Biologiens Historie

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Biologiens Historie Botanikkens og biologiens historie Halvor Aarnes A..., at Mennesket nedstammer fra en eller anden mindre højt organisert Form. Den Grundvold, paa hvilken denne Sluttning er bygget, vil aldri blive rokket,..... ADet er utroligt, at alle disse Kendsgerninger ikke skulde tale Sandhedens Sprog@ Charles Darwin: Menneskets afstamning og parringsvalget. 2. Udgave Gyldendalske boghandel. Nordisk forlag. 1909 1 8HalvorAarnes 2002. Rev. 23.05.2007 Innholdsfortegnelse Land- og hagebruk - grunnlaget for vår sivilisasjon ........................................................... 3 Grekerne i antikkens Hellas la grunnlaget for vestlig vitenskap ...................................... 6 Astronomi og verdensbilde .............................................................................................. 11 Skapelsesmyter ................................................................................................................. 16 Gresk-romersk kultur og vitenskap ................................................................................. 20 Renessansen - ny interesse for den antikke tradisjon .................................................... 26 Akademier, planteanatomi og tidsskrifter ...................................................................... 29 Linné skapte det latinske tonavnsystem ........................................................................ 32 Frankrike og biologi ........................................................................................................... 35 Zoologi, anatomi og fysiologi ............................................................................................... 37 Reiser, handel, krydder og innsamling av planter ............................................................ 46 Botanisk hager ................................................................................................................... 53 Liv oppstår ikke spontant ..................................................................................................... 56 Mikrobiologi og virus ............................................................................................................. 58 Darwin og evolusjonsbiologi ................................................................................................ 63 Evolusjonslæren i Norge .................................................................................................. 78 De første plantefysiologer .................................................................................................... 82 Celleteori, celler og organeller ........................................................................................ 89 Osmose ............................................................................................................................... 90 Enzymer og nitrogenforbindelser .................................................................................... 91 Kjemi og plantefysiologi ....................................................................................................... 91 Vekststoffer og plantehormoner ...................................................................................... 95 Cellekulturer ....................................................................................................................... 96 Biokjemiens oppblomstring .................................................................................................. 97 Genetikkens historie ........................................................................................................... 100 Hva går i arv ?.................................................................................................................. 102 Artsdannelse og evolusjon ............................................................................................. 104 Biometri, statistikk og neodarwinisme .......................................................................... 106 Atferdsbiologi og sosiobiologi ............................................................................................ 109 Den nye tid - genenes tidsalder ........................................................................................ 118 PCR - polymerase kjedereaksjon - biologenes kjernereaksjon ............................... 120 Fysikk som forutsetning for biologiens utvikling ............................................................. 121 Filosofi, samfunn, religion og biologi ................................................................................ 131 Biologiske ressurser og global økonomi .......................................................................... 154 Miljøbevegelse og økologi ............................................................................................. 