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Articles of Association which also define the CONTENTS

Welcome 2 From our Patron 3 Spatial 4 Depth 12 Temporal 18 Size 26 Preparing for the Future 36 Performance 42 PML Year – 2018 48 2 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk WELCOME

Welcome to PML’s The focus of our Annual Review this year is on multi-dimensional marine science, embracing Annual Review 2018 the geographical reach of our research, its which encapsulates some timescales, its breadth and depth, and the wider influence of PML as it prepares for the future. of our science highlights, and associated activities Outside of the research itself, activities at PML during the year have been very much and developments for focused on the future, with a major £5.4M the twelve month period. refurbishment programme of the building having been completed in December. This investment equips our scientists with state-of- the-art laboratories and facilities to undertake their cutting-edge research, and has enabled them to bid for, and achieve success in, new areas of science such as the effect of light pollution on the marine environment.

Despite the disruption that such building activities inevitably bring, our scientists have continued to deliver existing major research projects, whilst also being successful at winning WELCOME 3 new contracts, including a number relating to FROM OUR PATRON the changing Arctic Ocean, which is a key focus of research internationally. Further afield, PML Plymouth Marine Laboratory has had scientists embarked on a new project centred another year of success, maintaining its on Lake Vembanad in Kerala, India, which aims position as one of the world’s foremost to address water quality issues of this highly marine science research organizations polluted lake whose shores are home to and I am particularly pleased to note 1.6 million people. Such projects demonstrate that, not only has PML continued its the excellence and relevance of PML’s research research outputs, with 150 peer- and its societal benefits. reviewed scientific papers, but also those publications are having even more The impact of PML’s research was recognised impact. Calls upon PML’s scientific staff when our microplastics team, and colleagues for advice, guidance and input to policy from the Universities of Exeter and Plymouth, are further acknowledgement of the won the Societal Impact category, and the standing of the organization. There is overall prize in the Natural Environment no doubt that PML’s research is of global Research Council’s 2018 Impact Awards. importance, not only in expanding our Earlier in the year we were also delighted to knowledge of ocean science, but also learn of our success in achieving bronze level in terms of its impact on many of the Athena SWAN accreditation, in recognition worrying issues facing the global ocean, of PML’s approach to equality and diversity. issues that are dear to my heart. I am It has been a productive and exciting year delighted to be PML’s Patron, to be part all-round for PML, and one that provides a of a success that will help us all look strong foundation for the future. forward to a sustainable future for our life-giving seas. We hope you enjoy reading this Annual Review and that it provides you with a valuable insight James Cameron into the work that we do and the continued Explorer, Environmentalist importance of our marine science. and Film-maker PML Patron Admiral Sir James Burnell-Nugent KCB CBE MA Chairman of the PML Board of Trustees

Prof. Stephen de Mora CChem, FRSC, FRSB, FRSA Chief Executive 4 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

PML is located in the SW of England but its science and interests stretch from local to global, from lakes to oceanic environments. PML collaborates in research projects across the world, and the length and breadth of the Global Ocean from the poles to the tropics. SPATIAL 5

EFFECTS OF HYPOXIA ecosystem effects are not as well understood. PML researchers investigating non-lethal levels STRONGER ON A of hypoxia on the species have now shown how brittlestar population density is a vital BUSY BENTHOS consideration, and that a bustling benthos may respond differently to a smaller, less As coastal marine environments become dense community. starved of oxygen, the response of one key species could have further consequences for an Brittlestar density plays a crucial role in entire ecosystem. exacerbating the effects of low oxygen, this means that dense patches of A. filiformis may Brittlestars are an important member of the exhibit larger changes in behaviour and shifts benthos, and many make their home down in in ecosystem function compared to sparse the mud of the seabed. The stars are known patches, as competition for oxygen as ecosystem engineers, contributing to and resources heighten. bioturbation with movements that play a huge role in shaping the environment, shifting These brittlestar changes include their nutrients and chemicals, and making resources bioturbation behaviour – subtle shifts that available to other benthic life. could lead to a range of ecological effects. An increase in the flow of ammonium brought A reduced level of dissolved oxygen (DO) about by changes in brittlestar bioturbation is known as hypoxia, and it is a problem could in turn lead to a reduction in nitrification increasingly affecting waters around the world. rates, an important step in the nitrogen cycle. While the biological impacts of hypoxia on the Over time, this could mean a harmful build-up brittlestar Amphiura filiformis have been well of nitrogen and leave coastal ecosystems and studied, highlighting outcomes such as reduced their brilliant biodiversity struggling to bounce growth and delayed spawning, behavioural and back and recover after hypoxia takes hold. 6 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

EFFICIENT EDDIES Eddies are swirling, circular bodies of water, and the Agulhas eddies that spin off from the CARRY WARMER leakage keep a tight hold on the waters within WATERS ACROSS them. Over a few years, they slowly make their way across the Atlantic toward the coast of THE ATLANTIC Brazil. By combining surface observations via satellite and the data collected by Argo floats Eddies formed off South Africa can trap and beneath the sea surface, PML scientists have transport water across the vast expanse of followed the lives of three eddies and have the Atlantic to Brazil, and, in doing so, make an been able to shed even more light on the epic important contribution to the global climate. journeys of ocean waters around the world.

Agulhas, the Cape of Needles, is a rocky Using satellite imagery, the researchers tracked headland in South Africa. Its location as the two eddies that formed in the Cape basin west most southern point of the African continent of South Africa. These whirls of water, 200 km means it protrudes out into the region where in diameter, reached the Mid-Atlantic Ridge the Indian and Atlantic Oceans meet, and where almost two years later, where they merged and the Agulhas Current – a swift, powerful flow formed a third eddy. This final form continued on down the east coast of South Africa – turns its long journey, eventually dissipating another back on itself. Here, in this basin, a leakage year later when it arrived at the continental occurs, as vast amounts of warmer, saltier shelf off the coast of Brazil. By also analysing water from the Indian Ocean seep steadily Argo float profiles, it was discovered that these into the Atlantic. This transport, known as the steady eddies extended to depths of over Agulhas Leakage, is an important contributor 1500m and that their dynamics were affected to the South Atlantic Gyre. by ridges encountered along their route.

This transport of water to distant seas is part of Eddies are swirling, circular bodies a bigger picture. The eddies and their contents of water, and the Agulhas contribute to the Atlantic meridional overturning eddies that spin off circulation (AMOC), a vast system of currents in from the leakage keep which heat and salt are redistributed throughout a tight hold on the the ocean, and an integral component in the waters within them. global Earth system and climate. SPATIAL 7

HABITAT TO THE RESCUE

Interactions between species and their This was the question considered by a Europe- habitat is an ongoing and essential area of wide team of scientists looking to understand research in the context of climate change, the responses to climate-driven stress of the along with the adaptations needed to species in these habitats. While it is unclear survive changing conditions. if habitat formation alone makes a species a climate rescuer, it is apparent that some From canopies of seaweed, to the complex populations of habitat-formers display just the landscape of mussel-beds, the coastal ocean right mix of traits to potentially come to the contains a range of habitats. These habitat- rescue of others. One such example is the brown formers play a huge role in their ecosystems, seaweed Fucus vesiculosus, a resilient species and can provide shelter and physical stress- that can withstand a range of temperatures and relief for other life in harsh and unforgiving salinities in its distribution that stretches from coastal environments. But when do these the icy waters of Norway to cosier climes off habitat-formers become climate rescuers the coast of north Africa. Its resilience to heat – resilient to warming waters and ocean stress means it can maintain a large canopy, a acidification, and providing a habitat that, in healthier habitat, and a natural cooling embrace turn, creates conditions suitable for species which could in turn support and shelter the that would otherwise struggle under future populations of more stress-sensitive souls as climate scenarios? temperatures rise. 8 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk HIDDEN BENEFITS OF SEA ICE

The decline of sea ice over recent decades is a problem. Its presence provides benefits in many ways, not only for the widely-reported challenges facing apex predators like polar bears hunting seals atop the diminishing ice, but, perhaps more prominently, also for life on a much smaller scale in the waters beneath it. In particular, in areas of the Southern Ocean where phytoplankton populations are low due to conditions and nutrients, sea ice provides an unexpected source of support to pelagic grazers.

