education London School of Economics University of Cambridge Professor Stephen Frosh Professor Jay Belsky Birkbeck, University of London Professor Jane Millar Professor Jane Waldfogel Birkbeck, University of London University of Bath London School of Economics / Professor Jo Green Columbia University Professor Cary Cooper University of York Professor Margaret O’Brien Lancaster University University of East Anglia It should be noted that while Management School Lindsey Hayes members of the Advisory Group Royal College of Nursing Institute Professor Sir Michael Rutter provided valuable feedback, not Professor Brid Featherstone Institute of Psychiatry every member agrees with every University of Bradford Professor Michael Lamb statement of interpretation of the University of Cambridge Dr Wendy Sigle-Rushton research set out in this document. Richard Fletcher London School of Economics These represent the views of Family Action Centre, University Fathers Direct and must remain of Newcastle (NSW, Australia) our sole responsibility.

03 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

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1_ ACTIVE FATHERHOOD 06 4_ FATHERS’ ROLES IN CHILD 28 IN CONTEXT DEVELOPMENT

1.1 Trends in father involvement 4.1 An overview 1.2 Politics and policies 4.2 Infancy & pre-school 4.3 Childhood and adolescence 10 2_ RATIONALE AND 4.4 Education and achievement RESEARCH ISSUES 4.5 Beyond adolescence 2.1 Good dads/ bad dads 4.6 Child health 2.2 Understanding fatherhood research 4.6.1 Engaging fathers in their children’s healthcare 2.2.1 Theoretical frameworks 4.6.2 Childhood obesity 2.2.2 Quantity v. quality 4.6.3 Fathers, and children with disabilities 2.2.3 The ‘paternal vulnerability hypothesis’ 2.2.4 Dependent variables 38 2.2.5 Caveats in fatherhood (and motherhood) 5_ FATHERS AND FAMILY CHANGE research 5.1 Parental conflict 2.3 The research base for this review 5.2 Father involvement in separated families 14 5.3 Child support 3_ FATHERS IN THE 5.4 Father figures PERINATAL PERIOD 5.5 Father involvement and family stability 3.1 A key moment for intervention

3.1.1 Fathers are uniquely available – physically and Continued> emotionally 3.1.2 Fathers may be receptive to health messages 3.1.3 Domestic abuse and other negative behaviours by fathers can be challenged 3.1.4 Fathers may become more involved in infant care 3.1.5 Patterns of involvement established early on may endure 3.1.6 Mothers’ experiences will often be improved 3.2 Information and support for men as fathers 3.2.1 Pre-conception 3.2.2 Prenatal 3.2.3 Postnatal 3.3 Fathers at the birth 3.4 Paternity establishment 3.5 Smoking 3.6 Breastfeeding 3.7 Post-natal Depression 3.7.1 The father’s role in maternal depression 3.7.2 Fathers’ own depression 3.7.3 The impact of fathers’ depression on infants and children 3.7.4 Ameliorating the impact of mothers’ depression on infants: ‘father-as-buffer’ 04 www.fathersdirect.com

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6_ VULNERABLE FATHERS 467_ WORKING WITH VULNERABLE 64 AND THEIR CHILDREN FATHERS

6.1 Young Fathers 7.1 Service providers’ attitudes 6.1.1 Pregnancy / birth prevention 7.2 Service providers and invisible fathers 6.1.2 Characteristics of young fathers 7.3 Should service providers engage with vulnerable fathers? 6.1.3 Young fathers’ involvement: opportunities 7.4 Some outcomes of work with vulnerable fathers 6.1.4 Young fathers’ involvement: obstacles 6.1.5 Effects of ignoring young fathers 6.1.6 Finding and working with young fathers 6.2 Imprisoned fathers 8_ FATHERS, MOTHERS WORK AND 70 6.2.1 Characteristics of imprisoned fathers FAMILY 6.2.1.1 Who are the imprisoned fathers? 8.1 Fertility 6.2.1.2 Imprisoned fathers and non-residence 8.2 Father-care, gender equality and child well-being 6.2.1.3 Imprisoned fathers’ vulnerabilities 8.3 Fathers’ employment and child well-being 6.2.3 The mothers of male prisoners’ children 8.4 Business/economic costs/ benefits of father 6.2.4 Imprisoned fathers’ time and contact involvement with children 8.5 Low income fathers’ employment 6.2.4.1 Before imprisonment 6.2.4.2 During imprisonment 6.2.4.3 Post release 6.2.5 Impact of imprisonment on fathers 9_ FATHERING THE FUTURE 76 6.2.6 Impact of fathers’ imprisonment on children 9.1 Active fatherhood and community 6.2.7 Supporting father-child relationships in prison 9.2 Grandfathers 6.2.8 Father-child relationships and rehabilitation 6.2.9 Re-settlement 6.3 Fathers and mental health deficits AFTERWORD 79 6.4 Fathers and substance misuse REFERENCES 80 6.5 Fathers and child abuse 6.5.1 Child physical abuse 6.5.2 Child neglect 6.5.3 Psychological abuse 6.5.4 Sexual abuse 6.5.5 Domestically violent fathers

05 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice 1 Active fatherhood in context

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1.1 Trends in father involvement

Clear increases in • British fathers’ care of infants This means that the gap Meanwhile, the growth in the fathers’ involvement in and young children rose between mothers’ and fathers’ number of mother-headed family work are emerging 800% between 1975 and contributions at home is families, together with the in Britain (O’Brien & 1997,from 15 minutes to two narrowing in some countries. corresponding upward trend Shemilt, 2003), as hours on the average working towards non-resident elsewhere in the day - at double the rate of • In the UK, fathers in two- fatherhood, is creating another developed world. mothers’ (Fisher, McCulloch & parent families carry out an group of fathers who are Gershuny, 1999). average of 25% of the detached from their children For example: family’s childcare-related from the outset, or who • In the US, married fathers activities during the week, and progressively become so, or more than doubled their time one-third at weekends, with who are co-resident with other spent exclusively on child care higher absolute and relative men’s children (Radhakrishna et activities from 2.6 hours per levels (one third) where both al, 2001).Although there is 3 week in 1965 to 6.5 hours in parents work full-time (EOC, evidence that rates of 2000. Again, this increase 2003). involvement by non-resident outstripped mothers’ whose fathers are increasing (Hunt & • The pace of change seems to childcare involvement rose Roberts, 2004; for review see be increasing: between 2002 only 25% between 1965 and O’Brien, 2004a) and some 2 and 2005, the percentage of 2000 (Bianchi et al, 2006). non-resident fathers remain very new fathers in the UK working involved with their children, • Married US fathers also flexitime to spend more time non-residence is the key undertake far more with their infants rose from predictor of low levels of housework than ever before - 11% to 31% (Smeaton & involvement by fathers (Carlson, an average of 9.7 hours a Marsh, 2006). 2006; Flouri, 2005a). week in 2000, up from 4.4 hours in 1965 (Bianchi et al, • And while fathers remain the 2006). sole or main earners in a clear majority of families with • Australian fathers’ care of children, they are now found children has also risen to work the same hours as substantially, with a particular non-fathers, with a strong increase in time spent by positive relationship between fathers in ‘sole charge’ of the arrival of a new baby and children at home (Russell et temporary decrease in their al, 1999). hours of work, and no finding of increased working by these men (Dermott, 2006; Smith, 2006)4 Earlier research, by contrast, had found a clear increase in working hours by new fathers, with fathers in general working the longest hours of all men (Study Commission on the Family, 1983).

07 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

1.2 Politics and policies

‘Fathers want to spend more • Among AEEU members of • An ICM poll (EOC, 2007) Nor is it simply a matter of time caring for children, and different ages and life stages, found: aspiration.Recent research is encounter obstructions’ said the having parents share work finding both parents more EOC Chief Executive, Jenny and childcare is rated, by • 68% of men and women satisfied when roles are actually Watson, in 2005: ‘while equality women, as the most popular (this includes older people) more equally shared – and less of opportunity for women option. Even men, who tend believe the traditional male satisfied when they are not: depends on the expanding role to be more conservative in breadwinner/female of men in family work’ (Watson, this arena, rate the ‘parents’ homemaker model is a • In Australia, Craig & Sawriker 2005).Balancing work and fair share’ option as positively thing of the past. (2006) found fathers more home life is a key concern of as the traditional woman-part- satisfied when they spent • 74% of fathers (compared voters - women and men alike time/man-full-time more time at home, and with 64% of mothers) report (Smeaton & Marsh, 2006; arrangement (Houston & mothers more satisfied with that spending time with the EOC, 2004). European Waumsley, 2003). housework share as they family or finding time for governments, including in the moved into doing more paid key relationships is their UK, are increasingly recognizing • The most recent British Social work. biggest concern in daily life active fatherhood as central to Attitudes report (Park et al, 2007) finds men working full • Also in Australia, Pocock & meeting voters’ aspirations and • 77% say that it should be time consistently less satisfied Clarke (2004) found younger to delivering gender equity. as easy for men to take than full-time working women fathers expressing less time off for caring • In the US, in 1981, when with work life balance: satisfaction with work-family responsibilities as it is for researchers asked newly balance when they do less women – with 84% of those marrying couples to rank- • Today, 82% of full-time housework and child care, with children agreeing. order values they hoped to working men say they and when they experience would like to spend more workplace disapproval of instill into their marriages, • In Australia 66% of working time with their family; in taking up family-friendly ‘sharing responsibilities, fathers (compared with 40% 1989 only 70% felt that measures. decision-making and physical of working mothers) agree and emotional care of infants way with the statement:‘Because of • Again in Australia, Bolzan et and young children’ was rated • 69% of men and 58% of my work responsibilities I have al (2004) found the new 11th out of 15.In 1997, when women say that the missed out on home or family fathers, with the lowest the same question was asked, demands of their job activities that I would have workplace flexibility and it was prioritized second sometimes interfere with liked to have taken part in’ autonomy, reporting the most (Pleck, 1997). 5 family life. (Baxter et al, 2005). unhappiness, anxiety and • In a series of reports the general levels of stress. • 29% of men and 19% of Equal Opportunities women say that the • In the UK, Thompson et al Commission (EOC) has demands of family life (2005) found fathers and documented shifts in both sometimes interfere with mothers in low-income mothers’ and fathers’ work. families more likely to endorse aspirations towards increased traditional ender levels of father-care– and roles.However, they are also among 16-year-olds, 90% of the couples who are the most boys and girls want to dis-satisfied with the division balance career and family life 6 of labour in their families. in their future jobs (for summary, see EOC, 2006).

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Notes

2 US mothers had spent 10.6 hours per week While the equal opportunities • By contrast, the Department There is also an emerging exclusively on childcare activities in 1965; by agenda has been a major driver for Education and Skills is discourse, in the UK and 2000 that had risen to 12.9 hours a week. of interest in active fatherhood pursuing a policy of engaging internationally, about fathers’ 3 It is worth remembering that ‘full-time’ working in Northern Europe, elsewhere both mothers and fathers potential to help in tackling mothers tend to work considerably fewer hours than ‘full-time’ working fathers, and that they (notably the US and Australia) routinely in parent support in child poverty (Harker, 2006). As also tend to work closer to home – so the interest has derived more some areas, notably UNICEF has pointed out (Engle commuting times are usually shorter. from concern about family Children’s Centres, where et al, 2006) fathers often have 4 Dermott’s results (2006) at first indicated that hours of work were longer for fathers than for breakdown, although in these guidance is increasingly decision-making power and childless men. However, once she controlled for two countries the stimuli for this strong and performance control over resources, yet many other variables, she found that fatherhood status 7 was not a good predictor of the number of concern have differed. This is a indicators for engaging health and other interventions hours worked; nor was it relevant to men’s level growing area of concern in the fathers have been established. ‘continue to target solely of engagement with the labour market (i.e. whether they were employed; or were employed UK, where active fatherhood is women, who may not have the full or part time). • The Department of Work and also on the public policy authority to put them into 5 Pensions is looking at better For working fathers’ greater dissatisfaction in agenda for a number of other practice. . . Fathers’ involvement Australia, see also de Vaus (2004). support services for separating reasons - most obviously child is one of the greatest, yet most 6 This suggests that beliefs are closely linked to maintenance, but also teenage couples, and legislation to underutilized, sources of support circumstance – but that contentment does not necessarily follow beliefs pregnancy, concern for boys’ better identify, pursue and available to children in our support fathers, in the process 7 In the US, the driver was originally child support behaviour, education and world today’. policy coupled with welfare reform; more achievement, fathering in some of Child Support reform. recently, the ideology of ‘supporting marriage’ ethnic minority groups8 and the has predominated, although child support is still • The Childcare Act 2006 a major concern. In Australia, social policy has prevalence and impact on long been concerned with supporting child requires local authorities to children of domestic abuse. wellbeing after separation and divorce, (and the identify parents and Australian government has now also recognized that dilemmas arising from family change are To what extent does family prospective parents who are live issues for voters, particularly men.

unlikely to use early childhood 8 policy in Britain promote the Fathers Direct’s announcement in 2007 that it notion of involved fatherhood? services (including fathers), was publishing a Guide to Muslim Fatherhood and facilitate their access to resulted in hundreds of pre-orders. • The Framework for the those services. 9 There has as yet been no published research establishing whether this has reduced the Assessment of Children in exclusion of fathers identified in earlier studies. • Statutory obligations about Need and their Families 10 The Minister for Families, Parmjit Dhanda, told (Department of Health, 2000) the equal treatment of men Parliament (July 2006): ‘The Department will be and women in all public working … to ensure that, as local authorities requires assessors to gather and other partners plan their services for information about, and from service provision are children, young people and families, they are enshrined in the Equality Act, fully aware of the Gender Equality Duty and all relevant family members, ensure that fathers and other male carers whether resident or not, and which becomes law in April receive the support they need to achieve the 10 requires them to be clear 2007. best outcomes for children.’ about the roles played by fathers or father-figures.9

• The National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services (the NSF) contains copious reference to fathers, although this element has not yet been carried through into implementation.

09 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice 2 Rationale and research issues

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2.1 2.2 Good dads/bad dads Understanding fatherhood research

It seems that in order for policy- In addition to the necessary 2.2.1: Theoretical frameworks • other theories, including makers to ‘see’ fathers (and focus on children’s A number of theoretical psychodynamic, family especially to see them as developmental outcomes we are frameworks have been drawn systems and attachment valuable), proof of their positive concerned with children’s lived on to understand various roles theories have emphasized impact on child development experience. Whether or not they that fathers may play within fathers’ relational patterns 11 must be demonstrated. We are demonstrably worse off in families. For example: within families. believe, however, that it is every the longer term, the pain and bit as important to identify suffering so many experience • Olavarria (2003) cited by Each theoretical model places where father involvement has when their fathers neglect or Lewis & Lamb (in press) certain elements of fathering in negative consequences for abuse them, or neglect or abuse invokes economic theory to the foreground, while placing children and/or their mothers. their mothers (Russell et al, explain two processes, both others in the background, and This we see as providing a 1999), and their sadness, anger ongoing and international, all offer interesting insights, particularly important impetus and confusion when their fathers which he sees as leading men although none on its own for seeking to engage with play small or non-existent roles to take more active roles in accounts for the complete array them, and have devoted a in their lives (Fathers Direct, their families: the increase in of fathering factors that might considerable portion of this 2003) provide, we believe, female participation in the explain fathers’ roles in a report to Vulnerable Fathers important reasons for labour force, and instability in comprehensive way (Guterman (fathers whose behaviour is, or addressing active fatherhood in modern economies which has & Lee, 2005). is likely to be, substantially policy and practice. made traditional ‘men’s jobs’ negative in key respects). less secure (see also It is clear that from the points of Wheelock, 1990). 2.2.2: Quantity v. quality We also document here, view of children, (including the scattered throughout this Review, points of view of adult children), • Feminist theory has also One ‘hot topic’ among policy fathers’ potential to ‘buffer’ that biological fathers, including contributed, particularly in makers and researchers, children against negative fathers they rarely see or have terms of providing particularly where separation environmental and other factors, never met, or who have no explanations for men’s use of and divorce are concerned, has including negative behaviour by, obvious impact on their violence within their families been the relative value of and characteristics of, their development,12 are almost and to shed light on the high quantity v. quality of father-time, mothers. We approach this with invariably of significance to co-occurrence observed with quality of father caution, as it is too easy to them (Fortin et al, 2006; Dunn between domestic abuse and involvement often represented adopt a polarized approach et al 2004, 2002; Laumann- child maltreatment (Margolin, as more significant than quantity representing one parent as Billings & Emery, 1998). Social 1992). (e.g. Welsh et al, 2004). ‘good’ and the other as ‘bad’, fathers can also be key figures • Sociobiological theory has when of course the reality is to children (Welsh et al, 2004). We see this as a false spawned many hypotheses13 generally far more complex dichotomy. Certainly it is true Father involvement, or lack of including the notion that (Ryan et al, 2006). that quality of care is crucial for it, also impacts on the men’s when men invest more in child wellbeing, whether this is own development as people, mating effort (multiple provided by mothers, fathers or parents and partners (e.g. partners) than in parenting other caretakers. However, apart Snarey, 1993). We touch on effort (supporting their from the fact that insufficient this, but that is not the focus offspring), this may represent quantity will often be associated of this report. adaptive behaviour to increase with poor quality, it is also the their likelihood of passing their case that both quality and genes on to future quantity can have discrete generations, (for a effects; that one can affect the comprehensive review of other; and that they can have sociobiolgical theory and conjoint effects. For example: fatherhood, see Geary, 2000).

11 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

• The adaptation of 20-month- • In some studies particular Another way in which fathers’ 2.2.5: Caveats in fatherhood olds has been found to be child-effects have been found influence can be denigrated, is (and motherhood) research promoted by both the to impact more strongly on when mothers’ influence is quantity of paternal mothers than on fathers found to be the more powerful. A key point made by Flouri involvement and its quality - (McLeod et al, 2004; Simons, The inference tends to be that (2005) is that no universal i.e. sensitivity (Easterbrooks & 1994). this is a ‘trait’ rather than a claims can be made about the Goldberg, 1984). situational (or ‘state’) effect. In impact of father involvement on • Mutually influential fact, where mothers’ greater outcomes for children. Rather, • When fathers spend more interactional patterns in the influence is found this is almost studies show that certain aspects time in childcare activities, father-mother-child triad have certainly due to greater time of father involvement in certain they are more likely to been demonstrated across with and responsibility for groups of fathers are associated engage in supportive numerous studies (Guterman children. For example: with certain outcomes in certain interactions with their children & Lee, 2005). groups of children (Featherstone (Almeida et al, 2001).14 • Mothers’ influence on et al, forthcoming, 2007). • Mothers, fathers and children children, vis à vis fathers’ or • More father involvement is must be viewed as parts of other influences, seems to be Nevertheless, despite this, and correlated with greater complex social systems greatest when children are despite the challenges inherent paternal sensitivity; and (notably, their families) in young and are more tightly in specifically identifying greater paternal sensitivity is which each person affects the within their mother’s orbit. paternal (or maternal) effects, associated with more firm, other reciprocally, directly and (Dunn, 2004). the growing number of and less harsh, parenting indirectly (Lamb & Tamis- longitudinal investigations, (Burchell, 2003).15 LeMonda, 2004). • The adverse impact of together with studies reporting parental mental illness on a children’s perceptions of their child is not correlated with parents’ influences, provide gender but with the degree of valuable insight into patterns of 2.2.3: The ‘paternal 2.2.4: Dependent variables involvement in child-raising by paternal influence over time; vulnerability hypothesis’ Where father-child relationships the affected parent (Hall, and are helping to build up a The nature and degree of seem to contribute positively to 2004). powerful picture of patterns of fathers’ involvement with their children’s development, this is father-child closeness as crucial children have been found in sometimes dismissed – in a way • As fathers’ levels of predictors of later psychological some studies to be more that mother involvement never is involvement increase, so does adjustment, although patterns of powerfully affected than - as being possibly ‘simply (our their direct, measurable influence remain to be explored mothers’ by situation (such as italics) . . . a marker of the influence, for good and for ill in depth (Lamb & Lewis, 2004). non-residence) and by child and quality of all relationships in the (Mezulis et al, 2004; Jaffee et couple factors (Lamb & Lewis, family’ (Lewis & Lamb, in press). al, 2003). It is interesting that most 18 16 motherhood research has 2004). However, this does not In fact, as Welsh et al (2004) • Where the effects of father mean that father-involvement is have pointed out, both positive confidently asserted, and involvement are not shown to continues confidently to assert, solely other-factor-dependent or involved fathering and positive be strong, this does not that mothers’ involvement is not involved mothering tend to causal connections between necessarily mean that father- mothers’ behaviour and child so affected. occur in families in which a lot involvement is of things are ‘going right’: outcomes, without controlling • Many of these ‘gender effects’ inconsequential: across any for father or couple effects father well-educated, parents sample, the beneficial impact have been overstated, with supportive of each other and (Amato, 1998) – or for sibling of some fathers’ involvement 19 differences between the amicable, both with high self- effects (Pike et al, 2006). impact on fathers and will be offset by the Amato has suggested that esteem and holding egalitarian detrimental impact of others mothers small, where they views. Involved, /high quality failure to control for father and exist at all (for review, see (Teitler, 2001). The quality of couple-effects should raise fathering can be seen (like children’s relationships with Cummings et al., 2004). involved/high quality mothering) questions about the validity of their fathers is more variable the exclusively mother-focused as an important element in high than of children’s relationships quality family systems.17 research, on which family policy with their mothers (Dunn, has long been based. 2004).

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2.3 The research base for this review Notes

11 For example, the justifications for involving 17 Similarly, uninvolved and ‘absent’ fathering often The literature relating to fathers’ For example, sample sizes are fathers set out in the NSF (Department of contribute to a poorly-resourced family climate 21 impact on children and their small or unrepresentative; Health, 2004) are uniformly, one might even say characterized by low levels of mother naively, positive in tone (Featherstone et al, involvement, too, as well as by frequent conflict, mothers is extensive and is researchers have failed to forthcoming, 2007). low education and self-esteem in parents and children, and mental health difficulties (Welsh et growing every day. On what control adequately for 12 Many non-resident fathers fall into this category al, 2004). basis have we made our confounding variables such as (Amato & Sobolewski, 2004) 18 Such research is often described as ‘parenting’ selection? Firstly, we have drawn mother involvement; causal 13 Among the many intriguing hypotheses research. However, examination of the sampling on recent studies, research modelling strategies have not generated by sociobiological theory is that the reveals that only, or mainly, mothers have been association between a relatively short life-span summaries and reviews by been employed; findings have studied. Where fathers have been included, it is and earlier age at first reproduction (e.g. common for the findings not to be respected researchers, on the been derived from only one teenage pregnancy in deprived areas) may be, disaggregated by gender. 22 for both men and women, a facultative response hopeful assumption that not source (often mothers’ reports); to high mortality rates (MacDonald, 1997); in 19 Controlling for sibling impact is rarely carried only their research but also the and so on. other words, when you’re likely to die young, out in either fatherhood or motherhood you reproduce young. research. Pike et al (2006) found independent work they cite will be of effects from sibling relationships – and also that 14 relatively high quality. This has Sadly, space (and reader- They are also more likely to have conflictual sibling relationship quality was influenced by interactions. parents’ relationship quality, and by how well provided us with much of our fatigue) do not allow us to 15 supported both mothers and fathers felt. One must not assume that high father 20 discuss the merits or de-merits research base prior to 2004. 20 involvement leads to greater sensitivity. It may Our key sources have included: Lewis & Lamb of each study cited. Where work be that more sensitive fathers are drawn to (in press); Flouri (2005a); O’Brien (2004a; For work published since that is of particularly high quality we greater involvement; or that an easy-to-manage 2004b); Amato & Sobolewski (2004); Lamb child draws fathers in. However it is highly likely (2004); Lamb & Lewis (2004); Pleck & date we have employed a often indicate this; and we have that as fathers become more involved with their Masciadrelli (2004); Parke et al (2004); Lloyd et number of methods, including: tried to exclude work based children, they become more sensitive to their al (2003); Lewis & Lamb (2003); Lamb (2002); needs as, through higher involvement, they Tamis-LeMonda & Cabrera (2002); Parke • Drawing on research we have more in opinion than research. come to know them better (e.g. Ninio & Rinott,, (1997); Lamb (1997). However, some will have slipped 1988). identified and collected as it 21 As lower income families have generally been 16 has been published. through, and we have knowingly The observed tendency for fathers’ relationships more difficult for researchers to access, much of included some studies which we with their children to be more negatively affected the child developmental (‘role of the father’) • Trawling major databases than mothers’ by environmental factors such as literature derives its findings from middle class, know to be methodologically stress at work or the quality of the couple two-parent families; by contrast, where (Medline, PsychINFO etc.). relationship, has been called the ‘paternal vulnerable fathers are studied (for example, limited, but which offer insights vulnerability hypothesis’. A recent related • Examining listings on key young fathers), the subjects may be which merit consideration. Most finding (which remains to be replicated) suggests overwhelmingly from highly disadvantaged websites (e.g. Fragile that fathers’ relationships with their children may groups, skewing the findings in another of the practice evaluations we be doubly vulnerable: not only more negatively Families). direction. In the young fatherhood literature cite here fall into that category, affected than mothers’ by environmental from the US, race may also skew the findings: • Working through recent but we include them because stressors, but also less positively affected when the samples are almost entirely of African the environment around them is positive: in an American males volumes of leading journals there are no others, and observational task, mothers whose relationships with their partners were relatively satisfying were 22 Not only is the gathering of information solely (Journal of Marriage & Family, because ‘practitioner wisdom’ seen to interact more positively with their from mothers’ reports particularly problematic Child Development, Families- should not be overlooked. children; however, the fathers’ satisfaction with where relations between the parents are poor the couple relationship did not seem to translate (for example, separated fathers’ and mothers’ in-Society etc.); as obviously into more positive parenting reports of father-child contact vary wildly - To judge the quality of the • Contacting leading behaviour by them (Russell et. al., 1997). Blackwell & Dawe, 2003), but parents’ reports research, we suggest readers are influenced by their own perspectives on researchers personally. family life. For example, Hay et al (1999), make good use of the investigating parents’ judgments about young We do not claim that all the footnotes, noting the quality of children’s behaviour problems, found the father's rating primarily associated with the child's research cited here is of all of the journal, how often a cognitive ability, and the mother's primarily similarly high quality. Indeed, we particular researcher is affected by her own mental state, and view of her marriage. Interestingly, the father's but not know that it is highly variable, mentioned, and perhaps the mother's rating provided unique information and that some of it is subject to following through to identify that predicted teachers' reports of the children's problems 7 years later. failings similar to those we have institutions which have raised as problematic in the generated the research. When a motherhood literature. single, recent study is cited, we recommend regarding its findings as preliminary.

