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WTF IS A SYNTH? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? syn·the·siz·er 1. an electronic musical instrument, typically operated by a ‘sinTHə,sĪzər | noun keyboard, producing a wide variety of sounds by generating and combining signals of different frequencies. 2. beep boop machine ANALOG Analog synthesizers use analog circuits and signals to generate sound electronically. No computers, no programming: just varying electronic voltages. Here’s how they work. Analog synthesizers contain a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) and a voltage-controlled filter (VCF). The synth produces sound through the adjustment of voltage; adjusting the oscillator’s voltage creates a waveform with a constant pitch at a frequency. This waveform is handed off to the filter of the synthesizer to further change its sound properties. There are 4 main waveforms that most synths produce: sine, triangle, square and sawtooth.

The filter is where wave manipulation takes place. Analog synthesizers have an array of buttons and knobs that adjust voltages (and, consequently, the sound). These sounds are passed to a voltage-controlled amplifier. The amplifier can change a note’s volume at various times throughenvelope controls. The envelope has 4 parameters: attack, decay, sustain and release (collectively, the ADSR envelope). Attack is how long it takes for the note to reach it’s maximum volume when a key is struck. Decay refers to the amount of time between the attack level and the sustain level (typically quieter than the attack volume). Sustain is the volume that is maintained for as long as the key is held after the attack and decay periods. Fi- nally, release is the amount of time it takes for the sound to fade back to silence when the key is released. A higher release time means the sound will take longer to die out. Additionally, sounds can be further shaped through the use of modules. A module is a sound processing unit that serves one particular purpose, like pitch adjustment. A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is a popular module that appears on many classic analog synthesizers. By itself, the LFO oscillates a signal at a frequency that is quieter than what our ears can hear. Thus, it is applied to other modules; applying it to the VCO introduces vibrato (a rapid variation in pitch). It can also be applied to the VCF to produce that wobbly dubstep sound. Another popular module is a white or pink noise generator, which can add a layer of “static” to the sound.

The Minimoog Model D comes with this zine built in.

D I G I TA L Digital synths utilize microprocessors, microcontrollers, programmed mathematical algorithms and functions to generate sounds. A stream of bits that flows at a stable rate is converted into an analog signal that can be heard through a set of speakers. Digital synthesizers differ from their analog counterparts. Analog voltage-controlled modules are replaced by digitally-controlled modules; for example, digital synths make use of digitally-controlled oscillators, rather than voltage-controlled oscillators. Digital synths are basically computers; the main sound synthesis protocol is always happening in the background, and the modules are like smaller programs that run concurrently. The synthesis protocol acts as a loop that repeats per sample, so the modulation subprograms run once per sample period (yet some run once per note per sample period). Thus, the number of notes that can be generated concurrently and the complexity of each note is dependent on the synthesizer’s CPU speed. There are many methods of digital synthesis. Additive synthesis is similar to how natural sounds are created. These types of synthesizers typically have multiple oscillators that all generate sine waves with independently controllable frequencies and amplitudes that are combined to create more complex sounds. Analog synthesizers form sounds through subtractive synthesis, in which harmonics are whittled down from the oscillator output through modules.

This additive synthesizing beast, the Fair- light CMI, created the soundtracks for Terminator 2,Scarface, Full Metal Jacket, and Killer Clowns from Outer Space. Sample & synthesis (S&S) makes use of pre-recorded samples that can be played. When this technology was first developed, samples were stored onROM (read-only memory) cartridges that could not be modified. Early ROM cartridges had a very limited storage capacity, so a sample’s attack and sustain were recorded, and the sustain was looped for as long as a key was held. S&S is also called pulse code modulation (PCM).

A Roland Sound Library cartridge for the Roland D-10, D-20 and D-110

Wavetable/wave sequencing/vector synthesis/linear arithmetic makes use of multiple waveforms being morphed or cycled through over time. These waves are stored in a digital data structure called a table (get it?). Phase distortion (PD) creates sounds similar to how an analog synthesizers shape sounds, but phase distortion synthesis automates the process. Plus it sounds cooler. Frequency modulation (FM) synthesizers also make use of oscillators, but they are typically referred to as operators. Each operator on an FM synth can have its frequency, amplitude and envelope customized. FM synthesis differs from additive synthesis in that the output of one operator (oscillator) is sent to the input of the next operator, rather than the two being mixed. The final operator in this mix is theoutput operator, and it is responsible for handing everything off to the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to be turned into audible sound. The manner in which operators are intercon- nected in FM synthesis is called an algorithm.

The 32 algorithm layouts of the Yamaha DX7. Each tiny box represents an operator.

Physical modeling/software synthesis/virtual synthesis happens on a desktop computer, rack module or a keyboard synth. When a note is played, a digital signal processor (DSP) figures out the data stream required to create the desired sound and hands off the result to a DAC. These types of synthesizers can sound indistinguishable from real instruments that are being emulated, but don’t be fooled: all sound generation is happening in real time. PM synths can even emulate other forms of synthesis. Many high-quality software emulators of classic synthesizers exist because of PM synthesis. A VISUAL HISTORY* 1963 1935 1906

The Mellotron RCA coins the term The phrase “synthetic is released “synthesizer” harmonizer” is coined by James Robert Milne

1965 1968 1969

Robert Moog begins Switched-On Bach The first film with a selling the Moog is composed by synthesized score is modular synthesizer Wendy Carlos released (On Her Majesty’s Secret Service)

1971 1969

Rober Moog introduces Electronic Music the Minimoog, a portable Studios (EMS) releases version of the Moog modular the Synthi VCS3

1975 1976 1978

The Moog Polymoog, a Yamaha releases Sequential Circuits releases velocity sensitive polyphonic the CS-80 the Prophet-5, an early keyboard, is released polyphonic synth with programmable memory

1980 1979 1978

Yamaha releases Casio releases Korg releases the GS-1, the first the VL-1, the first the MS-20 FM synthesizer digital synthesizer * I realize this isn’t everything, but it should be a pretty good overview

2018 2016 2011

Moog produces the Korg releases the Teenage Engineering Minimoog Model D Korg Minilogue introduces the OP-1 app for iOS

1994 1996 2004

Clavia introduces the AudioSim, an early Elektron begins selling Nord Lead, an early software synth, is the Monomachine virtual analog synth released for MS-DOS

1990 1989 1985

Korg introduces Cubase is released Korg introduces the Wavestation for the Atari ST the DW-8000

1981 1983 1983

The PPG Wave is Yamaha releases MIDI is introduced the DX7 standardized

1980 1980 1980

Perfomance Music The first keytar, the Roland releases Systems invents the Moog Liberation, is the TR-808 Syntar produced 9 QUESTIONS WITH LOOK MUM NO COMPUTER (aka Sam Battle) “Sam Battle is an English musician, inventor and produc- er based in London. He has gained popularity through a number of different projects, including popular indie band ZIBRA (2013-2016). His videos have received over 17 million views in total across various platforms including his current YouTube channel LOOK MUM NO COMPUTER”

Why did you decide to “It started because I had no money, the idea of being able build your modular system to buy a modular synth of a useable size was out of my from scratch, as opposed league, so I tried building it. Initially I built something to using premade that didn’t work for ages, but I persisted in parallel with modules? Where do you circuit bending and managed to get something working. even begin with something It’s rather hazy, but it was a lot of sleepless nights trying of that magnitude? different things. The other thing was I bought a broken MS10 which I fixed, and I caught the bug to extend its functions, and that was Big jack and 1hz/oct. which no modules did, so another reason to go DIY.”

Your YouTube videos “Yes I try to! It’s a lot of stress to tour with my stuff, but I’m sometimes feature getting better at it not consuming my every thought, and crazy projects and weird trying to have some fun, bring some stuff along! It’s just equipment. Do you ever a lot of carrying things haha very heavy.” incorporate these into live shows?

Is your electronics “Self taught, when I was a kid I built Lego and took things knowledge self-taught, apart, so since I was young I was trying to understand or do you have some things. I played guitar, the first electronic project I did background in electrical when I was 14 it was a treble booster pedal that Brian engineering? May used, after struggling to build it for what felt like months it worked and the feeling when I plugged it in (it sounded like crap) and it working was magical.”