During the spring and summer months, algae suspended in the ice, or slowly sinking from its Benefits from sea ice underside, has been found to supplement the ripple through the diets of zooplankton living in the frigid waters. wider polar ocean A second benefit of sea ice occurs during its food web. seasonal retreat: at this time phytoplankton blooms are more likely to form, partly a result of changing conditions in the water, as it is uncovered and exposed to the atmosphere once more. These blooms are a boon to zooplankton, which can rapidly boost their own growth and development by feasting on this bounty of food. A FRESH APPROACH Such benefits from sea ice send ripples throughout the wider polar TO BIOSECURITY ocean food web as larger animals make the most of boosted Over time, any surface submerged in the zooplankton populations. This of sea will slowly accumulate an assortment course also means that future of squatters. Known as biofoulers, these changes to sea ice mass as species, from barnacles to algae to the climate warms will also have sponges, can cause a number of problems. significant effects on polar For the maritime industry, they are a drag, ecosystems – but, as the quite literally; a build-up of barnacles, for ice continues to recede, example, reduces efficiency, slows travel these instead will likely through the water, and raises running be in the form of costs. There is also the issue of invasive negative species, as biofouling animals and plants outcomes. inadvertently get transferred around the world. SPATIAL 9

STRATIFICATION, Taking to the Celtic Sea, researchers found that preferred prey of seabirds – clupeids, a group of SEABIRDS, AND fish including sardines and sprats – were SARDINES encountered far more often in stratified water. In mixed water, the same prey fish were encountered less frequently, Seabirds are often found foraging at but closer to the surface, and the ocean fronts where mixed and tended to be in higher stratified water meet, though the important question of density. Taken together, ‘Why this particular habitat?’ these findings give some hasn’t entirely been answered insight into how shoaling clupeids in the context of the environmental behave in different water conditions, conditions and the availability of prey. and tick some of the boxes as to why puffins and razorbills, among other Stratification is the formation of layers by top marine predators, favour a front waters of different temperatures, salinity of mixed and stratified waters for their and density, and is a natural process that has prime foraging time. a significant influence on ocean and ecosystem dynamics. To understand why birds such as With developments like offshore windfarms puffins and razorbills favour stratified waters, changing stratification of nearby waters, the a team of scientists has looked beneath the potential impacts upon vulnerable seabird surface, at the behaviours of the shoals of fish populations is something that will have to be that can be found there. considered and carefully managed.

Biocides used to kill non-native species The research shows that something and clear away biofouling are heavily as simple as flushing sea chests with regulated, due to the consequences of freshwater before leaving port could be an chemicals polluting the environment. environmentally friendly and cost-effective Other alternatives need to be efficient and way to prevent the spread of biofouling sustainable, and PML scientists might have and non-native species. one such solution: the fresh idea of using low-salinity water to soak biofouling species accumulating in unwanted places.

Several treatments were tested on sea chests where biofouling species had become established and encrusted sea over two years. The lowest salinity proved to be an effective cleanser, with only one species of sea squirt hardy enough to survive the soak in freshwater. 10 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

DIFFERENT public’s use of, and funding priorities for, the Channel’s marine and coastal environment; PRIORITIES other questions concerned the background and socio-demographics of respondents and The English Channel is a busy sea. It is their participation in environmental behaviours. an area of high conservation value, while Analysis of the responses showed that in contributing to the economic prosperity of general environmental issues were viewed those countries that border it, and the social as more important than economic ones, well-being and quality of life of the people prioritising cleaner water and beaches, and who live around it. The complexity of uses the protection of plants and animals. The and services provided by the English Channel, survey highlighted country differences with and their potential for growth, requires that English respondents prioritising clean water, societal elements need to be incorporated beaches and improved coastal flood defences into marine and coastal governance. Public more than French respondents. French Perception Research (PPR), which can create participants more highly prioritise better relationships between stakeholders, offshore renewable energy, sustainability and increased public engagement in decision of businesses, eco-friendly developments, making, is a relatively unexplored dimension research and cultural links, than did their of marine science, with very little research at English counterparts. So there are distinctions the Channel scale. PML joined colleagues from between the two coasts and publics on either the Universities of Leeds, Plymouth, Exeter side of the Channel, which has implications and Gävle, in Sweden and the UN Environment for PPR in the future, for any marine spatial World Conservation Monitoring Centre to apply management and planning and developing PPR, through an online survey to examine the public engagement approaches. SPATIAL 11

AMT 28 – CRUISE cruises have hosted 276 scientists, from 72 research organizations OVERVIEW in 23 countries, and has produced more than 300 significant scientific The Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT) papers. It is an ideal platform for is a multidisciplinary programme, which national and international scientific undertakes oceanographic research during collaboration. AMT is funded by the UK an annual voyage between the UK and the Research & Innovation/Natural Environment South Atlantic. Scientists make open ocean Research Council, National Capability. observations through a wide latitudinal The latest AMT 28 cruise carried on this range, including the rarely sampled north valuable work, the infographic summarizes and south Atlantic gyres. To date, AMT the activities undertaken.

OF UNDERWAY MEASUREMENTS BALLOON LAUNCHES

MOORING DEPLOYMENT AND RECOVERY

SIMPLE OCEANOGRAPHIC DEVICE DEPLOYMENTS

ICEBERG CIRCUMNAVIGATION

FLOAT RECOVERY CONDUCTIVITY, TEMPERATURE ARGO FLOATS FOR BONGO OPTICS AND DEPTH 3 ORGANIZATIONS NETS CASTS ROSETTES 12 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

PML research in the sunlit seas, the coastal waters and upper layers of the ocean, is globally renowned. Yet PML also works in depth from the surface living plankton, that underpin many of its studies, through the mesopelagic (intermediate) layers that are only just beginning to reveal their secrets, down to the seabed where benthic life often relies on a rain of particulate food from above. DEPTH 13 OF SEABED LEAKS AND STORAGE CRITIQUES

Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)

is the relocation of CO2, from sources TO UNDERSTAND such as fossil fuel-burning power plants or industry, to suitable locations beneath THE SEA, FOCUS the ocean floor. It is one potential method to help mitigate climate change ON THE SEABED and ocean acidification.

The benthic environment is critical to marine Before CCS can be used, any associated ecosystems. It harbours a wealth of life on, in, potential risks to the environment and above the seabed, and is vital to ocean need to be identified. For example, how systems, marine biodiversity, and climate much could unfortunate, unforeseen regulation. The ecosystem services it provides CO2 leakage from these stores impact are important to human society. upon the surrounding waters and their inhabitants? Modelling benthic systems is crucial in helping to further understand them and their responses In laboratory experiments, PML scientists to the pressures they face from climate exposed seabed marine life to CO2 at change and ocean acidification. This year, PML different concentrations and simulations scientists highlighted the challenges benthic of distance from, and time exposed to, models face, identified research priorities, a CO2 leak. At short exposure times, a and offered advice on what needs to be done few weeks into the simulation, and high to ensure the complexities of the benthic concentrations of 10000+ ppm, life environment are appropriately represented in on the sea floor significantly felt the future studies. effects: CO2 leaks were found to have a big impact on the community structure, Among the topical challenges considered in abundance, and diversity of seabed a comprehensive review are the dynamics species, from annelids to arthropods, of the boundary layer between the benthic snails to stars. As expected, with a larger environment and the open water of the pelagic distance away from a leak, and exposure zone; understanding how single events such to weaker concentrations, the negative as storms or earthquakes impact benthic effects faded or were absent. communities and biogeochemistry; and how best to model the primary production of Such work is an important example the microphytobenthos – the abundant and of the need to understand the benefits essential microscopic algae that dwell in the vs risks and potential effects and seabed and contribute to the chemistry of the consequences of solutions to combat surrounding ocean. climate change. 14 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk PUTTING PLANKTON colour products, have been linked to the density of the entire phytoplankton community being INTO MODELS observed. However, the size of phytoplankton groups within the community plays a key role in The shelf-sea ecosystems stretching out marine ecology and biogeochemical cycling; size from our coasts are crucial to humankind: they impacts growth, nutrient assimilation, sinking absorb approximately 20% of global ocean rate and predation. The realism of marine uptake of carbon dioxide; they account for an ecosystem simulations is greatly improved by estimated 20% of primary productivity; and adding in size-based phytoplankton functional support around 90% of global fish catches. types (PFTs), but formulating their processes Predicting how these valuable resources makes their simulation difficult. PML researchers may change under future climatic and other (funded through an EU project, with support scenarios is essential if they are to be used and from National Centre for Earth Observation) managed sustainably. Ecosystem models are tested whether by assimilating ocean-colour an effective way of underpinning how seas products of PFTs into models, simulations function and change, but they are only as good as the understanding and formulation of the Shelf-sea ecosystems ecosystem processes. Improving understanding absorb approximately and simulation of biogeochemical indicators and fluxes in shelf-seas can be achieved by bringing 20% of global ocean together the models with ocean-colour data uptake of carbon dioxide; using ‘assimilation algorithms’. These algorithms they account for an are used to correct model predictions closer to estimated 20% of primary real-world observations. The goal is to improve productivity; and support biogechemical estimates obtained separately around 90% of global from monitoring and models. Total chlorophyll fish catches. measurements, obtained from satellite ocean-