13 The cost and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice 3 Fathers in the perinatal period

14 www.fathersdirect.com

3.1 A key moment for intervention

The perinatal period has • Another study, with a smaller 3.1.2 Fathers may be 3.1.3 Domestic abuse and long been recognised as and less disadvantaged receptive to health messages other negative behaviours by 25 the ‘golden opportunity sample, returned even higher Expectant and new fathers’ fathers can be challenged moment for intervention figures, with 98% of fathers at health risk behaviours are high, Research suggests, tentatively, with fathers (Cowan, the birth, 48% attending and research is identifying the that UK rates of domestic abuse 1988a). There are a antenatal/parenting classes, perinatal period as a likely in late pregnancy and number of reasons for this. 85% at least one prenatal ‘teachable moment’ for men in immediately post partum are appointment with a midwife, this area. likely to be around 5-6% of 3.1.1 Fathers are uniquely and 86% at least one scan pregnant women.26 Although available - physically and (National Health Service, • Expectant and new fathers there is no hard evidence that emotionally 2005). typically re-evaluate their own domestic abuse is more likely to In the perinatal period, fathers, health and risk taking occur in pregnancy than at any Fathers are also likely to be like mothers, are particularly behaviour (Lupton & Barclay, other time, or that it usually closely involved with the open to information, advice and 1997). becomes worse during mothers at this point – and support (Lupton & Barclay, pregnancy (for review, see virtually all those mothers have • Expectant fathers who receive 1997; Lewis, 1986). UK Martin et al, 2004), previous- considerable involvement with emotional support have better researchers testing recruitment abuse victims have been found services. physical and emotional health methods for obtaining a sample to suffer, during pregnancy, a of fathers found face-to-face (Jones, 1988). • Kiernan & Smith found that greater risk of increased recruitment of fathers on the among the 15% of couples • Among expectant fathers in psychological aggression and postnatal ward generating the who were not living together the US, 49.3% smoke; 30.4% sexual coercion from their highest return rate of any when their baby was born, engaged recently in recent partners (Martin et al, 2004), method (76%), with even postal two thirds were described by hazardous drinking; 27.5% and of becoming homicide recruitment via postnatal wards the mothers as ‘friends’ or have very low physical activity victims (Campbell et al, 1998). generating a return rate of 31% ‘romantically involved’. levels; 94.9% have an at-risk (Sherr et al, 2006). Although causality cannot be fruit/vegetable intake; and 27 • Not quite a third (i.e. 1:20 of assumed, it seems likely that Almost all fathers are in touch 42% a weight-related health all couples) were described by domestic abuse as an with services at this point. risk (Everett et al, 2006). the mother as ‘not in a independent variable has both direct and indirect28 negative • In their analysis of the relationship’ (mothers’ • Educating fathers as well as 1 effects on pregnant women and Millennium Cohort data, reports). mothers on healthy their unborn infants: Kiernan & Smith (2003) found behaviours during pregnancy, • However, even among these and encouraging joint that among the 85% of 29 reportedly ‘not in a • A number of studies have couples living at the same decision-making in this area, relationship’ couples, 1:10 of found domestic abuse during, address when their babies seems likely to yield the the fathers were at the birth; and just before, pregnancy were born, 93% of the fathers greatest net impact on family and 1:4 signed the birth 24 associated with a range of were present at the birth (as health (Mullany et al, 2007). certificate. obstetric complications, were almost half of the 15% While no immediate including increased risk of of fathers who were not living • Almost a year down the line assumptions can be made high blood pressure, vaginal with their babies’ mothers at 23% of the couples who had about the relevance of this data bleeding, severe nausea, that time).23 not been living together at the to the UK, the 30.4% finding on kidney/urinary tract infections, time of the birth had moved in hazardous drinking chimes with antepartum haemorrhage, together. ONS figures of hazardous intrauterine growth restriction, drinking prevalence of 30%+ preterm (and term) low birth 30 among British males below age and perinatal death. 60 (Velleman, 2004, p.185).

15 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

• Domestic abuse also Such referrals would seem to be It is worth noting at this point, 3.1.6: Mothers’ experiences correlates with low weight indicated, given the high that men are not less sensitive to will often be improved gain by the mother, which correlation between domestic babies’ distress than women. The interdependence of fathers’ reduces birth weight more abuse and drugs, alcohol, Although they may ‘signal’ their and mothers’ experience and than smoking does (Kearney psychopathology, and even reactions less obviously (e.g. in adjustment during the transition et al, 2004). poor communication skills in facial expressions), their to parenthood is striking. both partners (Noller & Feeney, measured response (heart rate, • There is an emerging 1998) - although one must be skin moisture etc.) is the same • A woman’s fear of vaginal consensus from the obstetric careful to stress that, in (Fathers Direct, 2000, Note 14). delivery is strongly associated literature that ante-natal themselves, none of these Nor are women ‘natural with her dissatisfaction with maternal stress is associated variables ‘causes’ domestic experts’: left in charge of the couple relationship (Saisto with low birth weight and abuse: abusive behaviour is babies, men and women et al, 2001). preterm birth, (for review, see always, on some level, a choice develop skills at the same rate O’Keane & Scott, 2005), and by the perpetrator(s). (Fathers Direct, 2000, Note 15). • Tarkka (2000) found that one with children at higher risk of Greater father involvement can of three predictors of a young behavioural problems, anxiety, result in more conflict between mother’s positive childbirth 3.1.4: Fathers may become and cognitive and emotional partners. However, this can be experience was her perception more involved in infant care difficulties. A key determinant ‘good conflict’ in that couples of a positive attitude toward of ante-natal maternal stress Engaging with fathers in the can feel more connected, the pregnancy by the baby’s is relationship with partner perinatal period may encourage maternal satisfaction tends to be father. (Van den Bergh et al, 2005). them to undertake more infant higher, and issues can be • The best predictor of each caretaking. Better outcomes for resolved (Cowan & Cowan, This last suggests the parent’s adjustment to those children are likely to 2000). importance of assessing and follow (see particularly Sections parenthood is the quality of addressing a range of attitudes 4.6 and 5.2, below), as may 3.1.5: Patterns of involvement the relationship between them and behaviours by expectant greater satisfaction for both established early on may (Fathers Direct, 2000). fathers - not only domestic fathers and mothers. For endure abuse, but also mental health, • Women who enjoy the full example: • Fathers’ engagement with substance use, hostility, infidelity, support of their partners are their infants and toddlers rejection of the pregnancy, and • Fathers who undertake a lot more closely bonded to their shows considerable stability so on. of care bond more quickly children, and more responsive over the first three years with their infants and are likely and sensitive to their needs (Aldous et al, 1998; Beitel & In the UK, a programme for to enjoy fatherhood more (Feiring, 1976). Parke, 1998). detecting domestic abuse in (Barclay & Lupton, 1999). pregnancy is being rolled out • The quality of mothering • There is moderate stability in nationwide. However, it does • The caretaking experience provided to an infant has levels of caretaking evident not contain material on appears to facilitate paternal been linked with supports the over 14 years (Hwang & addressing domestic abuse once responsiveness (Donate- mother receives from her Lamb, 1997). it is detected: the onus is put on Bartfield & Passman, 1985; partner; and the quality of the relationship between the the victim to separate from the Zelazo et al, 1977). • Father-involvement at age parents has been shown to perpetrator, not on the seven is associated with • Greater father involvement in predict how both mother and perpetrator to change his continuing involvement infant care and other father nurture and respond to behaviour. Nor is there throughout childhood and household tasks is correlated their children’s needs (for provision for signposting adolescence (Flouri & with lower parenting stress review, see Guterman & Lee, perpetrators to further support: Buchanan, 2003). for example, to the few and depression in mothers 2005). community-based behaviour- (for review, see Fisher et al, • Early solo caretaking is change programmes that exist, 2006). associated with continued or to drugs, alcohol, mental caretaking when children are health or other services. older (Aldous et al, 1998) and with grandchildren (Pruett, 2000).

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3.2 Information and support for men as fathers

• This is also true for teenage 3.2.1: Pre-conception • Building family planning Nevertheless, fathers’ mothers: a young mother’s There is growing evidence of the ‘modules’ into programmes attendance is associated with perception of support from impact of fathers’ pre- that address men in other greater couple inter-dependence her baby’s father correlates conception/prenatal behaviour contexts (e.g. including (a marker of the quality of the with a range of attachment and circumstances on birth and ‘Family Management’ in a couple relationship), and the behaviours by her (Bloom, child outcomes, including ‘Farm Management’ men undertake more housework 1998). smoking (see below), alcohol programme in Honduras). and are more likely to utilize abuse31 and exposure to support (for review, see Diemer, • Firstborns with highly involved • Peer education. solvents and pesticides.32 There 1997). This last is important as fathers are more positive and expectant fathers who receive is also a growing understanding • Engaging with community accepting towards their emotional support have better of fathers’ genetic bequests to leaders (e.g. Muslim religious second-born sibling (Dunn & physical and emotional health their children and the interaction leaders in Gambia, to Kendrick,1982). (Jones, 1988). This very of these with environmental develop a programme on the probably translates into being • Frequent care-taking of a factors. These include the many connections between family ‘easier to live with’, and more firstborn by the father is correlates between paternal age planning and Islam). supportive and positive. associated with a large and adverse birth, infant and However, even here outcomes increase in the firstborn’s child outcomes, which are • Workplace and community vary according to personality positive behaviours toward the found to be particularly outreach and mass media and other factors.33 mother, after the birth of a powerful among low-income approaches. second sibling (Kojima et al, men (Reichman & Teitler, 2006). Behavioural outcomes have Prenatal education specifically 2005). Where timing pregnancies is been less often evaluated, designed for fathers fares better: concerned, international family although programmes have • One study found such an planning programmes have increased contraceptive uptake, intervention resulting in demonstrated the value and as well as uptake of ante-natal substantially greater likelihood efficacy of engaging with males. care by the men’s partners. of fathers’ utilizing support, Successful strategies described HIV/STI prevention programmes undertaking housework (both by Sternberg & Hubley (2004) have been successful in altering before and after the birth), include: men’s high risk behaviours, being more likely to ‘reason’ including increasing condom with their partners, and • Engaging with men as if they use (Sternberg & Hubley, 2004). were caring partners, rather reporting better couple than irresponsible adversaries. 3.2.2: Prenatal relationships (Diemer, 1997). The benefit of traditional ante- • A brief, inexpensive US • Offering a brief counselling natal classes to mothers or prenatal intervention session to help them articulate fathers has been hard to (consisting of one prenatal their needs and doubts before demonstrate (Schmied et al, session with parents in attending medical 1999). Fathers also express high separate gender groups consultation. levels of dissatisfaction with focusing on psychosocial them (McElligott, 2001). In one • Encouraging couples to seek issues of first-time study, one man in three wanted services together. parenthood) was associated more information on nineteen with mothers’ reporting subjects after antenatal classes greater satisfaction with the were over (Singh & Newburn, sharing of home and baby 2000). tasks post partum (Matthey et al, 2004).

17 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

• A randomized controlled trial 3.2.3: Postnatal • When fathers of four-week-old Fathers of pre-term infants may of a prenatal intervention with It is important to provide fathers infants were given a brief have particularly high needs. low-income fathers (two with information and support training in baby massage and These fathers reveal significantly sessions of factual after the birth of their children the Burleigh Relaxation Bath greater stress and depression information, practical skills especially in high-risk families. A technique with a particular scores than fathers of full-term training and bonding recent review of Shaken Baby emphasis on the father-infant infants, and lower involvement exercises) found substantially Syndrome cases in one US relationship, they were more rates (Rimmerman & Sheran, greater information-retention jurisdiction reported 44% involved with their infants than 2001); and, like the fathers and parental sensitivity one perpetrated by fathers and 20% a comparison group of fathers (and mothers) of caesarian month postpartum among the by mothers’ boyfriends, in two months on. Also, their babies, use significantly more intervention compared with contrast to 7% perpetrated by infants greeted their fathers negative adjectives to describe the control group mothers (Sinal et al, 2000). with more eye contact, their babies at six weeks of age (Pfannenstiel & Honig, 1995). smiling, vocalising, reaching (Greenhalgh et al 2000). Is fathers’ involvement with their and orienting responses, and However: • A Canadian trial of antenatal infants affected by post natal showed fewer avoidance classes with a special focus interventions? Some early behaviours (Scholz & • Sullivan (1999) found that the on changes in the marital studies found that fathers who Samuels, 1992). sooner fathers held their pre- relationship concluded that had attended baby-care term infants the sooner they such classes may enhance courses, (or who thought of • One study found 4 out of 5 reported feelings of warmth marital adjustment post-birth themselves as more skilled), fathers of six-month-olds and love for them. (cited by Enkin et al, 2000, saying they would probably took on more care of their • A programme comprising p.25). have attended a ‘how to care infants. However, other studies eight sessions shortly before for your baby’ session, if it of short-term interventions found discharge plus four home • In the US relationship had been offered in the first no influence (for review, see visits afterwards, found the enhancement programmes few weeks after the birth and Lamb, 2004). Meanwhile: fathers suffering significantly developed for pre-marital as a continuation of the pre- lower child-related, parent- education have been adapted • Fathers of caesarean babies birth training. Although when related and total stress, twelve for use in the perinatal period usually undertake relatively new fathers were actually 34 months on (Kaaresen et al, (Glade et al, 2005). . high levels of infant care due offered such a session only 1 2006).35 to mothers’ incapacity - and in 6 attended, the researchers The ultrasound scan is now Pederson et al (1980) found felt this was a very positive • And finally, the importance recognised as a key plank in them still engaged in higher result, since in that district and value of engaging with preparation for parenthood; the levels of care 5 months on. nothing of that kind had ever the couple relationship is health professionals’ manner of been offered before (Matthey strongly indicated: assisting and supporting parents • Myers (1982) found fathers & Barnett, 1999) in this process is key; and who had been shown how to • Reduced couple satisfaction fathers should be strongly conduct standardized and relationship quality and encouraged to attend (Ekalin et assessments of their newborns increased conflict over the al, 2004). (the Brazelton method) transition to parenthood are becoming more clear (for review, see Glade et knowledgeable and more al, 2005). involved. • Issues that may not be significant for couples who • Fathers taught the skills of never have children may caring for a newborn tend to become significant once a baby be closer to their babies at is born: this has been shown to the time and also later (Nickel be the case with family-of-origin & Kocker, 1987; McHale & experiences, and with conflicts Huston, 1984). that arise when partners have different approaches to parenting (Cowan, 1988b; Lane et al, 1988).

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3.3 Fathers at the birth

As previously mentioned, today • Support during delivery However, a stressed birth • Spiby et al (1999) found 86-98% of fathers attend their provided by a ‘close support partner can be labouring women generally baby’s birth (Kiernan & Smith, person’ (who can be, and counterproductive: stress, like disappointed by the level of 2003; National Health Service, often is, the baby’s father) fear, can contaminate - and midwife involvement while 2005). creates a more positive maternal stress can slow down their partner’s involvement childbirth experience for the labour. Fathers’ stress levels are much more nearly met their Enkin et al (2000) note that mother, with a shorter often very high at key points expectations – a personal fathers today have an expanded duration of delivery and less during the birthing process experience also reported by role in the birth process: they pain experienced (for review, (Johnson, 2002). Keogh et al Llewellyn Smith (2006). are expected to reinforce what see Tarkka, 2000). (2006) found caesarian • Obstetricians greatly has been taught in childbirth mothers’ post-operative pain • Enkin et al (1995) report that underestimate the education, act as advocates strongly linked to their fear- when labour partners psychological boost fathers for the mother, and fill gaps experiences during labour, and (including fathers) know a lot give to their partners during in care. these were mediated by the level about pain control, women delivery – as well as the of their birth partner’s fear. With only a very few fathers not have shorter labours and are practical support the men present, (and those being less likely to have epidurals. The implications for preparing provide during labour, and almost exclusively men who are afterwards (Hayward & • This support has also been fathers well for the birth are not in a close relationship with Chalmers, 1990). found to be conducive to a clear. the baby’s mother - Kiernan, more positive attitude by the Claims about long term 2006), it is difficult to make • Fathers who have been mother towards motherhood negative effects of fathers’ valid comparisons between the prepared well to participate (Mercer et al, 1984). attending the birth have been impact of fathers’ presence in, productively in the labour made, particularly on the or absence from, the labour Recent research from China process tend to be more couple’s sexual relationship room. However being present differentiated between types of active participants, and their (e.g. Odent, 1999) but not allows many fathers to offer support, noting that level of partners’ birth-experiences substantiated through serious quality support – and this is perceived partner-provided tend to be better (for review, research. One well designed clearly beneficial. emotional support did not result see Diemer, 1997). study showed that while in positive maternal outcomes, • Even where fathers have been negative perceptions of the • Earlier studies found that while the perceived level of only minimally prepared, birth-experience were correlated women whose husbands were practical support did, including studies repeatedly show high with depressive symptoms in present and supportive during a strong correlation between levels of satisfaction post fathers at six weeks postpartum, labour were less distressed duration of partners’ presence partum for both mothers and their effect was removed once (Anderson, & Standley, 1976; during labour and women’s fathers in sharing the pre-existing depressive Henneborn & Cogan, 1975). ratings of perceived practical experience of labour and birth symptoms were controlled for support by their partners (Ip, • More recently, Gibbins & (Chan & Paterson-Brown, (Greenhalgh et al, 2000). 2000). Thomson (2001) found that 2002).36 labouring women benefit when they feel ‘in control’ of • Fathers’ presence has been the birth process – and that a shown to help compensate for key component in this is poor quality obstetric services. experiencing support from Klein et al (1981) found their partner during the birth. fathers five times more likely to touch their partner during labour and delivery than other support figures; and the women rated the fathers’ presence more helpful than that of the nurses.

19 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

3.4 Paternity establishment

Does the father’s presence at As religious participation In the US, paternity In West Virginia it was the birth pay off in greater declines, including christenings establishment (particularly in discovered that the most involvement later? and other ceremonies, fathers hospital)39 has proved a significant person affecting have few opportunities to make rewarding strategy, increasing whether a young man • Birth attendance by fathers is public their commitment to their the proportion of children acknowledged he was the father not correlated with higher children; and although secular receiving child support as well was the midwife. The State levels of involvement in, say, ‘naming’ ceremonies are now as levels of paternal contact and implemented a training program nappy changing; however possible, these are not widely involvement (Fragile Families, for midwives on the importance birth attendance followed by promoted or used. Nor are 2005). Registration is voluntary, of fatherhood and how to talk extensive postpartum father- fathers universally but mothers and couples are to young mothers and fathers. infant interaction in the acknowledged in the hospital approached and the father In four years the rate of hospital may stimulate such setting: babies are now often encouraged to register.40 Few paternity establishment went behaviour (Keller et al, 1985; recorded under their mothers’ refuse, once the benefits to from under 18% to over 60% Palkovitz, 1985). names where parents are them and to their child are among low-income unmarried unmarried, even if the mother explained. In the State of couples (Levine & Pitt, 1995). • Moore & Kotelchuck (2004) asks for the father’s name to be Minnesota, paternity Since practice has varied found a significant correlation used. As there is no duty on establishment among CSA cases around the country, national between fathers’ attendance hospitals to record fathers’ (many of these are low income standards are now being at the birth and subsequent names, many do not do so families, where couples may not recommended (Fragile Families, involvement in monitoring (Fathers Direct, 2006b). live together and birth 2005). infant health by participating registration is likely to be at its in ‘well child visits’. Birth registration by the father lowest) is 96%. This is mainly Do fears about child support establishes paternity. Paternity enforcement discourage fathers • Kiernan (2006) compared the due to in-hospital registration recognition, and government from signing their infants’ birth behaviour of non-resident (Minnesota Fathers and Families support for it, can be interpreted certificates? Apparently not: in fathers who had signed their Network, 2007). In the UK, as the child’s right (UN England and Wales rates of sole baby’s birth certificate, with paternity establishment among Convention on the Rights of the birth registration by mothers fathers who had not signed CSA cases is only 75%. Child - Article 7 [1]37 and Article remained stable from 1991- the birth certificate but had 8 [1] & [2]38). Henshaw (2006) 2000, during which time the been present at their baby’s asserts that ‘knowing and being Child Support Agency was birth. She found that though acknowledged by both parents’ established and widely discussed roughly equal numbers of is an important issue to (Macfarlane et al, 2004, p.7). both groups later moved in children. with their baby’s mother, all other measures of involvement, except the payment of child support, were higher among the men who had attended the birth. Noting the many studies that have recorded the powerful impact on fathers of witnessing the births of their children, Kiernan comments: ‘Our evidence suggests that this attachment exemplified through presence at the birth carries through into infancy even among non-resident fathers’.

20 www.fathersdirect.com

3.5 Smoking

Parental smoking is a significant • A high quality case control • Heavy smoking by either Fathers and mothers’ smoking issue both for the Department of study in Northern California father or mother is associated behaviours are linked: Health and for Government as found that exposure to with fussiness/colic in a whole. Who smokes? paternal preconception newborns. In a Dutch national • An expectant father’s smoking alone (as well as in sample, excessive infant crying continuing to smoke is In a study of smoking combination with postnatal (which has a deleterious effect associated with his partner’s households in the Midlands passive smoking) is highly in parent/infant bonding and continuing smoking (for (infants’ mean age 10 weeks): likely to be important in the couple satisfaction, and review, see Bottorff et al, risk of childhood leukaemia perceptions of which are the 2006). • Two-thirds contained a (Chang et al, 2006). number one trigger for smoking father – many more • A longitudinal UK survey Shaken Baby Syndrome - Barr, than contained a smoking found that smoking by a • Heavy paternal smoking is 2006) was found to occur mother (Blackburn et al, pregnant woman’s partner associated with increased risk more frequently among 2005a). was by far the biggest of early pregnancy loss infants whose fathers (but not predictor of her current (Venners et al, 2004), mothers) smoked 15+ • Tobacco consumption was smoking status (Penn & respiratory disease in infants cigarettes daily (Reijneveld et higher where both parents Owen, 2002). and low birth-weight (Health 42 smoked or where only the al, 2005). Education Authority, 1999). father smoked (Blackburn et • A review of nine cohort Fathers have, at best, al, 2005a). studies published in • Paternal smoking is directly incomplete knowledge of the international peer-reviewed linked with SIDS - and also effects of passive smoking on • Many of the fathers wanted to journals found ‘partner’s indirectly, via low birth-weight infants: only 33% are aware that stop smoking: more than 50% smoking habit’ to be one of (Health Education Authority, it contributes to SIDS; 24% that had tried to cut down; 20% the key determinants of a 1999). it contributes to ear infections; had tried to quit; and more pregnant woman’s smoking. 65% that it is related to babies’ than 75% had tried not to • Where both parents smoke, Most of the other developing asthma, bronchitis smoke in the house. However, the baby is eight times more determinants of pregnant and pneumonia; and 75% that less than 5% had succeeded likely to die of SIDS (Health women’s smoking were SES it contributes to coughing/sore 43 in quitting; and only 60% had Education Authority, 1999). related (Lu et al, 2001). achieved not smoking at throats in babies (Moffat & home (Blackburn et al, • A substantial study in New Stanton, 2005). • An expectant mother’s quitting 2005b). Zealand identified father’s is consistently associated with In the US, paediatricians are smoking as a risk factor for her partner’s provision of being urged to address fathers’ • Astonishingly, most of the breastfeeding cessation at support for her quitting – and smoking, not only because of fathers were not asked about four months postpartum, by his quitting himself (for the impact on their health but their smoking habits either independently of mother’s review, see McBride et al, because of productivity issues: 44 during the pregnancy or after smoking and other factors 2001). children from smoking the birth, let alone given even (McLeod et al, 2002). the most basic information to households miss an extra six • Similarly, an expectant father’s encourage them to quit days of school a year (Dake et quitting is strongly associated (Blackburn et al, 2005b).41 al, 2006). with his partner’s quitting (Lu et al, 2004), What impact does fathers’ smoking have on infants? • Although mothers’ influence on fathers’ quitting is small • Smoking by fathers causes (for review, see Bottorf et al, sperm damage, reduces 2006), mothers who have quit semen quality and reduces themselves have the strongest responsiveness to fertility influence (Ratner et al, 2001). treatment (British Medical Association, 2004).

21 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

For many fathers, not smoking • Men who become fathers are • In another randomized • Fathers’ not smoking in the in the home may be a more more likely than other men to controlled study of an home is linked to both their achievable target than smoking have quit in the two years intervention designed to caring and their economic cessation (Blackburn et al, preceding childbirth, and to reduce smoking in expectant circumstances, so other 2005b). So how effective are be still abstinent one year fathers, addressing the interventions (e.g. supporting mothers in protecting their thereafter (Brenner & Mielck, mothers alone resulted in 5% them into further education, infants from the father’s 1993). of the fathers’ quitting, while training or employment) may smoking? Results are mixed. A addressing the father directly have spin-offs in reducing Dutch study found that among • Becoming a father and resulted in a 15% quit rate fathers’ smoking in the home the 65% of mothers who preparing to become a father (McBride et al, 2004). (Blackburn et al, 2005b). prevented passive smoking to are associated with some extent, success was linked spontaneous quitting (Brenner The barriers to fathers’ • Masculinity Issues may need with the mother’s self-efficacy in & Mielck, 1993); and multiple quitting/smoking reduction, and to be addressed: identification asking others not to smoke quit attempts are common the factors that may encourage of smoking with masculinity (Crone et al, 2001). This prior to smoking cessation it, are beginning to be precludes some fathers from suggests that the most (Prochaska & Goldstein, understood: viewing partner’s tobacco vulnerable women are likely to 1991). reduction or cessation as an • An Australian focus group be the least efficacious in opportunity for their own • The discontinuities in everyday identified a belief among protecting their infants from cessation (Bottorff et al, life associated with the expectant, smoker, fathers that passive smoking. 2006). postnatal period provide the stress caused in their What indicators are there, that opportunities for establishing family through smoking • It seems possible that social fatherhood may prove an new routines (Bottorff et al, withdrawal/quitting would be and cultural shifts that incentive for men to reduce their 2006) more detrimental to the redefine masculinity and male smoking, smoke outside the unborn baby than continued roles in relation to childcare Smoking interventions with house – or even quit? Most smoking (Wakefield et al, and family life may support expectant and new fathers are men, and in particular healthy 1998, cited by Bottorff et al, positive changes in health already yielding results. men from lower socioeconomic 2006). behaviour among fathers, classes, are poorly motivated by including their smoking • A randomized controlled trial • In another Australian study, in existing smoking cessation practices (Bottorff et al, of a multi component multivariate logistic regression programmes. However, 2006). intervention with expectant analyses ‘feeling close to the ‘significant life events’ are a fathers in the US found that, unborn baby’ and a ‘high time of increased receptiveness at six months post partum, level of knowledge about the to smoking cessation influences almost twice as many in the effects of passive smoking on (Stanton et al, 2004). intervention group compared baby’ were associated with Fatherhood seems to be one of with the controls (16.5% v. early quit attempts by fathers these: 9.3%) had stopped smoking. Moffatt & Stanton (2005). However, the number needed • Expectant and new fathers to be treated to get one male • Moffatt & Stanton (2005) also experience discomfort with smoker to quit was 13 to 14 found ‘high level of their smoking (Bottorff et al, (Stanton et al, 2004). knowledge about the effects 2006) of passive smoking on baby’ • Almost exactly the same • The desire to be a caring, and ‘confidence in ability to treatment/quit ratio was found participative father increases quit’ associated with smoking in a Hong Kong study, with – men’s ambivalence about cessation. again – almost double the quit smoking and precipitates rate in the intervention group. changes in smoking The intervention group, in that (Westmaas et al, 2002) case, had received three- session telephone-based smoking cessation counselling (Abdullah et al, 2005).

