of wetlands in the Avon region of wetlands in the Avon By Susan Jones, Cara Francis, Anna Leung and Adrian Pinder By Susan Jones, Cara Francis, Anna Aquatic invertebrates and waterbirds Aquatic invertebrates

Aquatic invertebrates and waterbirds of wetlands in the Avon region Authors: Susan Jones, Cara Francis, Anna Leung and Adrian Pinder.

Publisher: Department of Environment and Conservation, Locked Bag 104, Bentley Delivery Centre, Western Australia 6983. Visit DEC’s website at www.dec.wa.gov.au.

Editor: Samille Mitchell.

Design: Spice Creative.

Cover photograpy: Main: Banded stilt. Photo - Babs and Bert Wells/ DEC. Insets left to right: Gyraulus hesperus (snail), salt lake, aerial photo of typical salt lake chain found in the Avon. Photos - Wetlands group/DEC Science Division

Copyright DEC 2009

ISBN: 978-1-921703-02-7

Acknowledgements

This publication is supported by Wheatbelt Natural Resource Management Incorporated, through funding from the Australian and the Western Australian governments.

The authors would like to thank the following people for their valuable contributions:

Brian Timms (University of Newcastle and Australian Museum), Jim Lane (DEC), Rebecca Palumbo (Wheatbelt Natural Resource Management Incorporated), Paul Blechynden (DEC), Russell Shiel (University of Adelaide), Mike Lyons (DEC), Natalie Nicholson (DEC) and Lance Mudgway (DEC).

Invertebrate photos displayed in this book are courtesy of the Wetlands group, Science Division/DEC.

Common names and scientific names of waterbirds used in this booklet are consistent with the most up to date CSIRO/Australian Museum avian taxonomic list available at the time of printing (Christidis and Boles, 2008). Aquatic invertebrates and waterbirds of wetlands in the Avon region

By Susan Jones, Cara Francis, Anna Leung and Adrian Pinder Contents

Foreword 6 Waterbirds 70 Introduction 8 Ducks and swans 72 Wetlands in the region 12 Ducks and swans Chestnut teal Anas castanea 73 Invertebrates 26 (Family Anatidae) Grey teal Anas gracilis 74 Australasian shoveler Anas rhynchotis 75 Rotifers Rotifers 28 Pacific black duck Anas superciliosa 76 Worms and leeches Flatworms Phylum Platyhelminthes 30 Hardhead Aythya australis 77 Roundworms Phylum Nematoda 31 Musk duck Biziura lobata 78 Freshwater leeches Class Clitellata 32 Australian wood duck Chenonetta jubata 79 Aquatic earthworms Class Clitellata 33 or oligochaetes Black swan Cygnus atratus 80 Bristleworms Class Polychaeta 34 Mute swan Cygnus olor 81 Molluscs Salt lake snails Class Gastropoda 35 Pink-eared duck Malacorhynchus membranaceus 82 Freshwater snails Class Gastropoda 36 Blue-billed duck Oxyura australis 83 Mussels Class Bivalvia 37 Freckled duck Stictonetta naevosa 84 Water mites Water mites 38 Australian shelduck Tadorna tadornoides 85 Crustaceans Copepods Order Copepoda 40 Seed shrimps Order Ostracoda 42 Waterhens, coots and crakes 86 Water fleas Order Cladocera 44 Waterhens, coots Eurasian coot Fulica atra 87 Clam shrimp Orders Laevicaudata 46 and crakes Dusky moorhen Gallinula tenebrosa 88 and Spinicaudata (Family Rallidae) Purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio 89 Shield shrimp Order Notostraca 47 Australian spotted crake Porzana fluminea 90 Brine shrimp Order Anostraca 48 Baillon’s crake Porzana pusilla 91 Fairy shrimp Order Anostraca 49 Black-tailed native hen Tribonyx ventralis 92 Side swimmers Order Amphipoda 50 Water slaters Order Isopoda 51 Freshwater prawns Order Decapoda 52 Swamp harriers Yabbies Order Decapoda 53 Swamp harriers Swamp harrier Circus approximans 93 (Family Accipitridae) Insects Flies Order Diptera 54 Caddisflies Order Trichoptera 60 Grebes 94 Moths and butterflies Order Lepidoptera 62 Grebes Great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus 95 Mayflies Order Ephemeroptera 63 (Family Podicipedidae) Hoary-headed grebe Poliocephalus poliocephalus 96 Damselflies and dragonflies Order Odonata 64 Australasian grebe Tachybaptus novaehollandiae 97 Water bugs Order Hemiptera 66 Beetles Order Coleoptera 68 2 3 Contents

Cormorants and darters 98 Stilts and avocets Banded stilt Cladorhynchus leucocephalus 126 Darters Australasian darter Anhinga novaehollandiae 99 (Family Recurvirostridae) Black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus 127 (Family Anhingidae) Red-necked avocet Recurvirostra novaehollandiae 128 Cormorants Little pied cormorant Microcarbo melanoleucos 100 Sandpipers and allies Common sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos 130 (Family Great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo 101 (Family Scolopacidae) Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres 131 Phalacrocoracidae) Little black cormorant Phalacrocorax sulcirostris 102 Sharp-tailed sandpiper Calidris acuminata 132 Pied cormorant Phalacrocorax varius 103 Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea 133 Red-necked stint Calidris ruficollis 134 Pelicans 104 Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica 135 Little curlew Numenius minutus 136 Pelicans (Family Australian pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus 105 Pelecanidae) Wood sandpiper Tringa glareola 137 Common greenshank Tringa nebularia 138 Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis 139 Large wading birds 106 Egrets and bitterns Eastern great egret Ardea modesta 107 (Family Ardeidae) White-necked heron Ardea pacifica 108 Australasian bittern Botaurus poiciloptilus 109 Gulls and terns 140 White-faced heron Egretta novaehollandiae 110 Gulls and terns (Family Whiskered tern Chlidonias hybrida 141 Nankeen night heron Nycticorax caledonicus 111 Laridae) Silver gull Chroicocephalus 142 Spoonbills and ibis Yellow-billed spoonbill Platalea flavipes 112 novaehollandiae (Family Royal spoonbill Platalea regia 114 Gull-billed tern Gelochelidon nilotica 143 Threskiornithidae) Glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus 115 Australian white ibis Threskiornis molucca 116 Reed warblers and grassbirds 144 Straw-necked ibis Threskiornis spinicollis 117 Reed warblers Australian reed-warbler Acrocephalus australis 144 (Family Acrocephalidae) Little grassbird Little grassbird Megalurus gramineus 145 Shorebirds 118 (Family Megaluridae) Plovers and lapwings Red-capped plover Charadrius ruficapillus 119 (Family Charadriidae) Black-fronted dotterel Elseyornis melanops 120 Glossary 146 Red-kneed dotterel Erythrogonys cinctus 121 Grey plover Pluvialis squatarola 122 Bibliography 150 Hooded plover Thinornis rubricollis 123 Notes on your wetland 153 Banded lapwing Vanellus tricolor 124

4 5 Foreword

More than 23,000 wetlands of on granite outcrops). This means the into lakes formerly the preserve of our various types and sizes have south-west of Western Australia is a native brine shrimps, Parartemia spp. been mapped in the Avon region biodiversity hot spot for many groups It is well recognised that wetlands in during the past few years. These of aquatic animals, just as it is for the Avon region are continuing to were highly valued by the original flowering plants. decline due to salinisation, acidification inhabitants of the region as well Wetlands are intriguing and weed invasion, and a changing as early European settlers. Aside ecosystems where the interplay of climate will have consequences for from being places of great beauty geomorphology, hydrology, water these wetlands that are as yet hard to and an integral part of south-west chemistry and biology can often be predict. This book fills a basic need for ecosystems, they were also sources more easily observed than elsewhere. amateurs and, yes professionals too, of food and provided water for Basic to these observations is the in the study and greater appreciation stock. Some early naturalists found ability to recognise the conspicuous of our wetlands and their unique an incredible diversity of life and animal and plant components. For animals. Invertebrates are categorised reported fascinating adaptations to plants and birds this is usually possible and many are illustrated, making it the pulse of the seasons. Barbara with the wealth of books available, less daunting to become familiar with York Main, then of Yorkrakine, but often impossible for invertebrates, the huge array of invertebrate life. Brian has been at the forefront of research into Australian wetlands recorded her discoveries in ‘Between partially due to a dearth of books, The notes on each group provide an Wodjil and Tor’ published in 1967. and their invertebrates for over but also to a lack of exposure to insight into their diverse and fascinating 40 years. Saline lakes have been Others, like Professor Dakin and invertebrates in our education. biology. The inclusion of waterbirds, a particular interest and, more overseas scientists represented by with notes on their ecology, add to the recently, fairy, brine and clam shrimps of the arid-zone. The Folk Linder, named some of the The diversity of waterbirds and usefulness of the book, if for no other especially invertebrates gives us Australian Society of Limnologists unique aquatic species. reason than saving on trouser pockets (scientists who study inland waters) important clues to the functioning to carry other references into the field. awarded Brian the prestigious Jolly In recent years, scientists from the of a wetland, so besides being While the book is written for the Avon Medal in 2002 for his works on Department of Environment and lakes all over Australia. a pleasurable pastime, their catchment, it will be useful across the Conservation, assisted by university identification is one of basic rest of the Wheatbelt and Goldfields, academics, consultants and museum importance to wetland studies. and even to some degree beyond the workers have been investigating the All of us can be involved, whether State. Just the wonderful images of region’s aquatic biodiversity more it be by identifying a few animals invertebrates are a joy to behold. comprehensively. The scientific world in a degraded wetland, or doing is still coming to terms with the a seasonal study or life history huge diversity of more than 1,000 investigation on healthier wetlands species of aquatic invertebrates in the such as freshwater swamps, farm Wheatbelt. Many of these species are dams, naturally saline lakes or rock Brian Timms, B. Sc (Hons), Ph D., D. Sc not known from anywhere else in the pools on granite outcrops. Many Conjoint Professor, world and this is especially true of the changes are occurring and, of University of Newcastle naturally saline playas and ephemeral particular concern, is the spread of and Honorary Research Associate, freshwater wetlands (including pools the alien brine shrimp, Artemia spp., Australian Museum 6 7 Introduction