SUBTIDAL LOGGERS IDENTIFY PIXEL PROBLEMS

Coastal seas are amongst the most diverse and dynamic regions on Earth, supporting life and providing a wealth of ecosystem services. Monitoring these vital, vulnerable waters is increasingly important in the context of climate change, and one measurement – the sea surface temperature (SST) – is essential, due to its influence on a range of biological and chemical processes. DEPTH 15

further work in differentiating between PFTs and their functions in future models, they especially noted the need to better represent the diversity of diatoms and dinoflagellates in ecosystem models. The benefits of this new approach rely on the quality of the size-class chlorophyll data that is available, and the researchers suggest that, in addition to the ERSEM model for which it was parameterised, would work with other ecosystem models. In further work on this topic PML’s team applied the approach to operational forecasting of biogeochemistry on the North-West European Shelf. They compared the five-day forecasting skill of three runs of the Met Office pre- operational physical-biogeochemical model, would improve. The whole approach was using daily data assimilation (DA) of total tested against ocean-colour and in situ data, chlorophyll, DA of PFTs, and a reference run. and the researchers found that assimilation The results showed a substantial improvement of PFTs outperformed the more traditional in the model forecasts of the phytoplankton assimilation of total chlorophyll. This enhanced community, as well as the simulation of simulation of the plankton community structure in situ CO2 in the NWE Shelf, when assimilating is a successful new approach to improve PFTs. Such is the success of the applications simulation of ecosystem indicators, emergent that the Met Office is expected to implement properties, such as plankton community this approach into its operational system for structure, and biogeochemical fluxes in shelf- reanalysis (2019-202O) and near real-time seas. The scientists highlighted the need for predictions later in 2020.

Over recent years, PML scientists have been (AVHRR) have been found to lose a little combining surfing with satellites to log and accuracy in near-shore coastal regions. At monitor SST in coastal waters, with great the kelp site, for example, satellite SST data success. Now, a third tool has been added were not quite in line with those of the to the mix – temperature loggers, placed on temperature loggers, or of the nearby L4 and subtidal reefs in a kelp forest off the coast E1 buoys and logger-equipped surfers. This of Plymouth. They have provided a three is believed in part to be interference from year time-series of temperatures, and have nearby land pixels in the satellite imagery, proved to be not only an effective method of spilling over and muddying the waters. This measuring SST, but also help to validate the research has enabled researchers to identify accuracy of all three approaches. potential pixel problems, and highlight the value of using subtidal temperature loggers Traditional satellite measurements using on the coastline to evaluate and support Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer satellite SST data in coastal waters. 16 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk TOWARDS been subject to strong anthropogenic pressures including urbanisation, wastewater discharge SUSTAINABLE and other pollution, habitat degradation, FISHERIES IN unsustainable fishing and global climate change. The cumulative effect of these pressures has IVORIAN WATERS put regional fish stocks under threat from overfishing. PML scientists have been working Despite occupying less than 3% of the ocean with colleagues in Côte d’Ivoire to investigate surface, upwelling ecosystems provide more the relationships between the dominant pelagic than 40% of fisheries catch. Among the target fish species,Sardinella aurita, catch and most productive coastal regions, supplying oceanic primary producers, such as biomass and essential living marine resources for the human phytoplankton phenology as well as between populations of West Africa, is the Gulf of S.aurita catch and environmental conditions, Guinea, within which the Côte d’Ivoire upwelling including upwelling index, a measure of the system is unusual in having two well-defined amount of water that upwells and turbulent cooling seasons, one in the period January mixing. Identifying these biological and physical to February and a second during the months variables which influence fisheries resources June to September. Since the 1980s, as the provides an assessment of the regional risks population has increased in size and economic and vulnerabilities of the marine environment development has progressed, this area has – essential for responsible management of the fisheries. Combiningin situ observations of S.aurita, temperature, and nutrient profiles, with remote sensing ocean-colour observations and, reanalysis of wind and sea surface temperatures, the scientists were able to predict how the catch would vary in the following year. Modelling showed that when only the physical variables Despite occupying were used catch could be predicted with a less than 3% of the 78% confidence, while using only the biological ocean surface, upwelling variables the confidence level dropped to 40%. ecosystems provide more But, they caution, the physics-based model than 40% of fisheries catch. alone does not explain the mechanism driving the year-to-year variations in catch, especially in the years 1998-2004 when upwelling and turbulence strength remained of moderate intensity. Top-down trophic interactions, such as fishing, appear to be controlling numbers in subsequent years. The scientists acknowledge that interdecadal variability in parameters and long-term oscillations may have influence and further study of these is needed to add robustness to predictive tools that lead to the implementation of a Fisheries Information and Management System for Ivorian waters. DEPTH 17 SCRATCHING BENEATH THE SURFACE

Until the 1980s the largest biomes on Earth, that estimates the distribution of cells from the subtropical gyres, were considered the surface to the bottom of the lit zone oceanic ‘deserts’, where high-light conditions of the ocean. Procholococcus-containing but low nutrient concentrations resulted in samples from 704 stations collected during low biological productivity. Yet, at between 13 Atlantic Meridional Transect cruises 80 to 120 metres below the surface is were used to create the model which was the deep chlorophyll maximum (DCM), then applied more broadly to estimate where light penetrates to a depth where the cellular biomass of Prochlorococcus in nutrients, from deep reservoirs, are available. the Atlantic Basin. The model divides the By increasing their intracellular pigment population of Prochlorococcus into two concentrations, to obtain enough of the groups; a high-light favouring population available light, cells can thrive in the lower at the surface and a low-light group found light levels; among these the cyanobacterium near the DCM. The model predicts that the Prochlorococcus predominates in the gyres, Prochlorococcus cells make a significant and while individually being very small contribution (32Mt) of carbon biomass to (0.5µ) occurs in vast numbers, but just how the Atlantic Ocean and a global projection prolific and how significant Prochlorococcus estimates a total contribution of 171 Mt. Cell is within the phytoplankton has remained stocks remained stable from year to year elusive. Now PML researchers, and over the study period but showed seasonal colleagues from the University of Oxford, variation with lowest concentrations in the National Oceanography Centre and autumn and winter, as light and temperature the National Centre for Earth Observation, reduce. Further refinement and ‘tuning’ of have brought together satellite-derived the inputs into the model will improve its sea surface temperature, remote-sensing ability to predict the vertical distribution of reflectance (Aqua-MODIS) and water Prochlorococcus in other ocean basins and temperature at 200 metres from Argo data, enhance understanding of its role in the into a depth-resolved abundance model ocean biogeochemical cycles. 18 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

Organisms and processes in the marine environment function over a range of timescales from milliseconds to millennia. PML adopts approaches that reflect these differing time periods in order to gain a better understanding of how the world ocean, its cycles and the life it contains progress and may be changing through time. TEMPORAL 19 EXPANDING TIME TO SPOT SHIFTING E.HUX

Remote sensing reflectance has been routinely To fully understand the trend in blooms a monitored at the global scale by ocean colour coccolithophorid bloom algorithm to enable satellites since the launch of the Sea Viewing Advanced Very-High Resolution Radiometer Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) in 1997. (AVHRR) satellite data, to bridge this gap of Prior to this, a proof-of-concept Coastal Zone missing observations was used. The AVHRR Color Scanner (CZCS) had provided sporadic catalogue was previously interpreted by other coverage over the period 1978-1986. projects including Pathfinder Atmospheres – Remote sensing reflectance is used within Extended Project (PATMOS-x), to produce a ocean colour observations to determine suite of climate data records that include cloud optical properties, chlorophyll and particulate brightness, aerosol properties and top-of- organic carbon, but can also be used to detect atmosphere reflectances. This data was in brighter areas of the ocean caused by blooms turn exploited by PML scientists to derive a of the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi as new data set, which comprises daily remote they decline and shed highly backscattering sensing reflectance products to derive a liths into surrounding waters. Analysis that cocclithophorid bloom map. The adoption compared coccolithophore blooms during the of this approach has resulted in the current CZCS era and the early part of the SeaWiFS time period of remote sensed reflectance clearly showed large distributional changes being extended from 20 years to nearly in occurrence. However, the two analyses are 40 years, so allowing sufficient time separated by a missing decade when no sensors coverage to demonstrate climatic shifts operated and no measurements were obtained. in coccolithophore distributions. 20 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk PREDICTING BLOOMS AND BLOCKAGES