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3.6 Breastfeeding

What influence do fathers have mothers’ intention to breastfeeding continuation. • Working with the couple on breastfeeding? breastfeed. Conversely, Only 15% of mothers whose relationship may pay fathers’ beliefs that partners had been simply told dividends, since relationship • A number of studies have breastfeeding is bad for the about the benefits of satisfaction is associated with found fathers influencing breasts, makes breasts ugly breastfeeding were still more paternal breastfeeding mothers’ decisions to initiate and interferes with sex are breastfeeding at six months; support (Falceto et al, 2004), and/or sustain breastfeeding associated with mothers’ but when the men were and relationship distress is (for review, see Scott et al, bottle-feeding intentions individually coached for just predictive of early 2001). (Freed et al, 1993). 40 minutes on managing breastfeeding cessation, common problems (such as although only at a marginal • Support from the infant’s • Barriers to fathers’ supporting pain and discomfort, fear that level of significance (Sullivan father through active breastfeeding include baby isn’t ‘getting enough’ et al, 2004). participation in the disapproval of women and breastfeeding-issues when breastfeeding decision, breastfeeding in public or in mum returns to work) the • Since high levels of maternal together with a positive front of non-family members, percentage of mothers still responsibility for household attitude by him and and lack of knowledge about breastfeeding at six months tasks and infant care are knowledge about the benefits the health benefits and was 25%. The impact was significant predictors of of breastfeeding, have been nutritional superiority of particularly strong among breastfeeding cessation, shown to have a strong breastfeeding. Such women who had reported supporting fathers to take influence on the initiation and disapproval and lack of difficulties with lactation (4.5% responsibility in these areas duration of breastfeeding knowledge are far more v. 24%). may contribute significantly to (Swanson & Power, 2005; common in fathers than in breastfeeding maintenance Arora et al, 2000; Bromberg mothers (Shaker et al, 2004; • An established workplace (Sullivan et al, 2004). & Darby, 1997). Pollock et al, 2002; Shepherd intervention in the US offers et al, 2000). fathers either two 45-minute Working with the couple rather • Low-income women in group classes (which include than simply with the mother in particular suggest that male Can fathers’ views and observing positioning and breastfeeding education is support is crucial in their understandings be changed? attachment) or a one-hour, important. A desire for the decision to breastfeed Most of the intervention studies one-on-one coaching session father to have opportunities to (Schmidt & Sigman-Grant, are small, but the indications (which includes use and care be close to the baby can be a 2000). are positive. of a breast pump). A book on factor in some mothers opting breastfeeding and other ‘take to cease breastfeeding; and an • It is worth noting that mothers’ • A randomized controlled trial away’ handouts are supplied. approach that focuses perceptions of their partners’ of a two-hour pre-natal The fathers are also invited to exclusively on the mother-child attitudes to breastfeeding - on intervention with fathers attend a men-only fathering dyad can result in some fathers which researchers often rely - consisting of infant care session as part of an ante- feeling excluded, jealous and may not be accurate: when information as well as natal course for couples. All resentful, to the detriment of the men are interviewed encouragement for fathers to the interventions result in breastfeeding success (Jordan & directly, their attitudes can be advocate for breastfeeding higher-than-average Wall, 1993). more positive than expected and assist their partner, breastfeeding rates, with the and reported by their partners resulted in 74% v. 41% outcomes from the fathering (Freed et al, 1993). breastfeeding initiation among session the most impressive. women whose partners had Fathers’ actual beliefs about When fathers had attended attended the class, in breastfeeding and their level of the fathering session as well comparison with the controls knowledge and understanding as the breastfeeding (Wolfberg et al, 2004) are significant. instruction,, 69% of the • In Italy, Piscane et.al. (2005) mothers were still • Fathers’ beliefs that found that teaching fathers breastfeeding at six months breastfeeding is best for baby, how to prevent and manage post partum,compared with a and that it helps with bonding the most common lactation national average of 21% and protects baby from difficulties had a marked, (Cohen et.al., 2002). disease, are associated with positive impact on 23 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

3.7 Post-natal Depression

3.7.1: The father’s role in • A randomized controlled trial 3.7.2: Fathers’ own What factors are linked with maternal depression in Canada found that where depression paternal depression at this time? The evidence that impaired depressed women’s partners Fathers’ own depression is also • The experience of a general maternal mental health, participated in 4 out of 7 an issue for concern, not least lack of support, with the including depression, in the post psycho-educational visits, the because of its potential to quality of the couple partum period, has adverse women displayed a significant exacerbate maternal depression. relationship, including effects on the infant socially, decrease in depressive Although pregnancy is a period disagreement about the emotionally, behaviourally and symptoms and other of greater stress for fathers than pregnancy and perceived lack cognitively is extensive (e.g. psychiatric conditions. the post-birth period (Huang & of supportiveness from the Kurstjens & Wolke, 2001; Interestingly, when only the Warner, 2005; Condon et al, mother particularly central Cummings & Davies, 1994; women (and not their 2004), fathers’ rates of (Huang & Warner, 2005; Hossain et al, 1994). partners) received the depression are higher after the Dudley et al, 2001; Matthey Amelioration of the mother’s intervention, the general birth than before it (Huang & et al, 2004). psychological distress after the health of the depressed Warner, 2005). women’s partners first year does not necessarily • Infant-related problems deteriorated. This effect was As is the case with maternal improve the outcome for the (Dudley et al, 2001). child (Murray et al, 2003). not found where the men depression, estimates of were included in the paternal depression range • The father’s neuroticism and Mothers’ depression is intervention (Misri et al, widely depending on the substance abuse/dependence associated with own personality, 2000). characteristics of the sample (Huang & Warner, 2005). perinatal, infant-related and and the measure of depression partner factors. These last • A shorter length of hospital used. • The mother’s personality include a poor relationship with stay among women with difficulties, unresolved past the father, his being unavailable pre/postpartum psychiatric • Depression rates of 7-30% events in her life and her at the time of the baby’s birth disorders is strongly and have been identified in new current mental health status and his provision of what is positively correlated with fathers (for review, see Huang (Huang & Warner, 2005), perceived by the mother to be supportiveness by their (male) & Warner, 2005). most particularly her insufficient emotional or partners. However, only 30% depression.45 • In Denmark new fathers’ practical support. This can of these men are categorized depression rates are double Low income new fathers, include low participation in by the researchers as the national average for men including young fathers (see infant care. Other risk factors supportive (Grube, 2004). in the same age group Young Fathers, below) are include his holding rigid sex-role • A brief, inexpensive US (Madsen, 2006). particularly vulnerable to expectations, or being critical, intervention (one prenatal depression, seemingly due to coercive or violent (for review, • First time fathers are session, in separate gender interacting factors. In a low see Fisher et al, 2006). particularly prone to groups focusing on income African American depression (Cowan et al, The father’s functioning as a psychosocial issues related to sample, 56% of new fathers 1991) with mild to moderate support person is key, since becoming first-time parents) were found to have ‘depressive depression most likely (Soliday depressed new mothers receive was associated with reduced symptoms indicating cause for et al, 1999). more support from their partner distress in some mothers at six clinical concern’. Correlates than from any other individual, weeks postpartum. The key • In Denmark, the risk of included resource challenges, including medical staff factor seemed to be their postpartum mental disorders transportation and permanent (Holopainen, 2002). Can perception of an increased necessitating hospital housing difficulties; problems intervening with these men level of awareness in the men admission or outpatient with alcohol and drugs; health prove fruitful? Few interventions as to how they were contacts is increased for problems/disability; and a have been rigorously evaluated, experiencing the early several months after childbirth criminal conviction history and sample sizes are small. postpartum weeks (Matthey et for mothers, but among (Anderson et al, 2005). However, indications are al, 2004). fathers no increase in severe positive. mental disorders is found (Munk-Olsen et al, 2006).

24 www.fathersdirect.com

In this study, and in opposition Fathers who feel supported by 3.7.3: The impact of fathers’ • In the US, a study of Head to findings elsewhere, higher their partners in finding their depression on infants Start families found that levels of social support were own ways of caring for their and children fathers with higher levels of associated with greater infants are likely to develop a A recent, substantial, UK/US depression had less depressive symptomatology, strong connection to their study, which controlled for involvement with their children leading researchers to speculate babies, and are also unlikely to mothers’ depression, found high (Roggman et al, 2002). that for low-income men the develop depression (Cowan & levels of emotional and • When both parents are perceived costs of reciprocity Cowan, 1988). Participation in behavioural problems in depressed and the depressed may have deterred them from a fathers’ group has been found children (particularly boys) aged father spends medium/high utilizing available support; or to assist men’s coping with their 3.5 years, associated with amounts of time caring for his that peer groups may have partner’s postnatal depression earlier depression in their infant, his depression has influenced their alcohol or drug (Davey et al, 2006). However, fathers (Ramchandani et al, been found to exacerbate the use, or placed demands on group interventions may suit 2005). The mechanisms by negative effects of mothers’ their resources (Anderson et only particular types of fathers which this occurs are not fully depression (Mezulis et al, al, 2005). (Ghate et al, 2000). understood. Both direct and 2004). indirect effects are likely. For The more tenuous the Early Years Services often example: relationship with the mother, the succeed in engaging fathers • A pilot study to assess the relationship between paternal more likely it is that the father (particularly young fathers) via • Fathers’ depression puts at mood and infant will be depressed. Interacting sports. Generally this tactic is risk the quality of the temperament found higher factors and selection effects regarded as a ‘hook’ activity to relationship between the paternal depression scores, would seem to explain this in draw the men into involvement parents (Phares, 1997); and more traditional attitudes part, but the circumstances of with other services (Fathers better couple relationship towards fathering and the pregnancy are also likely to Direct, 2002-06). In fact, quality has been linked to increased recent life events be relevant. Rates of paternal involving fathers in sports lower infant fussiness scores related to higher infant depression in one recent US activities should perhaps be (Dave et al, 2005). study were 6.6% (married considered an end in itself, not fussiness scores (Dave et al, fathers), 8.7% (cohabiting), least because of the potential of • High psychological well being 2005). 11.9% (romantically involved regular aerobic exercise for in fathers is positively However, McElwain & Volling but not living together); and, improving mood. associated with their sensitivity (1999) found depressed fathers among the fathers who were as parents (Broom, 1994). less intrusive than non- described as ‘not involved’ with depressed fathers when the mother 19.9% were • Fathers’ depression (like observed playing with their 12- depressed (Huang & Warner, mothers’) limits their ability to month-olds; and Field et al 2005). parent effectively (Huang & Warner, 2005). (1999) reported that depressed fathers did not interact with their • A 3-year study of first-time infants more negatively than fathers in Australia found non-depressed fathers did. stress negatively affecting fathers’ attachments to their infants (Buist et al, 2003).

25 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

Notes

3.7.4: Ameliorating the • Fathers’ support can shield The finding that even after a 23 Overall, this means that 86% of all fathers in this sample were at the birth. impact of mothers’ the infants of chronically mother’s recovery from post 24 And thus may provide an important strategy in depression on infants: depressed mothers from natal depression, adverse achieving women’s empowerment (Mullany ‘father-as-buffer’ negative outcomes (Field, patterns of interaction with her et al, 2007). When, and how, may fathers’ 1998), promoting greater child can continue (Cox et al, 25 See also Domestically Violent Fathers, below. behaviour ‘buffer’ negative maternal responsiveness to 1987) indicates the importance 26 In a key study, Bacchus et al (2004) sampled their infants (Jackson, 1999) of including fathers in the 892 pregnant women (aged 16 and over) effects of mothers’ depression? attending maternity services of Guy’s and St and minimizing power- intervention in both the short Thomas’ NHS Hospital Trust in South London. • Fathers have unusually high assertive maternal child- and longer term. Midwives routinely enquired about domestic abuse at booking, 34 weeks of gestation and amounts of interaction with reading attitudes (Brunelli et postpartum (within 10 days) using a series of insecure-avoidant infant girls al, 1995). 47 structured questions. The prevalence of domestic abuse (physical, sexual or – the group with whom emotional26) in pregnancy was 1.8% at mothers interact least of all • Women who, as children, booking, 5.8% at 34 weeks of gestation and 46 experienced maternal 5.0% at 10 days postpartum – implying an (Fagot & Kavenagh, 1993). overall prevalence of 2.5% domestic abuse rejection and/or had a mother (physical/sexual) during pregnancy.26 However, • A small (n: 25 families) who experienced depressive because during the recruitment phase not every woman attending the clinic was questioned, observational study found that symptoms are at elevated risk the prevalence is likely to be an under- in most families where of developing depression in estimate. mothers suffered from the post-natal period. 27 Victims of domestic abuse often have pre- persistent depressive mood, existing depression and other mental health However, if their relationship difficulties. They tend to smoke, abuse their infants had established with their own father is substances, and may be young, poor, ill joyful relationships with their educated and unmarried – all risk factors, in remembered as positive and themselves, for obstetric complications, low fathers, and infant-father ‘accepting’: then they are birth weight and perinatal death (Kearney et al, attachments were secure. much less likely to develop 2004). (Edhborg et al, 2003). Similar depressive symptoms 28 Indirect effects may include generating or exacerbating (in the mother) depression, poor findings are reported by postnatally (Crockenberg & self-care and/or stress-related ongoing Hossain et al (1994). Leerkes, 2003). substance use, including cigarettes. 29 E.g. Silverman et al, 2006; Coker et al, 2004; • Infants of chronically When mothers are especially Janssen et al, 2003; Bacchus et al, 2003. depressed mothers have been vulnerable, it would seem wise 30 So far, only one study has investigated the found to learn in response to for child and family impact of fear-of-partner (in the absence of actual physical violence) on adverse pregnancy fathers’ (but not mothers’ or professionals to pay particular outcomes (Janssen et al, 2003). This found no other women’s) infant-directed attention to supporting positive correlation. speech (Kaplan et al, 2004). and substantial father-child 31 Alcohol dependent fathers are likely to sire girls with a strong tendency to ADHD (Knopik et al, interaction. However, a 2005). • Where mothers are depressed proactive and tactful approach 32 post-natally, fathers’ self- Fathers’ pesticide exposure prior to conception may be needed: where new predicts pre-term delivery (Hourani & Hilton, reported parenting styles mothers’ feelings of autonomy 2000). interact with the amount of are low (Grossman et al, 2002) 33 Antenatal class attendance is connected with time they spend caring for more positive feelings about the birth or they are depressed or lack experience for some men; however, those who their infants, to moderate the confidence as mothers (Lupton had seemed to ‘block’ distressing information longitudinal effects of the during the classes had a more negative birth & Barclay, 1997) they tend experience (Greenhalgh et al, 2000). mothers’ depression on actively to exclude fathers, and children’s internalising the fathers may hang back, behaviours in childhood fearing their interference could (Mezulis et al, 2004). exacerbate the situation (Lupton & Barclay, 1997; Lewis, 1986).

26 www.fathersdirect.com

34 Useful topics for such courses include 43 Interestingly, a partner’s SES has been found to managing and resolving conflict; expectations, be only weakly related to a woman’s continued values and beliefs; commitment; forgiveness; smoking (Moden et al, 2003) so does not friendship and fun; and managing fatigue and appear to be a mediating factor in her failure stress. Radical new approaches to working to quit. with low income couples are being tested 44 (Glade et al, 2005). 65% of pregnant smokers have been advised to give up by their partners; 25% found their 35 The long-term outcomes of this intervention are comments useful (Health Education Authority, currently being investigated. 1999).

36 Hayward & Chalmers (1990) suggest that 45 An integrated review of 20 research studies these positive findings may be associated, in found 24-50% of new fathers with depressed some cases, with the father’s contribution as a partners affected by depression themselves general factotum on an understaffed labour (Goodman, 2004). A recent study not only ward. recorded more depressive symptoms among such men, but also more aggression and non 37 Article 7 (1) ‘The child shall be registered specific psychological impairment, as well as immediately after birth and shall have the right higher rates of depressive disorder, non specific from birth to a name, the right to acquire a psychological problems and problem fatigue. nationality and, as far as possible, the right to New fathers whose partners were depressed know and be cared for by his or her parents.’ were also more likely to have three or more

38 co-morbid psychological disturbances. On Article 8 (1) ‘States Parties undertake to respect measures of anxiety and alcohol use there was the right of the child to preserve his or her no difference between men whose partners identity, including nationality, name and family were depressed and men whose partners relations as recognized by law without unlawful weren’t (Roberts et al, 2006). interference.’ (2) ‘Where a child is illegally deprived of some or all of the elements of his 46 These researchers hypothesise that the elevated or her identity, States Parties shall provide risk of behaviour problems found in sons of appropriate assistance and protection, with a postnatally depressed mothers may be linked view to speedily re-establishing his or her to the fact that both parents tend to interact identity.’ less with insecurely attached infant boys.

39 Given the anxiety and exhilaration experienced 47 However, where family problems are extreme around the birth, a public declaration of and maternal warmth and acceptance very fatherhood within the hospital setting may have low, a positive father-child relationship may a particular emotional force. One US father not prove sufficient ‘buffer’ on its own (Jorm et described how, when filling out a form in the al, 2003) particularly where children are very paediatrician’s office, “I felt a jolt when I had young (Mezulis et al, 2004). to fill in the line that said ‘Father’s name’. I had all these visions about report cards and . . . permission forms and all these things – and I’m going to be the one signing where it says ‘Father’!” (Cowan & Cowan, 2000, p.56).

40 See for example, practice in the State of Arizona: www.supreme.state.az.us/dr/Text/Paternity.htm

41 As one father put it: ‘Being a father, you don’t get anything at the hospital. They don’t say “well, if you smoke have a read of this”. There’s nothing in that respect’.

42 Note controlling for SES and other potentially confounding variables was not substantial in this study.

27 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice 4 Fathers’ roles in child development

28 www.fathersdirect.com

4.1 An overview

Since 1975, an increasingly How can father involvement It has often been argued that no sophisticated body of research affect children in negative ways? father is better than a bad has been charting the pathways father. That can of course be through which fathers influence • Studies show a range of true. However: their children’s development. A negative developmental recent systematic review of outcomes associated with • Severing father-child studies which controlled for fathers’ (and father-figures’) relationships entirely, either maternal involvement and poor parenting or actively or by default, can gathered data from different psychopathology (see Lloyd et result in children demonising independent sources, found al, 2003), substance misuse or idealising their fathers ‘positive’ father involvement (Velleman, 2004, p.188) and (Kraemer, 2005; Gorrell associated with a range of abusive behaviour towards Barnes et al, 1998) or desirable outcomes for children mothers (Jaffee et al, 1990). blaming themselves for their and young people (Pleck & absence (Pryor & Rodgers, • A ‘dose effect’ is found: worse Masciadrelli, 2004). The 2001). behaviour by fathers tends to positive outcomes include: result in worse outcomes for • Furthermore, loss or better peer relationships; fewer children, as does more attenuation of the relationship behaviour problems; lower extensive contact with a father commonly causes children criminality and substance abuse; who is ‘behaving badly’ substantial distress, anger and higher educational / (Jaffee et al, 2003). self-doubt (Fortin et al, 2006; occupational mobility relative to Laumann-Billings & Emery, parents’ employment; capacity • Another kind of dose effect - 1998). for empathy; non-traditional the ‘double dose’ effect (Dunn attitudes to earning and et al, 2000) - is found where • Controlling for other factors, childcare; more satisfying adult both parents’ life histories / absent fatherhood has been sexual partnerships; and higher behaviour are negative shown negatively to affect self-esteem and life-satisfaction. (O’Brien, 2004b). children directly, for example, Similarly, low levels of (positive) by contributing to their involvement are associated with • Jaffee et al (2003) also note a difficulties with peer a range of negative outcomes ‘double whammy’ impact, relationships, including (for review, see Flouri, 2005a). where genetic and bullying (Parke et al, 2004; environmental risks converge. Berdondini & Smith, 1996); However, the pathway into and indirectly, via increased higher paternal involvement is It has, however, been pointed maternal stress and reduced crucial. Forced high paternal out that singling out fathers in income (McLanahan, 1997; involvement, as through forced this way distracts attention from McLanahan & Teitler, 1999). unemployment, does not usually the larger body of evidence that bring with it the same benefits shows negative maternal • Although in some cases as greater paternal involvement influences equally in evidence removing the father improves through choice (O’Brien, (Leinonen et al, 2003). the situation for children, their 2004a). Agreement between situation more often becomes parents as to the desirability of worse (Guterman & Lee, the involvement is also key 2005). (Ashley et al, 2006). Having ‘set the scene’ with general comments, we now focus on specifics.

29 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

4.2 4.3 Infancy & pre-school Childhood and adolescence Although a vast array of studies How does early father • Fathers’ parenting style - like School-aged children’s points to mother-infant involvement affect infants’ and mothers’ - matters a great emotional / behavioural attachment security as more preschoolers’ cognitive and deal and is sometimes the development shows the same central to the positive and social development? Here more powerful influence on pattern of fathers’ significant negative development of infants mothers’ influence is again the young children’s influence separate from and young children: more powerful.54 But it is only a development.58 mothers’ - specifically on their matter of degree: fathers’ social maturity,61 behaviour,62 • Infants’ security of attachment impact is important, and the • The quality of father-child and important personality with both mothers and fathers earlier fathers become involved, interactions early on correlate variables such as self-esteem63 appears to be mutually the better - where their with the quality of children’s and internal locus of control.64 59 influenced and interactions with their young peer relationships later. 48 interdependent. children are mainly positive: Far from having a mainly However, it must be ‘instrumental’ impact (as was • Infants of very highly involved • High quality remembered that when fathers’ once thought), fathers are now fathers are generally more (sensitive/supportive) and interactions with their infants understood to play a substantial sociable and seem equally substantial father involvement and pre-schoolers are role in socializing their children’s 49 attached to both parents. from the month following birth consistently negative, the impact emotions. In addition to the 60 is connected with a range of is also very negative. impact on their adjustment, this • Fathers often form positive outcomes in babies has been found to influence independent attachments with and toddlers - from better school functioning and their infants that promote their 65 50 language development to popularity with an equivalent security. higher IQs.55 influence on daughters and sons • Infant-father attachment – although the pathways • The value of supportive security may have unique through which paternal parenting of infants and effects - and may be more influence operates here may toddlers by fathers is also 66 influential on occasion than sometimes be different. found in low income families mother-child attachment 51 and across different racial Conflict with fathers, fathers’ security. groups.56 negativity and fathers’ harsh or • Infant-father attachment neglectful parenting are strongly • When fathers earn more and security may be affected by associated with overt child are better educated, the both the quantity and quality behaviour problems throughout positive effects on their young of the time fathers spend with childhood and adolescence. 52 children are marked; and their infants. Specifically: fathers’ higher income and • Better measures of infant- better education are also • fathers’ harsh parenting has a father security may be predictive, as independent stronger effect than mothers’ obtained by observing infant- variables, of more positive on children’s aggression, 57 father play than by mother-child interactions. particularly sons’ (Chang et conventional attachment - al, 2003). • Fathers’ active care of security testing. Measures of ‘difficult-to-raise’ pre- • a father’s own bullying father-toddler play have been schoolers is related to fewer behaviour at school is a risk found to be more predictive problems in these children factor for his child becoming than mother-infant attachment later (Aldous & Mulligan, a bully (Farrington, 1993). security of adjustment in 53 2002). adolescence.

30 www.fathersdirect.com

4.4 Education and achievement

• a body of evidence links • The father-teenager Fathers’ influence here is • Higher self-esteem / locus of negative fathering with low relationship is found to be substantial - and from children’s control are positively self-esteem in children; and important whether or not earliest years. associated with children’s low self-esteem in both boys father and child live together, educational outcomes - and and girls is related, among and also across different • Frequency of fathers’ reading the father’s role in their other things, to an increase in racial groups, although its to 1-2 year olds is linked with development has already partner violence and violent salience and functioning may their greater interest in books been noted. family relationships in differ by cultural context.68 later (Lyytinen et al, 1998) adulthood (for review, see • Low paternal interest in • A key predictor of fathers’ Dick & Bronson, 2005). • Adolescents are very sensitive children’s education has a to the quality of their involvement in children’s stronger negative impact on Children’s perceptions of their relationships with their learning is having become children’s lack of fathers’ behaviour are fathers.69 involved in their child’s life qualifications than contact important. Researchers studying very early on (Goldman, with the police, poverty, family 8-16 year olds in Wales and • For teenagers, as for younger 2005). type, social class, housing America found the children children, a father’s parenting tenure and child’s personality • A significant relationship is responding more positively to style is important – although (Blanden, 2006). found between positive father positive parenting (problem when this is not good, a engagement at age 6, and IQ solving, support and affection) positive father-teen Findings vary as to the relative and achievement at age 7 by their fathers than to similarly relationship can offset some importance of mothers’ v. 70 (Gottfried et al, 1988). positive parenting by their of the negative effects. fathers’ influence on educational achievement.78 The mothers (Goeke-Morey et al, • A father’s own education level • The positive influence of the following studies have charted 2003). is an important predictor of father-teen relationship has more powerful paternal been found in some studies to his child’s educational What happens at adolescence? 74 influences: be stronger for boys (Bronte- achievement. • Strong and positive father- Tinkew et al, 2006),71 and • In low income communities • English fathers’ involvement child relationships in both may be particularly important fathers’ influence has been with their children (at ages 7 childhood and adolescence in some disadvantaged found to be more significant and 11) correlates with better protect against adolescents’ communities.72 than mothers’ for boys’ (but national examination risk behaviours and distress.67 not girls’) escape from performance at age 16 (Lewis • A growing body of research is disadvantage.79 • The quality of father-child finding adolescent girls’ close et al, 1982). relationships is more variable relationships with their fathers • Fathers exert greater influence • US fathers’ involvement in than the quality of mother- (particularly their biological than mothers on boys’ routine childcare has been child relationships (Dunn, fathers) correlated with delay educational choices.80 associated with children’s 2004) – and father-teen in ‘first sex’.73 higher school grades relationships also tend to be • Fathers’ risk-avoidance Parental responsibilities to (Hoffman & Youngblade, behaviour81 has a positive more volatile than mother- 75 1999). teen relationships (White & adolescents include not just impact on sons’ (but not emotional support, but also daughters’) educational Gilbreth, 2001). • Fathers’ involvement in their supervision. Fathers are less attainment.82 children’s learning and • At adolescence, the likely than mothers to provide schools is predictive of a relationship with the mother this. Clark et al (2004) have • Fathers’ income predicts sons’ range of positive educational (but not daughters’) years of does not seem to be more suggested that inadequate 76 outcomes - and is not simply 83 influential (Videon, 2005). supervision of adolescents by schooling. a result of better-resourced- fathers (or others) should be and-educated fathers being • In hierarchical communities, perceived as a form of neglect. 77 more involved. paternal influence may be more powerful.84

31 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

4.5 4.6 Beyond adolescence Child health

What evidence is there of an • In America, a study that 4.6.1: Engaging fathers in • Fathers who were more association between the father- controlled for socio- their children’s healthcare involved by medical child relationship and later demographic and other factors It seems a shame that child professionals in the treatment outcomes? Both positives and found 11-16% of the variance health and nutrition education is of their medically negatives have been found.: in both adult daughters’ and almost never directed compromised infants sons’ educational mobility, and appeared to interact with • Reported levels of UK fathers’ specifically at fathers 6-13% of their occupational them more positively and to involvement with their children (Horodynski & Arndt, 2005) mobility, explained by positive be less distressed by their ill- at ages 7 and 11 predicted since fathers play a substantial paternal engagement in health (Darke & Goldberg, not only age 16 exam role in their children’s childhood (Snarey, 1993). 1994). outcomes, (as mentioned healthcare: above), but also age 21 • In the UK, high levels of father • Garfield & Isacco (2006), • In one study, eighty-nine criminality (Lewis et al, 1982). involvement at ages 7 & 11 reviewing evidence relating to percent of low-income, urban were found to protect against father involvement in • Also in the UK, reported father- US fathers were found to have experience of homelessness in healthcare interventions, child involvement at age 7 attended at least one ‘Well the adult sons of manual found fathers to be significant predicted the child’s self- Child Visit’ (WCV) with 53% workers (Flouri, 2005a) influences on compliance with reported closeness to their attending more than two fifths healthcare regimes. father at 16, as well as lower • Paternal warmth and of the WCVs recommended levels of police contact at that acceptance are significant for their child’s age (Moore & • Youths from father-absent age (Flouri & Buchanan, protective factors against Kotelchuck, 2004). households suffering from 2002a). depression in young adult chronic disease tend to • In another, seriously children (Alloy et al, 2001). demonstrate poorer treatment • Closeness to father at 16 was disadvantaged, sample, 53% adherence, psychological then found to predict these • US researchers have found the had attended at least one adjustment and health status young people’s marital children of warm, affectionate WCV and 84% had been with (for review, see Wysocki & satisfaction and lower fathers more likely to be their child to see a doctor in Gavin, 2006). psychological distress at age coping well at age 41, and to the past year (Garfield & 33, particularly for girls (Flouri be mentally healthy and Isaaco, 2006). • This may in part be related to & Buchanan, 2002b).85 psychologically mature (Franz lone mothers feeling • A study of African American et al, 1994). unsupported. In two-parent • The connection found between fathers, many of them young, families, fathers’ involvement high father involvement at age • Looking even further ahead, and only half of whom had in the healthcare of youth with 7 and reduced psychological Heyl (2004) found recalled always lived with their chronic diseases is associated distress at age 33, was father-child relationships children, found that 50% with improved maternal stronger when mother associated with friendships in shared, or had sole psychological functioning, involvement at age 7 was low two age groups (43-46 years; responsibility for their parenting stress, marital - suggesting that high father 61-64 years), independent of children’s teeth-brushing satisfaction and family coping involvement can ‘buffer’ some personality characteristics. (Broder et al, 2006). with disease management of the negative impact of low • Fathers’ expressions of hostility Fathers’ involvement in child (Wysocki & Gavin, 2006). mother involvement (Flouri, toward their 16-year-olds sons healthcare can make a 2005a). • Adolescents with chronic (and the extent to which they difference to child outcomes: diseases typically experience • US research also found the undermine their autonomy) deterioration in treatment quality of the father-teenager predict close friends’ reports of • Levy-Shiff et al (1990) found adherence and quality of life; relationship to be more hostility and low ego resiliency the number of a father’s this is considerably less likely predictive than that of the in these males at age 25 (Allen hospital visits to his pre-term when fathers are more mother-teenager relationship et al, 2002). infant predictive of higher involved in their care (Wysocki of a young person’s adjustment infant weight gain. • Both low father involvement and & Gavin, 2006). to adult life (Grossmann et al, decreasing closeness in 2002).86 adolescence predict delinquency in adult life (Harris et al, 1998). For substantial detail on highly negative fathering, see Vulnerable Fathers, below. 32 www.fathersdirect.com

• A Finnish study of 10 year • An important finding is that • In France, fathers’ beliefs • In a pediatric obesity olds found a father’s young once fathers are convinced of about their elementary treatment programme, father age at the birth of his child an appointment’s importance, children’s competence were acceptance (and positive and his infrequent tooth they can usually adjust their found to affect their physical change in father acceptance) brushing predictive of his work and other schedules to activity directly (Bois et al, accounted for 20.5% of child’s poor dental health attend (Garfield & Isacco, 2005). children’s overweight decrease (Mattila et al, 2005). 2006). over a 12 month period (Stein • In Australia, a significant et al, 2005). What predicts fathers’ greater Barriers to attendance, (other correlation was found participation in their children’s than practical matters such as between fathers’ and There is a growing healthcare? office opening hours and their elementary aged children’s understanding of fathers’ roles own work schedules), include a time spent in low physical in the development of eating • Encouragement by their poor relationship with their activity (Bogaert et al, 2003). disorders: child’s doctor to attend child’s mother, their perception • In America, elementary school (Moore & Kotelchuck, 2004). that their involvement is • Controlling for mothers’ and girls were found to have other influences, fathers with • Mothers’ employment: in the unnecessary, and lack of higher physical activity levels high body dissatisfaction UK Bailey (1990) found confidence in their own when at least one parent and/or who criticize their fathers more involved in parenting skills (Garfield & supported this (Davison et al, young daughter’s taking their child to doctor or Isacco, 2006). 2003). weight/shape contribute to dentist when mothers were Two major contributors to • In Croatia (Bralic et al, 2001) their likelihood of developing employed. fathers’ satisfaction with found stronger correlations an eating disorder in healthcare professionals are • Clinic opening hours: also in between overweight / obese adolescence (Agras et al, feeling ‘included’ and receiving the UK, Turya & Webster school aged children and 2007). (1986) found fathers more clear explanations (Garfield & their fathers’ overweight than • A body of research indicates than twice as likely to bring Isacco, 2006). with their mothers’. passive, withdrawn or their children to a health clinic rejecting fathers as key players visit during the evening (45%) • A father with a high drive for 4.6.2: Childhood obesity in the life histories of bulimic than in daytime hours (20%). thinness is a factor in children Child and adult obesity are at risk of overweight (Agras et women (Jones et al, 2006). • A wish to learn more about issues of growing concern, with al, 2007). his child’s development or to clear links found between the 4.6.3: Fathers, and children be more involved in his child’s two. What role do fathers play During adolescence, fathers’ with disabilities life (Moore & Kotelchuck, in the onset, maintenance or influence continues to be clear. 2004). reduction in childhood obesity? Research in this area has had a • Fathers’ explicit modelling of number of limitations (SCIE, • The belief that to attend clinic Right from the beginning, it physical activity has been 2005b).88 However, some have visits is ‘responsible’ seems, fathers are a factor. found to be the strongest been overcome in recent 87 behaviour for a father (Moore predictor of their teenagers’ publications, and the following & Kotelchuck, 2004). • US research found African physical activity (girls’ as well insights emerge: American fathers influencing as boys’), predicting 13.5% of • The wish to gather information their toddlers’ mealtime the total variance. • Fathers’ reactions to the about their child and learn behaviours (Horodynski & diagnosis are invariably very how to support them (Garfield • Fathers’ explicit modelling of Arndt, 2005), although none intense (Herbert & Carpenter, & Isacco, 2006). physical activity is greater was included in nutrition 1994; Hornby, 1992); fathers towards sons (Raudsepp, • Fathers value the opportunity education. may experience the diagnosis 2006). to ask questions and express as an even greater crisis than • Also in the US, toddlers’ concerns; and to gain first- mothers do (Lamb & activity levels were found to hand experience of medical Laumann-Billings, 1997); and correlate with their fathers’ personnel and the medical the process of adjustment can (but not their own nor their system (Garfield & Isacco, be turbulent and long-lasting mothers’) body mass (Sallis et 2006). (Harrison et al, 2007; Hornby, al, 1988). 1992).