What’s with all the Bruel “Not sure yet, my motto now a days is, ‘get it now, make the & Kjaer 2113’s? Any plan later.’ I managed to get them all for pretty cheap. From upcoming plans for those? 30£ to 80£ each. I have some plans, but other things keep getting in the way. So for now, they are looking cool. I hope to make knobs mechanical so they move by themselves.” Your modular system, “Kosmo 1.0 was basically modules 15cm high and made of Kosmo, is on its 2.0 acrylic. Basically when I started I went to an industrial estate revision. What did Kosmo and found a lot of acrylic offset measuring 15cm by 10cm, so 1.0 look like? I made my modules that size. After a while I found it was too small, and a friend of mine I talked him into making 20cm tall and I saw his and it made more sense, so I just rebuilt the whole thing. This was in 2014 when it was reasonably small.”

How did Kosmo’s “The week I put the Furby Organ video up I thought it would animatronic face come be funny to build a big animatronic Furby, and whilst build- into the picture? ing it I realized it didn’t look like a Furby so I had the idea to make it into a module! And there we go haha.”

You read that properly. Furby Organ. The illustrious Kosmo’s face. The eyes, mouth and eyebrows are activated by the notes Sam plays.

What’s next for you? Is “Dunno going with the flow, will bring out another EP in a there another full album month or two, Game Boy Megamachine I’m gunna try [to] in the works? More finish for 2020, and do a big reveal somewhere no idea. Game Boys? Swell as loads of other random things. Things just turn up that you never plan like that Lego Star Wars machine.”

What bands/musicians “Elvis Costello, The Stranglers, I dunno really I’m not into inspire the music you synth music. It’s funny, I like guitar and stuff from Oasis make? to Metallica, so my songs tend to sound like guitar songs played on synths haha.”

Do you ever get noise “Luckily not. I’m not actually very noisy, its not like I’m complaints from your hitting drums and stuff. Most of the time its all on quiet. neighbors? The music making time is very short. The time building and conceptualising it, then make the music, then I dunno. If I need to write lyrics and stuff thats the hard part, that takes days, making the backing track is speedy speedy.” SOME MORE OF SAM’S INSANE PROJECTS

Those things in the background are the Bruel & Kjaer 2113 frequency spectrometers. They line the walls of Sam’s workspace.

A better view of the scale of Sam’s custom- built modular setup, Kosmo 2.0. Controlling Kosmo with a Macintosh Classic running Cubase 1.0.

Sam and his Game Boy Megamachine. Each Game Boy’s sound processor can be independently controlled and their screens can be used in a matrix. Absolute madness. BRADMATIC/MELLOTRONICS/STREETLY MELLOTRON 1963

Price (1963) Notable Users £2,000-£4,000 ($1,932-$3,865) Pink Floyd £41,534 ($46,127) in 2019 The Beatles Yes The Beach Boys Genesis Brian Eno Elton John Led Zeppelin Vangelis David Bowie Emerson, Lake and Palmer You may notice that there are 3 different instruments on the previous page. That’s because the Mellotron has gone through 15 different model revisions between 1963 and 2007. Yes, 15. I’ll only talk about a few, though. The machine produces noise by playing tape (like cassette tape) with recorded sounds. When a key is pressed, that key’s tape is mechanically pulled across a playhead, producing a sound. When the key is released, the tape is removed from the playhead and pulled back into the starting position. The bottom left picture shows the tape in the instrument. Each note can be played for 7-8 seconds before the tape runs out. Since every key has its own tape, playhead and mechanisms required to pull the tape, you can see why this machine cost £2000 when it launched. The Mellotron Mk1 (the original model, top picture) featured 2 banks of 35 keys from G to F, separated in the center. The left keyboard was for rhythm and sounds, while the right played pre-recorded instrument sounds from tape. Designed for home-use and not for touring/gigging musicians, it weighed over 300 pounds. The Mk2 was released in 1964 and is cosmetically identical to the Mk1, but had much more reliable innerworkings. Around the same time, the Mk2 FX Con- sole was created. This differs in that both of its keyboards generate sound effects. As the Mellotron began to be picked up by artists like The Moody Blues and Manfred Mann, there was a large influx of requests for more portable Mellotron units. Thus, the M300 was made. This featured a single keyboard with 52 keys. It was still too heavy, so Streetly designed the most popular Mellotron variant, the M400. The M400 (bottom right image) switched to a single 35-key keyboard that only played recorded instrument sounds. The number of instruments was also reduced to just 3, down from 18. However, the M400 featured a removable tape frame that users could replace with different sounds. The later Mellotron MkV is basically two M400s with different sound banks in one machine with two keyboards. Rick Wakeman (pictured above), of Yes fame, bolted together 2 of his M400s to achieve the same effect. Streetly also managed to fit an M400 into a flight case to help out the roadies. They called this the T550. In 2007, Streetly and Norman Leete put the M4000 into production. This model had features similar to the M400, but used a digital method of selecting sounds that worked similar to the original. There are also digital versions of the Mellotron that are sold today that sound damn close to the original. So much so that they can even match the wow and flutter of M400s tape playheads. MOOG MODULAR 1965

Price (1965) Notable Users $4,000+ ($33,563+ in 2019) Mort Garson Emerson, Lake & Palmer The Doors George Harrison Robert Moog (pronounced “MOHG,” with a long “O”), an electrical engineer and the founder of Moog Music, is usually considered the father of the modern synth. Before producing the behemoth machine seen to the left, Moog actually specialized in making theremins. Initially, Moog Modular systems were marketed towards sound engineers, experimental musicians and academics. Thus, many early Moog modular systems were actually sold to universi- ties. Many music stores refused to sell the machines, as they were not considered instruments (and most people never believed that they would become musical instruments, either). However, that began to change with the release of Wendy Carlos’s Switched-On Bach, a Grammy-winning album in which classical Bach compositions received an electronic makeover. She also assisted in making the soundtrack for Stanley Kubrick’s A Clockwork Orange and, later, The Shining. Subse- quently, Parliament-Funkadelic, Mahavishnu Orchestra and Emerson, Lake & Palmer began to feature the Moog modular as a part of their instrumental repertoires. Mort Garson also released an album of original compositions created with only a Moog synthesizer, known as Mother Earth’s Plantasia.

It should be noted that this synthesizer is entirely monophonic, meaning only one note could be played at a time. For albums like Switched-On Bach and Mother Earth’s Plantasia, the composers made use of multitrack recordings, where portions of the song are recorded separately and then layered afterward. If a user wanted polyphony (the ability to play multiple voices at once), that required the use of a second modular system with its own keyboard. As an aside, modern monophonic synthesizers exist on the market today, and many musicians/bands use them for melodic areas of songs. The 900 series modular sparked Moog’s creation of other modular synthesizers , including the 3P, System 15, System 35 and the System 55/55A. It also led to the introduction of the Minimoog in 1970, which we’ll talk about in a bit. ELECTRONIC MUSIC STUDIOS, LTD. V.C.S. 3 1969

Price (1969) Notable Users £330 ($311) The Who The Moody Blues £5,386 ($5,999) in 2019 Brian Eno Aphex Twin Gong Cher System 7 Hawkwind King Crimson Electric Light Orchestra Introduced in 1969 for a mere £330, the EMS VCS3 (Voltage Controlled Studio, version 3) was one of the first affordable analog synthesizers. It’s second-best selling point? It’s portable...kind of. The body of the synthesizer took up a small amount of space, meaning it could be moved easily and independently of the keyboard. The VCS 3 became very popular with progressive rock bands in the 70s when progressive rock was still a widely-recognized genre of music. If you’ve ever heard Pink Floyd’s “Welcome to the Machine,” then you’ve heard the VCS 3 as the underlying bass. Despite its features, the VCS 3 was found by many to be unsuitable for melodies because of the way voltages were converted exponentially to oscillation frequencies, causing tuning issues. However, it was seen as a great device for producing sound effects and processing outside noises. Thus, the VCS 3 has become immensely popular for creating more “exotic” sounds. The VCS 3’s features are fairly standard: 2 analog oscillators and an LFO, a noise generation module and a trapezoidal envelope (ADSR) generator. Where it differs, however, are in the inclusion of a VC spring reverb unit and a joystick controller. It also requires the use of pegs to connect modules on its patch matrix, rather than 3.5mm patch cables (see below).