PML scientists are working with EDF Energy indicate the preferred environment in which to provide an early warning system that can animals can be found, it should be possible help prevent power-plant shutdowns. to predict when potentially disruptive numbers of jellyfish will bloom. In addition, The new system will allow the prediction of high-resolution imagery is available via the jellyfish blooms and monitor large formations recently-launched Sentinel 2 satellite, and of free-floating seaweed and broken this will be tested to determine which image seagrass that are frequent along the UK analysis method is best suited to spot high coast. These problematic events have the concentrations of seaweed drifting into potential to overcome the filtration system troublesome areas. of coastal power plant water intakes, leading to reduced efficiency or even full shutdown The project will offer new capacity in for a short period of time. Shutdowns are regard to monitoring and prediction of both costly for both energy producers and jellyfish blooms and ‘clouds’ of seaweed their customers, so a new approach that detritus. This is very important for coastal can predict potential problems and help power plants, and will prove equally useful the power plant prepare for such events in other coastal and off-shore ventures is welcome. from energy to aquaculture and tourism.

Using Earth observation and knowledge The project is funded by the Natural of environmental conditions, including Environment Research Council Innovative wind, temperature, and chlorophyll levels, Monitoring Approaches programme, with in combination with habitat models that EDF Energy as a partner. TEMPORAL 21 55-YEAR TIME SERIES AND REGIME SHIFTS

Primary production forms the base of marine on average 20% lower daily production at ecosystems and so its accurate measurement is depth than the previous estimates based on important for its understanding, and any climatic linear extrapolation. When calculating water and anthropogenic changes that may influence column production, the model prediction was it. Standard procedures for its measurement on average 26% lower than previous estimates. over a few hours and extrapolation to daily Having recovered the parameters and the figures have been shown to be biased and to known magnitude of the over-estimations, even overestimate daily primary production. they re-established water column production, Using 55 years of monthly in situ primary this time using non-linearly-corrected data. The production measurements, in the Adriatic Sea, re-appraisal enabled the revelation of distinct through the photic zone, including almost regimes in water column production, which 3000 measurements at different depths, PML were of the order of a decade, and could only scientists and colleagues at the Institute of be detected by virtue of the length of the time- Oceanography and Fisheries in Croatia used series. Seasonal cycles could also be constructed a primary production model to correct these alongside the seasonal cycle of remotely-sensed estimates for potential overestimation of chlorophyll. Used together they can model the daily production. The non-linear model gave seasonal cycle of water column production.

GREENHOUSE GASES AND COASTAL WATERS

Two important greenhouse gases (GHGs), biology can quickly modify near-surface gas methane (CH4) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2), have concentrations. Using a yearlong set of air- been increasing over the last few hundred water CO2 and CH4 measurements, obtained years and the surface ocean can be both via the eddy covariance method, from Penlee source and sink for these gases, with, for Point Atmospheric Observatory, PML scientists example an estimated 25% of anthropogenic set out to provide detailed insights into the

CO2 being absorbed by the open ocean and variability of the GHG fluxes from seasonal to 40% of that being sequestered in the highly diurnal and semi-diurnal timescales. Findings productive shelf seas. Estuarine areas, on the revealed that there were significant variabilities other hand, are generally net sources of CO2 on seasonal timescales. CH4 flux varied with to the atmosphere; a big unknown is the part the tidal cycle while CO2 flux, at times, varied played in coastal areas that are influenced diurnally. CH4 concentrations were much higher by both riverine input and anthropogenic over the semi-enclosed Plymouth Sound than activities, leaving uncertainties when it comes over open water. Seasonally the coastal sea to modelling global GHG fluxes. Understanding was a net source of CO2 in autumn and winter the uptake of these gases by coastal waters and a net sink in spring and summer. These and how they change is essential to fulfilling, observations, the scientists say, suggest that the UN Framework Convention on Climate sporadic samplings of seawater concentrations Change Paris 2016 agreement. Sheltered that are limited to certain seasons, times of coastal environments, coupled with freshwater day, or tidal cycles could result in biased annual input often result in stratification where flux estimates. 22 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

English Channel. Seasonal variation, including the timings of phytoplankton blooms, changing species composition and overall bloom densities are all key measurements that indicate the health of the environment Regular and how it may be changing. In situ sampling in the measurements and plankton recording waters off Plymouth support many other aspects of PML science enables PML scientists to including feeding into ecosystem modelling monitor changes in the Western and validating Earth observation readings. TEMPORAL 23 24 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

JANUARY APRIL JULY OCTOBER ‘Pringle’ Ctenophore Dinophysis Luidia Plagiolemma distortum, The stunning rainbow Dinophysis is an alga Autumn stars of the a new diatom species, scintillation occurs along well-known for its role Western Channel is a newcomer to the cilia of ctenophores, in harmful algal blooms plankton. These show the Western Channel like this Beroe as it (HABs) monitored by the juvenile starfish Observatory (WCO) area moves through the PML’s Earth observation developing within in recent years, and is water, and is caused by scientists using satellite the jelly-like larvae of affectionately known the interference of light remote sensing. In Luidia sarsii (5-arm) and as ‘the Pringle’. producing the beautiful sufficient quantity, the Luidia ciliaris (7-arm), iridescent display. toxins they produce can respectively. Before they FEBRUARY impact other marine life, settle in the depths, both Coscinodiscus MAY and may be a threat to live among the plankton, The turbulent winter Phoronid shellfish aquaculture attached to the large months often stir up This fantastic beast is production. sac-like larval stage. the Channel, stimulating the larva of a Phoronid growth of the rare, worm – widespread but AUGUST NOVEMBER the weird, and the relatively uncommon. Noctiluca Nematode wonderful, including Once settled on the Despite its unspectacular Predator becomes prey. larger diatoms. One of seabed, phoronids are appearance, Noctiluca A fearsome bristle-jawed these is the eye-catching filter feeders, snagging has a penchant for the predator of the plankton, Coscinodiscus wailsaii, passing snacks with a dramatic. Often known this chaetognath or arrow sampled at the WCO L4 ‘crown’ of tentacles. as sea sparkle, this tiny worm succumbs to the sampling station by the organism bioluminesces parasitic nematode living RV Plymouth Quest. JUNE when disturbed, creating within it. PML’s plankton Coccolithophore beautiful, ethereal blue studies provide the ideal MARCH bloom glows at the sea surface. opportunity to identify Sardine eggs Some of the smallest and witness some of the Some animals spend their life on the planet, SEPTEMBER countless interactions entire life among the brilliantly monitored Mantis Shrimp among the plankton of the plankton (holoplankton), from space by PML Earth Stomatopods or mantis Western Channel. while some only inhabit observation scientists, shrimp – are neither planktonic communities includes this huge bloom mantis, nor shrimp. They DECEMBER for part of their lifecycle of coccolithophores, are famed and fearsome Copepod & plastics (meroplankton). Sardine Emiliania huxleyii, in the benthic predators, with Copepods are have two spawnings, Western English Channel. impressive weaponry ubiquitous in the peaking in early summer Over vast periods of time, such as impossibly fast plankton communities and late autumn each the white chalk cliffs of spear-fishing, to punches of the world’s waters. year in the Channel. Dover were formed from that can crack mollusc Unfortunately, so too These delicate sardine the remains of these tiny shells. This one, however, are microplastics. PML eggs, almost ready to phytoplankton. living among the plankton have provided evidence hatch, were sampled at of Plymouth Sound, of copepods ingesting the WCO L4 Station. hasn’t quite reached that plastic, with particles here devastatingly efficient highlighted in the tiny life stage. animal’s digestive tract. TEMPORAL 25

ROUND TRIPS SO FAR

OF SAMPLING

(24,000 MILES) THE TOTAL DISTANCE COVERED, WHICH IS ABOUT ORGANISMS THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE EARTH ROUND TRIP EACH WEEK