33 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

• Fathers’ main supports are • One study found fathers’ • Most fathers in two-parent • Fathers and mothers tend to their partners. Lone fathers, acceptance of their disabled families share responsibility for experience the challenges of those whose partners are child strongly influenced by care tasks with their partners, raising a child with disabilities unwell or whose relationships their own parents’ acceptance with those in paid employment differently, mothers reporting break down suffer substantial of that child (Waisbren, trying to be involved in the more day to day stress, and additional stresses (Towers & 1980). daily care of their child, fathers diminished satisfaction Swift, 2007; Harrison et al, including providing care with family life (for review see • Fathers tend to be more 2007). during the night. Work pattern Lamb & Laumann-Billings, concerned than mothers adjustments included flexible 1997). Couples often have • Negative aspects of the about the long-term working, compressed working little time together (Towers & experience may be implications of their child’s hours, term time working and Swift, 2007). exacerbated by the men’s disabilities and may be becoming self-employed belief that they should be especially disappointed by a • The fathers often express (Towers & Swift, 2007). ‘strong’ for their partners. son with disabilities (for ‘inferiority’ as fathers Their sense of failure when review, see Lamb & Laumann- • Fathers from lower income (Cummings, 1976), possibly this proves difficult or Billings, 1997). families tend to be both more in part because their main impossible can be serious adversely affected by the birth breadwinning role and What happens in the longer (Herbert & Carpenter, 1994). and to spend less time with adherence to gender term? their handicapped children stereotypes tend to provide • One small scale qualitative than higher income and better them with fewer opportunities study (Herbert & Carpenter, • Fathers, like mothers, vary educated fathers (for review, than the mothers to do things 1994) showed mothers’ enormously in their ongoing see Lamb & Laumann-Billings, with and for their children perceiving fathers’ reactions response to the disability 1997). (Lamb & Laumann-Billings, to the birth as being quite (Harrison et al, 2007) not 1997). different from their own;89 simply on the basis of its • Some fathers speak of new these mothers also often severity but, perhaps more values and personal growth • Furthermore, compensatory commented on the fathers’ importantly, on the child’s as a result of successfully activities may be less available inability to discuss the child behaviour generally and on adapting to their children’s to them than to other fathers: with them. By contrast, fathers their access to social, material disabilities (Meyer, 1986). for example, fathers of often believe their reaction to and emotional resources However, controlling for SES, children with disabilities are their child’s disability to be the (SCIE, 2005b). it is clear that fathers of often afraid to engage in same as their partner’s • Extremes of great involvement children with disabilities roughhouse play (Gallagher & (Rendall, 1997). on the one hand to total experience more depression, Bristol, 1989). It has been as well as more parenting and suggested that fathers of • In UK studies (Herbert and withdrawal on the other have child-related stress and often special needs children could Carpenter, 1994), fathers been observed, with possibly feel their parental situation is benefit from learning how to reported returning to work less involvement with more uncontrollable (SCIE, include their children, where very soon after their child’s daughters and with more 2005b; Towers & Swift, possible, in their favourite birth and working longer severely handicapped 2007). recreational activities. Access hours than usual; in New children, and greater to reliable childcare providers Zealand studies (e.g. Ballard, involvement with first-born • Some fathers of children with would also be of value (Lamb 1994), fathers reported that handicapped children (for a learning disability may also & Laumann-Billings, 1997). they consumed more alcohol review, see Lamb & Laumann- have a learning disability and more frequently as a way Billings, 1997). themselves (Towers & Swift, of dealing with their own 2007). emotional trauma.

34 www.fathersdirect.com

Notes

What roles do professionals play • While fathers of children with • When programmes actively 48 For review and discussion, see Guterman & Lee (2005). with fathers of disabled disabilities are more likely involve the fathers of disabled 49 ‘Non-traditional fathers’ (fathers who are very children? than mothers to rely on their children with their children, involved in caretaking) have infants who, at partner for support, they may this can foster increased 12-14 months not only appear to interact • In the days after the birth equally with both parents but also interact feel they are giving more father-child involvement at comfortably with a ‘stranger’ as much in the Herbert & Carpenter (1994) support to her partners than home, enhancing father-child presence of their father as their mother, and found the fathers’ grief are generally more sociable with everyone – they are receiving from her attachment and contributing mother, father, ‘stranger’ (Frascarolo, 2004) unrecognised and (Carpenter, 2002). to the child’s cognitive and 50 unexpressed, with neither For review and discussion, see Guterman & social development (Lamb & Lee (2005). health nor education • While the fathers are less Laumann-Billings, 1997), as 51 likely to receive support from For example, infant-father attachment security professionals nor employers well as providing mothers with has been found to a greater effect than infant- recognising their need for professionals (for review, see mother attachment security on child behaviour respite from care (Bailey et al, problems at ages 5 & 6 (Verscheuren & 90 SCIE, 2005b) and are less inclusion. 1992). Marcoen, 1999). likely to seek emotional • A substantial body of research 52 The adaptation of 20-month-olds has been support (Pelchat et al, 2003), • Providing fathers of children found to be promoted by both the quantity of shows these fathers being they are actually more willing with disabilities with paternal involvement, and its quality - i.e. sensitivity (Easterbrooks & Goldberg, 1984). ignored or dismissed by than mothers to seek outside opportunities to discuss their 53 services (for reviews, see SCIE, help (Lamb & Laumann- concerns with other similar Grossmann et al (2002) found the security of infant-mother attachment the better predictor 2005b; and Lamb & 93 Billings, 1997). fathers can help decrease of children’s feelings of security at ages 6 and Laumann-Billings, 2004), and their sense of isolation and 10. However, by age 10, fathers’ sensitivity in variously described as ‘hard • Professional support reduces free play at age 2 also predicted security. By benefit mothers, too (Bristol, age 16 years, only the measure of father- both familial stress and to reach’ (McConkey, 1994), 1984). toddler play (and not the early parent-infant ‘the invisible parent’ (Ballard, general life stress for fathers attachments) significantly predicted adjustment. 1994) and ‘the peripheral of children with disabilities (for • Fathers who had experienced 54 Mothers’ more powerful influence is almost review, see Lamb & Laumann- support designed specifically certainly related to their greater time spent parent’ (Herbert and with, and influence over the schedules of, Carpenter, 1994). However, Billings, 1997). for fathers usually found it infants and young children. A recent Australian beneficial (Harrison et al, study of fathers of six-month-olds found that more recent research has • When fathers in families with 80% had no ‘sole accessibility’ time with their found some fathers feeling 2007; Towers & Swift, 2007). infants – i.e. were never in sole charge of them disabled children play a when not specifically interacting with them, at more included (Towers & reduced role in childcare and • The need for professional any point during an average week and weekend ( Habib & Lancaster, 2005). Swift, 2007). childrearing responsibilities, support does not diminish 55 the impact on mothers and – over time: fathers of older Controlling for mothers’ behaviour, fathers’ • Being dismissed by positive engagement in the month following professionals contributes directly and indirectly – on disabled children, like birth has an in independent association with their children, is negative and mothers, feel less supported infants’ cognitive functioning at one year substantially to these fathers’ (Nugent, 1991). Early paternal stimulation is alienation both from the often profound (Lamb & and in greater need of correlated with infant boys’ mastery motivation Laumann-Billings, 1997). services than fathers of (Yarrow et al, 1984); paternal sensitivity with situation and from their both sexes’ higher linguistic/cognitive partners and/or children younger children (Suelzle & capacities at 18 months; and paternal • When fathers are directly involvement with infants’ sensorimotor 91 Keenan, 1981). (Herbert & Carpenter, 1994). provided with information so development (Wachs et al, 1971) and with This may be an important higher IQs at 12 months and 3 years (Yogman that they can share the role of • The benefits of father et al, 1995; Magill-Evans & Harrison, 1999). contributing factor to the ‘expert’ with their child’s involvement may be greater in 56 Tamis-LeMonda et al (2004), observing a higher rates of separation and mother, this helps them families where children suffer racially/ethnically diverse sample from the US divorce found in these facilitate their children’s from disabilities, as family National Head Start Evaluation Study, found 92 fathers’ and mothers’ supportive parenting families. development and provide members need particularly independently predicting children’s outcomes, support to mothers (Lamb & high levels of emotional after covarying significant demographic factors. • Fathers who possess See also Roopnarine et al (2006) assertiveness, negotiation and Laumann-Billings, 1997). support, understanding and organizational skills feel better practical assistance (Lamb & able to work with Laumann-Billings, 1997). professionals (Towers & Swift, 2007).

35 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

57 Tamis-LeMonda et al (2004) found fathers’ 66 For girls, early pro-social socialization 72 In disadvantaged, heterogeneous communities, 80 Dryler (1998). Mothers’ influence is more education and income uniquely associated with experiences with their fathers were found the prevalence of cross-neighbourhood conflict powerful for daughters. child measures – and fathers’ education directly to protect against antisocial behaviour heightens the salience of neighbourhood as a 81 consistently predicted the quality of the mother- in early adolescence. For sons, however, the form of identity for young males. Peer Such as wearing seatbelts, having savings, and child engagements. impact was indirect: paternal bonding relationships become particularly attractive, having car insurance.

promoted prosocial beliefs – and it was these with strong bonds and cross-age relationships 82 58 Yeung (2004). Roopnarine et al (2006), investigating a that inhibited sons’ antisocial behaviour serving as conduits for the transmission of Caribbean immigrant sample of kindergarten 83 (Kosterman et al, 2004). cultural models. Very rewarding family Yeung (2004). children, found fathers’ authoritarian parenting relationships are needed to withstand this 67 84 style negatively associated (and father-school High father involvement in childhood and in competition for adolescent boys’ time and Ang (2006) found Asian fathers’ (but not contact positively associated) with kindergarten adolescence is correlated with lower adolescent loyalty (Harding, 2005). mothers’) approval, closeness and sympathy children’s receptive skills, vocabulary and risk behaviour (Bronte-Tinkew et al, 2006) and with their children associated with positive 73 composite scores. The fathers’ authoritative criminality (Flouri, 2005a); and high father The mechanisms by which this happens are teacher-child relationships for both boys and parenting style, combined with father-child involvement and increasing father-teen disputed, but the lowered dating opportunities girls. academic interaction at home, was positively closeness are associated with reduced these girls experience and their greater 85 related to children’s social behaviours. In all psychological distress in adolescents of both anticipation of sex-related guilt seem to play a In this study closeness with mother at age 16 these studies, the mothers’ contributions were sexes (Harris et al, 1998). Adolescents who are part (Regnerus & Luchies, 2006). predicted only marital satisfaction. controlled for; and, in fact, in the Roopnarine more involved with their fathers are less likely 74 86 A number of the findings in this study point to study fathers’ parenting was found to carry the to begin smoking regularly; and fathers’ own While there may be a small genetic effect, the the salience of the father-child relationship in weight of influence over mothers’ for facilitating smoking is a risk factor in their children’s main reason.is likely to be that a father’s adolescence for adult functioning. both child academic skills and social smoking (Menning, 2006). education affects his behaviour in ways that are vital to his child’s cognitive development, as behaviours. Situation can have an impact: 87 Stronger than social class, and than mothers’ 68 In African American families a positive father- well as impacting on the material and because fathers spend less time with their or fathers’ logistic or social support – although child relationship (from age 7 through to age educational resources he can provide (Yeung, young children they are less able to understand all these were also significant. their marginally intelligible utterances and so 12) decreases the likelihood that, as an 2004). adolescent, the young person will use alcohol – 88 tend to need to ask them to explain themselves. 75 Earlier studies almost invariably focused on Fathers’ co-parenting behaviour (defined as This can contribute to their language and this is the case whether the father is families with preschool children; samples were sharing similar attitudes with mothers toward development (for discussion, see Flouri, resident or non-resident (Jordan & Lewis, skewed towards fathers who accepted their childrearing practices and resolving family 2005a, p.85). 2005). Flouri (2005b) explored father child fully and were committed to the family conflicts in a calm way that makes good use of involvement and teenagers’ psychological (for example, studies like the Towers & Swift 59 compromise) may in part explain these Physically playful, affectionate and socially adjustment in Indian and White two-parent report (2007) that include non-resident fathers findings: Yeung (2004) found a one point of engaging father-child interactions at age 3-4 families in Britain. Indian British and White are rare); ethnic minority families were also increase in fathers’ co-parenting behaviour predict later popularity with peers, particularly British girls experienced similar levels of father rarely included; and focus has traditionally associated with an almost four-point increase when fathers were low in directiveness and involvement, and their psychosocial adjustment been on service-provider-deficits with little data in children’s test scores. Fathers’ co-parenting there was mutuality between father and child in was similar, too. For boys it was different. on services which fathers find helpful. making play suggestions and following each Indian fathers were more likely to be involved behaviour was second only to their education others’ leads (Mize & Pettit, 1997). with their sons than were White British fathers level in predicting good educational outcomes 89 Whether the fathers’ reactions were indeed – and their sons reported higher ‘prosocial’ for children – and both proved more important different is not known – what is perhaps 60 When fathers display anger with their 3-5 year behaviour, and lower ‘total difficulties’. When than fathers’ income (Yeung, 2004). important is that the mothers perceived they olds and engage in negative ‘tit for tat’ White British fathers’ involvement scores were 76 were – which could have implications for the Goldman (2005) reviewing five high quality interactions with them, their children are later especially low, their sons exhibited greater quality of the parental relationship studies that controlled for mother involvement rated by teachers as more aggressive, less ‘peer problems’ and their daughters fared even found fathers’ expectations and levels / 90 likely to ‘share’ and less ‘accepted’ by their worse, not only exhibiting peer problems but Fathers in general tend to experience being frequency of interest / involvement in their peers (Carson & Parke, 1996; Isley et al, 1996 also ‘conduct problems’ and ‘total difficulties’. dismissed or ignored by services; and this children’s learning and schools predictive of &1999). By contrast, Such negative effects were not found in Indian experience is presumably exacerbated for the children’s better attitudes towards, and fathers of disabled children by the extensive 61 families. Possible mediating factors (e.g. Significant relationships have been found behaviour at, school; higher educational support from the extended family or possibly contact these families usually have with between positive father engagement at age 6, expectations; greater school progress; and lower expectations of father-involvement) were services. and IQ, achievement and social maturity at higher qualifications. not examined. 91 age 7 (Gottfried et al, 1988). One father reported that since professionals 77 McBride et al (2004) found father involvement 69 only came during ‘working hours’ he had to 62 Fluctuations in adolescents’ satisfaction with In a minority, US, urban sample, positive in school settings mediates the relationship their relationship with their fathers are rely on his wife’s reports, and that his paternal engagement in 10th grade predicted between school, family and neighbourhood significantly correlated with fluctuations in their perception of questions unsatisfactorily asked, fewer problem behaviours in 11th grade, with factors and academic outcomes. This study is psychological wellbeing (Videon, 2005). And answered or reported resulted in stress and previous problem behaviours controlled for particularly interesting in that it not only looked changes in father-child involvement over time conflict between them. This father mentioned (Zimmermann et al, 2000). at fathers’ involvement in terms of activities predict changes in the probability of teenagers’ that he felt himself becoming ‘disabled’ in the (‘volunteering’, ‘going on school trips’) but also 63 regular smoking, suggesting a direct supportive role through never being able to For review, see Pleck & Masciadrelli (2004) measured frequency of fathers’ ‘talks with relationship between these two factors meet directly with the professionals (Herbert & and Flouri (2005a). school officials’ as well as their ‘talks with the (Menning, 2006). Carpenter, 1994). 64 child’ about events and activities at school. All For review, see Pleck & Masciadrelli (2004) 92 70 were associated with better child achievement Although the evidence on the greater and Flouri (2005a). Locus of control, of Having a father with an authoritarian parenting (see also McBride & Schoppe-Sullivan, 2005). vulnerability of these families to separation and course, means the ability to plan (rather than style is associated with an increased risk of divorce is mixed, the positive findings in some delinquent activity and substance use – 78 simply to react) and to feel you can influence In some studies fathers are found to be more although when the father-teen relationship is studies probably derive from skewed samples, your own life. A good locus of control is influential; in others, mothers; and in yet positive, the negative effect of the father’s with only fathers in relatively committed couples associated with achievement, positive mental others, parental influence seems to be authoritarian parenting is reduced. A positive being studied (Lamb & Laumann-Billings, health and social adjustment. equivalent. father-teen relationship also protects against 1997). 65 79 Fathers’ acceptance of their young children’s the negative impact of permissive parenting 93 For a boy born into poverty, this high quality Possibly mothers view help-seeking as evidence emotional distress (rather than dismissal of it) (Bronte-Tinkew et al, 2006). longitudinal UK study (which controlled for a of personal failure. Fathers may regard it more and willingness to comfort them are linked with number of factors, including mother’s interest 71 Adolescent boys who report a positive instrumentally (Lamb & Laumann-Billings, those children’s later popularity. For example, in education) found that having a father with relationship with their fathers have relatively low 1997). eight year olds whose fathers help them with little or no interest in his education reduced the levels of psychological distress (Barnett et al, their sadness and anger are less aggressive boy’s chances of escaping poverty by 25% 1992). And among adolescent boys, the (boys) and less negative with friends (girls) (Blanden, 2006). (Gottman et al, 1997). Allhusen et al (2004) positive contribution of father involvement is found that where teachers assess infant-school greatest where bullying has been regularly children as competent and un-problematic, experienced (Flouri & Buchanan, 2002c). their fathers are often found to be sensitive and supportive of their autonomy. 36

The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice 5 Fathers and family change

Most of the research cited so We address some of the far is taken from studies of two- issues specific to father-child parent families. However this relationships in separated does not render it irrelevant to families below. But first we other family forms: not only explore a factor relevant to all have most children whose children: parental conflict. parents live apart, spent at least some years living with both thier parents, but many of the father- child interactions described so far are relevant to father-child interactions in all family forms.

38 www.fathersdirect.com

5.1 Parental conflict

Nowhere is evidence of parents’ • Katz & Gottman (1994) found the boys also reported mothers engage in them interdependence more obvious that where fathers of five-year- problematic relationships with (Goeke-Morey et al, 2003). than in the research which olds used an angry and their fathers (Neighbors et al, Child-focussed conflict, conflict records the impact of their withdrawn style when fighting 1997). involving physical violence95 and conflict or hostility on their with their partners, their • Research tentatively suggests triangulation of the child into the children. The substantial negative children were higher in that boys tend to become more conflict96 are among the most effects on children of parental internalising behaviour three aggressive when they witness damaging (Amato & Afifi, 2006). conflict and hostility are well years later. an attack by their mother on There is a large literature on the documented in both intact and • Sturge-Apple et al (2006) their father; and girls when negative effects on children of non-intact families (Cummings et found that fathers who were they witness an attack by their parental conflict after separation al, 2004; Reynolds, 2001). engaged in mutual hostilities father on their mother (Davies and divorce (Dunn, 2004). But ‘Troubles’ between the parents with their children’s mothers et al, 1998). factors that may mediate this are can also influence each parent’s were less likely to withdraw emerging; and levels of conflict relationship with their child: for • Although social modelling from their children than fathers can change over time. example couple conflict is theory would suggest who were withdrawing from negatively related to both child- otherwise, there seems to be • Serious parental conflict their partners. Withdrawal by mother and child-father no evidence that children are immediately after separation fathers and mothers affected attachment (Frosch et al, 2000). more likely to imitate seems to have a more negative children differently: when it was aggressive behaviour by the impact on adolescents than on The pathways by which parental the father who had withdrawn same-sex parent: for example, younger children (Dunn, conflict and hostility affect and was emotionally boys model mothers’ 2004). children are various. For unavailable, his children were aggression just as often as example: more anxious, depressed and • The impact of parental conflict fathers’ aggression (Davies et withdrawn, and also tended to in the first year after divorce is • One study found that among al, 2002). exhibit more aggressive and mediated by maternal rejection pre-schoolers, the quality of delinquent behaviour and to • Anger-based family conflict is or withdrawal (Fauber et al, the adult couple relationship have more trouble adjusting to associated with both boys’ and 1990). impacted on their parenting school. By contrast, mothers’ girls’ angry and aggressive behaviour – and where this • Mother-child conflict is another emotional unavailability only functioning both at home and was negative their young mediator of the impact of affected children’s adjustment at school. And the greater children often developed parental conflict (Forehand et to school.94 children’s exposure to this kind ‘internalising’ difficulties (e.g. al, 1991). of conflict, the more likely they depression, withdrawal etc.). Do boys or girls suffer more from are to organize their own • Levels of conflict at the time of Here the effect of the couple’s their parents’ hostile conflict? emotions from an angry base the separation are not reliable interactions had an indirect Overall neither sex seems more, (Jenkins, 2000). predictors of ongoing conflict effect on their child (Cowan et or less, negatively affected (for (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999). al, 1994). review, see Cummings et al, • Mothers’ anger-aggression has 2004). However: just as powerful an influence • Post-separation/divorce, • However, in this same study, on children as fathers’ (Jenkins, parental conflict tends to the parents’ functioning with • One study found that as 2000). diminish over time (Pryor & each other (e.g. their hostility, parents fought more, fathers Rodges, 2001). overt conflict etc.) also had a used more authoritarian • Children are more distressed direct effect on their young parenting with daughters, but by physical violence from Children seem to ‘excuse’ their children, predicting not with sons (Cowan et al, father to mother than from mothers’ negative behaviour in ‘externalising’ difficulties (e.g. 1993). mother to father (Goeke-Morey arguments with their fathers more aggression, ‘bad behaviour’ et al, 2003). readily than they do fathers’, • One particularly good quality etc.) (Cowan et al, 1994). more commonly attributing it to study found that adolescent • However, other kinds of ‘state’ (“the mum had a bad Parents’ conflict styles can differ boys (but not girls) whose hostilities (e.g. verbal threats to day”) than to trait (“it’s because by gender, as can their effects. parents fought a lot tended the intactness of the family, of the kind of person the dad is”) For example: towards antisocial behaviour non-verbal hostility or the (Weston et al, 1998). and general psychopathology pursuit of conflict topics) are both at the time and in young experienced by the children as adulthood. As young adults, more distressing when their 39 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

5.2 Father involvement in separated families

The key question for policy • The key positive elements in • In separated families, high • A recent involvement measure makers in this arena is the extent the non-resident father-child levels of non-resident father (Carlson, 2006) which reflects to which the (non-resident) relationship are warmth, involvement protect against fathers’ investments of quantity father-child relationship should support, authoritative later mental health problems in of time (i.e. how often he be supported. Although it is parenting98 and level of children (Flouri, 2005a). listens, talks) as well as the generally agreed (Dunn, 2004) involvement (Dunn, 2005). affective quality of that time • For white adolescent males in that children in separated (i.e. how close the adolescent • Father-child contact and America, non-resident father families generally do best when feels to the father) identified a quality of relationship are involvement was found to they retain a strong, positive strong bivariate association related to young children’s buffer the negative effects of relationship with both parents, between lower levels of non- adjustment, with stronger living in a lone-mother family many studies have revealed no resident biological father associations for children of on delinquency, heavy drinking significant association between involvement and adolescents’ lone mothers than for children and illicit drug use (Thomas et the frequency of non-resident externalising and internalising with stepfathers (Dunn et al, al, 1996). However, in this father-child contact and more behaviours (specifically 2004). same study, black adolescents’ positive child outcomes (Amato & aggression; antisocial problem behaviours were Gilbreth, 1999). • Closeness to the non-resident behaviour; emotional over greater when their non-resident father is associated with control; and depression, Stated baldly like this – as it often fathers stayed involved with academic and behavioural anxiety and low self-esteem).100 is – the implication seems to be them. This finding has not outcomes in adolescents – that non-resident ‘father time’ is been replicated nor explained. The number of highly involved positively with grade point immaterial. In fact such findings non-resident fathers in Carlson’s average and college • Williams & Kelly (2005) found may reflect data-sets that include quite substantial study was not expectations; negatively with a unique proportion of very few children with highly high. She identified five family suspension/expulsion, variation in teacher-reported involved fathers, significant ‘structures’ that contained such delinquency and school externalising and total variation within the samples of men 101 - and found just 10-18% problems (Manning & Lamb, behaviour problems in children’s exposure to other of the fathers across these five 2003). teenagers associated with pathogenic circumstances and categories in the ‘high security of paternal attachment the confounding of many types • For older children in stepfather involvement’ category.102 and with levels of father of ‘involved’ father, from the families a good relationship involvement. This was the case This is a shockingly low figure, abusive to the devoted (Lamb, between non-resident father in both intact and non-intact given that the vast majority of 2002).97 and child is associated with families. Children in non-intact non-resident fathers seem to good adjustment outcome More recently, links between families appeared to suffer have the individual capacities independently of the mother- contact, child adjustment and because living without their and commitment to establish and child relationship (Dunn, academic success have grown fathers meant that two maintain supportive and 2004).99 stronger, suggesting that non- important ‘buffering’ factors - enriching relationships with their resident fathers are becoming • In stepfather families, paternal involvement and children. Even in datasets made more involved with their children conflicted non-resident father- security of paternal attachment up of particularly difficult, low (Dunn, 2005), and studies are child relationships are – were compromised. contact fathers, only 10-25% of defining with greater precision associated with conflicted their children are found likely not the value of children’s continuing mother-child and stepfather- to benefit (or perhaps to be relationships with non-resident child relationships (Dunn, harmed by) regular and extended fathers, and the circumstances in 2004). This suggests either contact with their non-resident which these relationships can child-effects or family system parent (Grief, 1997; Johnston, flourish. difficulties. Both are likely. 1994). Positive non-resident father- child relationships are not associated with positive mother-child or step-father child relationships (Dunn, 2004).