155 Naturvitenskapens framtid ............................................................................................. 158 2 Biologi i Danmark-Norge .................................................................................................... 170 Plantefysiologien i Norge ............................................................................................... 175 Zoologi og medisin .......................................................................................................... 178 Land- og hagebruk - grunnlaget for vår sivilisasjon Vitenskap er et resultat av menneskelig nysgjerrighet. Overføringen av den første erfaringskunnskapen skjedde muntlig. Seinere overtok skriftmediet. Leire og stein ble brukt som skriveplater i Babylonia og Mesopotamia, hieroglyfer i Egypt og runer i norden, skrifttegn hamret ut med Ameisel@ og Ahammer@ , et språk av piktogrammer og fonetiske tegn. Helleristninger fra steinalder og bronsealder er bergkunst med religiøst tilsnitt som viser dyr, jaktscener, båter, soltegn og andre geometriske symboler, og vitner om jakt- og reiseskildringer. Det ble en overgang fra piktogrammer til lydskrift. Kileskriften fra Assyria og Babylonia var en hieroglyfskrift. Sivrør med flat spiss og blekk ble brukt til skriving på potteskår. Papyrus ga egypterne et mer velegnet skrivemedium som kunne rulles sammen. Dette ble seinere utkonkurrert av pergament (e. Pergamon), tørket og renset dyreskinn fra sau, kalv, gris eller esel. En hieroglyf tilsvarer en til tre bokstaver og man brukte symboler fra naturen i Egypt: Ibis, ugle, vaktel, hare, falk, bie, skarabé, okse, fisk, slange, hare, katt, lotus og blomstrende siv. Den egyptiske guden Anubis hadde sjakalhode og menneskekropp. Den minoiske kultur på Kreta med prestekongen Minos som hersket over Knossos var en avansert kultur 2200-1400 f.kr. Det ble brukt tegn presset inn i myke leirtavler med en spiss gjenstand, med skriften linear A og B som var utviklet fra hieroglyfene. Den eldste skriften linear A er det funnet rester på Knossos, Mallia og Faistos. Kineserne brukte remser av bambus og oppfant papiret i ca. år 105 e.kr. Innerbarken til morbærtreet ble knust i væske til en fiberblanding som deretter ble tørket til papir. Papir ble også laget av palmeblad, bjørkenever, lin og hamp. Via arameisk og gammelgresk utviklet det seg en rekke skriftspråk som kunne brukes til å overføre kunnskap og viten fra en generasjon til den neste: hebraisk, arameisk, indisk, arabisk, gammelsyrisk, semittisk, gresk, etruskisk, italisk, latinsk, kyrillisk, og gotisk. Talespråket ble overført til skrift. Fra Fønikia (kysten Egypt til Israel/Libanon) 800 f.kr. stammer et skriftspråk med bokstaver som fonetiske tegn basert på uttale og dette alfabetet kunne brukes til å skrive alle ord. Fønikia (gr. foinos – rød) har fått navn etter den rødfiolette purpurfargen fra purpursnegl. Kjente Fønikiske byer var Sidon, Tyros og Byblos, og Karthago var en fønikisk koloni. Konsonantinnskrift med fønikisk opphav i Byblos ga det greske navnet på bøker, biblia. Den sumeriske kileskriften trykket inn med kiler som ga rette linjer ble mindre brukt etter at Ninive falt i 612 f.kr. med resulterende nedgang i det assyriske rike og oppgang i det babylonske. Kileskrift ble brukt i undervisningen i astronomi i Uruk i Mesopotomia i Sør-Irak. Det episke heltesagnet om heltekongen Gilgamesj fra Uruk med opprinnelse fra sumerisk, assyrisk og babylonsk stammer fra 200 f.kr. Assyrerkongen Assurbanipal (669-630 f.kr.) hadde et stort bibliotek med kileskrifttavler. De første menneskelige sivilisasjoner i paleolittisk tid drev jakt, fiske og samlet spiselige ville planter og insekter. Nomader levde i små familiegrupper med en arbeidsdeling mellom kvinner og menn. Mennene var hovedansvarlig for jakt, mens 3 menn og kvinner samlet frukt, bær, rotknoller med høyt innhold av karbohydrater, og kvinner sørget for barnepass og matdeling. De første mennesker brukte redskaper, utarbeidet jaktstrategier og delte informasjon via talespråk. Matlisten inneholdt insekter, pattedyr, fugl, krypdyr, amfibier og fisk, med mye protein og fett. I yngre steinalder (neolittisk) ble folk fastboende. Fra den neolittiske tid kom bronsealderen ca. 3500 f.kr. i midtøsten og ca. 2000 f.kr. i Europa. Det var kjent at oppvarming av mineraler med trekull kunne gi kobber, og i forbedret utgave som bronse. Gruvedrift og mettallurgi ga metaller til våpen og redskap. Fyrsetting gjorde at fjellet sprakk og gruvesteinen kunne heises opp med paternosterverk. Kobber og gull smelter ved henholdsvis 1083 oC og 1064 oC, men jern smelter først ved 1539 oC og krever en masovn med blåsebelg. Blåsebelgen gir høyere temperatur, og fra seige jernklumper ble slagget fjernet med hammer. Jern smelter ikke over ild, men kan bli rødglødende og
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