THIRTY YEARS OF MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLING AT L4

PHYTOPLANKTON ZOOPLANKTON SAMPLES SAMPLES

SPECIES OF SPECIES OF SPECIES OF BENTHIC PHYTOPLANKTON ZOOPLANKTON ORGANISMS 26 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

Marine life exists at scales from microbe to megabeast and from individual through community to ecosystem, while marine processes function at atomic to ocean-wide scales. Understanding how these scaled layers work together to maintain ocean functions is the key to sustainable seas. SIZE 27 A QUESTION OF SIZE

Phytoplankton, through the process of photosynthesis, is the primary source of organic carbon to most pelagic ecosystems – the ‘biological pump’. Photosynthesis is determined and modified by the intensity and spectral quality of the light and different phytoplankton species, their size and pigment content. So different phytoplankton taxa contribute different components of the marine biogeochemical cycle and different biogeographical regions favour distinctive phytoplankton assemblages. In the open ocean oligotrophic conditions, low in nutrients, are dominated by picophytoplankton (0.2-2µm) such as Prochlorococcus. Temperate shelf seas are dominated by larger groups, such as diatoms, in spring and dinoflagellates during summer, which vary in structure and population size due to grazing pressure, nutrient availability and other abiotic conditions. Understanding the different size classes, of the open ocean, allowing these seas to functional types and their primary production support 90% of global fisheries. Reliable can be used in models to estimate group- or models of primary production in shelf seas, size-specific nutrient cycling rates. Satellite backed up by in situ measurements, are thus ocean-colour based models of size-fractionated of great value to marine managers and policy primary production have been developed at makers. PML scientists and colleagues tuned an global scales, but it has not been certain how existing ocean-colour based primary production well this generalised approach would perform model to use a large in situ database of size- for temperate shelf-seas which, while only fractionated phytoplankton measurements covering about 7% of the Earth’s surface, from the Celtic Sea and the Western English generate 2-5 times the annual production Channel. When compared with the original model which used open ocean in situ data, the Temperate shelf-seas which, Shelf Sea model generally performed better while only covering about at capturing the seasonal patterns in size- 7% of the Earth’s surface, fractionated primary production for micro- and generate 2-5 times the picoplankton when phytoplankton biomass was high. It did overestimate nanoplankton; this was annual production of the probably due to difficulties in parameterizing open ocean, allowing these the biomass profile in the water column. Further seas to support 90% of development is necessary to establish the global fisheries. relationship between surface chlorophyll-a and the vertical biomass profile. 28 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

SMALL IS between the tip and the sample deflect the cantilever, enabling BEAUTIFUL the surface, and increasingly the internal structure of the PML endeavours to remain at sample to be imaged. Such is the forefront of marine scientific the resolving power of the AFM research and fundamental that it can be used at a molecular to this is keeping pace with scale and for studying the host technological developments that virus and the infection process produce better instruments for in a dynamic way, not applicable observations and measurement. to other options such as light or PML’s single-cell genomics electron microscopy, and hence laboratory houses the world’s fastest is especially valuable for PML’s studies of atomic force microscope (AFM), a piece algal viruses. A major advantage of the AFM of equipment that is especially useful in is that it does not require either a vacuum our scientists’ virus research. AFM relies or treatment, such as staining, of the on measuring, minute deflections of a sample. Because the image area scanned cantilever carrying a probe, which can at any point is very small, typically less provide stunning detail at sub-micron than 10x10 µm, scanning had been very resolutions. When the tip of the probe slow, but improvements have resulted in travels across the surface of a sample, increased speeds, culminating in PML’s either in contact or just above, the forces state-of-the-art AFM. SIZE 29 PML SUPPORTS HIGH ensure consistency between global nutrient datasets from across the world’s ocean, which QUALITY NUTRIENT is crucial in investigating future changes to the ANALYSIS nutrient concentrations in the ocean. As such, PML has been called upon to provide advice and guidance to manufacturers of the technical analytical equipment required for these precise nutrient measurements and analysis. One such product, and where PML are one of the ‘global release laboratories’, is the SEAL AA500 next generation Colorimetric Nutrient Autoanalyser. It will soon be installed and in operation at PML, and has been designed with input from PML. The AA500 with its increased sensitivity and reliability, even at sea during research cruises such as the Atlantic Meridional Transect, and other cruises, will further underpin and enhance PML’s global reputation in the marine nutrient analysis field. Nutrients in the oceans, such as nitrate, nitrite, silicate, phosphate and ammonium, are the building blocks that support the PML’s Nutrient Facility entire marine food web. Understanding how has provided nutrient organisms obtain, utilise and then transfer analysis data to many these hidden nutrient resources through groundbreaking trophic levels is essential to our understanding research cruises of oceanographic processes. Sophisticated and other projects ecosystem models rely on accurate worldwide, and measurements of the various nutrients to has contributed underpin our knowledge of ocean functions to more than 180 and how they may be affected as the natural scientific publications environment alters through the seasons, and into the future, under the influence of phenomena such as climate change. PML’s Nutrient Facility has for over 20 years provided high quality nutrient analysis data to many groundbreaking research cruises and other projects worldwide, and has contributed to more than 180 scientific publications over the last two decades. Globally the Nutrient Facility enjoys a high reputation for quality, and is in great demand as a provider of reliable, accurate data, and is a key part of the SCOR working group developing and using international nutrient reference materials. These will help 30 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

SMALL ORGANISMS, BIG PROBLEM

Shellfish aquaculture is big business and a coastal site and an estuarine environment, now, with 632,000 tonnes of bivalves being to test their methods. By analysing produced in 2016, accounts for around meta-data, combined with in situ, satellite 25% of European marine and aquaculture observation and meteorological nowcasts production. As a burgeoning industry set and forecasts, they were able to identify key to take up more of the slack from declining environmental drivers which, in turn, helped wild caught fisheries, shellfish aquaculture to develop models to predict biotoxins and may be a growth area but it can be brought the bacterium Escherichia coli in shellfish. to a standstill by the tiniest of organisms. They demonstrated that using such a Harmful algal blooms which produce toxins, generic approach could indeed predict E.coli and the often out-of-sight, out-of-mind living in shellfish in both the estuary and bacteria can bring rapid closure to shellfish coastal sites, even though they were quite farms. These closures may last for long different. The same modelling approach was periods causing financial loss and damage also able to predict biotoxin concentrations to reputations. Now a consortium, including within shellfish at the coastal site. Although scientists from PML, University of Exeter, absolute values of concentrations were the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and less accurate, they are of such a level as Aquaculture Science, and the Scottish support decisions to underpin decision Association for Marine Science have pooled making for shellfish farmers. The scientists their expertise to find a way to predict are confident that the models can be used at when such events are likely to happen. As the timescale of one week, so providing an part of the BBSRC-funded ShellEye early warning system which will give farmers project the scientists used increased faith in their product and help two contrasting areas, increase consumer confidence. SIZE 31

Plastic-dominated all our lives beach litter is with current easy to spot, but global production CURRENT GLOBAL these obvious of around 400 PRODUCTION OF accumulations million tonnes per year VIRGIN PLASTIC PLASTIC EVERY YEAR are only a part predicted to increase MANUFACTURED TO DATE of the plastic problem. Modern plastics four-fold by 2050. To have probably been entering the ocean date more than 8 billion tonnes of ‘virgin’ since Bakelite was invented in the early plastic has been manufactured, of which 6.3 20th Century; more familiar plastics were billion tonnes remains as waste; 79% of this developed in the 1930s plastic is buried in landfill or is at large in the and the real plastic natural environment with the potential to be boom began in the carried to the coast by winds and rivers. The post war years of the plastic beach litter, which is easy to spot on 1940s and 1950s and any shoreline, is only part of the continues to this day. millions of tonnes which enter As a cheap, durable, our seas every year adding flexible material plastic to the estimated total is now a firm fixture in of 150 million tonnes INCREASE IN PLASTIC that circulate in PRODUCTION BY 2050 ocean waters.