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5.3 Child support

Where father involvement is • The father-child relationship is What impact does the payment Another way in which vigorous positive, it is more beneficial commonly perceived as the of child support have on child support enforcement may when father and child live only casualty of separation and children? benefit children may be by together (Carlson, 2006). Thus it divorce. In fact, the quality of lowering their likelihood of seems that where father and the mother-child relationship • Child Support policy can needing such support in the first child do not live together, also tends to be compromised. deliver child poverty reduction place. positive interaction between them - 25% in Austria; 24% in • Children (particularly boys) in • Stronger child support needs to be particularly Switzerland; 18% in Sweden lone mother households tend enforcement is marginally substantial to have a positive (Bradshaw, 2006). to have more conflictual associated with men’s effect.103 It also seems likely that, relationships with their mothers • The amount of child support decreased likelihood of being to deliver the greatest benefits, and to receive less emotional fathers pay, and whether they involved in an unwanted parenting time needs to mimic as support, cognitive stimulation, pay, are both ‘unequivocally’ pregnancy (Huang, 2005). nearly as possible the diverse supervision and involvement (Graham & Beller, 2002) family experiences of resident • There is also tentative from them (for review, see associated with children’s fathers and their children: evidence from the US of a link Jaffee et al, 2003).104 achievements, health and sharing bedtimes, mealtimes, wellbeing (Aizer & between strong child support watching TV, doing homework, • Simons et al (1999) found that McLanahan, 2006; Marsiglio enforcement and reduced trips out, ‘hanging’ in, visiting externalising behaviour in boys et al, 2000).105 pregnancy and pregnancy friends and family (for discussion, whose parents had divorced resolution in teenage girls, see Lamb 2002). could be explained by two • Recent research shows a with the strongest effect for factors: a mix of reduced marked positive relationship non-Hispanic whites (Plotnick Does seeing or not seeing their involvement by fathers in between payment of child et al, 2004). non-resident fathers really matter parenting; and compromised support and increased to children? • Strong enforcement is not only quality of mothers’ parenting. visitation. The estimated correlated with lower rates of • In a US study, losing regular impact of receiving child • Laumann-Billings & Emery separation and divorce, but contact with their fathers was support on contact is more (1998) found the quality of also appears to lead to men seen by children as the worst than 27 days per year (Peters mother-child relationships after 106 having fewer out of wedlock aspect of their parents’ et al, 2004). separation/divorce dropping births; and to partnering with separation (Kurdek & Siesky, substantially - to the same level • Income from child support, better-educated women who 1980). as father-child relationships particularly where it is willingly have a higher underlying • In Australia, Funder (1996) had been before separation. paid, has a more beneficial propensity to invest in their found 96% of children impact on children than children. These more The finding that parental including their non-resident equivalent income from other advantaged couples are then separation (and also being born fathers as part of their families. sources (Aizer & McLanahan, likely to have a lower to parents who have never lived 107 2006). propensity towards separation • A recent UK study found only together) poses a risk to the and divorce. (Aizer & 4% of children who did not live quality of both parents’ McLanahan, 2006). with their fathers having relationships with their children negative feelings about contact should increase the urgency of • Haveman & Wolfe (1995) with them (Smith et al, 2001). developing policies to support. found an intergenerational effect: since mothers in receipt • Children’s and young adults’ of child support were less grief and anger at the loss of likely to be ‘on welfare’, their their fathers are graphically daughters were less likely to depicted by, among others, become pregnant, young/out Laumann-Billings & Emery of wedlock (the daughters of (1998) and Fortin et al (2006). ‘welfare mothers’ have a greater propensity to early/out of wedlock childbearing).

41 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

5.4 Father figures

It was once thought that • Programmes designed to Nearly one half of all children • The stepfather-child vigorous child support reduce unwanted pregnancies who spend part of their relationship is substantially enforcement would result in and non-marital births are childhood with a single mother more challenging than the non-resident fathers deliberately more likely to succeed when will spend some of that time biological-father-child avoiding employment. This is they include information on with a stepfather – i.e a man, relationship: the relationship is not so. Indeed, among low child support enforcement not their father, that she has not as close; stepfathers are income fathers, vigorous child targeted at young males married (Bumpass & Sweet, less affectionate and more support enforcement may even (Huang, 2005). 1989).108 Many more will live coercive with stepchildren; increase workforce participation with men to whom their mothers and stepchildren tend to be • An understanding of how (Freeman & Waldfogel, 1998). are not married. Single-mother less warm and affectionate payment of child support can households are often assumed with stepfathers – even in benefit children may motivate Creative interventions set up to to be male-deficient. In fact long-term, fairly successful some parents to reach improve compliance have there is some evidence that stepfamilies (for review see agreement or maintain supported fathers in other ways. children in these households are Radhakrishna et al, 2001). payment, and may motivate exposed to more adult males • In the US, Parents Fair Share the enforcement service to use • Younger children adjust better than are children whose which worked with only the its powers. to their mother’s re- biological parents both still live most disadvantaged non- partnering. Among older together (for review see resident fathers, managed to children, daughters may be Radhakrishna et al, 2001). This effect slight increases in the particularly resistant, is especially true of children amount of child support paid; particularly where their born to teenage mothers and also brought about relationship with their mother (Crockett et al, 1993). positive effects on father-child was previously close: in such contact where levels had been Like biological fathers, social cases, greater harmony in the particularly low (Mincy & fathers can function as risks and new marriage is associated Pouncy, 2002). resources in children’s lives. For with the daughters’ poorer • Recognising the importance of example: adjustment (for discussion, see fathers’ workforce Hetherington & Henderson, participation to child support • Stepfathers’ impact on 1997). children’s self-esteem has compliance, the Australian • Stepfathers and other father- been found to be more Child Support Agency is figures are substantially more powerful than that of either piloting programmes that likely to abuse the children in biological fathers or mothers address fatherhood issues, their care than are biological (Dunn et al, 2004). both in workplace settings and fathers with comparative rates in government programmes • Early stepfather involvement of child sexual abuse for the unemployed. The aim has more impact than early particularly high (for review of the former is to inhibit the birth-father involvement, on see Radhakrishna et al, 2001; slide into unemployment decreasing emotional see also Sexually Abusive commonly found among non- behaviour problems among Fathers, below).109 resident fathers; and of the adolescent girls (Flouri, • Stepchildren tend to leave latter, to encourage 2005a). unemployed males to rejoin home earlier (Cherlin & or to participate for the first • Stepfather-child relationships Furstenberg, 1994), which time in the paid workforce in are more influential than non- can put them at risk. a stable manner (O’Hanlon, resident father-child 2005). relationships in predicting children’s adjustment, with the effects increasing by duration of the re-marriage (Hetherington, 1993).

42 www.fathersdirect.com

5.5 Father involvement and family stability

• For these and other reasons, • In stepfather families, There is emerging evidence that • The importance of working although children in mother- conflicted non-resident father- high paternal involvement may with both partners on their stepfather families tend to child relationships are be correlated with greater family beliefs and aspirations relating experience better financial associated with conflicted stability. to parenting is clear: one support than children in lone mother-child and stepfather- study of new parents found mother households, and their child relationships (Dunn, • Low father involvement is that a couple relationship that stepfathers tend to be of 2004). This suggests either associated with women’s was happy and appeared higher ‘quality’ than their child-effects or family system anger at their partners (Ross & stable at the time of the birth, biological fathers in terms of difficulties. Both are likely. Van Willigen, 1996). could be seriously and quite education, employment, Positive non-resident father- • High take up of parental quickly eroded when partners psychopathology etc. child relationships are not leave by Swedish fathers is held different ideas about (McLanahan et al, 2006) their associated with positive linked to lower rates of parenting (Cowan & Cowan, outcomes and adjustment are mother-child or step-father separation /divorce, as is 2000). not superior to children in child relationships (Dunn, more equitable sharing, by a Paying attention to men’s lone mother households, 2004). couple, of earning and caring experiences as fathers may be although there may be It is clear that support needs to roles (Olah, 2001). particularly important. There is cultural variations.110 be offered to surrogate fathers, • An important longitudinal evidence that men’s, rather than Maintaining positive spousal and that other partners and study which controlled for women’s, wishes may be and parenting relationships in children in both families, should socio-economic factors found primary ‘drivers’ of relationship stepfather and stepmother be included in interventions. fathers’ involvement in routine dissolution. families can require skills and every day childcare, plus Stepfathers are not, of course, This seems at first counter- awareness. For example: play/school liaison throughout the only types of father-figure: intuitive, since it is well known a child’s life to beyond • Fathers’ new partners (more grandfathers, other family that women are more likely to adolescence, accounting for than mothers’ new partners) members and friends and take the first formal steps 21% of the variance in tend to be less supportive of mentors can play important towards separation/divorce. fathers’ marital happiness at their mate’s relationship with roles. Foster fathers - who have However, mothers’ greater midlife (Snarey, 1993). his biological children, being largely been ignored by service propensity to move towards more often ambivalent or providers and researchers - may • In Australia, Lupton & Barclay ending relationships formally hostile (for review, see be of particular importance, (1997) found men’s may be more strongly related to Hetherington & Henderson, given that many of the children involvement in infant care their managerial function within 1997).111 in their care will not have positively correlated with their families, than with their own dis- enjoyed supportive and loving satisfaction with family life and satisfaction. The reasons why • The couple relationship in relationships with adult males, adjustment to fatherhood. men’s wishes may be more stepfamilies tends to be more and may have been abused by influential in driving relationship vulnerable to conflict with • Among cohabiting couples them (Wilson et al, 2007). dissolution, even often when children than in ‘intact’ with newborns, both parents’ There is some evidence that women take the first step families, not least because beliefs that father-involvement positively engaging with foster towards it include: stepfathers tend to find it is important plus fathers’ fathers and potential foster difficult to separate conflict actual involvement (measured fathers may increase the number • A man’s dissatisfaction is with the child from conflict here by regular nappy- of foster-placements available more predictive than a with their partner (Kurdek & changing) were found to (Newstone, 2004). Such woman’s of a relationship Fine, 1995). predict relationship stability ending (Gottman, 1998). engagement may also improve 112 (Hohmann-Marriott, 2006). • Children’s behaviour is more child outcomes. likely to influence parents’ behaviour in stepfamilies than in intact families (for discussion, see Hetherington & Henderson, 1997).

43 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

Notes

• As mentioned above Aizer & 94 As men tend to withdraw from their partners 104 One cannot assume that the poorer quality of during the breakup of a relationship (Gottman, father-child or mother-child relationships after McLanahan (2006).report that 1993), some father-child relationships which separation is purely a consequence of the stronger child support had been close may become attenuated during separation – poorer functioning by the kinds this period. Following separation, active steps or parents who are likely to separate, and enforcement in the US is may need to be taken to repair them. negative child characteristics which may contribute to parental separation are also associated with lower rates of 95 See also Domestically Violent Fathers, below likely to be factors.

separation and divorce - i.e. 96 Triangulation of the child is particularly 105 This should not surprise us, given that child when the costs to men of common in separation and divorce, but is also support often lifts children out of poverty (for leaving the relationship are found in intact families. Amato & Afifi (2006) discussion, see Graham & Beller, 2002, point out that ‘triangulated’ children have three p.445). increased, relationships are choices, every one of which exacts serious 106 more likely to endure. emotional costs: to try to maintain positive Seltzer et al (1998) found greater child relationships with both parents; to form an support sometimes associated with greater alliance with one against the other; or to reject parental conflict – a finding that needs • In Sweden, where fathers can both. Triangulation with the express purpose of replicating and explaining. detaching the child from the other parent is expect to have high levels of 107 sometimes found, and this is not uncommon Possible reasons are that (i) a father’s paying involvement with their children where the parent suffers from a personality child support encourages him to visit more after separation (Oberg & disorder (Adshead et al, 2004). (Seltzer et al, 1998); (ii) the child may feel more valued by him; and (iii) the mother may Oberg, 2001), this 97 This hypothesis is supported by Perloff & feel more positively towards him. However, a expectation seems to Buckner’s (1996) finding that for children on simple direction of effect cannot be assumed. welfare, negative traits in the fathers (e.g. Perhaps fathers pay more when their children contribute to relationship substance abuse, physical violence) were achieve better, perceiving this as evidence that dissolution (Olah, 2001) - associated with increased child behaviour they are being well cared for and are worth problems, even though father-contact had a investing in (Aughinbaugh, 2001); or perhaps that is, when the costs to men small positive effect overall. they pay more when they are more regularly involved. The magnitude of the positive effect of leaving the relationship are 98 Which may be almost impossible to achieve is seen to decline when fathers are reluctant reduced, relationships are during purely ‘recreation’ style contact (Dunn, payers (for review see Graham & Beller, 2004). more likely to end. 2002). 99 Note that this was not found among younger 108 Nearly one half of these new marriages will In the US, the pilot phase of an children, suggesting that the mother-child end in divorce before the child reaches the relationship may be more influential at that age of 18. outstanding multi-site life-stage 109 One reason for father-figures’ heavy intervention which aims to equip 100 In this high quality study, non-resident father representation in child abuse statistics may be low income couples with involvement was found to affect three of these willingness of family members to report them: relationship/communication four measures with differences in the non- the closer the relationship between an abused resident fathers’ levels of involvement child and a perpetrator, the less likely family skills is reporting significant accounting for a sizeable proportion of the members are formally to report the offender positive results. The project has more negative outcomes generally identified in (Wallis, 1992). their children. The 9% of adolescents who successfully engaged both men reported ‘no father’ had the highest 110 For example, among African American and women (Dion et al, 2006). behavioural problem scores, although they teenagers, males in stepfather families are were no more likely to report ‘negative significantly less likely to drop out of school, feelings’ towards their fathers than those and their sisters to become early mothers. whose fathers presented with low levels of The income, supervision and role modelling involvement. Father involvement (or lack of it) provided by stepfathers in communities with did not affect boys and girls differently. fewer resources and less social control may be of significance. However, it is also possible 101 The five included such ‘structures’ as mother that the positive effects may be due to never married (living alone); mother re- selection: this research looked at re-married partnered; father re-partnered etc. African American families, and since only 3%

102 of African American mothers re-marry, these By contrast, in Sweden 35% of children in may be already advantaged (Hetherington & separated families either live more or less Henderson, 1997). equally with both parents, or see their non- resident parent almost daily (Oberg & Oberg, 111 Garfinkel (2006) observes that in low income 2001). families ‘second wives’ may discourage their

103 partner’s contact with his other children out of This may in part explain the observed ‘nil’ or fear of his infidelity their mother(s). minor effects of non resident father-care found in other studies. 112 Some studies of dual-earner families have found higher father involvement correlated with lower relationship satisfaction. However, it is thought these findings may be a reflection of general family stress (for review, see Lewis & Lamb, in press).

44

The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice 6 Vulnerable fathers and their children It is not usual to regard fathers Such factors are associated, What is perhaps most striking is with low social capital and individually and together, with how little is known about many multiple difficulties as fathers’ stress, anxiety and kinds of vulnerable fathers. vulnerable. They are more depression, anti-social often perceived as the genitors behaviour and other mental For example, little is known of other people’s distress. health and mood disorders, about the experiences and poor physical health, conflict needs of disabled fathers, who The themes in the lives of such with partners, negative have been marginalised within fathers include negative life parenting behaviour, use of relevant bodies of research, histories (including poor violence inside and outside their including work on fathers, experiences of being parented), families, family breakdown, masculinities, disability and current environmental stressors, incarceration, unstable parenting. Nor have personality difficulties including employment, low earnings and practitioners routinely engaged mental health deficits, young so on. All and each of these with them: fathers with learning age at becoming a father, can compromise fathers’ disabilities may not be assessed belonging to a minority cultural capacities to provide for their for support of any kind to help group, low social support, non- children or interact positively them understand their parenting residence with children, with them or their mothers, with role, if their partners do not substance misuse, low effects flowing in multiple have learning disabilities intelligence, disability, poor directions and interaction (O’Hara & Martin 2003). communication competence, between variables exacerbating low educational attainment and negative effects. Fathers in skills deficits, imprisonment, and High Risk, High Harm Families unemployment and feelings of are likely to experience and failure as a breadwinner. exhibit many of these factors concurrently.

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6.1 Young Fathers

Younger marginalised men who • However, while California’s • Miller-Johnson et al (2004), in negative impacts, however: become fathers are not only Male Involvement Programme a prospective longitudinal elevated risks of experiencing a perhaps the most at risk, but are (‘Let’s Hear it for the Boys’) study of 335 African American series of unstable sexual also the most invisible (Ferguson was able to improve boys’ males found childhood partnerships and of living in & Hogan, 2004). knowledge and aggression, (particularly when public housing are found understanding, translating this stable across 3rd to 5th among men who have into changed behaviour was grades), significantly experienced early fatherhood 6.1.1: Pregnancy/birth not so easy. Insights from this predicting reported when compared with controls prevention work are informing new pregnancies during (Sigle-Rushton, 2005). When a pregnancy is unplanned responsive strategies (Brindis adolescence, with adolescent Young fathers who are not co- there is a reluctance to engage et al, 2005). substance use and deviant resident with their babies’ with the father, particularly if he peer involvement adding mothers tend to be of lower SES is young; and his views are not incrementally to the 6.1.2: Characteristics of young than co-resident young fathers, perceived as relevant. They are prediction. This suggests that fathers and to suffer more relevant. precursors for males’ early A review of the literature on unemployment. They are also • Pregnant teenagers’ attitudes pregnancy can be identified young fathers in America and characterized by a lower towards their pregnancy are as early as age 8. Britain found their circumstances threshold for the experience of strongly linked with their and backgrounds strikingly The degree of disadvantage negative emotions such as fear, perceptions of the father’s similar to teenage mothers’ experienced by young fathers is anxiety and anger; experience desire for the pregnancy (Bunting & McAuley, 2004a; see graphically illustrated by the more symptoms of anxiety and (Hellerstedt et al, 2001). also Berrington et al, 2005). strong correlation between substance abuse; and engage in • In deciding whether to abort being a young father and being more crime, violence and • Entry into young fatherhood is or proceed to full term, a young offender. Among 15-17 abusive behaviour towards predicted by low SES, poor pregnant teenage girls are year old offenders 12% have women (Jaffee et al, 2001). academic skills, failure to use substantially influenced by the children of their own (Prisons condoms, early Inspectorate estimate); and known views of their baby’s 6.1.3: Young fathers’ marriage/cohabitation, and among those aged 22 and father (Evans, 2001). involvement: opportunities having a mother who was under, nearly half are (or are Is there any value in trying go younger at first birth. Anti- about to become) fathers - as Quinton et al (2002) found engage young men in social behaviour and its well as having, on average, young fathers much keener to pregnancy planning? correlates (including academic literacy/numeracy levels below be involved than hitherto failure, substance use and believed, as did Bunting & • Young males are less age 11. Over half have been in early initiation of sexual McAuley (2004a). Florsheim & knowledgeable about sex and care; many have experienced behaviours) are also Ngu (2003) observed relationships than young violence or sexual abuse at implicated (Pears et al, 2005; fatherhood to be a ‘wake up females, but value the home; and few have had Bunting, 2005). call’ for some hugely information more highly when models of good fathering disadvantaged young men, who it is provided to them • Tan & Quinlivan (2006) (Young Voice, 2005). gradually pulled their lives (Blenkinsop et al, 2004). found, in multivariate analysis The life trajectories of men who together afterwards. and after controlling for family • Howard et al (2004), become young fathers are, like Interestingly, a positive attitude income and education, men’s surveying 2000 mostly African those of young mothers, during the pregnancy was no history of parental American 8th grade boys significantly more negative than predictor of this, and some of separation/divorce, their found the vast majority willing the average (Higginbottom et the young men spent time in exposure to family violence in to use protection: this resulted al, 2006). As with young prison after their babies were early childhood, and their in the local hospital motherhood, these negative born. The ‘wake up call’ often illicit drug use having restructuring its teen family effects are mainly explained by kicked in a little later. significant, independent planning clinical services to selection: men who become associations with becoming give the same in-hospital fathers when young tend to be fathers to the babies of clinical and counselling disadvantaged to start with, and teenage mothers. support to young males as to to remain so. Early fatherhood young females. itself may have some additional

47 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

Young Offenders see fatherhood 6.1.4: Young fathers • One US study found 47% of • A majority of young offenders as an important motivator for involvement: obstacles young fathers using alcohol, who had very much change. A recent study of 18 to Young fathers frequently face 40% having problems with the appreciated a parenting 20-year-old male offenders - family rejection, barriers to law, and 42% having been in course delivered in prison, 30% of whom were fathers or contact with child and mother, a jail (Weinman et al, 2005); expressed reluctance about had a pregnant partner or ex- lack of ways to contribute other studies have identified accessing parenting and other partner - identified six factors financially, and an inability to higher than average formal provision post-release 115 they believed would contribute envision future achievements involvement in drug use, (Meek, in press). to successful resettlement: although most young fathers (for review see Guterman & Lee, Many of the issues and deficits gaining employment; having are not serious drug users (for 2005). Furthermore: identified in young fathers are stable housing; being in a review, see Guterman & Lee, also issues among young relationship; having a child; • They tend to believe they are 2005). mothers. However, while a wide having positive family relations; unwelcome and inadequate Young fathers also have very range of services are in place to and managing drug/alcohol use as parents (Knitzer & Bernard, high rates of anxiety and help these young women in their (Farrant, 2006). 1997). depression (Miller, 1994). transition to parenthood, A key finding by Quinton et al • They generally face lack of These are strongly correlated services not only tend to ignore (2002) was that background preparedness for fatherhood, with younger age of onset of young fathers but are disadvantage was a less cognitively and emotionally fatherhood, exposure to overwhelmingly averse to them. powerful predictor of ongoing (for review see Guterman & domestic abuse as a child, and Specifically: paternal involvement among Lee, 2005) and their no father alive (Quinlivan & • Quinton et al (2002) found young fathers than was the knowledge of infant Condon, 2005).114 Common young fathers ‘mostly ignored, quality of the relationship with development tends to be mental health issues that young marginalised or made the child’s mother. Similarly, deficient and unrealistic (De fathers report are related to uncomfortable by services, Erkut et al (2005), studying Lissovoy, 1973). relationships, neighbourhood, despite their desire for Puerto Rican adolescent fathers, family, tobacco use, police, and • Many have difficulty information, advice and found their involvement being a parent (Weinman et al, controlling their tempers inclusion. influenced by child (Bolton, 1987) and express 2005). characteristics, their own • Bunting & McAuley (2004b) in negative parenting attitudes Yet the young men’s distress perceptions of their fathering a review of US and UK studies and behaviours (Miller, 1994). usually goes untreated: their competence, social support - found young fathers reporting formal contact with psychiatric and the quality of relationship • Related to this, they may be limited/no contact with services is no higher than that of with their baby’s mother. Ngu more likely than older fathers midwives, health visitors and older, less depressed fathers (2005) has unpacked this last to be violent towards their social workers. 113 (Quinlivan & Condon, 2005); finding, discovering that higher partners and, possibly, their and they do not seem to relational skills (acceptance, children (Guterman & Lee, recognise their own needs. For cognitive empathy) in young 2005). example: mothers during pregnancy • They need to reconcile the predicted better parenting contradictory roles of • In one study where the young outcomes for the young fathers adolescent and father and fathers identified feeling states two years later. The young often to assume the of anger, sadness/depression, mother’s higher relational responsibilities of adulthood nervousness/tension, capacity was also found to before they are sufficiently helplessness and aggression, predict development in the mature (Kahn & Bolton, few requested services to young father’s own relational 1986). address these issues; rather, capacity - which, in turn, their most frequently predicted better paternal requested service needs were functioning. related to jobs and vocational training (Weinman et al, 2005).

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• Bunting (2005) found health Another effect of ignoring the 6.1.6: Finding and working • Saleh et al (2005) found visitors perceiving the needs of young fathers is to compromise with young fathers programme participation by both teenage mothers and their children’s wellbeing: Identifying the fathers of the 38 young fathers correlated their partners as high, the babies of teenage mothers with one third moving from • Among expectant teenage young mothers’ parenting should not prove difficult if ‘positive emotionality’ to mothers, lack of perceived capacity as average to good, community and health services substantial ‘engagement’ with support by the father of their the young fathers’ parenting work together. Fitzpatrick et al their child. In this last study, baby is a key correlate of high capacity as poor, and (1997) surveying pregnant ‘accessibility’ (i.e. the amount scores on the Child Abuse decreases in couple/paternal teenagers at an Adolescent of time the child was available Potential Inventory (Zelenko et contact as being due to Antenatal Booking Clinic in to the father) showed the al, 2001). negative characteristics in the Dublin found that at an average smallest shift. This is not fathers. All these assumptions • A decreasing pattern of of 16.4 weeks into their surprising, as it is the area were made, despite the fact involvement by the young pregnancies, 87.5% said they least likely to be controlled by that the health visitors actually father is significantly were involved in a continuing the young father himself. knew very little about the associated with young relationship with the father of The significance of the wider young fahers and were ill- mothers’ increased parenting their baby. Although a family is key in devising support equipped to offer them stress (Kalil et al, 2005). significant proportion of the for young fathers (Kiselika, support, being neither aware birth certificates of babies born • Teenage mothers with positive 1995). of any support they might be to teenage mothers do not partner support are less receiving, nor of services that identify the father (Ferguson & • Kalil et al (2005) found rejecting and punitive towards might be able to help them. Hogan, 2004), Phipps et al sustained low father their children (Unger & (2005) found that in such cases involvement highly correlated • Pollock et al (2005) found Wandersman, 1988). systemic exclusion of (mainly in the USA, the father’s name with strong support given to black), young fathers in a Professionals who do not assess was usually in the hospital the young mother by her own London hospital maternity young fathers pre-natally, may records. mother, particularly when the service, though more inclusion miss important indicators of two lived together. By contrast, Can interventions with young by the local teenage future child abuse: where the young mother fathers bear fruit? pregnancy team. experienced positive • Young expectant fathers who relationships with both the • In Ireland, Ferguson & Hogan • Higginbottom et al (2006), report poor relations with their young father and his family (2004) report that a key reporting the views of ethnic own parents during the pre- (particularly his mother), this challenge in working with minority young parents in natal interview have higher was predictive of higher some young fathers is to move England, found the young child abuse potential scores at initiated and sustained father- them beyond ‘protest fathers, the young mothers follow up (Florsheim & Ngu, involvement. and the service providers all 2003). masculinity’ so they can adjust to domestic routines. These • Anderson (1993) found the agreeing that services were • Young men with a history of aimed at mothers. researchers believe intensive paternal grandmother’s psychopathology revealed day or residential family acceptance of her son’s pre-natally report higher rates support is the model most paternity and her feelings 6.1.5: Effects of ignoring of physically punitive behavior likely to lead to successful towards the child’s mother young fathers toward their child later outcomes. significant in pushing the Quinton et al (2002) found (Florsheim & Ngu, 2003). young father towards • One small US study of just six that, by ignoring young fathers, accepting his paternal role. • A history of psychopathology fathers (Parra-Cardona et al, services were ignoring mothers’ in both young parents 2006) found the young men’s wishes: while in 50% of cases (identified pre-natally) predicts involvement with their children health visitors did not even inter-couple violence and their commitment as know the fathers’ names, the postpartum - another serious fathers substantially increased young mothers themselves often risk factor not only for the after participation in a placed a high value on the young adults, but for their therapeutic/ psycho- involvement of their babies’ infants (Moore & Florsheim, educational fatherhood fathers. 2001). programme.