Since the VCS 3 has no built-in keyboard, an external one was required for melodic use of the machine. One of these was the DK1 (top picture on left), a velocity sensitive monophonic controller. This keyboard featured an additional VCO and an additional VCA. In 1972, it was upgraded for duophonic use in the form of the DK2. Duophonic keyboards allow two pitches to be played at the same by generating voltage control signals for the the highest-and lowest-played notes; these signals are handed to a duophonic-capable synthesizer that has two separately-controlled VCOs. If only one key is pressed, that note’s signal is sent to both of the synthesizer’s VCOs, allowing for more complex sounds. MOOG MINIMOOG 1971

Price (1971) Notable Users $1,500 ($9,926 in 2019) Stevie Wonder Yellow Magic Orchestra Sun Ra Emerson, Lake & Palmer Tame Impala Genesis Kraftwerk Wobbler Abba Gary Numan Giorgio Moroder Dr. Dre The Bee Gees Nine Inch Nails Pink Floyd Devo Yes Parliament Created as a more affordable and portable version of the modular that was suitable for gigging, the Minimoog further brought the analog synthesizer to the masses. Funnily enough, the Minimoog was technically an unauthorized product from the RA Moog Co. As the 70s neared, Moog began losing money as musicians became less interested in modular systems. Out of fear of being jobless, the engineers designed the Minimoog while Robert Moog was out on vacation. Their design was based on an earlier prototype miniature synthesizer that was pitched to Robert Moog, who did not see a market for the product. Upon his return, Moog authorized the production of the Minimoog. Many describe the Minimoog as having a “warm, rich sound.” This is partially due to the fact that the synth’s power supply is not stabilized, causing the Minimoog’s oscillators to be unsynchronized. The Minimoog was the first synth to feature a pitch wheel (see the top picture on the left side, next to the key area), which has subsequently become a mainstay of nearly every synthesizer. The pitch wheel allows the synth to produce more expressive sounds, similar in the way that wind and string musicians can bend notes. The Minimoog was sold until the 1980s; the RA Moog Company could not keep up with the demand, despite the massive success of the Minimoog. In 1993, Moog Co ceased production altogether. However, in the early 2000s, Robert Moog bought the company back and released the Moog Voyager as an update to the Minimoog. In 2016, Moog also began selling an updated version of the original Minimoog, known as the Model D. The 2016 Model D’s external design is based heavily on the original, with some significant modern upgrades on the inside. The 2016 reissue also features MIDI in/out/thru connectivity which was absent on the original. This can most likely be attributed to the fact that the MIDI standard did not exist in 1971. The bottom image on the left shows the back panel of the reissued Model D. Today, Minimoogs are very popular on the secondhand market. There are also several software renditions of the machine available for purchase, including a Minimoog Mod- el D app for iOS. The most affordable Model D, however, is actually made by Behring- er in the form of a desktop module that can be connected to a computer or MIDI-compatible devices. It can also be mounted in a rack system, if that’s your thing. 9 QUESTIONS WITH MYLAR MELODIES “mylar melodies is a synthesizer person from north yorkshire in england who has a youtube channel about synthesizers and a podcast about making electronic music. he has been making tunes variously for nearly 20 years.”

How did you get into “I got into it around 1999! I was fortunate to have brothers synthesized music to influence me early on, who played me Orbital and Aphex production? Twin, as well as an older brother into hip hop who had an MC303 which he let me play with - I was particularly taken with Orbital and would say that seeing them live, and being perplexed by HOW they were doing what they were doing, combined with some limited access to electronic music equipment, gave me the inspiration to try [to] have a go at making it. I was very fortunate that a great uncle left me some money after he passed away and I spent a good por- tion on that on my first studio gear, and I never looked back. The key thing here is having influencers and some access to gear, so community centres that provide this are worth their weight in gold.”

In the beginning, was “You had no YouTube, no online tutorials of any kind, so it hard to learn how to it was, to a certain extent, totally self-led. I had to teach produce the sound you myself entirely how to use synthesizers and samplers and wanted from your synths? work out how to connect it all. I say certain extent, because we DID have Future Music magazine, so I read as many as I could get hold of, and these gave me a guide as to what to buy. Years later, I would end up writing reviews and how-to articles for Future Music, and my 16-year-old self got a kick out of that.”

Is it challenging to “Tight sync can be a difficulty yeah, when you think ‘a gate keep track of all of your pulse is a gate pulse’, many different bits of kit handle timing equipment working in in different ways, or exhibit their own deficiencies in how sync? they respond to gates or MIDI sync - you don’t REALLY know it’s all going to work until you actually try it. I’ve been trying to solve issues with reset pulses in my live system for some time and it was only because Chris Meyer of Learning Mod- ular posted a video explaining how to fix the problem that I finally cracked it. Lucky we have the internet now, if you have a problem you have access to the world to help you fix it.”

Do you have a favorite “My computer. It’s the world’s best composition device, the piece of equipment that world’s most flexible audio processor, it can edit videos, pol- you use regularly? ish the sound, teach you things, give you sounds, connect you with other inspiring musicians - so it’s both a tool and an inspiration...if you let it be.”

Do you play any other “I had very very very basic piano lessons and gave it up be- instruments? cause I thought it was lame. Of course now, I would LOVE to learn scales and chords, and have been thinking of finding a local piano teacher. I think I’d be a weird student - I’d certain- ly be a better student than I was then. “

What advice would you “Buy a Digitakt, and any synthesizer, and a Zoom F4, and offer to anyone wanting give yourself 6 months to make an EP.” to learn more about synthesizers? ? + = SIX EP? MONTHS

What artists inspire you? “LFO, Aphex, Steevio, Orbital, Steve Reich, Kraftwerk, Ger- ald Donald and George Stinson.”

Have you ever tried to “Yes indeed. It’s easy if you let go of having a specific sound make custom patches for in mind, and just savour the idea of exploring sound. Then the DX7? you’re in for a satisfying time.”

What do you think the “I will try to broaden my horizons and keep learning things. future of electronic music Having every synth you ever wanted is a curse. Having ONE looks like, both for yourself thing, that you learn back to front and push as hard as you and as a whole? Will you can, will teach you infinitely more than the oasis of bullshit continue to work with your that is wanting ‘one more thing’, or waiting to have some- existing gear, or do you thing before you start producing music. I’ve come to realise I want to branch out? prefer to compartmentalise types of small clusters of equipment, and make music for them singly, rather than try in vain to integrate everything into one whole, and use everything to a very limited extent. This means make modular music with ONLY the modular, make computer music with the computer, make groovebox music with just the groovebox...” MOOG POLYMOOG 1975

Price (1975) Notable Users $1,500 ($9,926 in 2019) Gary Numan Chick Corea Electric Light Orchestra Wendy Carlos Kraftwerk Yes Asia Devo The Polymoog had its golden moment for about 2 years after its release. Besides being horribly unreliable, many users complained (rightfully so) that it just didn’t sound like a Minimoog. However, Moog’s first shot at polyphony was a pioneering move. The Polymoog makes use of a TOS (top octave synthesizer) to achieve polyphony. It contains one oscillator circuit that generates very high pitches for the 12 notes in an octave. These pitches are then divided into lower pitches by the octave dividers. While this sounds freeing, the amount of adjustment you can make to each note is not. The unit features a 71-key velocity-sensitive keyboard. The 6 Polymoog prototypes that were built actually featured 72-key keyboards, with a C to B range. There are 2 versions of the Polymoog that were released; the Polymoog Keyboard (203a) in 1975 and the...Polymoog Keyboard (280a). When the 280a came out, the earlier 203a was rebranded as the Polymoog Synthesizer. By my calculations, this doesn’t make any sense. The 203a featured 8 presets, while the later (and cheaper!) 280a featured 14. The “Vox Humana” preset on the 280a was popularized by Gary Numan on the Cars single. Velocity sensitivity was hot stuff in 1975, but there was a problem with it: holding down the sustain pedal and repeatedly pressing the same key with little velocity caused that note to be played at a louder volume each time its key was struck. Although the machine had presets, users could customize them to create new sounds. Another shortcoming of Polymoog, though, is that the customized presets could not be stored. However, envelope and filter settings could be shared across various presets by manipulating the sounds using the VAR button and then switching the synthesizer to a different preset.