PLASTIC ESTIMATED TO BE IN THE OCEAN

VIRGIN PLASTIC THAT REMAINS AS VIRGIN PLASTIC WASTE TO DATE BURIED IN LANDFILL 32 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

SNIFFING OUT THE NEXT MEAL

Discovering that at least some zooplankton can ingest microplastics under laboratory conditions was a major breakthrough. Further work has shown that there are a number of factors, including size, shape, density and concentration, that determine which organisms actually ingest the particles, but in the natural environment this depends on whether a species actually encounters and interacts with such fragments. While some species, such as fulmars and turtles, may visually mistake plastic debris for food, such as ‘cuttlebones’, or plastic bags for jellyfish, there is some evidence that others may SIZE 33 MICRO PARTICLES, LARGE CHALLENGE

The ubiquitous nature of plastics in the out a review of micro-plastics research marine environment, recently highlighted and found that, to date, 39 species of in the BBC series Blue Planet II, has become zooplankton have been shown to ingest well known in the public arena. Imagery microplastics and of those, 45% were of whales, turtles and seabirds that have adversely affected; negative effects on become entangled in or have ingested feeding behaviour, reproduction, growth, plastic objects, mistaking them for food, development and lifespan were all reported. are a familiar though shocking sight. Less It has become clear through this review obvious but potentially as threatening to that size, shape, age and abundance all play marine life are the so-called microplastics, a part in making plastics available to the tiny fragments in the size range of 1µm to zooplankton, but also that the microplastics 5mm, which until recently have remained used in experiments differ markedly out of sight, and hence largely out of mind. from those found in the ‘wild’. The group PML researchers, and colleagues from other highlighted a need for: more information institutes, including the Universities of from field observations and sampling; Plymouth and Exeter, have collaborated standardisation of methods; using plastics in trying to gain better understanding of that truly represent those found in the field; where these tiny particles are accumulating more zooplankton species at various life in the sea, how they may be detected and stages deserve study; and investigations consumed by marine animals and what should look at how plastics bioaccumulate effects they may have. Zooplankton, toward and how the chemicals they contain impact the base of most marine food chains, has on zooplankton; and the risks associated been the subject of many investigations. with microplastics at cellular, organism, PML scientists and their co-workers carried population and ecosystem levels.

use chemosensory cues during foraging, which bringing chemosensory cues, prey and can lead to encounters with and consumption predators together with plastic particles. PML of plastics. One such cue involves the volatile had previously demonstrated that copepods compound dimethyl sulphide (DMS), which were capable of ingesting plastic particles, has been shown to be associated with annual but could DMS be implicated as an attractant coccolithophore and dinoflagellate blooms. The leading to more interaction? Experimental blooms increase the concentrations of DMS in work at PML has now shown, that nylon their surroundings and provide chemosensory microfibres can acquire volatile infochemicals species with a means to identify the location like DMS and for the first time that the of dense, palatable prey, effectively creating copepod Calanus helgolandicus is stimulated an olfactory map. Dense patches of primary to graze on microfibres exposed to DMS. Many production are often associated with ocean questions surround responses and sensitivity to features such as seamounts, upwelling areas infochemicals but this research does hint that and fronts, areas where plastics are also species utilising DMS to detect prey may be at suspected of accumulating, so potentially heightened risk of ingesting plastics. 34 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk PLASTIC SPOTTING satellite mounted sensors our knowledge of the ocean surface has grown exponentially in recent years. Now scientists from PML have been Plastic beach litter is sadly all too easy to see working on the European Space Agency-funded along almost any shoreline. Plastics, especially Optical Methods for Marine Litter Detection smaller fragments and micro-particles, at sea (OptiMaL) project designed to test the feasibility are usually much more difficult to detect. of using such satellite technology to not only Knowing where, when and how plastics are detect large plastics floating on the sea, but also accumulating, and how much there is at sea are small microplastics in the layers just below the essential data if we are to attempt any form of mitigation or clean-up operations to reduce sea surface. Literally ‘ground-truthing,’ the team risks to marine life. Currently data on marine used hand-held spectroradiometers to measure plastics is collected at a limited number of sites, the optical properties of known plastic materials often where plastic pollution is obvious. In laid out on a local beach. The timings of in situ the open ocean, data on plastic distribution is measurements were precisely calculated sparse at best and usually non-existent, due to to coincide with ESA’s Sentinel 2 satellite the inaccessibility of vast tracts of the global overpass, while additional testing of sensors ocean, high costs incurred in sampling and lack was made possible thanks to support from of appropriate standardised methods. the Natural Environment Research Council’s Airborne Research Facility, with simultaneous Satellite remote sensing has been developed, aircraft flights over the area, carrying state- refined and utilised for observing many ocean of-the-art radiometers. Each approach was parameters, including using the way light designed to verify what the other methods ‘saw’ reflects from the sea-surface to measure and how closely they matched the reference chlorophyll, a proxy for plankton. Thanks to measurements. When it came to larger plastic SIZE 35

SEALS CONSUME Microplastics are a widespread pollutant of the marine environment that can be MICROPLASTICS VIA inadvertently consumed by zooplankton, THEIR PREY fish and even large filter-feeders, such as whales. Now, for the first time, PML scientists and colleagues at the University of Exeter have shown that microplastics within fish can transfer to marine debris the results are very promising with the predators at the top of the food chain. test samples being detected by the passing satellite. The detection was further improved by Researchers analysed scat (faeces) from using the aircraft-borne sensors ‘tuned’ to the captive grey seals and the digestive tracts correct wavelength of the reflected light from of the wild-caught Atlantic mackerel a particular plastic composition. The next step the seals were fed upon. One third of is to develop sensors and algorithms for other the mackerel and half of the seal-scat common types of plastic. In parallel, laboratory samples contained microplastics, a finding experiments were carried out to see if a similar that demonstrates a process known as approach could be used for the microplastics trophic transfer, whereby prey containing which, being very small, are not so visually microplastics are consumed by predators obvious. The idea is that microplastics at the and the synthetic particles move up the sea surface might alter any chlorophyll signal food web as a result. This process has and hence the ocean colour perceived by an previously been observed in animals overhead satellite sensor. The researchers lower down the food chain, such as found that the reflectance (a measure of ocean mussels and crabs, but this study is the colour) changed spectrally as a function of first to provide evidence of it occurring the inherent optical spectral properties of the in marine mammals. microplastics as well as due to their size and concentration, and these factors influenced By observing captive seals, the possibility the likelihood of a change in ocean colour that the pollutants had come from being picked up by current sensors. The results anywhere other than the wild fish they highlighted the need for further investigation consumed was eliminated. The research in more realistic natural settings, to guide the shows that trophic transfer is an indirect, design of refined sensors capable of detection yet potentially major, route of microplastic of microplastic in the ocean. ingestion for these top predators. 36 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

PML’s pioneering science is underpinned by excellent facilities and world-leading researchers. State-of-the-art autonomous data buoys and RV Plymouth Quest complement the ongoing sampling and measurements in the Western Channel. At PML the laboratories have just undergone a £5.4 million refurbishment, ensuring they remain at the cutting edge of marine science research. FUTURE 37

PHYTOPLANKTON were affected. The reduction in opportunity to interact at the coast and reductions in IMPACTS WELL-BEING experiences important for well-being such as relaxation, stress reduction and inspiration were Harmful algal blooms (HABs) may occur when highlighted. The research revealed that impacts conditions encourage an explosive growth of of HABs can be felt at a much deeper level than phytoplankton. Depending on the algal species any purely economic or health analysis might generating a bloom, HABs can prove toxic to fish indicate. Also while economic losses might and shellfish, which may in turn be consumed be significant there can be the opportunity by humans and thus produce a health risk. to switch to alternative economically viable Other HAB-related problems include clogging activities which might mitigate some of the of nets and areas of depleted oxygen. For local losses; cultural ecosystem services and communities, reliant on coastal seas for their disbenefits may not be compensated for in any livelihoods, HABs can cause serious financial other way. Furthermore, these losses may be hardship, with knock-on societal impacts. It is the unsustainable and have wider impact across more obvious economic and health impacts that, communities as well as for individuals. They understandably, have attracted most attention suggest that even though the sample was small, and little regard has been paid to the more it does indicate that impacts are much broader nuanced impacts of HABs, such as disruption than the obvious, and that recognition of the to therapeutic and inspirational opportunities, benefits of coastal and marine environments opportunities for recreation, aesthetic for human well-being should lead to a greater enjoyment, and losses to traditional ways of integration of cultural ecosystem services into life, sense of place and collective identity. PML HAB management. This brief project sheds and University of Exeter researchers were able light on the need for better understanding of to gain a ‘snapshot’ of how six local residents in impacts on cultural ecosystem services from Cornwall, in an area regularly impacted by HABs, environmental ‘shocks’. 38 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