The Avon Natural Resource estimated that wetlands and granite The term wetland refers to any area Climate Management region straddles one of outcrops occupy nearly 750,000 of land that is either permanently The Avon region has a typically the world’s biodiversity hotspots and hectares, or just over six per cent of or temporarily inundated, or Mediterranean to semi-arid climate. is widely acknowledged for its diverse the surface area of the region. The waterlogged, where the presence This creates hot summers and cooler and endemic flora. However, there region has the largest expanse of salt of water influences the biota and winters, with most rainfall occurring is far less knowledge or recognition lake chains found in Australia (and ecological processes occurring. In in winter, except for rare low pressure of the unique and diverse fauna probably the world) and many of the the Avon region, this includes lakes, systems that can bring extensive rains inhabiting the region’s wetlands. invertebrates found in these wetlands swamps, marshes, granite outcrop in summer. Average annual rainfall This book explores the surprising are endemic because they have evolved pools, claypans, dams, creeks, rivers ranges from 250 to 300 millimetres in diversity of aquatic invertebrates and to cope with salinity and temporary and floodplains. the east to 500 to 600 millimetres in waterbirds living in wetlands of the presence of water in isolation from the west. Average annual evaporation Avon region. other regions, and have therefore History of the region rates range from around 2,400 diversified over time. The wetlands The Avon region was originally millimetres in the north-east of the The Avon region is located in the supporting these communities populated by the Nyoongar people, region to 1,600 millimetres in the south-west of Western Australia. It continue to be threatened by a range comprising multiple dialect groups south-west. The combination of encompasses an area that is nearly 12 of impacts, including weed invasion, from different parts of the region. low and variable rainfall and high million hectares or around twice the altered hydrology, nutrient enrichment, Wetlands are an important part of evaporation rates in the eastern size of Tasmania. Within that area it is salinisation and acidification. Aboriginal culture as communities parts creates very unpredictable and regularly congregated around temporary water availability. watering holes. Granite outcrops are particularly significant as they often Regions within the Avon have deep rock holes (gnammas) The Interim Biogeographic that fill with water and were used Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) for water supply. The gnammas divides Australia into 85 regions based were either covered with stone on climate, geology, landform and slabs to prevent evaporation and flora and fauna communities. There contamination of the water, or filled are five main IBRA subregions in the with sticks or branches to enable Avon (shown in Figure 1 on page 8), animals to climb out. which are: Northern Jarrah Forest, European settlers first arrived in Avon-Wheatbelt 1 and 2, Western the region in the 1830s and the Mallee and Southern Cross. A very area of land cleared for agriculture small area of the Fitzgerald IBRA continued to expand until the 1970s subregion also reaches into the Avon to’ 80s. This has resulted in significant region but this is not discussed further. changes to the landscape and quality of wetland environments, including salinisation and altered hydrology. Figure 1: Location of the Avon Natural Resource Management region showing the extent of wetlands, IBRA subregions and the location of nationally significant wetlands. 8 9 Introduction

Northern Jarrah Forest subregion but many of these are becoming The Northern Jarrah Forest subregion salinised. Vegetation consists of a is in the ‘zone of rejuvenated mosaic of scrub and woodlands. drainage’ and only covers the very western boundary of the Avon region Avon Wheatbelt 2 subregion on the eastern slopes of the Darling This subregion is in the ‘zone of Range. The underlying soils are rejuvenated drainage’ (west of the Archaean granite and metamorphic Meckering Line – a geological fault line rocks capped by an extensive lateritic that separates the ‘zone of rejuvenated duricrust, broken by occasional drainage’ from the ‘zone of ancient granite hills. Vegetation in this part drainage’) and has gently rolling is dominated by jarrah-marri forest. hills and abrupt granite breakaways. Wetlands in this subregion are mostly Wetlands in this region generally isolated freshwater swamps and consist of waterways that flow in most lakes, or waterways flowing into years and isolated swamps, granite the Avon River, some of which have rock pools and lakes that either remain become saline. fresh or have salinised. Vegetation includes woodlands of wandoo, York Avon Wheatbelt 1 subregion gum and salmon gum with jam, Unseasonable rains in January 2006 transformed the lakes north of Lakelands Nature Reserve into a river. Photo – Lance Mudgway/DEC Narrogin This subregion constitutes the Casuarina, and some areas of heath. western part of the ‘zone of ancient drainage’. It is flat with ancient river Western Mallee subregion saline groundwater on clay soils. extensive salt lake chains such as Lake systems that have filled in and now The Western Mallee subregion Vegetation mostly consists of mallee Deborah East and West, which very form a series of braided channels constitutes the southern part of woodlands that vary with soil type. rarely overflow downstream. Isolated that connect thousands of naturally the ‘zone of ancient drainage’ freshwater swamps and claypans are saline wetlands. The confluence and is formed by clays and silts Southern Cross subregion also present in the region. Due to the of four river systems occurs in this that are underlain by kankar, The Southern Cross subregion is mostly semi-arid climate, the large salt lakes region: the Salt, Yilgarn, Lockhart exposed granite (granite outcrops), east of the clearing line and constitutes are frequently dry for years at a time, and Mortlock rivers. These now only sandplains and laterite pavements. the eastern part of the ’zone of ancient but then hold water for considerable function as waterways in years of Three major naturally saline systems drainage’. Gently undulating yellow periods after especially heavy rainfall high rainfall, when they may feed into drain northwards to converge into and gravelly sandplains are underlain events. Vegetation mostly consists of the Yenyenning lakes and then into the Lockhart River, which only by granite, intersected in parts by Eucalyptus woodlands around salt lakes the Avon River. Most wetlands in this flows in years of very high rainfall. parallel bands of greenstone. Large and in valleys, and Acacia thickets and region are naturally saline. Freshwater Temporary freshwater swamps numbers of granite outcrops rise out scrub-heaths on sandplains. wetlands such as granite rock pools, and claypans can still be found of the landscape throughout the claypans, swamps and lakes occur, in this region, perched above the region. Some of the largest salt lakes in the south-west occur as part of

10 11 Wetlands in the region

Types of wetlands in the region Swamps Wetlands are described by a Swamps are heavily vegetated across combination of geomorphological, the bed and usually have relatively hydrological and chemical shallow water. They have highly characteristics. These factors largely diverse vegetation communities, determine the combination of plants particularly aquatic plants and fringing and animals that are supported at communities of annual herbs. Some each wetland. Even though every have trees such as yate (Eucalyptus wetland is slightly different, they can occidentalis) or swamp sheoak be grouped into broad categories. (Casuarina obesa) across their bed, while others are dominated by sedges. Small, shallow freshwater claypan Pools on Dunn Rock, a granite outcrop Freshwater wetlands located between salt lakes near south of Lake King. Photo – Wetlands Dambouring Lake. Photo – Wetlands group/DEC Science Division Most freshwater wetlands in the Lakes group/DEC Science Division Avon are seasonally or temporarily Freshwater lakes are now much inundated, often only containing less common in the Avon than they Claypans of these pools are unique as they water after winter rains or unseasonal used to be, and are restricted to the Freshwater claypans are shallow, have adapted to the unpredictable storm events in summer. They western part of the region. These are turbid wetlands with clay sediments and temporary inundation periods support a large number of plants, generally deep (more than one metre), that isolate the surface water from with short life cycles. Larger invertebrates and other wetland- sometimes permanent wetlands with saline groundwater. The high turbidity crustaceans such as fairy shrimps, associated fauna such as birds, frogs, emergent vegetation that is largely of these wetlands protects aquatic shield shrimps and clam shrimps are fish and turtles. There are four types restricted to the fringe. They are invertebrates and tadpoles from often present in these wetlands. of wetlands that commonly occur in particularly important for native fish predation by waterbirds. For this the Avon: swamps, lakes, claypans and their avian predators, such as reason these claypans are particularly Natural salt lakes and granite outcrop pools. cormorants and darters. important for larger tadpoles and Natural salt lakes form the largest invertebrates such as clam shrimp, proportion of wetlands in the Avon fairy shrimp and shield shrimp. region. Salinity can vary from less than that of seawater to more than Granite outcrop pools 10 times that of seawater (greater Pools located on granite outcrops are than 300 grams per litre), with salinity also known as gnammas. These are increasing as the wetland dries out. usually small, shallow waterbodies Depending on their shape, size and that are inundated for short periods location, these wetlands can hold of time after rainfall, though a few water for anywhere between a few are deeper and virtually permanent. weeks to more than a year after They provide a refuge for some filling. Salt lakes have similar ionic freshwater plants and animals in composition to seawater because the Yate swamp located south of Pingrup. Open freshwater lake located near Photo – Wetlands group/DEC Bejoording. Photo – Wetlands group/ a landscape otherwise affected by salts are derived from rainfall over Science Division DEC Science Division salinisation. The invertebrate faunas hundreds of thousands of years. 12 13 Wetlands in the region

Natural salt lakes are often to the high concentrations of Floodplains and waterways characterised by the presence of β-carotene in its cells. Throughout most of the Avon region dunes, or lunettes, on the downwind there are long braided channels that Shrubs and trees that grow in side of the wetland. These may follow the paths of ancient in-filled association with naturally saline become a series of dunes that river systems. These channels, or wetlands are predominantly restricted eventually divide the wetland. The palaeodrainage flats, usually contain to above the water line and are dunes are composed of various soils, a series of salt lake chains that are characterised by the presence of a such as gypsum, sand or clay and connected by floodplains and in low-lying shrub commonly known as Lepilaena cylindrocarpa – a common have distinct vegetation communities. some cases can be kilometres wide. samphire. Other plants encountered submerged plant occurring in salt Gypsum is often a significant lakes. It often forms thick stands There are four main drainage systems on the dunes of naturally saline component of dunes and is mined in across the bed of shallow wetlands that feed into the Swan-Avon River some parts of Western Australia. wetlands include species of Atriplex, and provides food and habitat Melaleuca and Acacia and include for invertebrates and food for through the Yenyenning Lakes, these Naturally saline wetlands often many endemic and restricted waterbirds. Photo – Wetlands group/ are: the Salt, Yilgarn, Lockhart and DEC Science Division appear to be coloured when viewed species. The vegetation surrounding Mortlock rivers. from the air. This is either the result the wetland is often distributed The gradient of waterways increases of acidity (orange-brown), very high according to soil characteristics, such towards the western parts of the salinity (white), increased depth as texture, salinity, pH and gypsum region. West of the Meckering (darker blue) or the presence of content. Submerged plants occurring Line, a geological fault line that submerged macrophytes (darker in these wetlands are usually from separates the ‘zone of rejuvenated blue-green) or algae (green to pink). the genera Ruppia or Lepilaena. drainage’ from the ‘zone of ancient When present, the alga Dunaliella drainage’ in Western Australia, the salina makes lakes appear pink due The invertebrate communities of these wetlands are more diverse than might channels become more defined and be expected, including many species Seasonal, shallow natural salt lake on flow increases. The gradient of the that only occur in south-western King Rocks Road, east of Hyden. Photo palaeodrainage flats in the eastern – Wetlands group/DEC Science Division Australia. This fauna is able to cope parts of the region is so low that the with the very high salinities and has rivers only flow as a connected system adapted to the often long, dry periods after the most extreme rainfall events. through the production of drought It has been suggested that flow within -resistant eggs. These may last in the the region’s rivers is among the most soil for many years and still successfully unpredictable in the world. hatch when the wetland is refilled. Large flood events occurred in the Crustaceans make up the bulk of the Avon in 1926, 1930, 1945-6, 1958, A typical chain of natural salt lakes invertebrate diversity in these wetlands that occur along the paths of ancient 1963-4, 1974, 2000 and 2006. The in-filled river systems. Often these and many are endemic to the Avon. flood event in 2000 was the first lakes are different colours when Waterbirds usually visit naturally saline Large, deep natural salt lake in Lake time the Lockhart sub-catchment viewed from the air. Photo – Wetlands wetlands to feed on submerged Magenta Nature Reserve. Photo group/DEC Science Division had significantly flowed in summer macrophytes or aquatic invertebrates. – Wetlands group/DEC Science Division for 40 years. Flood events in the 14 15 Wetlands in the region