I find this ad quite charming. Although the tagline should read “To say it’s unreliable trash is an understatement.”

Another point of contempt for many musicians was the way in which filtering worked on the machine. The Polymoog features one VCF that acts as a master for every note, rather than working independently of each note. This is due to a limitation in the top octave synthesis system utilized. For example, if your envelope setting “spikes” between the attack and decay sections, the VCF will spike the attack and decay accordingly for each new note in a chord in addition to the previous note played in the same chord. This only scratches the surface of the Polymoog’s problems and what led to its eventual failure. The RA Moog Co saw many warranty returns on these devices, which of course ate into profits. Supposedly the 280a models are more reliable due to changes from the factory, so if you’re looking for one of these, look for the “Polymoog Synthesizer” badge. YAMAHA CS-80 1976

Price (1976) Notable Users $6,900 ($30,779 in 2019) Vangelis Yellow Magic Orchestra Genesis Brian Eno Daft Punk To t o Jean Michael Jarre The Alan Parsons Project Michael Jackson 10CC Kraftwerk Giorgio Moroder Brian Eno Of the early polyphonic analog synthesizers, the Yamaha CS-80 is arguably the most influential. Unlike the Polymoog, the CS-80 boasted true 8-voice polyphony; no top-octave division. The CS-80 assigns 2 synth layers for each voice that could all be controlled from the front panel. Beyond the hard-wired presets, users could adjust these settings with the memory panel (bottom picture on left). The sliding potentiom- eters shown mirror the settings on the top panel; since the CS-80 came out before the introduction of digital patch storage, Yamaha intended for the player to effectively copy their settings from the main control are onto the smaller one. However, some musicians went so far as to have the internal resistors adjusted to their preference. The CS-80’s keyboard also features velocity sensitivity and pressure-sensitivity (meaning a key could be pressed harder while it was held to introduce more expres- sion; this is sometimes referred to as aftertouch). Many modern synthesizers feature a pitch bend wheel next to the modulation wheel, similar to the Minimoog. The CS-80 forgoes this route in favor of a ribbon controller. The ribbon controller lies on the black case area just above the keyboard (it is difficult to see in the top photo to the left—damn photocopier!). It works similarly to a pitch wheel, but bending occurs when a user slides something (their finger, in most cases) across the ribbon.

Vangelis, a Greek composer, created some of the most recognizable music with the CS-80, including the soundtracks for Blade Runner and Chariots of Fire. He has described the CS-80 as “the most important synthesizer in [his] career...and for [him] the best analog synthesizer design there has ever been.” The CS-80 went out of production in 1980, but it is still in use today. The machine did not see huge success (compared to something like the Minimoog) during its production. Many hours of practice were required in order to fully utilize its capabilities, but the sounds one could achieve were far and wide. Secondhand retailers and third-party resellers of the CS-80 both demand high prices, and listings on sites like eBay and Reverb are not common. Fortunately, Yamaha offers a modern alternative for a very affordable price in the form of the Reface CS, a virtual analog synthesizer that is functionally the same as its original counterpart. Several software implementations of the CS-80 also exist. SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS PROPHET-5 1978

Price (1978) Notable Users $3,995 ($15,551 in 2019) Depeche Mode John Carpenter Duran Duran Vangelis Kraftwerk Weather Report Genesis Tangerine Dream Prodigy Phil Collins Pink Floyd Steely Dan The Eurythmics Michael Jackson Dr Dre Radiohead Brad Fiedel Designed by Dave Smith, the Prophet-5 was not only the first fully programmable polyphonic synthesizer, but also the first instrument with an embedded microproces- sor. That’s right, this sucker is computerized. But it is not a digital synthesizer. The Prophet-5 features 5 notes of polyphony (thus the “5” suffix). A prototype “Proph- et-10” was developed with 10 notes of polyphony, but it suffered instability and over- heating issues. Half of the Prophet-10’s innards were removed to create the Proph- et-5. The Prophet also has the ability to save up to 40 user-created patches on the machine itself, compared to the CS-80’s meager 4. Additionally, saving a patch on the CS-80 required the user to reprogram every parameter, whereas the Prophet could save and recall patches with the push of a button. Later Prophet-5 models included the ability to save patches to cassette tapes, similar to how many microcomputers of the same era could save/load programs to/from tapes. This works by converting the settings to sounds that can be recorded to a tape with a standard tape recorder. To load a patch, the user simply had to press the “LOAD FROM TAPE” button on the Prophet and hit play on the cassette recorder. Even later models of the Prophet-5 could store up to 120 patches internally. An audible difference can be heard between the second and third revisions of the Prophet-5 (revisions 1 and 2 were, audibly, the same). Revisions 1 and 2 used E-mu Systems branded VCO, VCF and VCA chips (manufactured by Solid State Music). Revision 3, however, replaces these with Curtis Electromusic Specialties (CEM) chips that reportedly cause the Prophet to produce a colder sound. The CEM chips, however, vastly improved the machine’s reliability. Similar to the CS-80, each of the Prophet’s 5 voices was assigned 2 oscillators that could both generate sawtooth and square waves (plus the second oscillator could produce triangle waves). These oscillators could operate synchronously or in “Poly-Mod,” where the first oscillator’s frequency, pulse width and filter are affected by the second oscillator and the filter’s envelope. The Prophet-5 helped in the making of many of John Carpenter’s films, the most notable being Escape from New York and Halloween II. He also used a Prophet-10 (which Sequen- tial Circuits managed to create and release in 1981) for the soundtrack to They Live. Brad Fiedel also famously used the Prophet-5 to compose the music for The Terminator in 1984. The Prophet-5 lives on today in the form of a software synthesizer from Arturia (which also includes a software version of the Prophet VS, released in 1986). In 2015 Sequential Circuits (now known as just Sequential) began the production of a Prophet-6, a modern analog version of the Prophet-5 that also includes an arpeggiator, step sequencer, studio-quality effects and 6 voices. 6! KORG MS-20 1978

Price (1978) Notable Users $750 ($2,953 in 2019) Aphex Twin Depeche Mode Daft Punk Snarky Puppy Jean-Michael Jarre The Fall Ladytron Arcade Fire Skinny Puppy Electronic Dream Planet The Crystal Method William Ørbit Karin Park Portable. Analog. Monophonic. Affordable. These words describe the Korg MS-20, one of Korg’s first forays into the analog synthesizer market. Their effort didn’t go unnoticed, either, as the MS-20 has retained its value very well even since its discontinuation in 1983. The MS-20 is meant primarily for leads and bass, but it has been used for percussive noises, exotic sound effects, and everything inbetween. Korg’s goals were to fit modular synth-level circuitry into a tight space, and to produce something with a broad appeal. While the MS-20 is a subtractive synthesizer (similar to the Minimoog), it does allow for audio and modulation rerouting through its patch panel. It also accepts signals from external sources. 2 VCOs, 2 VCFs and a VCA make up the MS-20. VCO 1 can produce triangles, sawtooths, white noise and pulses with adjustable widths. VCO 2, on the other hand, creates sawtooths, squares, rectangles and ring mods. VCO 1’s variable pulse width is not able to be controlled through voltage adjustments...but modifications have changed that. Additionally, the LFO can output pulses and slopes and its shape and rate are both controllable. There are also not 1, but 2 envelope generators; one has adjustable delay, attack and release settings, while the other has standard ADSR controls in addition to a hold parameter. Features and technical notes aside, the MS-20 is an excellent beginner synth. Sec- ondhand markets ask for around $1,200 for a good MS-20, but that’s not a buyer’s only option. The MS-20’s resurgence in the 1990s and an increased general interest in monophonic analog synthesizers in the past 2 decades led Korg to release the MS- 20 Mini in 2013. This updated version is an electronic duplicate of the original, but features MIDI in/out/through, 1/8” jacks in the patch area and is much smaller than the original. It can be purchased new for less than $500, secondhand for less than $400, or in kit form for $1,500. Behringer has also announced their reproduction MS- 20 (known as the K-2) that can be used with MIDI-compatible gear or in a Eurorack module for $330 (although it has not been released at the time of this writing). There are also software alternatives available. CASIO VL-1 1979

