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Water Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Region: Responses of Mangrove, Seagrass and Macroalgal Communities

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Water Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Region: Responses of Mangrove, Seagrass and Macroalgal Communities Marine Pollution Bulletin 51 (2005) 279–296 www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul Water quality in the Great Barrier Reef region: responses of mangrove, seagrass and macroalgal communities Britta Schaffelke a,*, Jane Mellors b, Norman C. Duke c a CRC Reef Research Centre and James Cook University TESAG, P.O. Box 772, Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia b Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries and CRC Reef Research Centre, P.O. Box 1085, Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia c Marine Botany Group, Centre for Marine Studies, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Qld 4072, Australia Abstract Marine plants colonise several interconnected ecosystems in the Great Barrier Reef region including tidal wetlands, seagrass meadows and coral reefs. Water quality in some coastal areas is declining from human activities. Losses of mangrove and other tidal wetland communities are mostly the result of reclamation for coastal development of estuaries, e.g. for residential use, port infrastructure or marina development, and result in river bank destabilisation, deterioration of water clarity and loss of key coastal marine habitat. Coastal seagrass meadows are characterized by small ephemeral species. They are disturbed by increased turbidity after extreme flood events, but generally recover. There is no evidence of an overall seagrass decline or expansion. High nutrient and substrate availability and low grazing pressure on nearshore reefs have lead to changed benthic communities with high macroalgal abundance. Conservation and management of GBR macrophytes and their ecosystems is hampered by scarce ecological knowledge across macrophyte community types. Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Pollution; Mangroves; Seagrass; Macroalgae; Nutrients; Herbicides 1. Introduction reefs are global climate change (coral bleaching), crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks and coral diseases The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (Wilkinson, 2002). The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) is (GBRWHA) contains a large number of interconnected considered to be in a Ônear-pristine state over large ecosystems colonised by marine plants including coral areasÕ, however, water quality in some coastal areas ap- reef systems, extensive seagrass meadows and estuarine pears to be declining from effects of human activities systems with mangrove forests. These systems are also (Australian State of the Environment Committee, closely linked with adjacent coastal river catchments in 2001; Brodie, 1997). a catchment-to-reef continuum. Globally, the rate of A large body of evidence now shows that water qual- degradation of coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangrove for- ity and ecological integrity of some of the coastal area of ests and other tropical marine ecosystems is increasing GBRWHA are affected by material originating from a as a consequence of direct human pressures, including range of human activities on the catchment, such as pri- input of pollutants such as sediments, nutrient and toxic mary industries (agriculture, aquaculture), urban and compounds. Additionally, indirect pressures on coral industrial development (reviewed in Haynes, 2001; Wil- liams, 2002; Baker et al., 2003; Furnas, 2003). In sum- * Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 7 4729 8405; fax: +61 7 4729 mary, delivery of sediments and nutrients to rivers 8499. discharging into GBR waters has increased by at least E-mail address: britta.schaff[email protected] (B. Schaffelke). four times compared to estimates from before 1850; 0025-326X/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.10.025 280 B. Schaffelke et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 51 (2005) 279–296 chlorophyll a levels in coastal waters are higher than off- Wolanski et al., 2003; Fabricius et al., 2003; Fabricius shore, especially in the more developed central and and DeÕath, in press). southern sections of the GBR; and herbicides (princi- Metals and organochlorine contaminants (e.g. herbi- pally diuron) have been found in coastal and intertidal cide and pesticide residues) are generally found in low mangrove sediments and seagrasses adjacent to catch- concentration in GBR waters and sediments, except ments with high agricultural use, at levels shown to ad- for sites adjacent to ports and harbours, urban centres versely affect seagrass productivity and implicated in and areas of intense agricultural activity (Haynes and local dieback of mangroves. GBR nearshore coral reefs Johnson, 2000). Herbicides are transported to aquatic adjacent to catchments with intense agricultural