Western Australia, dominated by • Yealering Lakes System – listed Muehlenbeckia horrida subsp. because these wetlands are an abdita and Tecticornia verrucosa example of a suite of salinised, across the lake floor’. These part-wooded lakes, exhibiting wetlands have also been identified varied hydrological features. as having diverse waterbird and • Yorkrakine Rock Pools – listed aquatic invertebrate populations. because they are a good example • Lake Cronin – listed because it is of the granite outcrop pools that the best example of a Melaleuca- occur patchily but broadly across Flooding along the Newdegate Section of the Avon River between dominated freshwater lake-marsh inland south-western Australia, to Pingrup Road that occurred Northam and York. Photo – Avon in the region. providing ‘islands’ of freshwater in January 2006. Photo – Natalie Catchment Council, Northam habitat in a region dominated by Nicholson/DEC Katanning • Lake Grace System – listed salinised wetlands. because these wetlands are a Avon also usually coincide with good example of a series of large, high levels of salinity, nutrients and naturally saline lakes in the region. sediments in the Swan River. This can lead to other problems such as fish kills and algal blooms. Waterways in the Avon can be either naturally saline or freshwater depending on their position in the landscape. Freshwater systems are more likely to occur west of Salinised channel that feeds into the Lockhart River. Photo – Wetlands the Meckering Line or at the head group/DEC Science Division of a catchment, but many have salinised over time. Large, naturally or groups of wetlands in the Avon saline channel systems are present region that are identified under this throughout the region and form the register (also shown in Figure1). bulk of the waterways in the Avon. These are:

Significant wetlands • Lake Bryde and East Lake Bryde in the region – listed because they have the The Directory of Important Wetlands only known occurrence of the is a register of wetlands that threatened ecological community, are considered to be of national ‘Unwooded freshwater wetlands significance. There are five systems of the southern Wheatbelt of Lake Bryde is one of five groups of wetlands in the Avon region identified under the Directory of Important Wetlands. Photo – Natalie Nicholson/DEC Katanning

16 17 Wetlands in the region

Protection of wetlands Freshwater wetlands are the most the life cycles of invertebrate fauna The Environmental Protection (South severely affected by salinisation adapted to a drying-out phase. West Agricultural Zone Wetlands) because their plant and animal With the loss of invertebrates and Policy was developed in 1998 communities are not adapted to vegetation comes the disappearance under Part III of the Environmental saline conditions. The number of of waterbird communities that use Protection Act 1986. The primary aquatic invertebrate species declines these resources for feeding and purpose of this policy is to “prevent significantly once the salinity rises breeding. The impact of salinisation the further degradation of valuable above about four grams per litre. on naturally saline systems is often wetlands and to promote the Salinisation also affects waterbird overlooked. communities as the young of many rehabilitation of wetlands in the South The disposal of agricultural It is estimated that at least 4,000 species require water with a low West Agricultural Zone of Western drainage water via drains also has kilometres of deep open drains have Australia”. Of the two wetlands that salinity for drinking. been constructed in the Wheatbelt. consequences for wetlands. Some of Photo – John Lizamore/DEC Esperance are listed under this policy, one occurs Naturally saline wetlands can also be the saline drainage water is re-used, in the Avon region. This wetland is affected by salinisation. Salinities that but the vast majority is discharged This generally results in species-poor Koojedda Swamp near Northam, are consistently very high can result into natural water bodies. Often communities of flora and fauna. The which was listed because of its in the loss of submerged vegetation wetlands are seen as ideal for this choice of where to put waste water is recreational, Aboriginal, flora, fauna and some invertebrate species in salt purpose since they function as critical, especially where it is likely to and ecosystem service values. This lakes, although, where waterlogging natural evaporation basins and are move downstream over time. policy is currently under review by the has prevented seasonal drying, the agriculturally unproductive. The Environmental Protection Authority. maximum salinity may be lower disposal of drainage water frequently There are other impacts or activities than it would have been. Prolonged changes both the water quality that threaten the health and Threats to wetlands inundation and increased wetland (particularly salinity and pH) and the biodiversity of wetlands in the region, in the region extent can also cause the death of hydrology of the receiving wetland. such as clearing remnant vegetation Wetlands in the Avon region face surrounding vegetation and interrupt around the fringes of wetlands, many threats to their biodiversity livestock grazing, feral animals (e.g. and ecosystem processes. The most rabbits), weed invasion, rubbish significant of these threats is dryland disposal, recreation, mining and the salinisation, caused by the rise of use of fertilisers and other agricultural saline groundwater following the chemicals. Declining rainfall as a result replacement of deep-rooted native of climate change is also of concern. vegetation with shallow-rooted Although many aquatic plants and annual agricultural crops. This animals have probably been lost process poses two main problems for The vegetation surrounding from the region, the Avon and wider wetlands in the region: an increase naturally saline wetlands affected Wheatbelt retain a large number in salinity and prolonged inundation. Freshwater wetlands affected by by salinisation is often in poor or declining condition. The destruction of functioning aquatic ecosystems. Salinisation can affect both naturally salinisation are often characterised by the death of vegetation across the moves further up the bank as salinities These continue to support a very saline and freshwater systems. bed of the wetland. Photo – Wetlands and water levels rise. Photo – Wetlands high diversity of wetland plants and group/DEC Science Division group/DEC Science Division animals, many of which are not known 18 19 Wetlands in the region

Compared to most freshwater systems, the fringing vegetation of naturally saline wetlands generally has more obvious vegetation zones. The zone closest to the water’s edge usually consists of samphire communities, which are tolerant of seasonal inundation and high soil salinity. These communities are slowly accompanied and then replaced by taller shrubs and diverse herb This vegetation is starting to show signs of stress from either an increase communities moving away from the in salinity or period of inundation. This Unfortunately wetlands are Minimally disturbed wetlands usually wetland to higher elevations. In the is evident in the loss of condition in the sometimes used as dumping grounds have healthy and diverse fringing zone furthest from the water’s edge, upper shrub layer. Photo – Wetlands for rubbish. Photo – Wetlands group/ vegetation communities. Photo or the dryland area, all three structural group/DEC Science Division DEC Science Division – Wetlands group/DEC Science Division layers are usually present including taller shrubs and trees. The species from anywhere else in the world. The Vegetation that grow in each of these zones degree to which the region’s wetlands The condition of vegetation within depends on a combination of edaphic continue to decline is dependent on and around a wetland provides the factors such as soil texture, salinity, what actions can be taken to manage most visible indicator of its health, pH and gypsum content, which vary and protect what is left. and is often the first component to with elevation and the direction of respond to disturbance. Regardless of prevailing winds. When a wetland Characteristics of a whether a wetland is naturally saline becomes degraded, particularly from healthy wetland or freshwater, one that is minimally increased flooding, the transitional There are a few key characteristics that disturbed will have diverse and healthy zone is compressed so that there is The upper shrub layer of this degraded wetland has been lost entirely and indicate the health of a wetland. Some plant communities with distributions often a wide zone of samphire, which extends up the bank to the dryland replaced with samphire and weed types of wetlands will have all of these that are relatively stable. Fringing communities. Photo – Wetlands group/ characteristics, while others will have vegetation should consist of multiple vegetation zone. This is usually DEC Science Division only a few. For example, freshwater layers, including an upper tree or shrub associated with the loss of some claypans have little habitat diversity layer (e.g. some species of Eucalyptus, wetland-dependent plant species as evident in the declining health or due to the turbid water and heavy clay Melaleuca or Casuarina), a middle soil conditions become unsuitable for death of the tallest vegetation layer sediments, but may still be healthy shrub layer (e.g. species of Tecticornia germination and growth. closest to the water’s edge or within wetlands that provide an important (samphire), Atriplex, Frankenia or Signs of disturbance or degradation the wetland basin. Dead trees and habitat for particular animals. Grevillea) and a lower herb or grass may be evident in the vegetation large shrubs persist for some time layer (e.g. some species of Trachymene, communities long before other and provide a lasting indicator Cotula or Triglochin). components of the wetland change. of vegetation change long after The effects of salinisation and/or conditions at a wetland may have prolonged inundation are initially stabilised. As conditions continue to 20 21 Wetlands in the region