Price (1979) Notable Users $69.95 ($244.21 in 2019) Trio Tony Banks The Fall Lady Gaga The Assembly Panic! at the Disco Fergie White Town Gorillaz Have a Nice Life Trans-X Beastie Boys Sting Stevie Wonder Devo This is the only synthesizer on the list that is actually a calculator. Well...Casio marketed it as a calculator with synth capabilities, but soon flipped that around. Either way, this thing is important for one main reason: it is the first digital synthesizer. The pictures don’t do justice to the size of this machine; it is only about a foot long and a few inches high. Sounds can be heard through the built-in speaker or through the “LINE OUT” 3.5mm jack on the reverse side of the machine (bottom picture on left). It can be powered via 4 AA batteries or a 6V AC adapter (not included). Between its small amount of keys (only 29!), its minimal selection of sounds (piano, “fantasy,” violin, flute and guitar) and its monophony, the Casio VL-1 seems pretty limit- ing. However, this synth is actually programmable. There are 8 programmable parameters: waveform, attack, decay, sustain level, sustain time, release time, vibrato and tremolo. A number (0-9) is assigned to each one of these; by switching the VL-1 to calculator mode, entering the numbers in order, adding the number to memory and changing the voice switch to “ADSR,” a user can play the sound they just programmed in. One standout feature of the VL-1 is the inclusion of an octave switch. With this, a player can increase and decrease the octave that the keyboard is mapped to. This feature would be absent from subsequent Casio keyboards and was reserved for higher-end digital synthesizers. Another is the inclusion of a sequencer which could store and play back up to 99 notes. The tempo at which the sequencer played the notes could be adjusted on the keyboard. The tempo adjustment also controlled the speed of the built-in rhythms (10 of them). The included rhythms are what made this synth so popular. They are made up of only 3 kitschy, low-fidelity drum sounds. However, the Rock-1 rhythm preset was charming enough for Trio to use the VL-1 in their song “Da Da Da,” along with the built-in “Piano” voice. Other VL-1 sounds can be heard on Fergie’s song “Clumsy” and Lady Gaga’s “Government Hooker.” Just listen for the beeping sounds and you’ll hear the VL-1! A new VL-1 can be had for as little as $30 used, but there is supposedly a software version for Windows. Supposedly. YAMAHA GS-1 1980

Price (1980) Notable Users $~16,000 ($49,214 in 2019) Probably no-one (seriously, Yama- ha sold like 100 of these things). The GS-1 is a stunningly unpopular synthesizer. I’m honestly surprised I could find pictures of it. However, it’s place as the first FM synthesizer gives it some importance, so I’m going to talk about it. Briefly. This synth featured 16-voice polyphony with 8 operators assigned to each voice. Pre- vious poly synths would have been exorbitantly expensive and unreliable had they featured that many notes of polyphony, but FM synthesis made this possible for the GS-1. 8 operators also sounds quite useful for an FM synthesizer, except the GS-1 does not allow for the changing of algorithms. The single algorithm simply divides the 8 operators into four carrier-modulator pairs, so not much sound complexity could be achieved. The GS-1 features a fully weighted 88-key keyboard with both velocity sensitivity and aftertouch. Aesthetically, the synth is housed in a glossy stained wood piano-esque case. Few people know why Yamaha did this. The subsequent GS-2 (which also sold poorly) changed the wooden case for a plastic one and reduced the key count to 73. The new keyboard lacked aftertouch, though. The GS-1 did offer a few user-editable parameters which could be altered through the various buttons and knobs on the horizontal area above the keyboard. These included detune, tremolo, vibrato and a chorus effect. It also had selectable patches built-in, as well as the ability to load external patches from magnetic cards that were included with the synth. There’s really not much else to say about this machine. Only about 100 GS-1s were sold over the course of its (very short) lifespan. It is unknown how many GS-2s were sold. A swing and a miss in FM synthesis from Yamaha. The failures of the GS-1 (and GS-2) would be redeemed in 1983, though, in the form of the DX7 FM synthesizer.

Is it just me, or does the GS-1 not really fit into the whole “edgy storms and lightning” aesthetic? 9 QUESTIONS WITH

ERICNYFFELER “[Eric Nyffeler is] a designer/illustrator/human/living denim jacket who specializes in commercial and editorial illustration, screen printed posters, and bad jokes.”

Do you see a connection “I definitely see a link! Both my visual style and my music between your illustration style share a similar emphasis/reliance on texture and lay- style and your music ering of competing elements. Similarly, both also eschew style? cleanliness or “perfection” but prefer instead to celebrate the physicality of how it was made.”

How did you get into “I’d toyed around with keyboards here or there, but didn’t synthesized music ever get my first real synth until I was 22 or 23. As a guitar- production? ist without any formal training in keyboards or piano, I instead used the synth like a hammer or a weapon, and simply turned the knobs and dials and switches until it made weird sounds I was happy with. This cause-and-effect method is still pretty much exactly how I play with synths to this day.”

Do you have a favorite “My all-time favorite synth is a late 1970s, early 1980s Roland synth in your collection? RS-09, which is an analog string/organ synth with a bunch Are there any synths that of cute candy-colored rocker switches. It’s not exactly the you would like to have most well known or sought after Roland synth in the world, that you currently do not but when it’s run through a couple of reverb pedals and have? blasted through a distorted guitar amp, nothing in the world sounds bigger or better. As far as dream synths, I still kick myself for not buying a Roland Juno-60 for $450 back when I had the opportunity. Truly she was the one that got away.”

Do you prefer analog or “I couldn’t care less. A sound is a sound is a sound is a digital synthesis? sound. I’m much more interested in what emotions or directions the sounds are trying to communicate than worry about how they were made.”

What’s the most “To be honest, I’ve still never really figured out what the challenging part about fuck an LFO is, so needless to say, there are a lot of using analog synths? challenges left for me!” What do you think the “I don’t have the slightest clue what the future of electronic future of electronic music looks like, seeing as I’m still trying to rediscover the music looks like, both for magic Brian Eno conjured back in the 1960s and 1970s. I’ll yourself and as a whole? leave the future to people with the maps and dreams.”

Do you play any other “I have been a guitarist for the majority of my life, but I instruments? If so, do tend to treat electronic instruments exactly the same way you like to incorporate that I treat guitars: poke at it and prod it and tap it and those sounds with your punch it with my hands and see what sounds they make. electronic music? By the time I’m done, it’s usually pretty impossible to tell which instruments made which sounds, so the most importance difference been the instruments is which one happens to give me a melody or a sound or a texture that I like. I’m more interested in the meal than the recipes.”

Detailed shots of Eric’s Synth Dungeon print.

What inspires you and “Honestly, the physical sounds themselves are what informs the music you make? what the music is about. I like making sounds and experi- menting and jamming and knob-turning until something/ someone materializes out of thin air and taps me on the shoulder and says ‘Hi, I have something I want to tell you about.’ Then we can have a conversation and come to a mutual understanding about my experiences and the sounds themselves. But, like, a lot less hippie-ish than that all sounds.”