49 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

6.2 Imprisoned fathers

• Krishnakumar & Black (2003) 6.2.1: Characteristics of 6.2.1.2: Imprisoned fathers • However, non-residence does found that a young mother’s imprisoned fathers and non-residence not necessarily mean non- satisfaction over time with the 6.2.1.1: Who are the Co-resident fatherhood prior to contact or even a poor young father’s involvement imprisoned fathers? imprisonment may tell only a relationship with the target was predicted by a positive child’s mother (upon whom Contrary to popular belief, small part of the story of relationship between her own 118 contact usually depends - Roy imprisonment is generally short incarcerated fatherhood. Most mother and the young man. & Dyson, 2005) - even when (29 months on average in the incarcerated fathers are non- the father’s relationship with a Another finding from the Kalil US), the men are relatively resident fathers - either of one former partner dissolves while study was the substantial stability young (average age 26 years in or all of their children. he is incarcerated. of very low involvement over the US, slightly older in the UK), • In the UK, among a sample time: only one young father and 45% are not in touch with • More than half of consisting of imprisoned increased his involvement over their families during imprisoned, non-resident fathers who expressed the time from a very low level. By incarceration (NOMS, 2004), fathers with a high intention to live with or take contrast, however, another although this does not mean commitment to fatherhood responsibility for at least one similar study found 18% of the they will not reconnect later. rated their relationship with child on a regular basis upon young fathers moving from low Ninety-three per cent of at least one of their release (Clarke et al, 2005): involvement at the birth to high imprisoned fathers will be children’s mothers as ‘good’ involvement 2-3 years later released (Petersilia, 2003); and • One third had never lived or ‘excellent’ and only a (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, almost all will reconnect, or with the target child. third rated it as ‘poor’ or 1999). Such findings point to attempt to reconnect, with ‘very poor’ (Clarke et al, • One quarter had never the early years as a potential partners (current and/or former) 2005). lived with the mother of the ‘decision process’ for young and children (Day et al, 2005). 119 target child. • Even among less obviously families, in terms of developing Within 18 months, 40% of committed, imprisoned paternal roles - and to the convicted fathers will be back in • One third had children with fathers (Roy & Dyson, importance of intervening early the prison system (Day et al, at least two mothers. 2005), 74% had in the parenting cycle. 2005).116 • Only one quarter were experienced some While there is no formal living with the target child’s encouragement of their auditing of male prisoners’ mother at the point of relationship with their child parental status, it is thought that imprisonment (and almost from their child’s mother over 32% are co-resident with at all of these couples were while they were in prison. least one dependent child at the unmarried). • Many of these mothers had time they are imprisoned • Similarly, Roy & Dyson (2005) also at times discouraged 117 (Hansard, 2003). This is studying a less obviously this relationship (Roy & probably an underestimate as fatherhood-committed sample Dyson, 2005). some prisoners do not reveal found that 20% had children • Many mothers discouraged their parental status for fear with two women (and one their children will be taken into the imprisoned father’s father had children with relationship with children he care (Brooks-Gordon & three). Bainham, 2004). Hairston had had with other women (2001) found co-residence prior • Resident fathers often become (Roy & Dyson, 2005). to incarceration most likely with non-resident during • Ambivalence characterizes a youngest child. incarceration. Bahr et al many imprisoned fathers’ (2005) found 50% of inmates relationships with the claiming to have lived with mothers of their children their child prior to (Day et al, 2005; also incarceration; post-release Palm, 2007, personal that figure had dropped to communication). 19%.

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Nor are biological children their 6.2.3: The mothers of male 6.2.4.2: During imprisonment • In a sample of fathers who only concern or responsibility: a prisoners’ children Father-child contact during report an intention, upon UK study found well-established The importance of identifying, incarceration can be in the form release, to contact and have relationships with step-children, among prisoners, men who are of direct contact (visits,120 phone some responsibility for a child with visits occurring and the already or could become ‘good calls and home release), and under 18 on a regular basis men often speaking warmly of enough’ fathers may be indirect contact (letters, presents (Clarke et al, 2005): them (Boswell & Wedge, 2002). particularly pressing, since it is and cards). • Only 12% never sent letters clear that their children’s to the target child, while • A US study found no visiting 6.2.1.3: Imprisoned fathers’ relationships with their mothers 30% never received any.122 by the target child to 33 of 51 vulnerabilities are not always straightforward or positive: fathers (Day et al, 2005). • Phone contact with the child Although imprisoned fathers • In a ‘spot check’ of fathers was experienced by 79% - a disclose high levels of childhood • Some of the mothers are attending a parenting course remarkable figure given the abuse (Boswell & Wedge, 2002) prone to the same problems in a US prison, only 6 out of prohibitive cost of telephone and are more likely than other as the children’s fathers, 23 were experiencing prison calls from most institutions. men to be violent, from an including substance abuse, visits from any of their children ethnic minority group, less even imprisonment (Roy & • Visits from the child were (Palm, 2007, personal educated, to have poor Dyson, 2005). experienced by 53%. relationship skills and to be communication). • The mother-child relationship prone to substance abuse • Also in the US, a study of In test-cases, the rights of may also be disrupted: (Carlson & McLanahan, 2002) young offenders (Nurse, imprisoned fathers to indirect Johnson & Waldfogel (2003) a majority are not very different 2001) found one third (but not direct) contact with their report that 23% of male from other fathers from similar receiving no visits. However, child have been upheld, out of prisoners’ children do not live backgrounds: 22% saw their children weekly a belief that in most cases it is with their biological mothers; while incarcerated. important for a child to have • Sixty per cent do not re-offend and even higher figures are some knowledge of, and some within two years (Day et al, found by Boswell & Wedge • In a sample of UK fathers who indication of the presence of 2005) although this will vary (2002) - 33% for the children were mainly already receiving their natural father (Brooks- by type of crime committed of Young Offenders; and 37% visits, Boswell & Wedge Gordon & Bainham, 2004). (NOMS, 2004). for the children of adult (2002) found 34% receiving imprisoned fathers. weekly visits; and 59% seeing 6.2.4.3: Post release • Although for a few children, their children at least (and mothers), a father’s 6.2.4: Imprisoned fathers’ • Boswell & Wedge (2002) fortnightly (mothers’ and incarceration brings some time and contact with found 85% of adult prisoners fathers’ reports). form of relief, these are a children (76% of young offenders) planning either to live with small minority (Boswell & 6.2.4.1: Before imprisonment • Although low or no visits are Wedge, 2002). more usual when relations their children, or in the Among a representative sample between parents are poor neighbourhood in which at • When children mention of imprisoned US fathers, 40 (Roy & Dyson, 2005), absence least some of their children changes in their lives since out of 51 reported having being of visits can occur where lived upon release. their fathers’ imprisonment, close of very close to at least father-child relationships are most of these changes are one child before imprisonment, • At six months post release, positive and ongoing due to perceived as negative (Boswell with around half reporting that Richards et al (1994) found distance from home and & Wedge, 2002). they had spent more than 20 almost ex-inmate fathers father or mother discouraging hours per week in direct contact having some level of contact • When children who are visits for a range of other with them (Day et al, 2005). with their children, most fairly visiting imprisoned fathers are practical or emotional regularly: 46% were living 121 interviewed, most appear to reasons. with some or all of their have close and sensitive children (mothers’ and fathers’ relationships with them reports). (Boswell & Wedge, 2002).

51 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

• Bahr et al (2005), in a more • Deterioration or dissolution of Associated stresses on children Pellegrini (1997) found close representative sample, found the father-mother relationship include: and sensitive father-child 19% of ex-inmate fathers is common: in one study relationships very helpful to living with their children. almost all fathers who had felt • Lack of information, being children in reintegrating their themselves to be in a lied to about the fragmented images and 6.2.5: Impact of committed relationship with incarceration, shame and perceptions of their fathers; and imprisonment on fathers their child’s mother, saw this secrecy often imposed by identified five tasks for the Controlling for a range of key sexual partnership dissolve adults (Clarke et al, 2005). children of imprisoned fathers: variables, incarceration is found during their time in prison • Increased poverty (Boswell & to have a negative impact on • Establishing the meaning of (Edin et al, 2004), although Wedge, 2002).125 family relations (Western et al, such high figures are not the father’s action. 2004) and on the father’s • The difficulties and often found in all studies. • Acknowledging separation experience of being a father in demeaning nature of prison from the father and adapting particular. 6.2.6: Impact of fathers’ visits (Boswell & Wedge, daily activities. imprisonment on children 2002).126 • Most fathers experience a For children, paternal • Managing feelings. • Teasing by peers (Boswell & rupturing of their paternal imprisonment is linked with: identity as both nurturers and Wedge, 2002). • Accepting the father’s (temporary) separation. providers, guilt about the • Traumatic separation • The challenge of integrating increasing hardships frequently experienced as their feelings about a loved • Readjusting to his return. experienced by their families bereavement, with one third of person who is designated a Boswell & Wedge (2002) and devastation experienced children in one study criminal (Boswell & Wedge, suggest that children who do from losing the role of active witnessing their father’s arrest, 2002). parent (Clarke et al, 2005; often accompanied by dogs not have psychologically and Day et al, 2005; Arditti et al, and several police officers • Worrying about mothers’ physically supported access to 2005). (Noble, 1995).123 stress - and suffering from it their imprisoned fathers are mothers commonly experience likely to fare less well, and are • Thirty-five per cent said they • Poorer general and emotional burdens as sole providers and in particular need of support felt guilty or ashamed; 15% health and wellbeing, with decision makers, depression, from services to express their ‘gutted’; 20% helpless (‘can’t immediate behaviour loneliness, demoralisation and feelings about their fathers’ be one’ - i.e. a father), 17% problems including frustration with their incarceration.127 unhappy, 8% frustrated preoccupation with the loss of incarcerated partner (for (Boswell & Wedge, 2002). the father, depression, review, see Roy & Dyson, separation anxiety and • The ‘masculinity norms’ 2005). interpersonal conduct disorder experienced in prison (for review, see Day et al, • Stresses arising from the (readiness to fight, avoidance 2005). deterioration/dissolution of of prison staff, stoicism - the parents’ relationship, (Roy Phillips, 2001) are likely, if • Longer term, poor academic & Dyson, 2005). adopted by a father, to lead performance, emotional him away from an identity that suffering, alcohol and drug supports children’s positive abuse, and own (i.e. child’s) development (Dyer, 2005). involvement in the criminal justice system (for review, see • Some fathers withdraw from Arditti et al, 2005) and anti- their children to cope with the social behaviour (Jaffee et al, pain of separation (Palm, 2003).124 1996) or with the culture of prison life, which does not encourage personal responsibility (Roy & Dyson, 2005).

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6.2.7: Supporting father-child • Fathers themselves rate them • Receive supportive appraisal • Many regret pre-imprisonment relationships in prison highly and, in 12% of cases, of their fatherhood efforts behaviour, such as lack of Clarke et al (2005) believe ’a were found to have from their family, which may connection with children, or rehabilitation and family- communicated their new include negotiating with them being too punitive, and vow preservation ethos is beginning learning to their partners and standards for fatherhood while to do better as fathers (Arditti to be established in the penal in two cases had used it to in prison. et al, 2005; Day et al, 2005). advise them about child- system in the UK’. This is ‘Children’s visits’ can provide a • Fifty per cent believed their rearing practices (Boswell & contradicted by Brooks-Gordon productive context. Where such ideas about parenting had Wedge, 2002). & Bainhaim (2004), who schemes have been established, changed in a positive perceive a ‘decline in the • A growing body of research four components appear key direction during their prison rehabilitative ideal’. All has found that after release, (Wedge, 1996). The opportunity experience (Day et al, 2005), commentators, however, key pieces of learning from for: although Dennison & Lyon recognise that such efforts as these courses were retained by (2003) found little behaviour are being made to support ex-inmates (Boswell & Wedge, • Father and child to ‘know’ change upon release, partly prisoners’ family ties are 2002; Dennison & Lyon, each other within a attributable to little or no undermined by the rise in the 2003). developing and meaningful community-based support. prison population and length of relationship. sentences, as well as by the • Meek (in press) found an Given the obvious impact of • The father to be able to greater numbers of over-representation of Black each spell of incarceration on discharge some parental psychopaths, sex offenders and fathers engaging in the children, reducing re-offending responsibility within such a drug users incarcerated, with parenting classes in prison. by fathers should reduce relationship. attendant security issues Previous research has adversity for children, as well as 129 (Brooks-Gordon & Bainham, highlighted the need for • Physical play (not just in itself, reducing costs to the state. 2004).128 One consequence is culturally suitable course but as highlighting the Can close father-child that in the four years to 2005, materials when working with importance of the relationship relationships protect against family visits fell 40% per head young fathers (Mordaunt, through play). recidivism? (Brookes, 2005). 2005). • Increased chance of family It is well known that maintaining Dyer (2005), applying identity Within this challenging context, survival. positive family ties theory to the incarceration pioneering initiatives are approximately halves the rate of experience, suggests that, to 6.2.8: Father-child enabling imprisoned fathers to recidivism (Brookes, 2005), with maintain and develop the relationships and reflect upon, and develop, their a number of close relationships father-child relationship, prison- rehabilitation roles (Fathers Direct, 2004). within the family network policies need to help fathers: The father-child relationship can protecting particularly strongly • Evaluations of delivering act as an important element of against repeat offending.130 • Enact roles meaningful to their parenting classes for young rehabilitation efforts, proving a identity as fathers - e.g. offenders and adults in prison ‘turning point’ in the life of the Now the impact of father-child have revealed positive results • Working/learning new skills inmate (for review, see Dyer, relationships as a separate in terms of knowledge, to help provide for their 2005). element within family families relationships has been examined attitudes, self-esteem and • Some incarcerated fathers children’s self-perceptions (for in a small sample of parolees • Developing other aspects of become reflective, re-appraise 131 review see Meek, in press; (Bahr et al, 2005). While the the fatherhood role their criminal lifestyle and also Dennison & Lyon, 2003). simple fact of ‘being a father’ (nurturer/playmate) via family relationships, and was not linked to reduced education, health and resurrect paternal commitment recidivism, a prisoner having at personal development, as and responsibility aspirations least one close relationship with well as by doing things for (Arditti et al, 2005; Clarke et a child was: their children (letter-writing, al, 2005; Day et al, 2005; preparing recordings of Roy & Dyson, 2005). bedtime stories, finding ways of optimising time spent together etc.).

53 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

• Only one of 18 fathers who 6.2.9: Re-settlement Barriers to engaging in post- It is clear that efforts to engage had been living with a child Clarke et al (2005) report on a release work with incarcerated with the fatherhood of prior to imprisonment returned series of H M Prison Service fathers and their families, via incarcerated and released to prison, compared with 6 of initiatives from 2004 which the criminal justice system or via fathers should continue and be 19 who had not been living emphasize the involvement of family services, include: expanded, not least because so with a child at that point. children and families as part of many already play substantial • Loss of family contact while in day-to-day roles - for good and • Only 14% of fathers who had a wider resettlement and prison: prisoners, particularly for ill - in the lives of their own had contact with a child in rehabilitative ethos. This work is young prisoners, move often and other men’s children - but prison returned there, in its early stages. between institutions. and their also because low or no contact compared with 33% of those A key reason for engaging with children also move frequently. with their biological fathers (or who had had no such contact. newly released fathers and their There are no clear systems for important social fathers) is such • Only 8% of fathers who families is that while release sharing information across an issue for children (see described their relationship often brings relief to fathers and local authorities (Sherlock, Fathers and Family Change, with a child as ‘excellent’ their families, the stressors are 2004). above). The loss of their father returned to prison, compared also likely to be substantial. • Disappearance after release, is likely to be particularly telling with 22% who did not rate the These include: with even parole officers for the children of imprisoned relationship in those terms. having difficulty finding many fathers, given that their • Issues arising from the of them (Day et al, 2005). In relationships with their mothers It is worth noting, as reported breakdown or deterioration in the UK, Boswell & Wedge may also be difficult or tenuous. above, that maintenance of a quality of the parental (2002) report 21% linking number of family ties was also relationship during with the probation service and important factors in protecting incarceration. against reoffending - as were 13% with the home probation 132 post-incarceration employment • Disappointed ‘idealised service. Only 8% of and housing (Bahr et al, 2005). expectations’ for reconnection released prisoners/their All these may be linked: without with children and/or partners partners mention links with employment and suitable (Day et al, 2005; Boswell & other services, such as social housing, and a positive Wedge, 2002). services and AA. relationship with his child’s • The carrying/transmission of • Incarcerated fathers, like other mother, a father’s contact with infectious diseases; having fathers, have low expectations his children is likely to be less been treated for depression (and so do their partners) of than optimal. and other forms of mental what can be done to help illness while in prison; and them, and may also be The effect of a positive father- continuing or new problems defensive about the need for child relationship on reducing with addictions and with support with their parenting: re-offending may prove to be involvement in a crime- When asked what could be cumulative: the impact of a directed life-style (Hammett et done on release to help a good couple-relationship on re- al, 2001). father get closer to his ideal of offending rates has been more active fatherhood, 58% of thoroughly studied, and its adults (43% of young positive effects seen to grow offenders) thought nothing slowly until it had a major could be done to help him impact on inhibiting crime (Laub (although 13% mentioned et al, 1998). help with employment).133

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6.3 Fathers and mental health deficits

The distribution of mental health • Lone mothers (Benzeval, • Fathers’ antisocial behaviour It is worth noting that the ‘well’ deficits between parents 1998) and teenage mothers has an independent effect on parent often suffers from suggests that while many (Berrington et al 2005) are children’s behaviour diagnosable disturbance couples will both suffer particularly at risk of problems, over and above him/herself (Göpfert et al, disturbance of some kind, there psychological distress.136 mothers’ antisocial behaviour 2004), either a pre-existing is considerable scope for and any genetic risk he may problem or deriving from the Fathers’ own mood disorders fathers, like mothers, to prove have imparted (Jaffee et al, stresses of living with an ill and mental health deficits have ‘buffer’ parents where the other 2003). partner, so that these ‘buffer’ a powerful impact on children’s, partner suffers from a chronic parents may also need support. adolescents’ and young adults’ Fathers’ potential to ‘buffer’ disorder or a temporary, but negative functioning and their children from mental severe, negative episode: Where a father is the ‘ill’ parent, distress. For example: health deficits or disordered there is case-study evidence that • Personality disorder is the mood in mothers has been commitment to his relationship • In an important meta-analysis, most common serious mental discussed above in relation to with a child or children can be Kane & Garber (2004) found health disorder among Post Natal Depression. Similar an important motivating factor paternal depression parents: more than half the potential is found later in the promoting compliance with his significantly related to children of mentally ill parents parenting cycle. treatment regime (Sheehan, offspring internalising and have a father who suffers from 2006; Hall, 2004). externalising psychopathology • In two parent families where this; and a quarter have a and to father-child conflict. one parent is mentally healthy, mother with this disorder the rate of disturbance in (Göpfert et al, 2004). • Fathers’ depression is also children is not higher, unless associated with their children • A study of individuals with the ill parent has been experiencing more major psychotic disorders (McLean et diagnosed with a personality stressors, and having lower al, 2004) found 25.4% of the disorder (Hall, 2004, p.22). perceived social competence men fathers, and 59.1% of both as teenagers and in early • A secure father-child the women mothers. adulthood - with the young attachment is an important • Population studies of people’s own protective factor against psychiatric disorder have psychopathology controlled disturbance in children whose found evidence of substantial for (Lewinsohn et al, 2005). mother suffers from a mental assortative mating for illness, and a secure • Antisocial personality disorder antisocial behaviour (i.e. both attachment may develop when in fathers is associated with parents tend to exhibit it).134 the father functions well (Hall, problems of conduct and 2004, p.37). • However, in only in 8.9% of aggression in children and cases do both parents suffer adolescents (for review, see • Children who cannot ‘distance from a serious mental illness Flouri, 2005a, p. 103; Jaffee themselves’ from their ill (Göpfert et al, 2004). et al, 2003). Smith & parent seem especially Farrington (2004) showed that vulnerable to poor • Women suffer more than men for girls, having an antisocial adjustment, impaired from depression and anxiety father was associated not only relationships and adverse disorders during the with early conduct problems long-term outcomes (Hall, reproductive years and later antisocial behaviour 2004, p.30). A reasonably (Bebbington et al, 1990); and - but also with partnering with well functioning other parent the Bristol ALSPAC study a convicted male. can help them develop measuring mental health as distance. depression, anxiety and eating disorders has found the mean scores to be higher for mothers than for fathers (ALSPAC, 2006).135

55 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

6.4 Fathers and substance misuse

Distribution of substance misuse Fathers’ substance abuse, like • Men’s rates of alcohol and • CARAT (HM Prison Service between parents: mothers’, has powerful negative illicit drug use are strongly drug and alcohol services) has effects on child and adolescent correlated with violence (Tuten been given a brief to involve • In the UK, it is estimated that development and also on et al, 2004) and aggression families of prisoners between 780,000 and 1.3 children’s physical safety towards their partners - and undertaking treatment million children are affected (Velleman, 2004). Specifically: with her greater anti-social programmes, and associated by a parent with alcohol behaviour, aggression and rehabilitation work, as part of problems (Prime Minister’s • Fathers’ substance abuse is depression (Eiden & Leonard, the through-care element, Strategy Unit, 2003) - most correlated with heightened 2000; Leonard et al, 2002). with emphasis on prisoner likely their father, given that child risk for both physical resettlement - and this is to be The UK’s Social Care Institute of men are twice as likely as abuse and physical neglect focussed on fathers as well as Excellence points out that very women to be affected (for review, see Guterman & on mothers (Clarke et al, little research has been (Velleman, 2004). Lee, 2005), conduct problems 2005). and aggression in children conducted into the parenting • Similarly, 2-3% of children and adolescents (for review, capacities of substance-misusing • If treatment efforts do engage under age 16 have at least see Flouri, 2005a, p.103), fathers. Nevertheless, the substance-misusing men as one parent who abuses drugs, difficulties at school, mental ill Institute perceives engaging with fathers, that will prove a and though drug-abusing health and stress (Tunnard, these fathers as a priority (SCIE, radical step: when, in 2005, mothers are twice as likely as 2002).137 2005a). Fathers Direct ran a forum for drug abusing fathers to be drugs and alcohol services at living with their children, there • Indirect negative effects are • Alcoholic fathers are less its National Conference in are twice as many drug- found via lower earnings and sensitive and more negative London, barely any examples abusing fathers as there are more unstable employment towards their infants, and their of such work were found. Nor drug abusing mothers - and (Teitler, 2001). infants are less securely is there evidence that drugs one third of these men are attached (Eiden et al, 2002; • A key pathway for indirect and alcohol workers routinely estimated to be co-resident Eiden & Leonard 2000). influence on children is the seek out children’s fathers with their children (ACMD, impact of fathers’ substance • Fathers’ alcoholism is who do not immediately 2003). It is likely that many of misuse on mothers: associated with their greater present to them, when the others will live locally irritation with their infant and mothers are substance- (Badham, personal • Male partners are likely to aggression towards the misusers, in order to assess communication). influence a woman’s mother (Leonard et al, 2002; the fathers as risk or resource. introduction to substance use, • The impact on children of Eiden & Leonard, 2000). including harder drugs parental ‘dual disorder’ (Amaro & Hardy-Fanta, What potential is there for (mental health/substance 1995). improving children’s outcomes abuse) is moving up the by engaging with fathers’ agenda. In one extensive, • Expectant mothers are almost substance misuse - and to what community-based study, nearly four times more likely to have extent is this occurring? half of those with a diagnosis consumed alcohol, and over of schizophrenia, and nearly twice as likely to have used • When alcoholic fathers enter one third of those with a drugs, if the father has drug a treatment programme, the mood disorder misused, or and alcohol-related problems simple fact of their receiving were dependent upon, (Teitler, 2001). treatment is associated with alcohol or drugs (Register et • Heavy drinking by fathers is improvements in their al, 1990, cited by Velleman, associated with double the children’s adjustment; and a 2004, p.193). risk of insecure attachments clinically significant reduction between mothers and infants in child problems is found (Eiden & Leonard, 1996). with fathers’ alcoholism recovery (Andreas et al, 2006).

56 www.fathersdirect.com

6.5 Fathers and child abuse

6.5.1: Child physical abuse • There is some evidence that • There is a strong correlation • A particular feature of Physical abuse of children is children living with both their between child maltreatment by maltreating fathers seems to usually recorded as being biological parents are more mothers and problematic be rigid attitudes about perpetrated about equally by likely to be physically abused relationships with their appropriate child behaviour biological fathers and mothers by their fathers than their partners. This suggests and parenting practices. This 139 (Guterman & Lee, 2005; mothers, that fathers tend to another important role for may prove a useful point for Cawson et al, 2000). However: perpetrate more severe fathers in child abuse intervention (Pittman et al, abuse140 and that they are (Guterman & Lee, 2005). 2006). • Mothers may be over- more likely physically to abuse Although some commentators It seems probable that some represented in these figures, in boys (Jouriles & Norwood, have suggested that maltreating maltreating fathers will have that registration of children as 1995). fathers be regarded differently significantly different issues from being ‘at risk’ is more likely • Although actual abuse will from maltreating mothers and maltreating mothers, notably when mothers are abusers only occur in a minority of addressed differently (Scott & their possible adherence to (Ryan, 2000), and this is cases, 10% of children Crooks,2004), others contest gender-role stereotypes which particularly likely when the describe themselves as this, noting that the differences may impact, among other household involves a father- frequently fearful of their recorded so far between things, on attitudes to discipline. figure (Radhakrishna et al, fathers, compared with 5% maltreating mothers and fathers There is evidence that ideas of 2001). who are similarly afraid of are small to non-existent, and discipline ‘gone awry’ may • Or mothers may be under- their mothers (Cawson et al, that fathers’ maltreating influence some fathers’ abuse of represented, in that - as 2000). behaviour does not seem to their children (Pittman et al, mentioned earlier - the closer develop from a very different 2006). • There are clear links between the relationship between an base from mothers’ (Pittman et fathers’ (and father figures’) abused child and a al, 2006). From the children’s point of view substance abuse (including perpetrator, the less likely it is worth noting that: alcohol), and heightened risk family members are formally • Like maltreating mothers, to children of both physical • Children who have been to report the offender (Wallis, maltreating fathers are abuse and physical neglect abused by their fathers usually 1992). typically ‘troubled’ individuals, (Ammerman et al, 1999). with a history of victimisation acknowledge some positive • It has been hypothesised that features of their relationship • Particularly high levels of in their families-of-origin were fathers to spend more with them (Sternberg, abuse are perpetrated by which is related to current time in sole charge of 1997).142 unrelated males in a distress and unhappiness children, their rates of abuse household, whether or not (Pittman et al, 2006). • Paternal physical abuse in would rise. So far, this they are in a substantial childhood is a significant hypothesis has received • Like maltreating mothers, relationship with the child’s predictor of aggression in support from one study, but maltreating fathers tend to be mother. 141 adult males (as is maternal not from another (for review, isolated individuals, with few physical abuse of later female see Holden & Barker, 2004). • Economic insecurity and job emotional and instrumental aggression) (Muller & loss contribute both directly and supports and weaker ties to • Both single fathers and single Diamond, 1999). indirectly to heightened physical social networks (Coohey, mothers are equally likely child abuse and neglect risk by 2006). (and more likely than other fathers, via multiple pathways, parents) to abuse their • The family climate in which including paternal irritability, children physically, with these men operate tends to be tension and explosiveness severity of violence greater in distant and disorganised - (which increase their tendency single father households slightly more so than the to be punitive towards their (Gelles, 1989).138 typical family climate within children) stresses arising from which maltreating mothers greater transience in residence operate (Pittman et al, 2006). (which is associated with economic hardship), and so on. These should be identified as risk indicators for abuse (Guterman & Lee, 2005). 57 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

6.5.2: Child neglect • There appears to be a link • Physical abuse may co-occur • A more recent study of 3,000 Child neglect is overwhelmingly between maternal depression with psychological abuse: in young people indicated that perpetrated by mothers. How do and experiences of ongoing one study, both maltreating out of the 11% who had been fathers contribute? or past violence victimisation. mothers and fathers were sexually abused, this had Such depression can impact found to direct more hostile occurred within the family in • Recent research suggests that upon women’s ability to care and negative behaviours, (and only 1% of cases - and the fathers’ absence, by itself, for children and result in a fewer positive verbal most common perpetrator was does not predict child-neglect categorisation of neglect behaviours) towards their a brother (Cawson et al, risk (Dubowitz et al, 2000). (Stanley, 1997). This suggests children. Interestingly, 2000). However, heightened physical another pathway for the however, socio-economic • Not all sexual abuse is the child neglect, like abuse, is serious potential influence of status accounted for a greater same - and this suggests that associated with family fathers on child maltreatment. proportion of the variance in not all sexual abusers are the impoverishment - and family these other negative parental • Where a mother’s partner is same. In 50% of father- impoverishment is more likely behaviours than did child not the father of all the daughter incest cases, the when fathers are not abuse (Herrenkohl et al, children in the home, has a sexual abuse is remembered contributing to the household 1984). drug, alcohol or mental health by the adult survivor, as a (Guterman & Lee, 2005).143 challenge and does not seem • One study found that men ‘once only’ - though • Mothers convicted of neglect to understand that there is a who were abusive towards nevertheless traumatic - are usually assumed to be supervision issue for the their partners directed aberration (Russell, 1986). coping alone. In fact, most children (or take responsibility significantly more verbal • Good paternal care/support have partners. However, these for it) supervisory neglect is aggression towards daughters in adolescence is one of two tend to be men they have likely to be persistent or than towards sons (Cummings important factors (the other known for less time, are not chronic - and the et al, 1999). being friendship with non- married to or living with, are investigator’s level of concern It is now recognised that delinquent peers), that are less likely to be the biological should be raised (Coohey & children whose fathers or father- found to protect against the fathers of their offspring (for Zhang, 2006).144 figures regularly abuse their serious problems found in review, see Radhakrishna et 6.5.3: Psychological abuse mothers, are being 80% of the young adults who al, 2001) and are not psychologically abused (see have been sexually abused perceived by the mothers as Although less is known about Domestically Violent Fathers, (Lynskey & Fergusson, 1997). supportive (Coohey, 1995). fathers’ psychological abuse of below). children, it seems likely that: It would seem that in most cases • The strong correlation where sexual abuse has taken between mothers’ problematic • Biological fathers and mothers 6.5.4: Sexual abuse place both the biological father relationships with their are about equally responsible When ‘sexual abuse’ is and any social fathers should be partners and their abusiveness (Sedlak & Broadhurst, 1996); mentioned, it is usual to think of assessed, not only in terms of towards their children is also and father-figures more biological fathers. In fact, the risk but also as a potential found in child neglect responsible (for review see picture is more complex: resource: (Guterman & Lee, 2005). Radhakrishna et al, 2001). • Some direct empirical • Non-biological male family • To make reparation, if evidence suggests that low members (stepfather or appropriate and possible, for father support is intertwined mother’s de facto partner) are abuse they have perpetrated with mothers’ risk for both disproportionately represented themselves. child physical abuse and as sex offenders. For example, • If abusers, to be identified as neglect (for review, see Russell (1986) reported that a potential future risk to these Radhakrishna et al, 1990). 17% of girls living with stepfathers had been sexually and other children abused by them, compared • If not abusers, to be assisted with 2.3% of girls sexually to provide support to a child abused by their biological in their care who has been fathers. sexually abused.