decline, more species are lost and diversity will be reduced. Some Waterbirds • submerged vegetation, which diverse herb and shrub layers are often wetlands are naturally much more Depending on the type of wetland, provides food and habitat for replaced by samphire communities, saline than this, especially in the waterbirds can be an indicator of a invertebrates and a food source which are tolerant of increased salinity eastern Avon where wetlands can healthy ecosystem. Wetlands such as for waterbirds; and inundation. An increase in the occasionally have up to 10 times the freshwater claypans and granite rock • islands, which are a habitat for abundance of weeds also provides salt concentration of seawater. pools naturally have few waterbirds. nesting waterbirds because they an indication of disturbance. Weeds Naturally saline wetlands usually Most wetlands are alkaline (i.e. they provide protection from land are opportunistic and invade rapidly support waterbirds at some stage of have pH greater than seven) but a predators such as cats and foxes; once a physical disturbance such as the hydrological cycle but generally few freshwater wetlands, such as and clearing occurs, or conditions become have lower diversity than freshwater some pools on granite outcrops or unsuitable for the germination of wetlands. Waterbirds usually disappear • emergent vegetation, which swamps with dark water, are mildly native species. from wetlands when their preferred provides a habitat for acidic (pH six to seven) and some food or breeding habitat is no longer invertebrates and waterbirds. naturally saline wetlands are naturally Water quality available. This usually happens when very acidic (pH less than five). As a Wetlands that become degraded Good water quality is important the wetland becomes highly saline general rule, a pH greater than six is often lack many of these habitats. for maintaining healthy wetland and when nesting habitats and food suitable for the survival of most plant This can be due to disturbances communities. Of the various water resources are insufficient. and animal species within a wetland. including infilling of deep water quality indicators available, salinity zones by additional sediment loads, and pH provide the most reliable Habitat diversity Hydrology clearing or death of surrounding indicators of a wetland’s health. A healthy wetland usually has a variety Healthy wetlands retain their natural vegetation through the process of habitats present. By habitat we are Natural salinities vary depending hydrological cycle which, for most of dryland salinisation, loss of referring to characteristics such as: on the type of wetland. To provide wetlands in the Avon, involves regular emergent vegetation from an adequate conditions for plant and drying out. Dryland salinisation • fringing vegetation (shrubs and increase in the period or extent of animal populations, freshwater has resulted in many wetlands trees), which provides habitat inundation or salinity, reduced water wetlands should maintain salinities experiencing prolonged inundation. for terrestrial fauna and nesting quality through processes such as below around three grams per litre This affects the aquatic invertebrate and resting waterbirds, as well acidification and salinisation, or most of the time (but generally communities as some species require as filtering runoff entering the physical disturbance to a wetland by the lower, the better). Conversely, a drying-out period for successful wetland; activities such as earthworks. natural salt lakes have highly variable recolonisation. Dry periods also enable • deep water zones (more than one Five ways you can salinities, which increase as the the growth of plants across the lake to 1.5 metres deep), which provide improve your wetland wetland dries out. Consequently, bed which, upon re-flooding, provides habitat for diving waterbirds; there is no ideal salinity for a a vital food source for colonising Although there are catchment-wide naturally saline wetland, but where invertebrates. Some herbaceous • shallow water zones (less than issues such as dryland salinisation a salt lake changes so that it is fringing plant species also require a 15 centimetres), which provide and acidification that affect many consistently very saline (greater than receding waterline for germination or habitat for wading waterbirds; wetlands in the region, there are 50 grams per litre) the germination flowering, and drying provides shallow • tree limbs, branches and leaf litter small steps that individual landholders and survival of submerged plants will wetland edges for small wading birds, in the water, which provide food can take to protect and/or improve be severely affected and invertebrate including migratory species. and habitat for invertebrates; the health of their wetland and 22 23 Wetlands in the region

retain flora and fauna. Financial and vegetation with an improved 5. Provide habitat around the practical assistance to achieve these chance of establishing and wetland for nesting waterbirds improvements can be sought from surviving without competition from such as boxes, hollow logs and groups such as LandCare and Land for aggressive, hardy exotic plants. perches. Wildlife (contacts listed on page 25). 3. Revegetate areas surrounding the 1. Protect wetlands from livestock wetland and associated creeks by fencing off the wetland and with hardy, native plants. In surrounding vegetation, preferably salt-affected areas, salt-tolerant Contacts for assistance in managing including all zones of wetland- species such as Casuarina obesa your wetland in the Avon region associated fringing vegetation and Melaleuca cuticularis should (as described above), which be planted, but further advice Land for Wildlife Greencorps - Greening Australia WA would normally extend about 50 should be sought from the Department of Environment Website: http://greencorps. metres from the high-water mark. contacts provided. and Conservation greeningaustralia.org.au Exclusion of livestock enables 4. Eliminate feral animals such as seedlings to establish and prevents Phone: (08) 9334 0427 Phone: (08) 9360 6667 rabbits. Rabbits cause significant compaction of the soil, erosion Email: [email protected] damage to the root zone of Email: [email protected] and trampling. This also limits plants when digging their nutrient enrichment caused by the Caring for our Country - Landcare network of burrows. These pests Avon Catchment Council breakdown of droppings. can be very difficult to eradicate Australian government website: Website: www.avonnrm.org.au 2. Eradicate invasive plants. Removing and will usually require some www.daff.gov.au/natural-resources/ invasive plants provides native expert advice. landcare Phone: (08) 9690 2250 Landcare Online website: www.landcareonline.com Email: [email protected] Phone: 1800 552 008 A useful resource that summarises the different programs that are Nature Conservation available to landholders to provide Covenant Program assistance in improving their wetland is found on the Department of Department of Environment Environment and Conservation’s and Conservation website at www.dec.wa.gov.au/ Website: www.dec.wa.gov.au/ management-and-protection/off- management-and-protection/off- reserve-conservation/index.html. reserve-conservation/covenant- program.html The photo on the left shows a wetland that has recently had revegetation Phone: (08) 9334 0477 work completed. The photo on the right shows more established revegetation on the banks of the Abbotts Lake System. Photos – (left) Wetlands group/ Email: [email protected] DEC Science Division and (right) Michael Marriott

24 25 Invertebrates

Freshwater wetlands contain around The conservation of aquatic 80 per cent of the total number invertebrates in this region is of invertebrate species found in important because of the uniqueness the Avon region and are generally of the species and communities dominated by aquatic insects. present. Invertebrates also form Claypans and granite outcrops are an essential role in the functioning particularly important freshwater of wetland ecosystems. Groups, habitats because they support such as larval midges, which feed numerous endemic species. on dead and decaying plant and animal matter, are important in the Salinisation and acidification are decomposition and cycling of organic the most significant threats to the material. The grazers, such as snails persistence of invertebrate diversity and water fleas, consume living in the region. As the salinity of a aquatic vegetation and algae, which wetland increases, the number of helps to maintain water quality and invertebrate species declines until control the amount of plants and only a few salt tolerant species There are six main groups of invertebrates found in the Avon, from left to right, algae. Invertebrates also provide top to bottom: rotifers (Platyias quadricornis), worms (Manayunkia sp.), molluscs remain at very high salinities. an important food source for fish, (Coxiella sp.), water mites (Koenikea verrucosa), crustaceans (Austrochiltonia Similarly, as the pH of a wetland falls subtenuis) and insects (Sigara mullaka). amphibians and waterbirds. below around six, fewer invertebrates can survive. Increased inundation Avon wetlands are rich in aquatic Crustaceans, such as brine shrimp, periods are also a threat to invertebrates with over 670 species seed shrimp and copepods, dominate invertebrates as many have adapted recorded, many being endemic to the invertebrate communities of to survive in temporary waters. the south-west. Major invertebrate naturally saline wetlands. Although groups represented include rotifers, low in species numbers, naturally crustaceans, insects, water mites, saline lakes contain a high proportion worms and molluscs. The region of endemics. Notably, Western supports a diverse array of wetlands Australian salt lakes have the highest that are mostly ephemeral to number of species of brine shrimp, seasonal. Adaptations to these Parartemia, and salt lake snail, conditions, such as the production Coxiella, in Australia. Another unique of drought-resistant eggs, tolerance species is the polychaete worm, to salinity, burrowing behaviours Manayunkia, which is only one of two and other life cycle adaptations have polychaete species that inhabit inland developed in the invertebrate fauna, salt lakes in Australia. promoting the evolution of unique species and communities.

26 27 Invertebrates

Rotifers or ‘wheel Habitat animalcules’ Rotifers can be free-swimming, free- floating, permanently attached to an Diversity and endemism object (sessile) or parasitic, and are The south-west is a biodiversity commonly found in association with hotspot for rotifers with over 100 floating or submerged vegetation. species from four orders, Bdelloidea, Most are restricted to freshwater Flosculariacea, Collothecacea and wetlands, although a few, such as Ploimida, recorded in the Avon Keratella australis, are tolerant of low region. Rotifer species are generally salinities. Species that can inhabit moderately to highly saline wetlands Platyias quadricornis inhabits Trichocerca tigris is asymmetrical widespread as their resting eggs are shallow waters. in shape. readily dispersed to other habitats by include Brachionus plicatilis s.l. and wind, birds and people. Hexarthra fennica. Biology and ecology Most rotifers are omnivores that Appearance consume fine particles of organic Rotifers are microscopic animals matter by sweeping them into their that are generally less than mouth using the movement of cilia. 0.5 millimetres. They are a More specialised predatory rotifers morphologically diverse group and have forcep-like extendible teeth with their shape can be ‘box-like’ or which they grasp their prey, such as ‘worm-like’ depending on the rigidity other rotifers or small crustaceans. of their outer layer or cuticle. Their When food is abundant, rotifers can Lecane quadridentata is a body generally consists of a head, shield-shaped rotifer. rapidly reproduce to achieve very trunk, foot and toes, which are high population densities. These used as an anchor while feeding. Keratella australis commonly occurs in large populations provide a plentiful Toes are absent or reduced in some freshwater wetlands of the Avon region. food source for macroinvertebrates planktonic groups. Their common and fish. Most rotifer species name ‘wheel animalcules’ is derived alternate between asexual and from the movement of the cilia sexual reproduction and produce around the head, which resembles a drought-resistant eggs to survive dry revolving wheel. periods. Bdelloid rotifers reproduce asexually and are able to survive for prolonged periods in an inert state after desiccation. When rehydrated, they are able to resume normal activity within a few hours.