What advice would you “My only real advice is to ignore what everyone (especially offer to anyone wanting the internet) says about what gear is good and what gear to learn more about is bad. Get whatever you want, or whatever you CAN get, synthesizers? and learn how to bend it to your will and your plans. There are cool sounds in EVERYTHING. Get the fuck off the Instagram synth pages full of pristine, sterile studios full of the hippest, newest stuff and go get your hands on an ac- tual instrument. Don’t ever be fooled into thinking that that next piece of gear is going to be the Holy Grail that finally makes everything click. You can only make music with the gear you have, not the gear you wish you had.” ROLAND TR-808 1980

Price (1980) Notable Users $1,195 ($3,675 in 2019) Yellow Magic Orchestra Bassnectar Marvin Gaye David Guetta Run DMC Fatboy Slim LL Cool J Beastie Boys Whitney Houston Kanye West Phil Collins Mac Miller Up to this point, we have only talked about analog keyboard synths. The Roland TR-808, however, is historically important in the world of synthesizers as it is one of the first drum machine synths. To top that, the TR-808 is an analog drum synth (as opposed to using samples). This device was not initially a commercial success. Its production was stopped in 1983 because Roland was unable to keep a stock of the machine’s semiconductors. The synth was also not too well-received since its sounds were unrealistic. It did gain a following from underground musicians, though, mainly because of its cheap price on the secondhand market (typically less than $100, in 1983). Its low bass drum helped to advance electronic and hip hop music. It became so popular that its impact on hip hop has been compared to the Fender Stratocaster’s influence on rock. It has been featured in more bestselling records than any other drum synth. In terms of sounds, the 808 plays imitations of real percussive drums: bass, snare, rimshots, claves, claps, open and closed hi-hats, cymbals and cowbells are just some of the noises it produces. The 808’s 32-step sequencer has a variable tempo and time signature, can chain together 768 measures and can accent individual beats in the sequence. Users could also place breaks and rolls in the sequence. On the back of the machine (bottom picture on left), you may be able to see a DIN sync port. This connection standard predates MIDI, but performs the same function of synchronizing instruments. It can also synchronize with other synths through trigger outputs. The most notable sound on the 808 is its bass drum, which can be lengthened through a delay control. The other sounds of the machine have been described as “clicky,” “robotic,” “spacey,” and “toylike.” This did not stop experimentation with the device, notably in the song “Set it Off” by Strafe in which the 808 is used to create the sounds of an underground nuclear testing facility. Roland attributes Yellow Magic Orchestra (YMO) as the first band to use the 808 in a live performance in 1980 (it appears on the track “1000 Knives”). It also appears on YMO’s album BGM and Marvin Gaye’s single Sexual Healing. The 808 fell out of popularity in East Coast hip hop around the 90s, but was still used prominently in Southern hip hop. After its production cessation in 1983, Roland released the 909 which was equally influential on techno and house music. In 2014, Roland released the TR-8 machine that recreates the sounds of the 808 and 909 via modelling and sample-based synthesis. They followed this up in 2017 with the release of TR-08, a smaller 808 with modern improvements such as a digital display, MIDI and USB, and a built-in speaker. There are also software implementations of the 808 and 909 available for purchase from Roland. PALM PRODUCTS GMBH (PPG) WAVE 2 1981

Price (1981) Notable Users $7,000 min. A-ha Tears for Fears ($19,772 in 2019) David Bowie Stevie Nicks Trevor Horn Stevie Wonder Rush Depeche Mode Gary Numan The PPG Wave 2 is an early hybrid synthesizer, meaning it includes both analog and digital components. Also, there are 3 variations of the Wave 2 that differ in hardware. The original Wave 2 features 8 notes of polyphony with one oscillator assigned to each. The Wave 2.2, which replaced the original in 1982, still has 8 voices of polyphony, but 2 oscillators were assigned to each voice for a total of 16. It also adds an additional modulation wheel. The Wave 2.3, produced from 1984 to 1987, retains the 2.2’s two-oscillators-per-voice and dual-mod-wheel features, but increases the Waveterm sound resolution to 12-bit (all 3 models have 8-bit resolutions at their cores). It also features “8-bit multitimbrality” and I’m not quite sure what that means. The Wave 2 line of synths are the first successful wavetable synths (thus the “Wave” namesake). Before the invention of wavetable synthesis by Wolfgang Palm of PPG, synthesizers were only able to produce sound through the combination of waveforms being shaped by VCOs and VCAs. The first wavetable synth was the Wavecomputer 360 from 1978, but this suffered from lifeless sounds due to its lack of filters. As previously mentioned, the Wave 2s all contain a mixture of digital and analog components. Their sound engines are digital, but their amplifiers and filters are analog. The Wave 2s also use digital LCD displays, pushbuttons for data entry and a multitude of knobs. There is also a built-in sequencer that could process changes in the wavetable while a sequence is playing. Controlling all of this is a Motorola 6800 series CPU, the same processor variety used in the Vectrex game console, the Tandy Color Computer (CoCo), the aforementioned Fairlight CMI and a number of arcade machines of the time. Support for the MIDI standard was added in 1984 through the use of an expansion board. Before the addition of MIDI, however, users could set up a “PPG Wave System” by connecting other PPG-branded peripherals. Some of these include 8-voice expansion units and the Waveterm A (a wave computer that could be used for audio manipulation, additional sequencing and sampling). PPG intended for this audio workstation setup to rival the Fairlight CMI. Sadly, the Wave 2.2 had been overshadowed by the cheaper FM Yamaha DX7 in 1983 and the Korg DW-8000 in 1985. The cost of electronic memory began to fall in the 1980s leading to digital sampling technology developments. A Wave 2 series synth can be had for about $7,000 used (talk about price retention!), but software alternatives exist. By far the best of these is Waldorf’s Wave 3.V from 2011, which was developed in collaboration with Palm. YAMAHA DX7 1983

Price (1983) $1,995 ($5,142 in 2019)

Notable Users Brian Eno A-ha Kenny Loggins Kool & The Gang Vangelis Whitney Houston Chicago Genesis Tears for Fears Mr. Mister Rick Astley Enya Sting Supertramp Queen Prince Phil Collins Celine Dion The Jets Michael Jackson Depeche Mode Commodores Cyndi Lauper Kansas Janet Jackson Dire Straits Lionel Richie The DX7 is the first commercially successful FM synthesizer (and one of the first commercially successful digital synthesizers). During the development of the GS-1, Yamaha began working on the manufacture of very large-scale integration (this is actually the technical name; VLSI) chips. These types of chips combine millions of transistors into one small integrated circuit. Yamaha’s efforts in this area proved fruitful for the production of the DX7, which was made using only two of these chips (the GS-1, on the other hand, was made with over 50 ICs). FM synthesis with operators and algorithms was developed and patented by John Chowning of Stanford University who licensed the technology to Yamaha. Yamaha’s algorithm implementation on the DX7 differs from Chowning’s patent to allow the DX7 to be faster and more efficient than other digital synths of the time. Because of this, the DX7 also obtained higher sampling rates than the hardware developed by Chowning. 2 experts on Yamaha’s prior CS-80 were asked to develop all 128 of the DX7’s presets in Japan. Yamaha gave them 4 days. The DX7 has been described as having a harsh, glassy sound that is richer and brighter than its analog counterparts. It has a 5-octave keyboard, features 16-note polyphony (obviously more than the number of fingers that someone can physically play with at once, but this is useful for playing sustained notes on top of one another), and 32 algorithmic arrangements for 6 operators. The operators emit pure and altered sine waves. Each operator could also have its volume envelope altered, but this differs from typical ADSR controls; the volume moves according to 4 user-defined levels (ranging from 0-99) that are reached at user-defined rates (also ranging from 0-99). According to Yamaha, there are mathematically over 1,000,000,000,000,000 envelope possibilities. Each operator also has over 160 other controllable parameters. The keyboard has both velocity sensitivity and aftertouch. The inclusion of the new MIDI standard allowed the DX7 to be used with other equipment and early music production software. Because of its complexity, very few people learned to truly program the DX7 to shape sounds that were com- pletely custom. The most famous example of someone who did, however, is Brian Eno, who famously published some of his custom patch settings in Keyboard Magazine in 1987. Customized presets could be saved and loaded on the machine itself (overwriting a built-in preset), or saved to ROM cartridges. Yamaha also sold ROM cartridges with more presets. After the success of the DX7, Yamaha introduced so, so many successors based on the same technology. None of these faired as well in the market. A real DX7 can be bought used for $400-$600. Yamaha also sells the reface DX (similar to the previously-mentioned reface CS) for less than $300. There are free and paid software DX7s, such as Dexed.