POLAR PRODUCTION OF DMS RESILIENT TO OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

PML scientists, aiming to better understand to vary across different regions, however; Dimethylsulfide (DMS) production in polar experiments on board research cruises waters, have this year discovered that it found that the polar oceans appear to be could be more resilient to the challenge of resilient to OA and would be relatively ocean acidification (OA) than expected. unchanged. This is in contrast to previous research that revealed temperate oceans DMS is a trace gas and a key ingredient in could be more sensitive to OA, which would the chemical cocktail constantly exchanged result in changing levels of DMS emissions. between ocean and atmosphere. Emissions With this discovery, the researchers have of DMS – produced by plankton – are an enabled a greater understanding of how important part of climate and atmospheric DMS production might respond to changing processes, with DMS from the polar oceans conditions, and, in noting the variation in making a significant contribution. response across regions, highlighted a key characteristic that must be taken These polar oceans are thought to into account when using DMS emissions be particularly vulnerable to OA. DMS to predict and understand the planet’s production and its response to OA appears future climate. FUTURE 39 TIMESCALES AND DISSOLVED ORGANIC CARBON

Assessing the capacity of the ocean to store ecosystem models, which cannot consider atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) has been the long-lasting fractions of RDOC and so are a major challenge to oceanographers and an not able to simulate their accumulation on essential ingredient in understanding how scales longer then seasonal. A major challenge climate change may progress or be mitigated. is representing the large number of diverse Various mechanisms have been proposed to molecules that degrade at different rates. explain how CO2 is taken from the sea surface Trying to model this unmanageable range to the ocean interior where it may be stored of variables would prove both difficult and over differing time frames. Physical processes computationally expensive for little reliable such as the solubility pump may drive this, result. Working with colleagues PML modellers while interactions between biology and physics have now proposed a way around this by the so-called ‘biological carbon pump’ (BCP) using a computationally ‘light’ framework, is another mechanism. PML researchers have capable of representing the entire spectrum contributed to understanding the more recently of DOC degradation rates, which can work as proposed additional carbon sequestration standalone or be implemented into models mechanism, the microbial carbon pump (MCP). of varying complexity. Further development, The main process of the MCP involves bacteria assessment and evaluation against known transforming rapidly degradable dissolved properties of the DOC pool is necessary; only inorganic carbon (DOC) into recalcitrant, or after rigorous, experimentally-based validation slowly degradable, RDOC. RDOC may accumulate can the model be used for reliable prediction of in the ocean at timescales of months to MCP dynamics. However, the scientists point millennia and sequester atmospheric CO2 into out, the ability to place RDOC into climate model stable, long-lived organic molecules. Since the simulations will provide a powerful and relevant MCP is ubiquitous across the oceans even small hypothesis testing tool, in fully understanding alterations in its functioning due to climate the fate of atmospheric carbon in the ocean. change could impact on global biogeochemical cycles. RDOC production may not be affected by physical processes, but they can affect its fate and distribution, so influencing the strength and efficiency of the MCP. The MCP represents an exciting additional mechanism but, being new, it is the least understood and remains underrepresented in 40 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

marine environment, under the pressures of fishing and environmental factors. This form of modelling, combining important indicators and environmental change, can help with sustainable exploitation of fished stocks by helping policy makers consider how wild populations are impacted by changing, warmer and more acidic oceans into the future. Although widely used in the study and management of wild populations exploited by commercial fishing, these types of indicators, based on fish size, have not previously been used alongside predictions of future conditions in line with expected climate change. In UK and European waters, as in many other regions of the world, fish WARMER WATER, populations are responding very clearly to warmer ocean conditions, exhibiting FEWER BIG FISH smaller individual sizes alongside other more complex evolutionary processes. It has been A new study, led by Plymouth Marine suggested that rising water temperatures Laboratory (PML), has found that the in the North Sea, for example, are driving proportion of large fish in the North Sea down fish size in key species. By modelling may decrease as climate change unfolds, North Sea fish populations alongside by as much as 60% in some areas. The predicted climate change scenarios for Large effects of warmer waters and ocean Fish Indicator, scientists have shown how acidification may mean proposed fisheries climate change may affect fish communities, management targets based on fish size and what it may mean for fisheries. Policy could be unachievable if the effects of targets regulating the fishing industry environmental change on fish size are not already take into account scientific advice considered. Using state-of-the-art modelling at present, but this advice rarely takes into and comparison with real-life surveys, account how climate is and will continue the researchers demonstrated they can to impact wild populations. The models simulate how fish size is changing in our produced by the scientists can be used to explore how environmental impacts on fish size can be taken into account within Rising temperatures in the policy target setting into the future. Without North Sea are driving down fish this consideration, these targets may be size in key species. The proportion unachievable and place undue pressure on of large fish in the North Sea livelihoods depending on fishing. By taking may decrease as climate change account of the likely impacts on ecosystems unfolds, by as much as 60% we can better understand the consequences of our activities and the suitability of management plans and improve our assessments of marine biodiversity. FUTURE 41

£5.4 MILLION contamination of samples being investigated. Constant temperature rooms allow scientists REFURBISHMENT to mimic climatic conditions from polar to FOR THE FUTURE tropical. Nutrient and chemistry facilities have been updated to ensure PML continues its strong track record in understanding climate The end of 2018 saw the completion of PML’s change and gas exchange between ocean major modernisation project which involved and atmosphere. The molecular matrix houses a complete refurbishment of the building some of the most advanced equipment in to reflect new directions in PML’s marine the world, including the fastest atomic force research, and growing issues facing the marine environment. The £5.4 million project was microscope, for investigating and culturing largely funded by the Natural Environment marine organisms, down to the DNA level. Research Council (NERC) with further financial The next generation too is well catered for input from PML. Included in the refurbishment with a brand new teaching laboratory, while are new laboratories such as a state-of-the-art dedicated facilities for continuing PML’s work microscopy facility, laboratories to investigate in the Western Channel Observatory include, light and noise pollution and its impacts on workshops to develop new technologies and coastal marine life and a dedicated plastics buoy maintenance, and direct links to offshore laboratory, built as a clean space to avoid any data buoys. 42 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

PML’s research remains highly relevant to understanding the world ocean as a provider of goods and services to humanity and as a complex series of ecosystems supporting a wealth of marine life. The excellence of this work is reflected by PML’s publication record, the demand on its staff as expert contributors to reports, meetings and inquiries. The impact of PML’s research is recognised through various awards and its reach. PERFORMANCE 43

PUBLICATIONS, IMPACT & REACH PML scientists have continued to be highly active in generating new scientific publications, producing a total of 151 peer reviewed papers, for which the average impact factor has increased by 2.9% on 2017 publications.

Assessment of alternative metrics indicates that, of these papers 20 are already in the top 5% of all research outputs scored by Altmetric – a tool that captures alternative metrics, such as digital and social media. In addition, PML papers This year has seen PML perform very strongly from 2018 had a total of 4,078 mentions by across the organization. social media, digital news outlets, policy and other sources. PML’s 2018 publications were CONTRACT SUCCESS picked up via Twitter by 2,556 unique tweeters Firstly, PML scientists have been successful in 91 countries as far afield as Canada and in winning new contracts across a wide range New Zealand, and by on-line news outlets of subjects. Significant projects that started in countries such as Japan and India, thus during the year include: demonstrating that PML research is relevant to a global audience. • Jellyfish and Seaweed Surveillance (JASS):

partnering with EDF Energy in the UK Importantly, PML research has also been • Rehabilitation of Vibrio-infested waters of used by policy makers, with PML scientists Lake Vembanad, Kerala, India (REVIVAL): contributing to the UN Food & Agriculture partnering with other UK and Indian Organization’s publication “Impacts of Climate scientists Change on Fisheries & Aquaculture” and to • Natural Capital Approach: a PML led, Defra publications by the UK government, including funded project which aims to understand the Government Office for Science report on further the economic and social benefits of the Future of the Sea, and the Defra Science our natural assets Advisory Council’s Recommendations to inform • Two Arctic Ocean focused projects – a UK ocean acidification monitoring strategy. Pathways and Emissions of climate-relevant TRace gases in a changing Arctic Ocean PML scientists also contributed during the year (PETRA), and Changing Arctic Carbon cycle in to parliamentary inquiries on Sustainable Seas the cOastal Ocean Near-shore (CACOON) and Nitrate Pollution.