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6.5.5: Domestically violent Current policy and practice • Holden & Barker (2004) • Mothers who experience fathers145 does not facilitate this: believe that failure to relatively minor physical abuse Domestic abuse146 is a public investigate fathers’ roles in from their male partners are • Common terminology policy issue of great importance. family violence tends to result approximately twice as likely (‘batterer’ or ‘perpetrator’ for The literature on its in mother-blaming; and as other mothers to abuse the man and ‘victim’ for the prevalence147 and impact148 is inhibits a full understanding of their children; when the woman) implies that only the extensive.149 Men can also be the aetiology, nature and mothers are severely abused latter deserves or needs help. victims of violence perpetrated consequences of family they are four times more likely In fact a number of by women and children; and violence, both in current and to abuse their children (Straus commentators have noted the 153 violence may be reciprocal (for future generations. et al, 1980). ‘invisibility’ of fatherhood in review, see Holden & Barker, family violence: that is male Child abuse often co-occurs • If spousal violence occurs in 2004).There is a growing body perpetrators are not with domestic abuse with both the first year of parenthood, of evidence that many men who regognised as parents. mothers and fathers responsible both mothers and fathers are use violence within their families - and here it is crucial to think likely to develop more can be helped to change their • Sternberg (1997) comments in subtle ways about the nature negative views of their behaviour;150 and methods of on the use of the word of the violence between parents, children. For fathers, these achieving this are being ‘father’ to mean father or or directed by one against the negative views mediate the explored,151 including - where father-figure, which often other: relation between spousal they are fathers - a focus on masks differences in the violence and child abuse risk that aspect of their lives (see abusive behaviour by these • In clinical populations (McGuigan et al, 2000). . below). two groups, and compromises (battered women’s shelters) our understanding of it .152 children are abused in 30- It is likely that some of the child- Although it is crucial that 60% of the families (Holden & abuse perpetrated by abused anyone who uses physical • Peled (2000) observes that Barker, 2004). mothers results from their own violence and other coercive children affected by their psychopathology; however, it is behaviours address this as a fathers’ violence towards their • The percentage will be much also likely that some is problem in itself, the co- mothers are commonly lower in non-clinical samples: stimulated by the stress caused occurrence of domestic abuse referred to as the ‘children of it is estimated that, in the by their violent partner’s by men with criminality and abused women’ rather than USA, 6% of children are behaviour - another powerful social disadvantage (for review, the ‘children of abusive men.’ physically abused while also reason for engaging with these see Fergusson et al, 2005), being exposed to spousal men for the benefit of both substance misuse (Tuten et al, • Featherstone & Peckover violence (Appel & Holden, mother and child. 2004), depressive symptoms (forthcoming, 2007) argue 1998). (Feldbau-Kohn et al, 1998) and that the construction of What else do we know about other mental health deficits domestically violent fathers as • Men who are moderately the parenting behaviour of men (Göpfert et al, 2004) in both ‘perpetrators’ or ‘offenders’ violent towards their partners who physically abuse their themselves and their victims, has rendered invisible their are twice as likely as non- partners? (causality is not often clear), identities as fathers/parents, violent men to abuse their indicate that referrals to other and that this has seriously children (Straus & Gelles, • Holtzworth-Munroe & Stuart’s services will also be indicated in compromised the 1990); men who are severely perpetrator typology (1994), many cases. development of effective violent towards their partners which is beginning to receive policies and practices to are five times more likely to empirical support, would support women and children, abuse their children (Straus et suggest that different kinds of while at the same time failing al, 1980). perpetrators are likely to to offer men opportunities to engage in different parenting develop non-violent parenting practices (Holden & Barker, and partnering relationship 2004). patterns.

59 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

• While some research has • Spousally abusive fathers • Children of spousally-violent Jo Todd of RESPECT, the UK found low levels of (particularly those who are not men often express feelings of charity that works to develop involvement in childcare, and resident with their children) love for their fathers, along perpetrator programmes emotional commitment to may romanticise their with terror of the violence, suggests that screening for children among men who are relationship (for example, which they recognise as wrong domestic abuse, and then violent towards their partners, looking to the children for (for review, see Holden & failing to engage with the other research has found unconditional love); be Barker, 2004). These feelings abuser and his behaviour (as considerable childcare and/or unaware of and unable to often continue when fathers currently happens in the UK in household task involvement prioritise their child’s needs; have left the family (for maternity services - see 4.1.3 (for review, see Featherstone & and perceive the children as reviews, see Scott & Crooks, above), amounts to ‘collusion’ Peckworth, forthcoming failing to conform to their 2004; Holden & Barker, with the abuse. Such a failure 2007). expectations (for example, in 2004). may also put mothers and doing homework, going to children at greater risk: • Women whose partners abuse bed etc.) (Harne, 2005). • Conflict of loyalties between them typically describe the father and mother is common • Mothers whose hopes for men as physically punitive and • Children in such and may sometimes lead to assistance in regulating their often angry towards their circumstances become lost as identification with the abuser partner’s actions are not children (for review, see people in their own right and (Peled, 1998). fulfilled are less likely to report Holden & Barker, 2004). become cyphers for adults’ future negative incidents feelings. Mothers can also, of • Physical child abuse OR (Farmer & Owen,1995) and • Spousally violent fathers are course, use/abuse children in exposure to partner violence may even go on to form more likely than other fathers this way (Featherstone, 1999). in their families of origin is alliances with the abusive men to admit to spanking, yelling, associated, in men, with against external agencies (for harsh parenting, psychological What do we know about the perpetrating both child and review, see Ryan, 2000, aggression and minor assaults impact of partner violence on partner abuse. However, these p.39). towards their children; they children? two experiences have not also report more frequent been found to be ‘additive’ • In the experience of one arguments with children and • Where parents are physically (Heyman & Smith Slep, highly experienced domestic perceive a greater number of aggressive, children appear 2002). abuse coordinator, victims are child behaviour problems (for more highly more likely to support review, see Holden & Barker, distressed.(O’Hearn et al, • Fathers who, as children, prosecution against partners 2004). 1997), particularly when the experienced both these types or ex-partners ‘if they feel this violence is by fathers against of family violence are, found is a way of ensuring their • In one study, the 18% of mothers (Goeke-Morey et al, to be more likely than other partner or husband gets help’ spousally violent fathers who 2003). fathers to report being victims (Children Now, 2006). also scored at the elevated of partner abuse (Heyman & cut-off level on the Child • Children residing in shelters Smith Slep, 2002). Abuse Potential scale, report high levels of terror and reported significantly more anxiety associated with anger, child-externalising observing or overhearing problems, parenting stress, spousal violence (Holden & borderline personality Barker, 2004; Peled, 2000). organisation and substance abuse, and significantly less positive parenting activities (Holden et al, 2003).

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Notes

Experimental programmes in • In Norway (Rakil, 2006), a There is currently little research 113 One study found higher rates of violence among pregnant teenagers (Parker et al, New Zealand, Australia, the US project working with fathers to indicate which children will 1993), and Jasinski’s (2004) assessment of and the UK have been within an existing treatment benefit, and which will not, from the literature points to higher prevalence of domestic abuse among young mothers, both successfully working with men’s and research centre continuing contact with fathers pre and post natally. fatherhood as a motivator for (‘Alternative to Violence’ - who have been abusive towards 114 In this study 14% of the young fathers had staying engaged with the ATV) has found considerable them or their mothers; and experienced the death of their own father. programme and for ending use work is needed for fathers to whether, and under what 115 This was probably fortunate: post-release of violence and other abusive integrate the reality of their circumstances, reparative support for young-offender-fathers is even poorer than for adult-offender-fathers (Young behaviours (Fathers Direct, violence with their role as initiatives can ease children’s Voice, 2005).

2006a). Overseas programmes parents. ATV’s experience distress and/or help to break a 116 This is lower than the rate of re-offending include: suggests that interventions potential cycle of multi- adults in general. need to address: generational child abuse (Scott 117 A similar percentage was found in a recent • San Francisco’s ‘Fathering & Crooks, 2004). However, few small-scale qualitative UK study (Clarke et al, after Violence Project’ (FAV)154 • Men’s perceptions of 2005), while the percentage from a similar US would fail to support reparative sample was lower (fewer than 25%) - Arditti has not only worked with themselves as fathers. behaviour by mothers; and et al, 2005; Day et al, 2005. men’s fatherhood to end 118 • How the violence is there is no reason to believe Under-reporting of parental status by non- violence, but has also resident fathers, imprisoned or otherwise, is affecting the father-child that reparation by fathers would known to be common (Ferri & Smith, 1995). introduced a reparative relationship. be entirely without value to most Such under-reporting will probably be most framework for those fathers common where children were born some time children. previously, and many prisoners will have had who are in the position to start • How the violence is their first child(ren) at an unusually young age healing their relationships with affecting the mother-child (see Young Fathers, above). their children in a safe and relationship. 119 Amongst the three-quarters who had lived with the target child’s mother, more than half had constructive way. • How the child is affected in lived with her for no more than two years (Clarke et al, 2005). both the short and the • The US ‘Caring Dads’ 120 longer term. Visits can be in the form of ordinary visits parenting programme for (sitting facing the prisoner often across a table fathers who have used or through glass); or family or children’s visits, • The basic psychological where free-er interaction is allowed in more violence at home, and which needs of the child from a child-friendly environments. combines both ‘fatherhood’ developmental perspective, 121 Cost, distance and accessibility by public and Duluth perpetrator transport can be enormous issues, and some and how these needs are fathers discourage visits through shame, ‘hard models, is currently being violated by the presence of timing’ (withdrawing in order to get through piloted in the UK in the the sentence), or through an understanding of violence. the stresses inherent in visits and the belief that voluntary sector and the children are best spared these (Clarke et al, criminal justice system 2005; Boswell & Wedge, 2002). Only a third of fathers whose children had visited believed (Featherstone et al, all visits had helped strengthen ties and forthcoming, 2007). relationships (Boswell & Wedge, 2002). Where inmates have a girlfriend who is not the mother of their child, or have children by different mothers, restrictions on number of visitors can restrict children’s visits (Brooks- Gordon & Bainham, 2004).

122 Literacy issues are likely to inhibit written communication: 50% of all prisoners have serious problems with reading, and four-fifths with writing (National Literacy Trust, 2006). This is consonant with their social class, rather than specific to them as offenders, and their children and partners are likely to experience similar difficulties. Parents may also discourage written communication because of stigmatising identification of its source on the envelope (Dunn & Arbuckle, 2002).

61 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

123 Wilson (1996) compared the process of sudden 135 The ongoing nature of eating disorders in some 146 Domestic abuse is defined here to include not 151 Spousal violence can be exacerbated by couple arrest at home with the witnessing of family women (with pregnancy a substantial risk only physical force, but also sexual violence interventions. However not all domestic violence. These effects may also be damaging factor), is now recognised, and there is a and threats that cause fear, alarm and distress. violence is the same (Fergusson et al, 2005) at a stage once removed, e.g. if the child growing body of evidence of negative effects The Home Office defines domestic abuse as: and it is likely that in many cases couple suddenly hears of the father’s arrest at school on children (for discussion, see Hall, 2004, ‘Any violence between current and former interventions will help, not harm. Effective or via the press. p.37-38). partners in an intimate relationship, wherever screening for types of domestic violence is and whenever the violence occurs. The violence therefore a key issue. In the US, the multi-site 124 136 Note also that paternal criminality, as well as This implies that assessing non-resident fathers may include physical, sexual, emotional and demonstration project ‘Building Strong incarceration, is a risk factor for children’s anti- and men who have fathered children with financial abuse’ (Home Office 2003: 6). Most Families’ aims to establish whether and how social behaviour (Jaffee et al, 2003; Farrington teenage mothers for their potential as ‘buffer’ domestic abuse is carried out between current low income couples can be helped to build & Coid, 2003). parents, (as well as in terms of the risks they partners, but it is important to remember that more resilient relationships through, among may pose to mothers or children), could be a 125 some is carried out after the end of a other things, developing their relationship skills. In the UK, the children of imprisoned fathers useful line of enquiry, although additional relationship. This standard definition includes Dion et al (2006), in presenting findings from have not been entitled to State benefits support will be needed for some of these men, violence against both women and men. It does the pilot stage, report that all sites have been otherwise available to single parent families as higher than average negative behaviours not include violence from family members who required to establish protocols, in collaboration (Lloyd, 1995). and psychological distress will be found in are not intimates or ex-intimates of the survivor. with local/state domestic violence coalitions, 126 these populations (Huang & Warner, 2005). Traveling long distances, long waits, ‘lock outs’ for detecting and addressing domestic violence. 147 Prevalence-findings show variation due to due to sudden security alerts when visits are 137 It may be that it is the combination of problem different definitions of violence, when and how 152 The more tangential the relationship with the cancelled after families have arrived, strip- drinking or drug use with other negative factors many times women are asked, and the mother (and child), the more likely the violence: searches, no available food, boredom, barely- such as family conflict that threatens children’s population studied (Bacchus et al, 2003). this is another example of where failure by contained parental hostility (Boswell & Wedge, health and well-being (Kroll & Taylor, 2002 services to assess relationship-to-child.of a 2002), 148 Violence in the family, particularly violence 138 male in a household, or who visits regularly, Single father and mother households are not 127 towards women, results in very substantial Anecdotally, we were told about a young puts women and children at risk. directly comparable, in that children in the human and emotional costs, including physical, people’s Mentor who believed a central task for former tend to be older and often more psychological and social impairment for many 153 Similarly, men who are abused by their female him in supporting a teenage boy was to take troubled. Single mother abuse is correlated adults and children (BMA, 1998), as well as in partners are more likely than other men to the lad to visit his imprisoned father. with poverty, but this association is not so economic output losses and costs to a diverse abuse their children, although the difference is 128 strong for single fathers, although those on very The numbers of prison visits are reducing, range of public services (including criminal and not so great (Sternberg, 1997). low incomes are at heightened risk (Sternberg, partly due to the perceived need for, for civil legal systems, health and social care, and 1997). 154 See example, strip searches, due to increasing housing). http://www.endabuse.org/programs/display.ph concern about both security and drugs. 139 For instance, Creighton & Noyes (1989) found 149 Women and Equality Unit (2004). p3?DocID=197 (last accessed 6 January 129 that when the child was living with both birth The cost to the taxpayer of re-offending is also 2007). parents, mothers were implicated in 36% of 150 Variations on an established model of working substantial: each prisoner who re-offends is cases and fathers in 61%. with perpetrators are currently being piloted estimated to cost the taxpayer more than within the Probation Service in the UK. It is £110,000 (Brookes, 2005). 140 Some research suggests that men living with generally agreed that the most ethical and 130 children are most likely to perpetrate severe It is likely that selection-effects operate, in that effective perpetrator programmes operate in physical abuse, especially abuse that results in prisoners more capable of maintaining family association with women’s and children’s a child’s death (for review, see Richardson & ties are also more capable in other areas, but support programmes. Gondolf (2001) reports Bromfield, 2005). However, in a study of this will only be part of the story. Four or more that the best outcomes are achieved when military families, Pittman et al (2006) found sex close, positive, family relationships are strongly perpetrators are referred onto the programme differences to be small with over half the fathers connected with reduced recidivism. promptly (for example, upon arrest); and when (compared with two thirds of the mothers) Unsurprisingly, the quality of the family ties is they stay with the programme. These two identified with low severity abuse. also important: however, where other family factors may be linked. Gondolf reports that a

141 relatively small subset of offenders (around members have a history of criminality, or many In Missouri, 44% of identified perpetrators were 20%) will continue to be violent; and that it is of the family relationships are highly conflicted, unrelated males in the household, compared not always easy to detect the most violent men. maintenance of family ties is connected with with 21% biological mothers and 23% Although over a four year follow up 50% of increased recidivism (Bahr et al, 2005). biological fathers (Stiffman et al, 2002). Gondolf’s subjects re-offended, this was most 131 The small size of the sample renders these 142 As they also do when abused by their mothers. common early in the intervention, and was figures only suggestive, but they are consistent frequently just a single event, and that there 143 with the life-course perspective. The quality of Empirical research is still necessary to was no trend of increased or increasing the relationship with the mother might well document directly the specific pathway to family violence post-treatment. have been a confounding variable, but this was impoverishment from father absence, if this not controlled for. exists.

132 A substantial minority (27%) of Young 144 As is mentioned below (Should Service Offenders described links with the home Providers Engage with Vulnerable Fathers?), probation service as ‘unhelpful’. serrvice providers who fail to identify and record relationship-to-child of men in, or 133 This mirrors other findings in this report – regularly visiting, their household will fail to notably in Young Fathers (above). identify potential serious risk, including for child

134 abuse and neglect. Having an anti-social father is positively correlated with having an anti-social mother, 145 See also 4.1.3 (above) Domestic abuse and with 50% of the anti-social behaviour found in other negative behaviours by fathers can be these children attributable to maternal anti- challenged. social behaviour (Jaffee et al, 2003).

62

The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice 7 Working with vulnerable fathers

The negative impact that fathers’ • Children at risk of However, while most service vulnerabilities can have on maltreatment within their provision seeks to maintain and children provides ample reason families were found to have improve mother-child for engaging with them; another higher cognitive test scores, relationships even when mothers is provided by the ‘buffer’ effect better self-competence and are highly vulnerable (Scott & of positive father engagement in greater social acceptance if Crooks, 2004), practitioners vulnerable families. : they had supportive fathers or and policy-makers usually father-figures (Dubowitz et al, approach father-child • Vulnerable children seem to 2000). relationships at best casually be in the greatest need of and at worst with hostility, and ongoing positive relationships • Children at risk of this is particularly the case when with their fathers. They tend to psychosocial failure to fathers are vulnerable (Ashley et 155 do worse than better thrive, maternal drug abuse al, 2006). supported children when and poverty had better father-child relationships are cognitive and language poor or non-existent; and performance when fathers or seem to experience greater father-figures were satisfied benefits when a relationship with parenting, provided with a biological father financial support and and/or father-figure is positive engaged in nurturant play (Dunn et al 2004). (Black et al, 1995).

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7.1 Service providers’ attitudes

Providers’ underlying attitudes to • McBride et al (2001) found • Even in cases of father- men and fathers seem to be, in that if fathers were to be inclusive practice, clear the main, highly negative. successfully engaged in early evidence of fathers’ exclusion childhood programmes, staff emerges - often based on • Hawkins & Dollahite (1997) needed ample time to talk what at first appear to be found unexamined negative openly about their solid grounds, but which are generalisations (prejudices) preconceived notions and later proved to be the flimsiest about men/fathers to be biases regarding fathers and of evidence (Ferguson & widespread. These can father-involvement. Hogan, 2004). include such beliefs as ‘men are unable to change’ ‘men Partly as a result of such • Surrogate fathers who abuse are not willing to change’ ‘a attitudes, service providers rarely children, either sexually or in man cannot cope with gather the most basic other ways, are particularly children without a woman to information about the fathers in likely to be lost to services: help him’, ‘fathers do not love the families they serve. in some jurisdictions, the their children as much as mother is substantiated for mothers do’, and so on. • Adult and youth services, who neglect when the surrogate normally ask whether their father has abused, which • Edwards (1998) found men female clients are mothers, leads to his omission from the consistently regarded as rarely enquire about the registry database. His future problematic: when absent, fatherhood status of their abuse trajectory may therefore irresponsible; when present, male clients (Tyrer et al, 2005; remain unknown demanding. Sherlock, 2004), let alone (Radhakrishna et al, 2001). offer them support as parents. • Russell et al (1999) found providers unsure about • Child and family services fathers’ (men’s) capacity to commonly fail to identify understand children’s important males in children’s changing needs, or provide lives and their relationship to them with care and the child156(Ashley et al, 2006; emotional support – with a Ferguson & Hogan, 2004; substantial minority holding Daniel & Taylor, 2001; wildly exaggerated notions of Radhakrishna et al, 2001; the prevalence of father- Ryan, 2000) especially when daughter sexual abuse. the fathers are living in another household (Edwards, • Both Edwards (1998) and 1998). Lloyd et al (2003) found providers mouthing support • Fathers are often perceived to for father-inclusive practice, be ‘the problem’ when they while consistently failing to are not (Ashley et al, 2006; engage with fathers and Ryan, 2000). regularly missing good opportunities to do so. • When fathers are identified as a risk, challenges are rarely mounted to their behaviour; instead, pressure is put on mothers to manage the risk or to get the men out of the house (Scourfield, 2003).

65 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

7.2 Service providers and invisible fathers

One reason service providers • A US dataset comprising Even when a father is known to do not engage with low income families in which an infant be co-resident, service providers fathers is that they assume them was considered at high risk of tend to assume he plays little or to be absent from most of the maltreatment (Radhakrishna et no part in caring for the households that fall within their al, 2001), found that at that children, unless he actively remit: attendees at Fathers stage, even in this presents himself to them. Direct training courses extraordinarily high-risk commonly express this view. sample: • Daniel & Taylor (2001) report instances where this erroneous In the first years of a child’s life, • The biological father and assumption was made to the almost all fathers – even in low mother were co-resident in detriment of children in high income communities – seem 41% of the households. need. actually to be co-resident, or • In only 3% of cases was a living nearby and in contact with • Ferguson & Hogan (2004) male resident with a their children. found that the most marginal recently-delivered mother men in the vulnerable families • The analysis of UK Millennium NOT the biological father they studied were, in fact, the Cohort data mentioned of the child. most likely to be actively earlier, where data was • Six years later both engaged in domestic work collected pre-birth and again biological parents were still and child care. This was at 9-11 months’ postpartum, co-resident in 29% of the partly due to their availability (Kiernan & Smith, 2003) households. because of unemployment. found extraordinarily high rates of father-infant • At that second time-point • A number of other studies (for engagement, even where 18% of the families had review see Guterman & Lee, relationships with mothers become step-father families. 2005) have refuted the notion that fathers viewed as high were most tenuous. The ‘father absence’ that so risk are uninvolved in many professionals perceive in • Where couples were not parenting. so many of the high-need living together at the time of households with which they the birth (15% of the whole Service providers may also engage, may in part be due to sample), more than two- assume that a father who does some of these men being thirds were described by the not present has moved away – actively concealed from them: mothers as ‘romantically another assumption is probably US research has discovered that involved’ or as ‘friends’. misplaced, although we are not low-income women whose aware of any research that has • Even among the tiny social welfare benefits depend looked at this issue. However, percentage of couples on lone parent status sometimes Badham (personal described by the mothers as hide or distort the role played by communication), attempting to ‘not in a relationship’ (4.4% fathers or male partners; and trace the five fathers of five of the whole sample), 10% that the men themselves are children aged 2-10 born to a of the fathers were at the made wary of seeking services single mother in Nottingham, birth, and 25% signed the (for review, see Scott & Crooks, found all five still living in the birth certificate: but, most 2004). Anecdotal evidence city.158 surprising of all, 25% of suggests a similar picture in the these most tenuously- UK. connected fathers were still in contact with their child almost a year later.157

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7.3 7.4 Should service providers engage Some outcomes of work with with vulnerable fathers? vulnerable fathers Some researchers and • Pitcairn et al (1993) found US researchers experienced in • Systemic institutional change practitioners argue that a father that even in families where work with ‘fragile families’ (for example, taking the who poses, or has posed, a risk child abuse had occurred, the (Sigle-Rushton, 2006, personal stance that men have to be to child or mother must forfeit vast majority of parental communication; Garfinkel, involved in assessments and his right to a relationship with relationships contained at 2006) suggest that perhaps one family interventions, or the child159 - an approach that least some positive elements, third of vulnerable fathers do, or refusing to accept a referral would be unthinkable where with 35% of fathers speaking could, function well without without reference to the mothers are concerned. Others glowingly about their child. intervention other than father), can quite quickly disagree, arguing that: recognition of the good work achieve a higher level of • Even when abusive fathers they are already doing. The father participation than is • The association between, for and father-figures leave their second ‘third’ would benefit typical in mainstream child example, paternal mental families, they rarely end their from increased support from protection (Ferguson & health problems and child involvement with children. It family or friends, as well as from Hogan, 2004; Pithouse et al, problems, accentuates the is estimated that such men professionals. The final third are 2001). need to work with fathers in typically continue to be likely to have substantial public services (Lloyd et al involved with 6-10 biological individual problems which will • Reaching the father at a 2003). and stepchildren (Scott & require holistic interventions. ‘meaningful moment’ in his Crooks, 2004). Most of this last group may life may be key. Where • Behaviour by both fathers and need to be invited, challenged interventions with vulnerable mothers can be good or bad • In the UK, £3 billion a year is or otherwise actively ‘brought fathers have had low impact ‘in parts’; and fathers’ currently spent on children by into responsibility’ (Ferguson & with high cost, which has, on behaviour, like mothers’, can local authority social services, Hogan, 2004). Some will then the whole, been the case with change, sometimes of which more than £1 billion make positive contributions. the ‘first generation’ of such significantly (Ferguson & goes to residential provision. programmes in the US (Mincy Hogan, 2004; Fagan & Palm, It is likely that these costs • In Green’s (2003) survey of & Pouncy, 2002), it is thought 2004). could be substantially 213 US early childhood that this may in part reflect reduced, were fathers and educators, multiple regression failure to reach out to the • Even the kinds of men child paternal relatives analysis found three factors fathers early enough in their protection workers encounter systematically involved in care significantly accounting for parenting trajectories (Lamb & often have something positive proceedings (Hirsh, 2006). success in involving fathers: Tamis-LeMonda, 2004).160 to offer children (Scourfield, 2006). • Including the father’s name • The most effective practice not on the enrolment form. only involves professionals • In child protection, as in other seeking to build on fathers’ settings, most children want • Sending written strengths as a support to contact with most fathers correspondence to fathers mothers and as a resource for (Scourfield, 2006); and the even if they live apart from children, but also seeing the strength and complexity of their children. man as valuable in himself. these children’s attachments to • Inviting fathers into the One practitioner said: “We significant adults, including service to participate in need the father here because fathers and father-figures, educational activities with he’s important. His life is should not be underestimated their children. important” (Ferguson & (Daniel &Taylor, 2001). Hogan, 2004). • Fagan & Palm (2004), • There is nothing to suggest reporting on father- that, in general, vulnerable engagement in Early Years fathers love their children any services in the US, found the less than other men (Ferguson most powerful motivator for & Hogan, 2004). fathers to become involved with those services was their perception that to do so would benefit their children.