A QUICK NOTE ABOUT

MIDIThe Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) standard came about in 1983 as a means of interconnecting various music instruments. MIDI signals carry information about a note’s notation, pitch, velocity (if applicable), vibrato, left/right pan and clock signals for tempo. With a single MIDI controller (typically a keyboard), a user can communicate with up to 16 different devices. Physically, MIDI uses a 5-pin DIN connector. Older devices typically have 3 MIDI ports labeled “IN,” “OUT” and “THRU.” As an example, a player may have 3 pieces of MI- DI-compatible equipment: a sequencer and 2 synthesizers. The sequencer’s MIDI OUT would be connected to one of the synthesizers’ MIDI IN ports. That synthesizer can be connected to the other via the same IN/OUT arrangement, allowing the sequencer to control the second synthesizer. Or, the second synthesizer can have its MIDI IN connected to the first’s THRU port, which outputs a copy of the sequencer’s commands. MIDI control boxes make this system of connections much easier by running each MIDI device on a separate channel. The 1983 MIDI standard also outlines a digital file format of the same name. These files can be used with digital audio workstation software to control instruments through a hardware MIDI controller. The MIDI data can also be manipulated with this software, allowing for notes to be transposed and moved with ease. MIDI files can be composed entirely in software and played on physical hardware in realtime. Because of the small file sizes, many 90s computer games had their music composed via MIDI. PC sound cards were essentially MIDI devices with hundreds or even thou- sands of different instruments. A game’s MIDI music files held the information on the notes to be played and which instrument should be used to play them. PC sound cards have fallen out of popularity since the inclusion of high-quality onboard audio circuitry on computer motherboards, but many programs that enable the use of these old games can emulate DOS-era sound cards (such as the Creative Technology Sound Blaster). Before the MIDI standard, devices from different manufacturers could not communicate with each other. MIDI negated this need for proprietary connection hardware. The MIDI standard has remained at revision 1.0 since its inception in 1983. In 1999, the USB Implementers Forum developed a way for MIDI data to be transferred via a USB connection. Many newer synths and control surfaces feature USB ports for use with software, made possible by the USB Device Class Definition for MIDI Devices. In early 2019, the MIDI 2.0 standard was announced. This standard grants auto-con- figuration abilities, new audio workstation integration possibilities, higher resolutions, more expressiveness and better clock timing. A major priority for the MIDI 2.0 standard is backwards compatibility with MIDI 1.0 devices. Thus, MIDI 2.0 will be able to enhance the features of MIDI 1.0 whenever possible. KORG DW-8000 1985

Price (1985) Notable Users $1,547 Depeche Mode Yes ($3,691 in 2019) Keith Emerson Juno Reactor Black Sabbath Dream Theatre Pat Metheny Group The DW-8000 is probably the DX7’s most direct competitor. They look fairly similar, right? Well don’t be fooled; the DW-8000 is actually another hybrid synthesizer. Its knobless design and digital control methods (and that fancy table of graphs up in the corner there) give it the aura of a fully digital synth. It uses numerical codes to access patches and adjust parameters, a trend that Korg started in 1982 with the Poly-61. The DW-8000 features 8 notes of polyphony, a 61-key “synthesizer action” keyboard (great name) and the ability to store tapes to cassettes. “Synthesizer action” was a phrase used by Korg to say “this keyboard doesn’t have weighted keys” in a much cooler way. The keyboard is, thankfully, both velocity- and pressure-sensitive. It also replaces the standard pitch and mod wheels of yesteryear with a neat free-floating joystick control mechanism. Unlike most mod wheels, the joystick holds its position after the user lets go of it. Pitch bend is controlled on the x-axis while modulation is mapped along the y-axis. The main feature of the DW-8000 is its utiliza- tion of digital waveform generator system synthesis. DWGS works by playing back single-cy- cle waveforms through digital oscillators. The waves are stored in the synth’s ROM and include the common sines/sawtooths/pulses along with rough waveform-imitations of a piano and saxophone. There is also a noise generator. The graph table printed on the keyboard’s control area shows the 16 different samples and the controllable parameters are listed below that. Another notable feature that was uncommon for digital synthesizers of the time was the 64-note arpeggiator that could play across multiple octaves. Korg pushed the DW-8000’s digital delay as a major selling point. The wave sources on this synth are digital and are passed through an analog VCA and VCF, but the ap- plication of the digital delay effect requires the analog sound to be converted back to digital. The digital delay effect sounds similar to reverb. Players could also control the modulation depth of the delay for a nice chorus effect. The VCA is an analog variable-gain amplifier with a six-stage envelope. The VCF can actually oscillate itself by changing a filter-resonance setting. The DW-8000’s single low-frequency oscillator could effect the main oscillators (for vibrato) and/or the VCF. The DW-8000 has a very synthetic, “fat” sound that is as good for leads as it is for bass. Korg released a rack-mountable version of the DW-8000 (without a keyboard, of course) called the EX-8000. It is functionally similar to the DW-8000, but features 1024 slots for presets and optional expansions via card slots. A used DW-8000 ranges from $300-$500 in very good condition, a pretty good bar- gain for a high-quality, reliable digital synth from this era. There is no direct software alternative, but Cobalt is a virtual instrument that is inspired by many synthesizers of the era, including the DW-8000. However, Cobalt cannot load patches from DW-8000-compatible cassettes and lacks the 6-stage envelope. KORG WAVESTATION 1990

Price (1990) Notable Users $2,195 Genesis Vangelis ($4,312 in 2019) Apple (for the Mac chime) To t o Rush Jan Hammer Depeche Mode Orbital The Wavestation was Korg’s first dive into the vector synthesizer market. Despite its name, the Wavestation was intended to be just a synthesizer and not an entire music production workstation. This did not stop the Wavestation from achieving rave reviews: Keyboard Magazine awarded it the title of “Hardware Innovation of the Year” as well as one of “20 Instruments That Shook the World” in 1995. Besides vector synthesis, the Wavestation also made use of another innovative tech- nique known as wave sequencing, where PCM waveform data is played in succession. This results in highly complex, evolving sounds. The roots of this wave sequencing technology can actually be traced back all the way to the PPG Wave 2. The Wavesta- tion’s implementation allowed up to 255 waveforms to be crossfaded together. Wave sequences can also be instructed to jump to other PCM waves in the machine’s memory, rather than just moving in a set sequence through the wavetable. Each wave step in the sequence has a definable duration, pitch, tune, level and amount of crossfade. The waves can also be looped forward or forward/backward or even synchronized to the Wavestation’s onboard clock or a MIDI clock (typically from a sequencer). All of these possibilities can produce anything from long, sweeping, evolving sounds to quick and rhythmic ones. Or both, honestly. And all of this is just for one wave sequence; the Wavestation can have different sequences assigned to each of the four oscillators that will play the sequences simultaneously. And then there’s performance mode where 32 different wave sequences can play simultaneously. The Wavestation (WS) saw 4 hardware revisions and 2 software versions during its lifetime. The original featured a massive 2MB soundset that lacked imitations of acoustic instruments. It accepted patches from Korg PCM ROM cartridges and had a vector joystick. It also sported a cutting-edge backlit LCD and a circular data-entry dial above its semi-weighted 61-key keyboard. The joystick allows the player to override the pre-programmed mix envelope for a patch, which adjusts the sound’s timbre. Next was the Wavestation EX, created by Korg in response to feedback from musicians. It doubled the WS’s soundset storage capacity to a whopping 4MB (to ac- commodate 119 new voices, including acoustic imitations). Owners of the WS were allowed to purchase a kit that converted their synths to EX. Jim Reekes notably generated the famous Macintosh startup chime on an EX. The A/D and SR models were rackmount versions of the Wavestation. The A/D retained many hardware and software features of the EX but added a RAM bank and line-level inputs for analog instrument processing. The SR was marketed more as a preset module that was not particularly easy to program. In 2004, Korg introduced the Software Wavestation which is still available for purchase today. There was also an iOS app released in 2016 with purchasable instrument patches. A used keyboard Wavestation runs for $350-$700 used, while the rack versions ask upwards of $200. CLAVIA NORD LEAD 1994

Price (1994) Notable Users ????? Backstreet Boys (????? in 2019) Stevie Wonder Prince Kanye West Europe Clavia coined the term “virtual analog synthesis” with the release of the Nord Lead in 1994, and the Lead is widely regarded as the first synth of its kind. By analyzing the circuit paths and designs of many analog synthesizers, Clavia was able to transfer analog subtractive synthesis into mathematical simulations. Thus, the Lead uses com- pletely digital methods of emulating signal outputs of oscillators rather than utilizing wavetables. Clavia claims that virtual analog synthesis allows for true pulse width modulation and smooth pitch sweeps. Unlike most digital synthesizers that preceded it, the Nord Lead gives users direct access to controllable parameters by placing knobs for every setting right on the control area. This was an unusual decision for the time, but proved popular with musicians who did not wish to fiddle with menu systems. Clavia also forewent (?) the standard pitch wheel in favor of a pitch “stick,” as it were, to give the player a more natural way of producing vibrato.