activity, environments either dissolved in the water or bound to i.e. the Wet Tropics region, have higher water column sediment during rain events. They affect marine plants suspended solids and nutrients, and cover and richness by interfering with the normal functioning of the photo- of hard and soft corals were lower and cover of macro- synthetic apparatus (Percival and Baker, 1991). Heavy algae was higher, compared to reefs adjacent to less metals inhibit pathways in photosystem II or interfere developed catchments (Fabricius and DeÕath, in press; with pigment synthesis, however, permanent damage Fabricius et al., in press). In addition, coastal may not occur (Prasad and Strzalka, 1999). The opera- development has greatly altered shoreline and catch- tion of shipping within the GBR also poses the risk of ment landscapes along the Queensland coast, affecting significant oil spills, likely to have serious impacts on the natural estuarine functioning. The most notable intertidal and coastal marine plant habitats, and of re- changes are significant losses and declining ecosystem lease of pollutants from antifouling paints, for example health of many coastal wetlands including mangroves after ship groundings. (e.g., Duke, 1997; Russell and Hales, 1994; Russell Here, we review responses of tropical marine plants et al., 1996). in the Great Barrier Reef region to changes in water Increased inputs of nutrients can cause significant quality. changes in tropical marine ecosystems, principally by increasing primary production. Some coral reefs over- seas are subject to chronic increased availability of dis- 2. Marine plants in the Great Barrier Reef region solved nutrients (Szmant, 2002), while nearshore reefs in the GBR region are mainly exposed to periodically in- Marine plants are widely distributed in the GBR re- creased nutrient and sediment loads from runoff during gion, colonising different habitats. While mangroves the summer monsoons. Nutrient and particulate matter form a unique and dominant ecosystem predominantly levels in the GBR lagoon under non-flood conditions bordering coastal margins of the GBR region, sea- are generally low, although higher values are typically grasses and macroalgae occur in a variety of ecosystems found close to the coast (Furnas et al., 1995; Furnas, across the GBR shelf (Fig. 1). 2003). In contrast, levels are between 10 and 400 times Mangroves are inter-tidal marine plants, mostly trees, higher in flood plumes, which are the main delivery and thrive in saline conditions and daily inundation be- mechanism for nutrients (in dissolved and particulate tween mean sea level and highest astronomical tides. form) and suspended sediments to GBR coastal waters Mangroves are not a monophyletic taxonomic unit. (Devlin et al., 2001; Devlin and Brodie, in press). The Fewer than 22 plant families have developed specialised dissolved nutrients in river plumes are rapidly taken morphological and physiological characteristics that up by phytoplankton and are generally not in contact characterize mangrove plants, such as buttress trunks with benthic macrophytes for extended periods of time. and roots providing support in soft sediments and phys- The resulting phytoplankton blooms are consumed rap- iological adaptations for excluding and expelling salt. idly by zooplankton, resulting in nutrients being recy- Globally, there are just 70 ÔtrueÕ mangroves species cled several times and transported in particulate (Tomlinson, 1986; Duke et al., 1998). In the GBR region organic form further away from the coast where they there are around 2070 km2 of mangroves with 37 species may settle on macrophyte and coral reef communities (Duke, 1997; Duke et al., 1998). The benefits of man- (Furnas, 2003; Furnas et al., in press). In nearshore groves are based on their primary and secondary pro- waters fine particles of suspended sediment combine duction, as well as their standing woody biomass and with suspended aggregates of organic matter called forested ecosystem structure (Duke et al., 1998). These Ômarine snowÕ (detritus particles, fecal material, mucus benefits include (adapted from Tomlinson, 1986): secreted by phytoplankton and bacteria) to form heavier flocs that can settle on benthic communities (Fabricius • visual amenity and shoreline beautification; and Wolanski, 2000; Wolanski et al., 2003). This syn- • shoreline protection, based on mangrove tree and ergy of nutrients, fine sediments and associated toxi- root structure, which reduces erosion and provides cants is believed to be the greatest threat of runoff to stand protection from waves and water movement; GBR ecosystems (Fabricius and Wolanski, 2000; • nutrient uptake, fixation, trapping and turnover; B. Schaffelke et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 51 (2005) 279–296 281 Fig. 1. Conceptual model of macrophyte habitats in the Great Barrier Reef region from the coast across the continental shelf. • carbon sink and sequestration; meadow. Seagrasses, especially structurally large spe- • secondary production,
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