In addition PML became a leading partner in the major research programme Climate Linked Atlantic Sector Science (CLASS), a £22M, five year programme, funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), which commenced in 2018 and is investigating the impacts of climate change and human activities on the Atlantic Ocean. 44 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

WIDER RECOGNITION • Prof. Mel Austen was appointed to the UK PML appreciates the recognition given to the Government’s Natural Capital Committee achievements of the organization as a whole, by the Minister of the Department for and to individuals. Below are some of the Environment, Food & Rural Affairs highlights from the year: • Dr Bob Brewin was awarded Remote Sensing Young Investigator 2018 • PML’s microplastics researchers, with • Prof. Ralph Rayner, Trustee, was awarded the colleagues from the Universities of Exeter Alan Greig Memorial Prize for Oceanography and Plymouth, were not only winners of the at Oceanology International 2018. Societal Impact team award category, but • Dr Pierre Cazenave won the annual video overall winners of the NERC Impact Awards competition held by the UK’s National 2018. These prestigious national awards are Supercomputing Service (ARCHER), to held every 3 years and the team was chosen demonstrate the contribution of the service because of the global impact of its work. to outstanding research. • PML was runner up in the Plymouth Business • Athena Swan bronze level accreditation: Awards Apprenticeship Development PML became one of fewer than 500 Programme category. award-holders in the UK. Such an award demonstrates that PML has a progressive PARTNERS NEAR & FAR and inclusive culture within the workplace. PML works at the strategic and project level • Prof. Stephen de Mora was honoured with with partners locally, regionally, nationally the Society for Underwater Technology’s and internationally. The year has witnessed a Oceanography Award in December for his number of new projects, events and initiatives contributions to the field of oceanography. demonstrating PML’s engagement with PERFORMANCE 45 partners and the collaborative nature of Nationally, PML has been partnering Natural PML’s research. Environment Council (NERC) Centres in National Capability (https://www.pml.ac.uk/Research/ At the local level there has been a surge of NERC_National_Capability) projects which span marine science and technology related activities. topics such as UK Earth system modelling, land- PML was delighted to be part of the successful ocean carbon transfer, the North Atlantic climate proposal for European Regional Development system and ocean regulation of climate through funding for the Marine Business Technology heat and carbon sequestration and transports. Centre, which also involves Plymouth City Council, the Universities of Exeter and Internationally, PML has been involved in Plymouth, and the Marine Biological Association. several initiatives: The Marine Business Technology Centre, which has its base in the Oceansgate Enterprise Global Ocean Acidification Observing Zone, Plymouth, will provide a new and Network (GOA-ON): PML now hosts the dedicated service to marine businesses North-East Atlantic regional hub of this to enable them to test and develop new important network to serve European countries technologies in the waters principally in that are conducting monitoring and other ocean and around Plymouth Sound. acidification activities within the region. The inaugural workshop of this regional hub will In June Plymouth hosted the Marine Tech take place in March 2019. Further information Expo, in which PML and its commercial trading can be found at https://www.pml.ac.uk/ subsidiary, PML Applications Ltd, took an active Research/Projects/North_East_Atlantic_hub_ part. The event showcased the latest in marine of_the_Global_Ocean_Acidif autonomy and demonstrated the region’s strength in depth in marine related technology East Asian Seas Congress: In November PML to a wide audience. participated in the East Asian Seas Congress, in the Philippines. PML’s presence was realised 46 PML ANNUAL REVIEW 2018 www.pml.ac.uk

through a speaker in the Sea Exchange session, the methods required for macrofaunal sample convening sessions relating to the blue collections, processing and analysis. This course economy and satellite observations, and an will be repeated in 2019. exhibition stand. ESTABLISHING STRONG UN Climate Change Conference including FOUNDATIONS COP24: Organizations (amongst them PML), Our first two apprentices, who have been policy makers, government officials and media generously supported by the Lloyd’s Register from all over the world this year congregated in Foundation, completed their apprenticeships Poland for the climate talks. PML led an official in late summer, having both passed the event, with the UN Secretary General’s Special Laboratory Technician Apprenticeship Standard. Envoy for the Ocean, and a UK government Both apprentices have now brought the skills minister as speakers at this event. PML was they have developed to their new open-ended also engaged in side events in the Great Britain, appointments at PML. WWF, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and Pacific pavilions, and contributed PML was also delighted with its success in as an organizer of the Oceans Action Day. obtaining funding from the Ernest Solvay Fund of the King Baudouin Foundation, to help towards the second year of training and development of a third apprentice.

PARTNERSHIPS FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS PML is a partner with various universities and research organizations in a number of Doctoral Training Partnerships (DTPs) which offer postgraduate studentships. In October 2018 three new PhD students, funded through the INVESTING IN NEW PEOPLE DTPs, started their studies in topics at PML, AND RESEARCH AREAS joined by a fourth in November, funded through In addition to investment in the fabric of the XL-Caitlin to monitor Arctic ocean acidification building and facilities, the PML Board also took from space using satellite Earth observations. the decision in 2018 to invest funds from its reserves in two new postdoctoral research PML has also worked with the University of positions, focusing on new areas of research at Exeter in providing a marine fieldwork course the boundary between research/innovation and which enables their students to experience commercialisation. These posts will be taken working at sea in the Western Channel, learning up in 2019. PERFORMANCE 47

L4, which is part of the Western Channel Observatory (WCO), through a science day. An audience of 100 people from 20 different organizations attended the event, with emphasis on the importance of long-term data, and the uniqueness of the WCO.

IN FRONT OF, AND BEHIND, THE CAMERA As global awareness of the plastic problem grew, so our scientists working in this area of research became more in demand, with filming undertaken at PML during the year for COMMUNICATION & STAKEHOLDER a feature-length documentary entitled Plastic ENGAGEMENT Britain, as well as for the series Earth Rise, an Communication of PML’s science and related ITV news broadcast on World Oceans Day in activities to a wide audience of stakeholders June, and several other programmes. PML’s is an important component of not only our Communications Team also produce short scientists’ but also professional videos on a variety of research projects communicators’ roles. which can be viewed on PML’s YouTube channel at https://www.youtube.com/user/ This year saw the conclusion of a UK-wide, PMLAdministrator/videos NERC and Defra funded, project led by PML – the Marine Ecosystems Research Programme (MERP). In April stakeholders, including policy makers, environmental managers, and academics gathered to learn of the outcomes from the project. Information on how MERP has addressed policy questions can be found using interactive materials at https://marine- ecosystems.org.uk/Research_outcomes/ Policy_Interactive

April also saw PML having a presence at the Commonwealth Summit Ocean Science Session event, leading on the ocean acidification stand.

PML was delighted to be invited to contribute MAKING DIGITAL COUNT material to the Eden Project’s Invisible Worlds PML increased its social media reach in 2018, exhibition, which was launched in May, and is adding a further 1657 followers to its Twitter predicted to have an audience of nearly 1 million following alone, with total impressions over the visitors per year. year being just shy of 1 million, and engagement having also increased. In addition to its principal In the autumn PML marked the anniversary of Twitter feed, PML launched a Twitter account 30 years of continuous sampling at station dedicated to its publications – @PMLPapers PML YEAR

PML scientists and PML CE Prof Stephen deMora Defra-supported North East PML’s Pierre Cazenave PML’s animated film made by colleagues at Exeter and receives Oceanography Atlantic Ocean Acidification hub wins top video prize local students at Ridgeway Plymouth Universities win Award from Society for for monitoring and research, for CCS related School celebrates 10th birthday prestigious Impact Award Underwater Technology. opens at PML. animation. with Japanese translation. from NERC.

PML scientists contributed to PML scientists join Changing PML partners in £22m research Impact Lab launched. PML is a partner in comprehensive FAO report Arctic Ocean Seafloor cruise, programme to investigate impacts £6.4m initiative to solve global “The Impacts of Climate Change Two new Arctic projects to of climate change and human environmental and Big Data challenges. on Fisheries and Aquaculture.” be led by PML. activities on the Atlantic Ocean.

PML’s Prof. Mel anie Austen appointed PML successfully achieves Surfing scientist, Bob Brewin from PML Trustee Ralph Rayner awarded to the UK Government’s Natural Bronze level Athena Swan PML’s Earth Observation group, Alan Grieg Memorial Prize at capital Committee. accreditation. awarded Remote Sensing Young Oceanology International for his Investigator 2018, for his work ‘outstanding contributions to combining satellite data and commercial and operational citizen science. oceanography.

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