The Nord Lead is still in production under its sixth hardware revision, named the Nord Lead A1. The original Lead featured 4 notes of polyphony (expandable up to 12 voices with a hardware upgrade). The Lead 2 was released in 1996 with 16-voice polyphony, a ring modulator, an increase in the amount of LFO and arpeggiator patterns, distortion, a new ability for oscillator 1 to produce sine waves and sync it with the onboard white noise generator, and a PCMCIA slot for patch storage. 2001 saw the release of the Lead 3 with 4-operator FM synthesis and an arpeggiator. The original Lead’s fixed-position knobs were replaced by endless rotary knobs circumscribed by a lighted collar to show the setting. The Lead 2X came out in 2003 as a refresh of the previous Lead 2. It added 4 notes of polyphony for a total of 20, 24-bit digital-to-analog converters and an increased patch memory. The PCMCIA storage slot was removed, however. The Lead 4 was released in 2013 with an upgraded sound processing engine, new filters and “True Voice Unison” which allows 4 oscillators to play simultaneously. It has dedicated effects like reverb, delay, crush and distortion. It also adds support for MIDI over USB. Finally, the A1 was released in 2014 with a new oscillator interface and enhancements that allow for quicker sound design. Clavia also makes the Nord Rack, which is a rackmount implementation of the original Nord Lead. The latest Lead, the A1, can be purchased new for about $1,800. Previous Leads in used condition sell for anywhere from $600-$1000+, depending on the model. There are no software versions (that I’m aware of...). ELEKTRON MONOMACHINE 2004

Price (2004) Notable Users $1,540-$1,950 The Knife Boys Noize ($2,093-$2,650 in 2019) Thom Yorke Avey Tare (Animal Collective) Zombie Nation Cevin Key The Postal Service SOPHIE The Monomachine is a semi-recent sequencer/synthesizer combo from Elektron. There are 2 versions of the Monomachine: the SFX-60 (top picture on left) which has a keyboard and joystick controller, and the SFX-6 (bottom picture on left) which works as a standalone module. Where the Monomachine differs from other digital synthesizers is in its method of synthesis—or, should I say, methods of synthesis. Yes, the Monomachine packs 5 different methods of synthesis into 1 module: SID, VO, FM+, SuperWave and DigiPro. Designed in reaction to the “spec-race” that seems to plague modern synthesizers, Elek- tron states their design intention very clearly in the user’s manual for the Monomachine:

Development for musical tools generally comes in the form of new synthesis techniques or an increase in polyphony, memory or other quantitative elements. The advances in the music machine world have “ brought numerous good inventions for musicians. However, we believe ” usability is easily lost in the hunt for the highest specifications. With the Monomachine we have tried creating a synthesizer free from prejudice, and focus on what actually spurs creativity without letting technology stand in your way. We want to inspire you to make sounds and music you haven’t even thought of.

SID synthesis is based on the SID (Sound Interface Device) sound chip produced by MOS Technology for the Commodore line of computers in the 1980s. The original MOS SID chip utilizes wavetable synthesis, but the Elektron’s interface can edit parameters in more familiar terms. The SID method produces sharp-edged and gritty sawtooths, pulses, triangles, sines and noise. The VO method uses an engine that emulates a Speak & Spell. That’s really it. Pretty neat though! The FM+ method is a modified form of frequency modulation synthesis. The Monoma- chine essentially has 4 operators with one acting as a carrier and 2-3 acting as modula- tors across the various FM presets. These presets are similar to the DX7’s sounds. According to Elektron, SuperWave is a synth engine based on analog technology. DigiPro is made up of 2 sub-modes: Wave and Beatbox. Wave features 32 raw 12-bit digital waveforms that range from spiky and bright to hollow and bell-like. Using the machine’s parameter lock feature, the player can create wave-sequence-type effects. There is also a Wave Phase parameter that transforms the waveform in a manner similar to vector synthesis. Beatbox, on the other hand, uses 24 12-bit percussion samples that are mapped over 2 octaves. A used SFX-6 runs for upwards of $1,500 used, while the SFX-60 can cost as low as $990. Elektron officially discontinued the Monomachine around 2016, so software implementations will most likely not be around for quite some time. Talk about versatile. In all honesty, I knew nothing about this machine before writing this zine, but it sounds like a treat to use. TEENAGE ENGINEERING OP-1 2011

Price (Present) Notable Users $1,299 Deadmau5 Trent Reznor Avicii Jean Michel Jarre Skrillex The Chainsmokers Thom Yorke Red Means Recording Kevin Parker/Tame Impala Flume The OP-1 is Teenage Engineering’s first product (and their most popular product, next to their line of Pocket Operators). It is a synthesizer, sampler and sequencer. The OP-1 features some technical limitations by its design; according to the founder of Teenage Engi- neering, this is to stimulate the creativity of the player. It is also very toy-like in nature. The OP-1’s design has been in the works since 2005 and makes some obvious calls to the VL-1, especially in its form factor. Teenage Engineering sells an accessory kit that includes an FM radio antenna, a crank, a bender lever and rubber band, and four knob caps with LEGO-compatible shafts. Many users program LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT servo units to automatically control the OP-1’s knobs with the knob caps. There are 11 synthesis engines on the OP-1: FM, Cluster, Digital, DNA, DSynth, Dr. Wave, String, Phase, Pulse, Sampler and Voltage. Each one has a different fun ani- mated graphic on the AMOLED screen. FM engine is a straightforward FM synth with 4 operators. Cluster creates a distorted Roland JP-8000 supersaw-type sound. Dr. Wave sounds like a talk box. Why? Because Teenage Engineering said so. Digital provides access to ring modulation and wave shape options to distort the sound. String emulates string instruments from bass to string pads. Pulse generates square waves. Phase generates 2 modifiable pulse waves. DSynth is a 2-oscillator synth with different filters. Voltage is a multi-oscillator synthesizer that produces sounds similar in nature to analog subtractive synthesis. Finally, Sampler can use samples from the OP-1’s onboard microphone, a line-level source or the FM radio via the antenna accessory. Some of the on-screen graphics use traditional symbols, some are more abstract, some are quite literal, and some are just outright strange. For example, the screen for the “punch” effect shows a boxer.

The OP-1’s keyboard features 24 keys that are more-or-less buttons. When actuated, the keys have a soft downward movement, rather than a hinged movement that is seen on many synths. The keys are not velocity sensitive, but the octave range can be shifted up and down for a total of 24 octaves covered. The OP-1 is still sold by Teenage Engineering today, and costs $1,299. They can be purchased used, starting at around $900. Teenage Engineering also sells a number of other synthesizers with the same fun, toylike, carefree feel. THIS CONCLUDES

(A REASONABLY BRIEF GUIDE TO SYNTHESIZERS)

ide to u s g y

f n t ie h r e b s

y i l z e b a r s n o s a e r a

Thanks for picking up this zine. It was entire quarter’s-worth of work, but I’ve learned a lot and I’m happy with the end result. I hope you learned a lot too. With that being said, I am, by no means, an expert on the subject of synthesizers. I’m sure there are errors in areas of this zine, but I have taken whatever measures I can to cross-reference information to ensure accuracy. I’d like to thank the Louisiana Tech University School of Design faculty and students, especially Tom Futrell and Jake Dugard. Without them, I’d be an engineer working some cubicle job. Not that there’s anything wrong with that! It’s just not the environ- ment I work well in. I’d also like to thank my brother, Taylor, for texting music recommendations to me in the dead of night. Without him, my taste in music would be severely limited and I could not even guarantee the existence of this zine. I’d like to thank Eric, Sam and Alex for taking the time to contribute to this zine. All 3 of these people are absolutely amazing creatives, and I hope they never stop pursuing their passions. Eric and Mylar Melodies can both be found on Bandcamp, and Sam’s music can be heard on Spotify and YouTube.

Stay creative.

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2019, Avery Grimshaw (@ThatGrimshaw). Second run, Dec. 2019. No. _____ of _____.