28 29 Invertebrates

Worms and leeches Flatworms Roundworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes) (Phylum Nematoda) Many types of aquatic worms have been recorded from wetlands Diversity and endemism Diversity and endemism in the Avon region. Segmented Two groups of flatworms have been Nematodes are a very diverse group worms belong to the Phylum recorded in the Avon: turbellarians but individual species are difficult to Annelida and include leeches, and one species of Temnocephalidea, distinguish. Little is known about the aquatic earthworms (oligochaetes) Temnosewellia minor. Little is known species that occur in the Avon. and bristleworms (polychaetes). Nematodes are one of the most about the turbellarians that occur in abundant animals in the world. The unsegmented worms include the Avon region. roundworms (nematodes) and Appearance Nematodes are pale, round and very flatworms (platyhelminthes). Due to Appearance the difficulties in identifying these thin worms with pointed ends. worms, many of the species are not Turbellarians are flat, thin, soft-bodied formally described. worms and are often black or grey. Habitat Temnocephalans have flat, oval-shaped Nematodes are able to survive where bodies with finger-like tentacles at one there is adequate moisture and occur in end and a suction disc at the other. both fresh and saline wetlands. Species may be either free-living or parasitic or Habitat a combination of the two. Free-living Turbellarians commonly occur in forms are found in shallow water in fresh to slightly saline wetlands. or on the soil at the bottom of the They are most frequently found wetland. underneath rocks and woody debris. Temnosewellia minor is mainly found Biology and ecology attached to freshwater crayfish as Free-living nematodes can be Temnosewellia minor is generally external symbionts. found attached to crayfish. predatory or feed on bacteria, algae and detritus. Populations of Biology and ecology nematodes contain both males and Turbellarians are omnivores that females with sexual reproduction consume living and dead animal resulting in the production of matter. Some temnocephalans drought-resistant eggs. are predators, feeding on small invertebrates, while others graze on algae and bacteria on the host’s body. All flatworms are hermaphrodites with sexual cross-fertilisation the most common form of reproduction. Flatworms are able to regenerate into two individuals if they are cut in half. 3030 31 Invertebrates

Freshwater leeches Aquatic earthworms (Class Clitellata) or oligochaetes (Class Clitellata) Diversity and endemism Two species have been recorded in the Diversity and endemism Avon region, Helobdella papillornata Thirteen described species of Ainudrilus nharna is endemic to and an unidentified species from the Naididae and Phreodrilidae have been the south-west. genus Alboglossiphonia. Helobdella The leech, Helobdella papillornata, recorded in the region plus several papillornata is widespread but is feeds exclusively on snails. undescribed species of Enchytraeidae. endemic to southern Australia. Most aquatic earthworms occurring in the Avon region are widespread Appearance Biology and ecology species, but a few are endemic to Leeches are segmented worms that Leeches are either predators, the south-west including Ainudrilus are distinguished by the presence of consuming a variety of invertebrates, nharna and two species restricted suckers at each end of the body. or ectoparasites, feeding on the blood to rock pools on granite outcrops of vertebrates. Most are sit-and-wait (Astacopsidrilus edwardi and a Habitat predators but some actively seek their related but undescribed species). Leeches occur in a variety of prey. Helobdella papillornata feeds freshwater wetlands but are exclusively on snails, waiting in ambush Appearance particularly intolerant of salinity. and using its anterior sucker to catch Aquatic species are similar in They are often found attached to and subdue its prey. Some leeches, appearance to terrestrial earthworms submerged plants and rocks. including Helobdella papillornata, but are much thinner and shorter. display a high level of parental care. They have bundles of chaetae (bristle- Their young remain attached to like hairs) on each body segment and Pristina longiseta has long chaetae. the parent until they are capable of some have short posterior gills or a hunting for their own food. proboscis on the head.

Habitat Biology and ecology Aquatic earthworms are found in a Oligochaetes are detritivores, grazers variety of habitats, including swamps or predators. Some species, such as and lakes, but are generally intolerant Tubifex tubifex, are renowned for their of salinity. Exceptions to this rule are tolerance to pollution. Oligochaetes are the enchytraeids, Ainudrilus nharna hermaphrodites and reproduce sexually and Paranais litoralis, which have been through cross-fertilisation but some recorded in slightly to moderately reproduce asexually. saline wetlands.

32 33 Invertebrates

Bristleworms Molluscs Habitat (Class Polychaeta) Coxiella are one of only two non- Molluscs are soft-bodied animals, most marine snail genera in the world that of which live in a hard secreted shell. Diversity and endemism can tolerate salinity levels above 30 Two types of aquatic molluscs occur in grams per litre. They inhabit temporary An undescribed species of the Avon region: snails (Gastropoda) and permanent saline wetlands. Manayunkia is the only polychaete and mussels (Bivalvia). Snails generally recorded from the Avon region and have a coiled shell that they carry on Biology and ecology is endemic to the salt lakes of the their backs, while mussels are enclosed Manayunkia sp. Coxiella snails feed on detritus. south-west. in a pair of valved shells. Populations contain both males and Appearance females and reproduction is sexual. Biology and ecology They avoid desiccation during dry Polychaetes are segmented worms Salt lake snails periods by blocking the opening of the and have paired extensions Manayunkia is able to persist in (Class Gastropoda) shell with the operculum and seeking (parapodia) bearing many bristle-like periods of drought under vegetation refuge beneath dead vegetation, other hairs called chaetae on the sides of in moist sediment. Diversity and endemism objects and in mud cracks. each body segment. The snail genus, Coxiella, is endemic to the saline wetlands of Australia. Habitat The number of species within this Polychaetes predominantly occur in group is unknown because species marine and estuarine environments. are very difficult to tell apart and a Species from the genus Manayunkia are detailed study of them is required. It unique in Australia because they inhabit is likely that a majority of the species inland salt lakes. Manayunkia live in are restricted to the south-west, gelatinous tubes in the sediment. with at least four described and three undescribed species recorded in the Avon region. The shell of Coxiella snails Appearance are often pale and chalky. The shell of Coxiella is thick and coiled clockwise (dextrally). It often has a tall spire with a blunt (usually broken) tip and can reach 15 millimetres in height (usually smaller). Coxiella have a flexible operculum (hard plate attached to the foot of the animal An undescribed Thousands of species of Coxiella. Coxiella shells covering the entrance to the shell), on the shore of which blocks the entrance when the a salt lake. animal retreats into its shell.

34 35 Invertebrates

Freshwater snails Biology and ecology Mussels (Class Bivalvia) (Class Gastropoda) Freshwater snails graze on macrophytes and algae. The planorbid snails and Diversity and endemism Diversity and endemism Physa acuta are hermaphrodites and are Three species have been recorded Most freshwater snails belong to the able to self-fertilise. Ferrissia petterdi is in the Avon River, the south- family Planorbidae and three genera also hermaphroditic but is incapable of west endemic freshwater mussel, have been recorded in the Avon: self-fertilisation. Reproduction is sexual Westralunio carteri, the widespread Glyptophysa, Gyraulus and Isidorella. in Westrapyrgus slacksmithae with estuarine mussel Fluviolanatus Other freshwater gastropods recorded populations containing both males and subtorta and the freshwater clam in the Avon are the south-west females. Some freshwater snails are able Musculium kendricki. endemic Westrapyrgus slacksmithae, to aestivate in moist mud during the Australian endemic Ferrissia dry periods. Appearance petterdi (which looks like a tiny Mussels have a fleshy body enclosed in The estuarine mussel, limpet), and Physa acuta, which is a pair of valved shells, which are joined Fluviolanatus subtorta. introduced and widespread. by a hinge and strong flexible muscles. Westralunio carteri has valves that are Appearance brown and almost rectangular in shape. Biology and ecology The valves of Fluviolanatus subtorta The shells of planorbids are coiled Mussels are filter feeders, using are brown, rectangular and unequal counter clockwise (sinistrally) and siphons to pump water over their The freshwater limpet Ferrissia petterdi. in shape, and the surface is irregular. have a variety of shapes. They lack an gills which filter out food such as Musculium kendricki has small, thin, operculum and are best distinguished microorganisms, plankton and detritus. white bi-valve shells. from Physa acuta by the shape of Some mussel species are able to the radula (teeth). Ferrissia petterdi is survive prolonged periods of drought Habitat less than six millimetres in diameter by sealing their shell and burying and lacks a coil or sculpturing on Westralunio carteri is found in the themselves in damp mud. its cap-shaped shell. Westrapyrgus mud of lower salinity river pools and slacksmithae has an operculum and a has disappeared from much of the heavily pigmented body. Glyptophysa cf. gibbosa is a planorbid Avon, whereas Fluviolanatus subtorta snail and inhabits freshwater wetlands is an estuarine species that has moved and rock pools on granite outcrops. Habitat up the Avon River in response to Freshwater snails are confined to increasing salinity. Musculium kendricki wetlands with low salinity and occur in has been recorded from artificial rivers, lakes and streams. They can be wetlands in the Avon region. found sitting on a variety of surfaces including rocks, woody debris and aquatic plants. The planorbid snail, Isidorella sp. is found in a variety of freshwater wetlands. 36 37 Invertebrates

Water mites Biology and ecology Crustaceans The larger macrocrustaceans are found The larvae of most water mite species in a variety of wetland habitats. Shield Diversity and endemism are parasitic on invertebrates. They Wetlands in the Avon support a high shrimp, brine shrimp, fairy shrimp, and clam shrimp mostly occur in Water mites are not as diverse in the are easily dispersed by attaching to diversity of some crustacean groups temporary waters and the latter three Avon compared to many other parts aerial insects before they leave the and are part of a biodiversity hotspot groups include a high proportion of of the State. Those belonging to the water. Adults are generally free- for non-marine crustaceans in south- endemic species. Species of isopods, family Hydracarina, also known as true living and feed on invertebrates by western Australia. Based on their size, amphipods, prawns and yabbies are water mites, are the most common, sucking body fluids from their prey. crustaceans are commonly divided into also present, especially where there is with at least 12 species recorded in The exception is oribatid mites, which two groups; microcrustaceans and permanent moisture. the region. Other mite groups with feed on submerged vegetation, algae macrocrustaceans. aquatic representatives are Oribatida, and detritus. Some water mites have Microcrustaceans include seed shrimp The uniquely Australian brine shrimp Trombidioidea, Halacaroidea and defences against predators including (ostracods), water fleas (cladocerans) and belonging to the genus Parartemia Mesostigmata but these are not so hard plates with spines and blades. copepods and are present in every type are found in naturally saline wetlands. well known. Water mites are generally Many red mites secrete bad tasting of wetland. They are generally less than Western Australia has more species widespread but can be patchy in substances and their bright colour two millimetres long and species are of this genus than anywhere else in distribution. There are no water mites warns predators not to eat them. difficult to distinguish from each other the continent and many of the 14 that are known to be endemic to the with the naked eye. Microcrustaceans Western Australian species occur in Avon region. are highly abundant and diverse, the Avon. Unfortunately, some species accounting for 25 per cent of the appear to be in decline, possibly due Appearance invertebrate richness in Avon wetlands. to increasing salinity, acidification The head, thorax and abdomen of A large proportion of microcrustaceans and changes in water regimes due to water mites are fused into one round are endemic to the south-west of rising groundwater. body. They are related to spiders so Western Australia. Many of the species Six species of fairy shrimp they have eight legs, which in many restricted to this region inhabit naturally (Branchinella) occur in temporary species have long hairs that assist with saline wetlands and granite outcrop freshwater wetlands of the Avon swimming. Their mouthparts consist of pools, making these habitats important such as claypans and granite a pair of palps and a beak-like rostrum for their conservation. outcrops. The rare species used to pierce prey. Koenikea verrucosa is found in Branchinella kadjikadji is endemic to freshwater wetlands. Microcrustaceans form an essential part claypans of the Avon region. Habitat of the wetland food chain. Through the consumption of detritus and algae, Water mites tend to prefer permanent they incorporate these food sources freshwater, which is why there are few into the animal food chain. This helps species in the Avon region. Species to maintain water quality through the occurring in the Avon are commonly control of algae. They also provide a found in fresh to slightly saline wetlands food source for larger invertebrates, fish with few tolerant of higher salinities. and some waterbirds. They are generally benthic or found in association with aquatic plants, though The red colour of Eylais sp. warns some are good swimmers. predators not to eat it. 38 39 Invertebrates

Copepods Biology and ecology (Order Copepoda) Copepods predominately consume algae, bacteria and detritus. Diversity and endemism Calanoid and cyclopoid copepods There are at least 43 species from can be predatory, feeding on 21 genera and three suborders juvenile copepods, rotifers and small (Calanoida, Cyclopoida and cladocerans. Copepods are a food Harpacticoida) of copepods that occur source for macroinvertebrates and fish. in wetlands of the Avon. To survive dry periods, most copepods Calamoecia trilobata is a calanoid produce drought-resistant eggs. The Appearance copepod that is common in naturally eggs lie dormant in the sediment and The bodies of copepods are ‘torpedo’- saline, acidic wetlands, and is restricted hatch when the wetland refills and to the south-west of WA. shaped with distinctive antennae. environmental conditions are suitable. Calanoid, cyclopoid and harpacticoid copepods differ in body shape and length of the antennae. Most species are less than two millimetres with the exception of some calanoid copepods, which can grow up to four millimetres.