67 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

A growing body of research is There is emerging evidence that • Observed/reported • Developments in neuroscience pointing to the impact on other engaging with family emotional/social benefits to suggest that high levels of family members of engaging professionals can impact fathers as a result of home- paternal care may precipitate with fathers in family services. positively on men as fathers. school/family learning brain changes that lead to For example: programmes targeting fathers more positive behaviours • A meta-analysis of include enjoyment, generally: the prefrontal interventions aiming to • Participation in interventions satisfaction, fun and pride (in cortex seems to be involved, enhance positive parental has been found to improve taking part in joint learning and this plays a major role in behaviours found that those the men’s behaviour and with their children and in planning, judgment and the involving fathers ‘appear to parenting style, increase their observing their children’s anticipation of the be significantly more effective’ knowledge and understanding development), increased consequences of behaviour than interventions focussing of child development, increase confidence, enhanced father- (Kozorovitskiy et al, 2006). on mothers only (Bakermans- their confidence in their child relationships, enhanced Kraneburg et al, 2003). parenting skills, and lead to social support from other • Delivering parenting support more sensitive and positive males, and greater to mothers only may, in fact, • Interventions which involve parenting and to greater involvement in childcare and be risky to some women and fathers as well as mothers involvement in infant and interaction (O’Brien, 2004(b); children, in that, where the seem to be more effective in child care, and to interaction for review, see Goldman, parents’ relationship is enhancing EACH parent’s with children (for review see 2005, pp.118-119). volatile, the intervention may sensitivity to their child, and O’Brien, 2004b). de-stabilise the family system their child’s attachment to • Case study evidence suggests without providing adequate them (Bakermans-Kraneburg • Parenting courses specifically that engaging with supports. et al, 2003). for fathers increase their problematic men’s fatherhood routine childcare experience, (for example, helping fathers Providing treatment to mothers • Child outcomes can also be motivation and skill (O’Brien, towards a realisation of the alone is unlikely significantly to improved: for example, 2004b). negative impact their lower the rates of child abuse. intellectual gains in six month- behaviour is having on their Yet, just as there are currently old infants were found to be • In a study of, and intervention children; or initially limiting few programmes to support greater when mothers and with, 24 highly vulnerable contact with a child while behaviour change in men who fathers had BOTH been families, only one father was providing support for the have abused their partners, trained in infant- unable to reflect usefully on father to help him tackle there are even fewer communication (Metzl, 1980). his identity as a man, a father seriously negative behaviours), appropriate opportunities and a partner, once services available to support behaviour • Where child conduct is an can stimulate positive change had engaged with him change in abusive fathers, issue, fathers can be as (Sheehan, 2006; Hall, 2004; (Ferguson & Hogan, 2004). particularly since general effective change agents within McLean et al, 2004). parenting programmes do not families as mothers (Firestone, • Fathers who have been • Paternal care of infants and meet the needs of these men in Kelly & Fike, 1980; Adesso & involved in public service young children by important respects (Scott & Lipton, 1981 programmes talk about their unemployed or low income Crooks, 2004). learning as parents and how males from unpromising they have transferred this backgrounds can facilitate learning from the programme productive engagement with to the home environment. family and society (e.g. They comment on the value of Brannen & Nilson, 2006; being able to spend ‘quality Warin et al, 1999; Speak, time’ with their child, and see 1997). benefits to their children via benefits to themselves (‘If I am a better father, he will be a better kid’ - Fagan & Palm, 2004).

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Notes

155 Denying, limiting or supervising That is, decelerated or arrested physical growth not attributable to an underlying medical 161 contact can be essential, condition. particularly where a father who 156 Given the substantial, increased risk posed to has been abusive to mother or children by father-figures, this seems a startling oversight. child takes no responsibility for 157 Almost a year down the line 23% of the his behaviour; or when his couples who had not been living together at behaviour is particularly the time of the birth had moved in together – and of course some of those who had been negative or resistant to change. married or cohabiting had separated. The contention here is not that Interestingly, recent US research has found that as time passes many mothers revise their such restrictions should never be reports of whether they cohabited with their imposed, but that, as is children’s fathers at the time of the birth, depending on the quality and trajectory of their commonly the practice with relationship (Teitler et al, 2006). mothers, they should considered 158 In an unusual piece of social work practice, a last resort, with children’s and four of the five children were placed with their mothers’ fears and wishes biological fathers. At follow up, two years later, three of the four placements were stable. seriously addressed, and risk 159 Contact centres and supervised contact should assessment and appropriate be abolished, since contact with violent and safeguards and support put in abusive fathers is unnecessary and not in the child’s best interest’ (Harne & Radford, 1995, place as a routine. p.83).

160 What should be avoided is easy, Another likely reason, in our view, is that these have focussed on setting up dedicated services negative assumptions made for fathers, parallel to mainstream ‘parents’’ about the fathers, including (i.e. mothers’) services. A more cost effective option is likely to be ‘mainstreaming’ father vulnerable fathers, on the basis involvement, so that it becomes routine in every of little or no evidence, and with aspect of delivery by a service – beginning with perinatal services. no support offered to them to 161 As is necessary for some mothers. change. It is plain that many fathers are willing and able to adjust their behaviour, in both minor and in major ways, for their children’s sake.

69 The cost and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice 8 Fathers, mothers, work and family

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8.1 8.2 Fertility Father-care, gender equality and child well-being A review of parental leave In 1990, 36% of mothers of • Lone mothers’ workforce • However, while paternal care policies in 18 post-war welfare babies under one year old had participation is inhibited by is no better or worse than states found policies aimed at returned to work (Desai et al, lack of an at-home partner other types of care in terms of supporting the traditional family 1999). By 2000 that percentage (EOC, 2004). infants’ cognitive/social- leading to higher fertility - but had risen to 49% (ONS 2000, emotional development, one also to lower female labour-force cited by Dunn et al, 2006). • Research in Australia (Hand, study found that 2-to-3 year participation (Ferrarini, 2003). A However, mothers are 2005) and the UK (Houston & olds in exclusively paternal recent review of European overwhelmingly disadvantaged Marks, 2005) found ‘lack of care had slightly worse countries found that those with in the workplace - and the opportunity to share work and cognitive outcomes than those both greater female workforce relatively low level of father-care care with partner’ a major in other forms of care (Averett participation and higher fertility provided to date has been an issue for mothers returning to et al, 2005). This may be due levels were those with more important driver of that work, with many unwilling to to the circumstances under egalitarian gender attitudes (De disadvantage. For example: do so if their children could which fathers take on Laat & Sevilla Sanz, 2006). In not be mainly in the care of substantial care of toddlers, Sweden, moderately long • Unequal sharing of caring the other parent while they (usually temporary changes in parental leave-taking by fathers is work between the sexes is the worked. economic circumstances).164 correlated with a couple’s largest single driver of the Mothers’ employment has raised second- and third-birth propensity gender pay gap (Olsen & Increasing father involvement at 162 concerns about child well-being (Duvander & Andersson, 2006) Walby, 2004). home may gradually stimulate a which professional childcare revolution in thinking at work, to The well documented finding that • This is underpinned by the only partially meets. Doubts the benefit of employed women better educated women are less strong association between remain about the wisdom of and mothers, as well as fathers. likely to become mothers has femininity and child long hours in institutional care caused consternation, and led to care/domestic work, which for some infants (e.g. Bale • While women tend to calls for ‘family friendly’ contributes to the low pay and 2004). These issues must be compromise their own employment that will encourage poor conditions in these seriously addressed – and employment success to care higher-flying women to have sectors. substantial care by fathers can for children, men are more more children. In Australia, the meet some of the concerns. likely to challenge and Government has called on • In Britain, four out of five part- change the workplace culture women to have three children – time workers (almost all of • Where mothers of very young to match their priorities (Haas one for the mother, one for the them women, who have taken children are employed full- & Hwang, 1995). father, and one for Australia. such work because of caring time, high levels of care by Meanwhile, the father’s role in responsibilities), are employed fathers remove any negative • In Sweden, men’s growing pregnancy decisions has been below qualification level, with effects (Gregg & Washbrook, interest in fatherhood has overlooked. substantial negative impact on 2003). been an important force in their families and society. changing company culture This is an increasing focus of (EOC, 2005).163 • Substantial use by men of (Russell & Hwang, 2004). interest. Recent pan-European leave entitlements is research has found that in the Fathers are important care- associated with many benefits There is a growing realisation UK, as in some other countries, giving partners where mothers to children and families both that it is not only women who there are negative selection are employed – and when they in terms of gender equality lose out from gendered role- effects into fatherhood similar to are unable to play that role, and child and family well- division: while masculinity is those found for motherhood. mothers’ employment suffers. being (Kamerman, 2006; primarily defined through paid That is, lower income men are Haas & Hwang, forthcoming). work, men suffer too, in terms of • Fathers in two parent families more likely to become fathers. the quality of their relationships are the individuals most likely • Children whose fathers were This is partly because higher with their children and their to care for children while their highly involved with them at income males count the cost of marginalisation from the daily mothers work (Ferri & Smith, ages 3-5 and 7-9 hold less fatherhood in terms of life-style activities of family life (Connell, 1995). traditional views as and adult relationship-quality, 2003). adolescents about both and currently perceive themselves parents working and sharing as having more to lose by childcare (Williams et al, reproducing (Smith, 2006). 1992).

71 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

8.3 Fathers’ employment and child well-being

In two-parent families fathers’ work/family strain was In low income families, the • Davis et al (in press) found earnings have been linked to decreased for fathers was by stresses can be especially fathers with non-standard many positive outcomes for their doing more than they marked: shifts knowing significantly less children, including educational regarded as their ‘fair share’ of about their teens’ daily attainment and psychological child-rearing tasks. It seemed • In a recent study of low- activities than fathers with well-being (Ermish & that fathers who were able to income, urban US fathers, daytime shifts; and fathers’ Francensoni, 2002). However, rearrange work and family time which controlled for age, non-standard shift working, the few studies that have so they contributed more to ethnicity, education, when combined with high controlled for mothers’ income child rearing were rewarded by cohabitation and quality of parental conflict, correlated have found a less consistent less work-family strain, even relationship with the child’s with less father-teen intimacy. positive relationship between though they might at times feel mother, the hours fathers Both these findings are fathers’ earnings and positive aggrieved (Alexander & Baxter, spent ‘hustling’ for work were important because poor outcomes for children. In one 2006)! correlated with low parent-teen communication study, once mothers’ earnings involvement with their children and low parental monitoring were controlled for, the impact A body of research has shown (Cina, 2005). are associated with risk of fathers’ earnings became the negative impact on children behaviours in adolescence • Kalil & DeLeire (2002) found non-significant (for review, see of fathers’ employment stress (for review, see Williams and negative effects of fathers’ job Yeung, 2004). (Galinsky,1999). Kelly, 2005). loss more severe in more In lone mother families, fathers’ • Hart & Kelley (2006) found disadvantaged families. • Strazdins et al (2006) found participation in paid work and fathers’ parenting stress (in the negative associations • Yeung & Glauber the amounts they earn are also relation to their work), the between fathers’ non-standard (forthcoming) found that the significant – perhaps more so. number of hours they worked working and poor child children of the working poor They are correlated with and mothers’ beliefs about outcomes partially mediated have less time with both likelihood of child support being father involvement, predicting through family relationships parents and less father-time paid and with the amounts paid externalising symptoms in pre- and parent well-being, than children in non-poor, (for discussion, see Graham & schoolers’ attending day- suggesting these as important 165 working, two-parent families, Beller, 2002). Since receipt of care. issues for parents and policy partly due to their fathers’ child support is so strongly makers to consider. • Among fathers of young difficulties managing insecure associated with children’s well- adolescents, negative work-to- and inflexible low paid jobs being, (see Child Support family spillover has been with irregular hours. This is above) this indicates an indirect found to predict (low) paternal important, since in these but important association knowledge of their children’s families, access to higher between fathers’ earnings and daily activities - indirectly, via levels of parental time is child well-being in separated father-child acceptance and found to be important in families. fathers’ involvement in joint protecting academic Fathers’ perceived conflict activities with them (Bumpus et outcomes. between work/caring already al, 2006). Researchers are now identifying causes them substantial stress • In British Columbia, in a risks to children where fathers (O’Brien and Shemilt, 2003) – a longitudinal study which partly (and in some cases also stress which is likely to grow as controlled for fathers’ mental mothers) work unsocial hours societal expectations of health outcomes, multivariate (e.g. Strazdins et al, 2006). increased paternal involvement analysis found adverse are internalised. A recent employment experiences • A recent UK study (Barnes et analysis of the Longitudinal among fathers strongly al, 2006) found 8 out of 10 Study of Australian Children associated with their sons’ working fathers working (LSAC) found that, in fathers, a attempted/completed suicide unsocial hours that result in higher parenting self-efficacy later, and with elevated odds their ‘losing’ more than 15 score was related to lower work- for daughters’ attempted hours per week with their family strain - and a key suicide (Ostry et al, 2006). children – hours that are mechanism by which never made up.

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8.4 8.5 Business/economic costs/benefits Low income fathers’ employment of father involvement Currently fathers’ involvement at The time that working fathers income is correlated with child Involved fatherhood can be a home does not appear to exact spend with their children is well-being, and the importance portal into employment/training a wider economic cost. Fathers affected by a range of factors, of seeking to improve the for low income men in a mainly use flexible working or only one of which is the quality, availability and stability number of ways: adjust leisure time to achieve paternity/parental leave of employment for low income higher levels of involvement with available to them (Smith & fathers is widely recognised. • As a motivator (the wish to ‘do their children (Dermott, 2006) – Williams, forthcoming). If Individual fathers’ programmes the best by my child’). and flexible working is seen by substantial paternity/parental and social care workers have • When childcare some employers as a tool to leave were made available to been trying to help vulnerable responsibilities bring a father boost productivity and improve UK fathers (as it currently is in fathers into education, training into touch with services which staff recruitment and retention other European countries), and and employment (Fathers Direct, can then refer him to (Jones, 2003; Reeves. 2002). were taken up by fathers at 2002-2006; Mincy & Pouncy, employment/education-related Strategies that enable fathers to substantial levels this would 2002). support. increase their involvement at improve their opportunities for However, while policies home within the current closer engagement with their • Through employment encouraging lone mothers into paradigm of mainly full-time children. It would also require a opportunities in family employment are well established working without special leave revolution in thinking by services. The US Head Start in the UK, no such government arrangements include: government, employers, trades parent involvement initiative policy has addressed men as unions and others about the consciously recruits fathers as • Fathers being encouraged to fathers. Recognising this, Harker work/care nexus (Green & programme volunteers to use existing family-friendly (2006) recommends a ‘New Parker, 2006; Lewis & Cooper, develop their potential for provisions in their workplaces. Deal for Parents’ package which 2005). employment within the would reflect fathers’ increasing programme (Fagan & Palm, • Fathers who work beyond the In Sweden, where fathers’ involvement in children’s lives 2004), p.87). In the UK, this standard working hours for uptake of paternity and parental and make available to them the happens from time to time, their occupation reducing leave is relatively high, there has package of employment support informally, although in their work hours, yet still been no systematic cost-benefit currently provided only to (lone) Scotland a ‘Men into working full-time. analysis of the financial impact mothers.166 Childcare’ programme is of take up on organisations. • Fathers reducing their leisure training men and fathers for However, some firms have However, the finding that time further to care for their fathers’ education levels are employment in the childcare begun providing financial 169 children, while still working workforce. rewards to men who take such actually more predictive than full-time. fathers’ income of their leave, claiming that this helps in Low income fathers’ caring children’s education success167 • Contract, self-employed, recruiting and retaining the responsibilities for their children has led to suggestions in the US under-employed or casually- brightest and the best; and the are more substantial than that developing low income employed fathers being Swedish government has linked previously thought, and can fathers’ educational attainment encouraged to take greater the taking of such leave as prove barriers to employment if should be a serious goal– opportunities to design their improving skills and capacities they go unrecognised. that can then be transferred into perhaps in preference to work hours around child care. 168 the workplace: better employment (Yeung, 2004). • Speak (1997) found young • Unemployed/low paid fathers interpersonal and Of course education and disadvantaged fathers being encouraged to focus communication skills and multi- employability are strongly resisting employment (but time and attention on their tasking capacities, as well as linked. without explaining this to children, both for its own their becoming ‘whole human employment services) because sake, and so that mothers are beings’. Taking of they did not want to travel too free-er to take up paternity/parental leave does far for work; or because they employment. not seem, in Sweden, to impact were already committed to negatively on fathers’ work childcare while mothers • Separated parents being prospects in the longer term worked. encouraged to provide (O’Brien, 2004a). childcare for each other, so that both can work. As outlined above, fathers’

73 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

Notes

162 The EOC commissioned statistical analysis of Noonan et al (2005), examining the pay gap, and concluded that 40% of it the lives of families at high risk could be accounted for as emerging from lack of shared care. This was the biggest single of living in poverty, found that factor. But 37% of the pay gap could not be having a young child in poor accounted for through the statistics. health reduced the father’s 163 This will become progressively more costly probability of being employed economically as women’s qualification-levels equal and outstrip men’s. by four percentage points. 164 Other explanations may include at-home fathers’ (and their toddlers’) relative social In the US, a first generation of isolation (which may not ‘tell’ as heavily on very fatherhood programmes, young infants as on toddlers), as well as the lack of legitimacy these men confront in their notably Parents’ Fair Share daily interactions with family, friends and (PFS), recorded the difficulty and professionals (Merla, 2006). It is also probable that less advantaged fathers may be more complexity of improving labour heavily represented in this group: blue collar market outcomes for low- workers are more likely to care for their children,while their partners work (Ferri & Smith, income men. But even though 1995).

PSF drew its clients in at quite 165 Internalising symptoms in these children were late and negative stages in the predicted by fathers’ parenting stress. Mother effects were also found but are not reported fathering cycle (for example, here. when men had become 166 This would also encourage into employment detached from their children or ‘second earners’ (mainly women) in sole earner were facing incarceration), it two-parent families. was able to increase earnings 167 An increase of one year of father’s schooling is associated with an average of 1.5 point for the fathers with the greatest increase in a child’s test scores; whereas every barriers to employment, such as additional $10,000 of father’s income was associated with only half a point increase. low education and limited Genetic resemblance between the generations previous work experience may play a part, but is unlikely to explain the magnitude of the findings, or the fact that the (Carlson & McLanahan, 2002). education effects as so much more powerful than income effects.

Evaluations of the new 168 In prisons in some jurisdictions prisoners are generation of US fatherhood incentivised through higher rates of pay into prison education programmes over in-prison- programmes, which are employment. targeting fathers at very early 169 See stages in their children’s lives, http://www.northlan.gov.uk/business+and+emp are beginning to surface. The loyment/employment+support/training+and+e mployment+assistance/men+into+ey+and+ch Texas Fragile Families ildcare.html (Site last accessed 25 January demonstration project has 2007). succeeded in improving workforce participation and employment prospects for young fathers despite substantial barriers – not only in the young men themselves, but in local employment and training programmes which were found to be ill set-up to support them (Romo et al, 2004).

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The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice 9 Fathering the future

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9.1 9.2 Active fatherhood and community Grandfathers

Fathers’ involvement in • Fathers who live with some of The government is committed to divorced/separated men in community life and kin networks their children are more older people remaining particular) often resist may increase the social capital connected to community independent for as long as community activities, particularly available to children. It may associations than non-fathers possible (Arksey, 2002). where these do not represent also impact positively on fathers’ – and also than non-resident However, when ‘independent’ continuity of experience from mood/mental health. In the fathers. Non-resident means ‘solo’ living, loneliness, their younger years; or do not UK, Family Centres’ work with fatherhood is a particular risk social isolation and depression accord with what the men fathers has been seen as a tool factor for low community may follow. These are common believe to be appropriate for tackling social exclusion involvement: (O’Brien, in older people who live alone masculine behaviour (Davidson through Neighbourhood 2004b, p.10). (Wenger, et al., 1996; Victor et et al, 2003). Management in vulnerable al., 2002). communities (Joseph Rowntree • Fathers who live with some of Loneliness among older parents Foundation, 2000). their children are also more The number of older men who is powerfully linked with low likely than non-fathers or non- live alone is increasing rapidly: levels of contact with adult • Higher levels of involvement resident fathers to be involved between 1971 and 2002 the children. Older fathers are by fathers with their own in wider inter-generational kin percentage of males over 65 much more likely to see their children correlate with fathers’ relationships (O’Brien,2004b, living alone rose from 16% to adult children when contact is greater community p.10).170 29% (National Statistics, 2002). mediated by their children’s involvement. For example, US In 1999, divorced and mother. Separated and divorced research has found paternal There are some caveats about separated fathers comprised just fathers report attenuated engagement significantly the impact of local and kinship 5% of living-alone older men; relationships with adult children related to civic engagement networks on fathers’ involvement this percentage is projected to and receive relatively few visits (Eggebeen & Knoester, 2001; with their children. reach 13% by 2021 from them (Davidson et al, Wilcox, 2002). (Government Actuary’s 2003). • Substantial local kin networks Department, 1999, cited by (particularly maternal kin • In the US, fathers who have Davidson et al, 2003). Provided health and mobility are been involved in public networks) may inhibit fathers’ maintained, the importance of service programmes (notably involvement with their children ‘doing something useful’ does Older men who live alone not Head Start) report that when by crowding them out. This is not diminish with age (Davidson only suffer increased health and they see children who do not a particular risk factor where et al, 2003). Caring for other risks, which are costly to have involved fathers, they the fathers are vulnerable and grandchildren can be society as well as to themselves sometimes try to get involved without confidence (Pollock, ‘something (genuinely and and their families, but are less with them because from their 2005). substantially) useful’. What do likely to remain independent for engagement with the we know about today’s • While a father’s involvement as long as the government programme, they have come grandfathers, and their care of in volunteer work or active would like them to do: they are to understand the benefit to children? sports has a positive impact more likely than older women to all children, not just their own, on his children’s academic enter residential care early of involved fathering (Fagan & • As yet, grandfather-care is attainment, his socializing (Arber & Ginn, 1993; Tinker, Palm, 2004). mainly undertaken by married with, and helping, family and 1997). This is probably in part grandfathers (Clarke, • In the US, fathers of young friends does not (Buchel & due to the fact that they are less forthcoming, 2007) and more children have been identified Duncan, 1998). likely to enjoy community and often in low income families as a key group who would family support networks. (Yeung & Glauber, in press). like to be more involved in community activities (League Being involved in community • Grandfather-care seems to be of Women Voters, 1999). and family support networks on the increase. US early protects against social isolation, childhood education providers depression and loneliness in report a growth in the older age – and therefore, numbers of grandfathers indirectly, against entry to accessing their services residential care. However, men (Zaslow, 2006). in general (and

77 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

Notes

170 Although further longitudinal research is • Today 38% of grandparents Especially high levels of needed to fully exclude selectivity into stable have grandchildren in non- grandfather-care may be found fatherhood by men already connected to kin. intact families (Clarke & among men who were unusually Roberts, 2002). highly involved as fathers. Of twenty families previously • A recent US survey found studied, eight of the then-fathers grandfather care regarded are now grandfathers (Pruett, positively: while 48% of 2000). These men have been respondents felt found to be ‘so competent in grandmothers’ skills were their care of their grandchildren better, 41% said grandfathers that their children count on were as competent – and 3% them regularly for advice and that they were better (Zaslow, child care (geography 2006). permitting). There is little burnout, and the men report • Grandfathers may be of extremely satisfying connections particular value in homes – with their grandchildren’ (Pruett, and communities - where personal communication, fathers are less readily 2006). available. Grandfathers’ involvement with children in For previously highly involved lone-mother households is fathers, grandfather-care correlated with children’s presumably represents (particularly boys’) reduced ‘continuity of experience from behaviour problems, greater their earlier years’, and accords confidence and better with what they believe to be academic achievement ‘appropriate masculine (Guidubaldi et al, 1986). In behaviour’. This suggests that these families, more benefits encouraging high levels of were found to be associated father involvement may help to with grandfather-involvement equip older men to contribute to than with grandmother- the development of future involvement, which the generations and to maintain researchers hypothesize may and develop the family and be due to grandmothers’ community ties which will help providing much the same to support them in older age. services as mothers.

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Afterword

The broad conclusions of this Despite some specifications in It has been argued (Stanley & Research Review are the policy, current service provision Gamble, 2005) that there are following: in the UK for vulnerable families three central motivations for is generally based on an engaging actively with men’s Father-child relationships - be assumption at odds with the fatherhood: child well-being, they positive, negative or evidence and with the child’s gender equality and men’s lacking, and at any stage in the perspective – that fatherhood is development. These have been life of the child, and in all an optional and marginally presented as a hierarchy. cultural and ethnic communities significant “add-on” for Recently Featherstone et al – have profound and wide- children, unlike motherhood, (2007, forthcoming) have ranging impacts on children that which is an essential. argued that the interdependence last a lifetime. These are between these three domains is present even after controlling for Engagement with fathers is, so great, that a hierarchical the impact of the mother-child correspondingly, perceived as approach is invalid. relationship. optional by public services, and is generally accorded low We agree. We hope this Review Vulnerable children from priority. This means that: provides sufficient high quality disadvantaged backgrounds evidence to encourage tend to gain even more from a Although some parts of researchers, policy-makers and strong father-child relationship Government encourage service providers to develop than do children from better-off engagement with fathers and strategies to engage routinely families, and to suffer more some services engage well with with fathers: for the well-being when this is lacking. This is true, fathers, good practice remains of children, for women and men for example, for many children rare and sporadic. together in both public and of teenage mothers. private spheres, for a Mainstream children’s services sustainable society - and in the The behaviour of both do not generally assess, or seek interests of social justice. biological and social fathers to strengthen, relationships impacts on children. Father between a vulnerable child and figures can be highly influential father and/or paternal relatives, in the lives of some children. and are particularly likely to fail Interventions to support father- to engage constructively with child relationships can work well fathers who have problematic in bringing about change on the relationships with their children, part of the father, but only if despite the risks these pose to designed specifically. They have children. been shown to lead to positive outcomes for children in Services underestimate the controlled research. significance of the father to the child if the father is not visible to Active fatherhood can motivate the service, is not living in the positive changes in behaviour in child’s home, and is not an men, including socially excluded obviously positive influence. and very young men. They also assume that positive change by fathers is relatively unlikely.

79 The costs and benefits of active fatherhood evidence and insights to inform the development of policy and practice

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99 Fathers Direct Fathers Direct is the national information centre on fatherhood. We help Government, employers, services for families and children, and families themselves to adapt to changing social roles of men and women. We help institutions to base their work on the evidence from research on the impact of fathers on child welfare.

Our vision is a society that: • Gives all children a strong and positive relationship with their fathers • Provides greater support for both mothers and fathers as carers and earners • Prepares boys and girls for a future shared role in caring for children

For further information contact : Adrienne Burgess at Fathers Direct on 07747 145146 or email [email protected]

100