Habitat Copepods inhabit all types of wetlands Boeckella opaqua is an endemic and are often extremely abundant, calanoid copepod and is only found in pools on granite outcrops. with numerous species often occurring in the same wetland. Harpacticoid copepods are predominantly benthic the calanoid copepod Boeckella and are typically found in sediments opaqua is only found in pools (or of lakes, swamps and rivers. Calanoid gnammas) on granite rocks. Many and cyclopoid copepods are more inhabit moderately and highly saline planktonic and commonly occur in wetlands such as Calamoecia trilobata lakes, swamps and dams. (suborder Calanoida), Meridiecyclops Species vary in their tolerance to baylyi (suborder Cyclopoida) and Australocyclops australis is a common Nitocra sp. is an undescribed cyclopoid copepod found in salinity and can be restricted to some species of Nitocra (suborder harpacticoid copepod that inhabits freshwater wetlands. salt lakes. particular habitats. For example Harpacticoida).

40 41 Invertebrates

Seed shrimps Habitat Biology and ecology (Order Ostracoda) Seed shrimp are found in all types Seed shrimps are filter-feeding of wetlands and are often very scavengers that consume detritus and Diversity and endemism abundant with numerous species algae. Reproduction varies between Seed shrimps are a particularly diverse often occurring in the same wetland. species and environmental conditions. group of microcrustaceans with 83 Ostracods are generally found on Most ostracods produce drought- species from 27 genera recorded in the bottom of wetlands but can resistant eggs that hatch when the the Avon, many only known from sometimes be found swimming in the wetland refloods. Ilyodromus candonites is restricted to the Wheatbelt. A large proportion of water column. granite outcrop pools. endemic species are from the genera Cypretta, Cypricercus, Ilyodromus and Species vary in their tolerance to Reticypris. Many seed shrimp species salinity, turbidity and acidity, which have not been formally named. dictates the type of wetlands they occur in. Many species are only found Appearance in saline lakes such as the ‘giant’ ostracods, Mytilocypris mytiloides Seed shrimps are completely enclosed and Australocypris insularis. Most in a hard bi-valved shell which species are intolerant of acidic varies greatly in colour, shape and Diacypris spinosa is a widespread species sculpturing between species. Most conditions because they interfere restricted to naturally and secondarily saline wetlands. species are less that two millimetres, with the production of their shell. but ‘giant’ ostracods can be greater However, there are a few species, than three millimetres. such as Australocypris bennetti, that do tolerate low pH. Seven species are only found on granite outcrops including some species of Bennelongia and Ilyodromus candonites. Others are restricted to freshwater or slightly saline wetlands such as Candonocypris novaezelandiae, Bennelongia australis Mytilocypris mytiloides is a ‘giant’ and Ilyodromus amplicolis. Several ostracod found in naturally and species are most common in very secondarily saline wetlands. turbid waters.

42 43 Invertebrates

Water fleas Biology and ecology (Order Cladocera) Benthic water fleas graze on algae, bacteria and detritus found on or Diversity and endemism in the sediment, while open water There are at least 68 species from species are filter feeders. They are 25 genera of water fleas that occur an important food source for larger in wetlands of the Avon. At least invertebrates and fish. 18 species are restricted to the Many water fleas alternate between south-west of Western Australia Daphnia cephalata is only found in asexual and sexual reproduction. but predominantly occur in the freshwater wetlands such as claypans, When the wetland refills, females granite rock pools and swamps. Wheatbelt, such as Daphnia jollyi hatch from drought-resistant eggs and D. wardi. Macrothrix breviseta is found in fresh and rapidly mature. While conditions to slightly saline wetlands. are favourable, they continually Appearance produce unfertilised eggs that hatch Cladocerans have a soft bi-valved Habitat female clones. When the water body carapace that covers the body and begins to dry up and conditions head but does not close completely Water fleas are predominantly found become unfavourable, males are except in species from the families in fresh and slightly saline wetlands produced and sexual reproduction Daphniidae and Chydoridae. Some and occupy a variety of habitats, occurs. This results in the production of the larger species use their large including open water, among aquatic of a future generation of drought- branched antennae for swimming. plants and on the bottom of wetlands. resistant eggs. Most species are less than two Daphnia truncata is tolerant of high A small number of species such as millimetres but some can grow up salinity and is found in naturally and Daphnia truncata, Daphnia pusilla and to six millimetres. Some grow long secondarily saline wetlands. Daphnia wardi are tolerant of high spines on the head and tail end of the salinity. Four species are only known carapace so that they are too large to from pools on granite outcrops in be consumed by some predators. the Wheatbelt, including Macrothrix hardingi and Plurispina chauliodis.

44 45 Invertebrates

Clam shrimp Shield shrimp (Orders Laevicaudata (Order Notostraca) and Spinicaudata) Diversity and endemism Diversity and endemism Two species of shield shrimp have been Six genera and seven species of clam recorded in the Avon region, Lepidurus shrimp have been recorded in the apus viridis and the less common Avon region. At least three species, Triops australiensis australiensis, which Caenestheriella mariae and two are endemic to Australia. unnamed species from the genus Caenestheria, are endemic to the south- Appearance west of Western Australia. Shield shrimp have a long shield-like Triops australiensis australiensis The clam shrimp, Limnadia sp., is swimming in Lake Bryde. Photo most commonly found in granite carapace and a tail. Adults can grow – Natalie Nicholson/DEC Katanning. Appearance outcrop pools. up to 40 millimetres in length not Clam shrimp are enclosed in a bi-valved including the tail. Biology and ecology shell and have between 10 and more Biology and ecology than 30 legs. Most species have growth Habitat Shield shrimp are omnivores and lines on the surface of their shells. Clam shrimp are mostly filter feeders Both species are uncommon and forage on the sediment for algae, Adults can grow up to 25 millimetres but can also scavenge by scraping have only been found in temporary rotifers, bacteria, tadpole eggs, fairy but species in the Avon are generally and tearing food. For example, freshwater wetlands of the Avon, shrimp, rotting leaves and detritus. under 10 millimetres. Caenestheriella mariae scrapes algae such as claypans, granite rock pools They have a life span of a few weeks off rocks. Clam shrimp produce and swamps. to a few months and produce drought- Habitat drought-resistant eggs which can lie resistant eggs as an adaptation to dormant in the sediment until the living in temporary pools. The eggs Clam shrimp are relatively uncommon wetland refloods. require a dry period before hatching. and are found in a variety of temporary freshwater wetlands including granite rock pools, claypans, swamps, dams and lakes. Some species occupy a range of habitats whereas others are more restricted. For example, Caenestheriella mariae only occurs in granite rock pools. It is common for multiple species belonging to different genera to co-exist in the same wetland.

46 47 Invertebrates

Brine shrimp Fairy shrimp (Order Anostraca) (Order Anostraca)

Diversity and endemism Diversity and endemism Artemia and Parartemia are the only Branchinella is the only genus of fairy two genera of brine shrimp that Parartemia serventyi is a common species shrimp recorded in the Avon and one occur in saline wetlands of the Avon. found in naturally saline wetlands. of only two in Australia. Six species Branchinella halsei is endemic are present in temporary wetlands to the south-west and found in Parartemia is endemic to Australia freshwater wetlands. and most of its 19 species are only restricted to acidic lakes (pH 2 to of the Avon, with Branchinella kadjikadji, Branchinella longirostris and found in Western Australia, seven 6), while other species generally Biology and ecology occur in alkaline wetlands. Species Branchinella halsei restricted to the of which occur in the Avon. Artemia Fairy shrimp are mostly filter feeders, such as Parartemia serventyi and south-west of Western Australia. were introduced as fish food and with the exception of Branchinella Parartemia longicaudata are common to control algae in salt production occidentalis, which preys on smaller and widespread, while Parartemia Appearance ponds but they have spread into fairy shrimp. Beetle and dragonfly extracta is rare and only known from Like the brine shrimp, Branchinella natural wetlands. larvae also eat fairy shrimp. a few sites. It is unusual to find more have long thin bodies with feathery Appearance than one species of Parartemia in appendages and swim upside As an adaptation to drought, fairy the same wetland. Artemia has been down. They are distinguished by the shrimp produce drought-resistant eggs Brine shrimp have long thin bodies recorded in both naturally saline and elaborate antennae of the male. The that can lie dormant for many years. with feathery appendages and secondarily saline wetlands. average length of an adult is 10 to The eggs hatch when the lake refills swim upside down. Parartemia are 20 millimetres. and environmental conditions are easily distinguished by the elaborate Biology and ecology suitable. Due to the temporary nature antenna of the male that has been Habitat of their habitat, some species are able modified into a clasper. Artemia Brine shrimp are filter feeders that Branchinella longirostris is restricted to mature within four days of hatching. populations are predominately consume benthic organic matter to clear rock pools on granite Only one generation is present during female (one species reproduces such as diatoms. They provide outcrops, while Branchinella affinis the wet phase of the wetland. asexually) and are pink in colour. a food source for waterbirds in prefer more turbid waters such as These animals range in length from shallow playas. claypans. These two species are 13 to 26 millimetres. As an adaptation to living in common and widespread compared temporary waters, Parartemia to Branchinella kadjikadji, which has Habitat produce two types of eggs. One only been found in two claypans. Parartemia inhabit naturally saline type hatches immediately so that Fairy shrimp are never found in wetlands and are rarely found in multiple generations are present wetlands inhabited by fish. secondarily saline wetlands. They when conditions in the wetland are can tolerate salinities between 15 favourable. The other is drought- and over 300 grams per litre but resistant and lies dormant during the tolerance depends on the species. dry period. These hatch when the lake Parartemia contracta is uniquely refills and conditions are suitable.

48 49 Invertebrates

Side swimmers Water slaters (Order Amphipoda) (Order Isopoda)

Diversity and endemism Diversity and endemism Austrochiltonia subtenuis is the only Haloniscus searlei is the only isopod amphipod that has been recorded in that has been found in the Avon the Avon region and is widespread region and is widespread throughout throughout southern Australia. southern Australia. Although a single Haloniscus searlei. Austrochiltonia subtenuis. name is used at present, there may be Appearance multiple species. Biology and ecology Austrochiltonia subtenuis is laterally Biology and ecology compressed (flattened from the Appearance Isopods feed on dead plants and Amphipods are omnivores and sides). They are comprised of a Haloniscus searlei is dorso-ventrally animals. Unlike other crustaceans feed predominantly on decaying head, thorax and abdomen and compressed (flattened from above). that inhabit temporary waters, they vegetation. They don’t produce have seven pairs of walking legs. They are comprised of a head, thorax don’t produce drought-resistant eggs. drought-resistant eggs so are more Adults vary between six and 10 and abdomen and have seven pairs of It is believed that Haloniscus searlei common in permanent waters but millimetres in length. walking legs. Adults are six to survives dry periods by seeking refuge may survive short dry periods by 13 millimetres long. in damp areas such as moist mud taking refuge in damp areas such as Habitat below the wetland surface. mud or crayfish burrows. Austrochiltonia subtenuis is a Habitat common, widespread species Haloniscus searlei is found in saline that has been recorded in both wetlands and can tolerate a wide freshwater and saline wetlands and range of salinities (10 to 140 grams rivers in the Avon region. It is most per litre) making it unique among the commonly found in shallow water isopods. among algae, reeds and sedges.

50 51 Invertebrates

Freshwater prawns Yabbies (Order Decapoda) (Order Decapoda)

Diversity and endemism Diversity and endemism Palaemonetes australis is the only There are two species of yabby that freshwater prawn that has been have been recorded in the Avon recorded in the Avon region and region, Cherax destructor and Cherax it is endemic to the south-west of Palaemonetes australis. quinquecarinatus. Cherax destructor Western Australia. (dam yabby) has been introduced The endemic Cherax quinquecarinatus. to Western Australia, while Cherax Appearance Biology and ecology quinquecarinatus (gilgie) is endemic Freshwater prawns have 10 legs and Freshwater prawns are scavengers to the south-west. Biology and ecology stalked eyes. Their second pair of legs that feed on decaying plant Yabbies are predators but also is longer than the first pair and has and animal material. Copepods, Appearance opportunistically scavenge on almost pincers. Palaemonetes australis can amphipods, algae and chironomid Yabbies have 10 legs and anything including rotting vegetation. grow up to 34 millimetres. larvae have been found in the gut of stalked eyes. Their front legs are When food is scarce, cannibalistic Palaemonetes australis. modified into stout claws. Cherax behaviour has been observed. Habitat quinquecarinatus is smaller, To survive the dry periods, yabbies Palaemonetes australis occurs in the growing up to 13 centimetres, take refuge by burrowing up to two permanent waters of the Avon River. while C. destructor can grow up to metres into the moist mud. They It can be found in both fresh and 30 centimetres. can lie dormant in their burrow for saline waters up to around 25 grams several years. per litre. It inhabits open water or Habitat vegetation in shallow water. Cherax destructor has been found in freshwater to slightly saline swamps and dams in the Avon region. They prefer turbid waters to avoid predation by waterbirds. Cherax quinquecarinatus occupies a wide range of habitats including permanent and temporary waterways, and has been found in the Avon River.

52 53 Invertebrates

Insects Flies (Order Diptera) a b c There are 15 families of flies that Insects can be distinguished from have been recorded in the Avon crustaceans and arachnids by having region. Of these, families such as the only three pairs of jointed legs and a non-biting midges (Chironomidae), single pair of antennae. Adult bodies biting midges (Ceratopogonidae) are divided into three parts; the d e f and mosquitoes (Culicidae) have the head, thorax and abdomen, although most species and are discussed in immature stages can look very more detail in the sections below. different. Other families of flies, such as Aquatic insects are present in march flies (Tabanidae), crane flies nearly every inland water body and (Tipulidae), marsh flies (Sciomyzidae), g h i are generally the dominant group moth flies (Psychodidae), soldier in terms of species number and flies (Stratiomyidae), shore flies biomass in freshwater wetlands. (Ephydridae), black flies (Simuliidae), Most insects are restricted to phantom midges (Chaoboridae) freshwater wetlands, though a few and species from the families Dolichopodidae, Empididae, Muscidae are tolerant of low salinities. There j k l is a large range of aquatic insects and Scatopsidae, will not be discussed found in the Avon region including in detail but pictures have been caddisflies (Trichoptera), mayflies provided. (Ephemeroptera), flies (Diptera), Flies have an aquatic larval stage and beetles (Coleoptera), water bugs a terrestrial adult stage. Larvae can (Hemiptera), moths (Lepidoptera), vary immensely in body structure but damselflies and dragonflies (Odonata). Examples from some of the families of aquatic fly larvae found in the Avon. frequently look like worms or maggots, (a) Chaoboridae (phantom midge), (b) Dolichopodidae (Promochlonyx To be considered aquatic, insects with up to 12 body segme nts. Most australiensis), (c) Empididae, (d) Ephydridae (shore fly), (e) Muscidae, (f) Psychodidae (moth fly), (g) Scatopsidae, (h) Sciomyzidae (marsh fly), (i) must have at least one fully aquatic are fleshy and lack distinct heads, Simuliidae (Simulium ornatipes), (j) Stratiomyidae (soldier fly), (k) Tabanidae phase in their life cycle. Most have a while others have well-developed head (march fly), (l) Tipulidae (crane fly). larval aquatic phase and a terrestrial capsules and short legs near the head adult phase, but some beetles and and/or the tail, such as chironomids. and benthic zones. Larvae have a wide Species vary in their tolerance to water bugs are fully aquatic. Since They can be found in a variety of range of feeding habits and can be salinity with taxa belonging to adults are capable of flight they can wetland types including pools on predators (e.g. march flies, crane flies, families such as Muscidae commonly colonise newly flooded wetlands, granite outcrops, claypans and saline phantom midges, Dolichopodidae occurring in highly saline wetlands, either by diving straight into the water lakes. Larvae are found among organic and Empididae), filter feeders (e.g. while other groups such as crane fly (e.g. beetles) or laying eggs at the debris, aquatic vegetation, sand, mud black flies) or detritivores that feed on larvae, black flies, marsh flies and water surface (e.g. dragonflies and and gravel and may be associated decaying vegetation and algae (e.g. moth flies usually only occur in fresh mosquitoes). with the water surface, water column moth flies and soldier flies). to slightly saline wetlands.

54 55 Invertebrates

Non-biting midges Habitat Biology and ecology (Family Chironomidae) Chironomid larvae are widespread The feeding method of larvae varies and are found in every type of between species. Species from the Diversity and endemism wetland. They are generally found sub-family Tanypodinae are generally Non-biting midges, or chironomids, in association with benthic debris predatory and consume other are the most diverse group of insects and aquatic plants and can be chironomid larvae, oligochaetes, that occur in wetlands of the Avon free-living or dwelling in a case nematodes and small invertebrates. Tanytarsus barbitarsis from the region, with at least 64 species made from secretions and fine Other species are herbivorous, subfamily Chironominae is commonly found in saline wetlands. recorded. Many of these are likely sediment. Greatest species richness consuming plant detritus and algae. to be restricted to the south-west and abundance is often observed in Dense swarms of mating adult of Western Australia but cannot be nutrient-enriched fresh and slightly chironomids can often be seen near named because they have not been saline wetlands. Most chironomids wetlands around dusk, and in urban reared through to adults. Species are intolerant of high salinity, with areas these can be a nuisance since belonging to the genus Archaeochlus the exception of a few species they are attracted to lights. Plague are found on granite outcrops and such as Tanytarsus barbitarsis and midge populations are often associated represent an ancient group occurring Procladius paludicola. Several with algal blooms. only in Australia and southern Africa. species, such as unnamed species of Allotrissocladius, are restricted A chironomid larva from the subfamily Tanypodinae. Appearance to pools on granite outcrops in the Chironomid larvae are worm-like Avon region. animals with a fleshy body and distinct head. They generally have a pair of stumpy legs on the first and last body segment. While they vary in colour, some have haemoglobin in their bodies, giving them a red colour A chironomid larva from the subfamily and hence the common name of Orthocladiinae. ‘blood worms’.

56 57 Invertebrates

Biting midges Biology and ecology Mosquitoes Biology and ecology (Family Ceratopogonidae) Larvae consume detritus, algae and (Family Culicidae) Larvae use a variety of feeding small invertebrates. Some adult methods. Anopheles and most Culex Diversity and endemism females, such as Culicoides, suck Diversity and endemism are filter feeders that use mouth There are at least 19 species from nine blood from vertebrates, including Thirteen species of mosquito larvae brushes to sweep algae and detritus genera of ceratopogonids found in the humans, while Dasyhelea feed on from four genera have been recorded into their mouths. Some species Avon region. flower nectar. Some species of in Avon wetlands. Of these, Aedes of Aedes and Culex are predators, Atrichopogon and Forcipomyia are occidentalis, is endemic to the south- feeding on other smaller mosquito Appearance parastitic on larger insects. west and Goldfields, and is restricted larvae and invertebrates. Only adult The appearance of the larvae varies to pools on granite outcrops. females of some species feed on depending on the subfamily. The mammalian blood, which is required Ceratopogoninae are the most Appearance for egg production. Some feed only common and are long and very thin. Mosquito larvae are more complex on birds or frogs. The eggs of some They have a distinct head capsule than most fly larvae and have bristle- Aedes are resistant to desiccation, with hairs extending from the last covered bodies. The thorax (first three giving these species an advantage in body segment. The Dasyheleinae are body segments) is generally much temporary water bodies. similar in appearance to chironomids Culicoides sp. (subfamily broader than the abdomen. When (see previous pages) but don’t have Ceratopogoninae) is commonly found in the water, they have a wriggling prolegs on the first body segment, in wetlands in the Avon region motion and are often referred to as while the Forcipomyiinae are covered ‘mosquito wrigglers’. Some have in hairs or spines. a siphon on the tail end which is used to penetrate through the water Habitat surface for breathing. Biting midge larvae are found in a The endemic mosquito larva, Aedes Habitat occidentalis, is found in granite variety of habitats including pools on outcrop pools. granite outcrops, claypans, streams Mosquito larvae are restricted to still and saline lakes. They are generally or slow-moving water bodies, often in found in association with mud and Dasyhelea sp. from the subfamily protected shallow areas. Most occur in rotting vegetation, though some Dasyheleinae. freshwater and mildly saline wetlands will readily swim with a snake-like but some species, such as Aedes movement in the water column. camptorhynchus, are tolerant of highly Species vary in their tolerance to saline conditions. salinity, with species from the genera Forcypomyia and Atrichopogon generally found in freshwater to slightly saline wetlands and species Mosquito larva Aedes sp. from the genus Culicoides usually found in wetlands that are freshwater Undescribed species from the genus Forcypomyia (subfamily Forcipomyiinae). to highly saline. 58 59 Invertebrates

Caddisflies Biology and ecology (Order Trichoptera) Caddisfly larvae employ various feeding methods. Species with Diversity and endemism portable cases graze on algae, leaves Eleven species from four families of and detritus, while those that make caddisflies occur in the Avon, none fixed retreats (family Hydropsychidae) Symphitoneuria wheeleri can tolerate of which are endemic to the region. spin nets which they use to filter moderately saline conditions. Hellyethira litua construct portable cases food from flowing water. Free-living Most species belong to the family from silk-like secretions. Leptoceridae. caddisfly larvae, such as species from the family Economidae, are nomadic Appearance Habitat predators. Caddisfly larvae are eaten by fish, frogs, dragonfly nymphs and Caddisflies are small, moth-like insects Caddisfly larvae are found in a variety other aquatic predators. They can that have a long aquatic larval phase. of fresh and slightly saline wetlands be sensitive to water quality and are For protection against predators including slow-moving streams and often used as an indicator of wetland most larvae live in portable cases temporary lakes. Some species from health, though species in the Avon constructed from a variety of materials the family Leptoceridae can inhabit region tend to be fairly tolerant of a such as sand, leaves, twigs, grass moderately saline wetlands, such as range of conditions. and bark. They can often be seen by Symphitoneuria wheeleri and Notalina looking for moving pieces of these spira. One species, Cheumatopsyche materials. Others build retreats from sp. (family Hydropsychidae), occurs silk-like secretions. Mature larvae can only in flowing streams. Oecetis sp. in its portable case. grow up to 25 millimetres in length but most are much smaller.

60 61 Invertebrates

Moths and butterflies Mayflies (Order Lepidoptera) (Order Ephemeroptera)

Diversity and endemism Diversity and endemism A small number of lepidopterans Two species of mayfly, Cloeon sp. and have an aquatic larval phase and Tasmanocoenis tillyardi, have been are known as ‘aquatic caterpillars’. Unidentified larva from the recorded in the Avon region. These family Pyralidae. Identifying larvae can be difficult species are not restricted to the region. The mayfly nymph because it is rarely known what Tasmanocoenis tillyardi. species of adult it will mature into. Biology and ecology Appearance Most of the aquatic caterpillars Aquatic caterpillars feed on algae The aquatic immatures are known Biology and ecology belong to the family Pyralidae with and aquatic plants. For protection as nymphs and these are easily The nymph phase is the longest stage four undescribed pyralid species and against predators, some larvae build distinguished by their three caudal in the mayfly life cycle as adult flies two non-pyralid species found in the portable cases from leaves and stems filaments or ‘tails’ and the presence emerge only to reproduce and die Avon region. Two of these species bound with silk. Adults (moths) are of gills on the abdomen (covered by within a few days: hence the scientific may be endemic to the south-west entirely terrestrial. a protective plate in Tasmanocoenis name for the group (which means of Western Australia. tillyardi). Mature larvae can grow up to short-lived with wings). Mayfly nymphs eight to 10 millimetres in length. Appearance are herbivores and scrape algae, diatoms and detritus off rocks, wood Aquatic caterpillars have a similar Habitat and aquatic plants. They are preyed appearance to terrestrial caterpillars Mayfly nymphs occur in fresh and upon by fish and their appearance is because they have fleshy bodies slightly saline lakes, streams and often mimicked in the design of lures and six short legs, but they are swamps of the Avon. They are benthic for the sport of fly fishing. often covered in filamentous gills. and can be found on logs, soil and Mature larvae can grow between leaf litter or clinging to submerged 10 and 25 millimetres. plants. They generally inhabit permanent water but since adults are Habitat capable of flight they can colonise Aquatic caterpillars have been temporary waters. recorded from fresh to moderately saline wetlands in the Avon, with the most common species occurring primarily in saline waters. They are generally found in association with aquatic plants or on rocks.

62 63 Invertebrates

Damselflies Biology and ecology and dragonflies Dragonflies and damselflies have an (Order Odonata) aquatic larval stage and terrestrial adult stage. Species colonising temporary Diversity and endemism wetlands such as Hemicordulia tau Austrolestes annulosus is a common and Ischnura aurora have short life Ten species of damselfly larvae and damselfly found in fresh to moderately 10 species of dragonfly larvae have saline wetlands. cycles. Odonate larvae are predators been recorded in wetlands of the Avon and use either an attack or an ambush region. Of the species that occur in strategy. They prey upon a wide variety the Avon region, two, Austrogomphus of other invertebrates. Larvae from the damselfly family Coenagrionidae can collaris (dragonfly) and Archiargiolestes Aeshna brevistyla is a widespread pusillus (damselfly), are endemic to the dragonfly species restricted to fresh be territorial and defend their hunting south-west of Western Australia. and slightly saline wetlands. ground. As a means of escaping predators, dragonfly larvae are able to Xanthagrion erythroneurum is a Appearance widespread damselfly found in fresh propel themselves by expelling water to slightly saline wetlands out of their anus. Some damselfly Damselfly larvae are slender and larvae are known to be sensitive to have three flat gills at the end of poor water quality and are often used their abdomen. Dragonfly larvae are Habitat as indicators of wetland health. stouter and have the respiratory gills Odonate larvae inhabit both temporary protected within the rectum. Both and permanent wetlands. Most species groups have six legs and large eyes are restricted to fresh and slightly on the sides of their mostly triangular saline wetlands but some, such as heads. Mature odonate larvae develop Austrolestes annulosus and Austrolestes wing buds and range between 10 and io (damselfies) and Hemicordulia tau Austrogomphus collaris is an endemic 40 millimetres in length. dragonfly species. (dragonfly) have been frequently collected from moderately saline wetlands in the Avon. Odonate larvae are usually found in association with submerged macrophytes.

64 65 Invertebrates

Water bugs Biology and ecology (Order Hemiptera) Most water bugs prey upon other aquatic invertebrates. They use their Diversity and endemism piercing mouthparts to harpoon then Although invertebrates are generally inject paralysing toxins into their prey. referred to as ‘bugs’, this group is They then suck out the body fluids. more specifically referred to as the The exception is the waterboatmen ‘water bugs’ or ‘true bugs’. Twenty- (so called because they use their two species from seven families of middle pair of legs like oars), which water bugs have been recorded from mostly forage on the bottom for plant Anisops thienemanni is a widespread and animal detritus as well as small wetlands in the Avon, but most of backswimmer that can tolerate Sigara mullaka is a waterboatman invertebrates. Water bugs are often these are widespread outside the moderate salinity. that is endemic to the south-west of region. The waterboatman, Sigara Western Australia and distinguished by present in large numbers and are an mullaka and the backswimmer, Anisops the stripes behind the head. important food source for fish. baylii are endemic to the south-west of Habitat Western Australia. There are two types of water bugs – those that are semi-aquatic and live Appearance on the water surface or shoreline, such Water bugs are easily distinguished as water striders (family Vellidae), and by their mouthparts, which have been those that are fully aquatic and live modified to form a rostrum (also beneath the water surface, such as known as the beak), so it is pointed on waterboatmen (family Corixidae) and the ventral side. Juvenile water bugs backswimmers (family Notonectidae). are similar in appearance to adults Water bugs occupy a variety of habitats because they do not go through a including temporary pools, granite pupal stage. rock pools, lakes and rivers. They are Micronecta robusta is a waterboatman mostly found in fresh and slightly that has only been recorded in fresh saline wetlands, but some do occur in and slightly saline wetlands. moderately and highly saline wetlands, such as the backswimmers, Anisops thienemanni and Anisops gratus.

66 67 Invertebrates

Beetles (Order Coleoptera) Habitat Aquatic beetles occur in a variety of Diversity and endemism habitats including granite outcrop Forty-four species from 12 families of pools, saline lakes and swamps. aquatic beetles have been recorded Species vary in their tolerance to from wetlands in the Avon region, salinity, which influences the type making them one of the most diverse of wetlands they occur in. A large insect groups. Nine of these are proportion of species is restricted endemic to the south-west of Western to fresh or only slightly saline water Australia, including four species of such as Berosus approximans and Megaporus howitti. Necterosoma Paroster, which are most commonly The diving beetle, Eretes australis, has found in pools on granite outcrops in penicillatus and Berosus munitipennis The water scavenger beetle, been recorded in claypans and granite Limnoxenus zelandicus. the Wheatbelt. are commonly found in moderately to outcrop pools in the Avon region. highly saline wetlands. Eretes australis Appearance is usually found in turbid claypans. The presence of long hairs on their hind legs (used to assist swimming) Biology and ecology and a streamlined body distinguishes Aquatic beetles are predators, most adult aquatic beetles from scavengers or herbivores. Although their terrestrial counterparts. The a large proportion of adult beetles is soft-bodied larvae are very different fully aquatic, most still maintain the in appearance to the adults and are ability to fly, enabling them to disperse generally elongate with three pairs to other habitats, and some can be of legs. found long distances from water. Paroster sp. is an endemic species most commonly found in granite Megaporus sp. larvae. outcrop pools.

68 69 Waterbirds

little grassbirds and Australian reed- Australian wood duck, the Australian warblers, which use this habitat for shelduck and some waders have nesting. Emergent vegetation is also actually increased in the region since important because it offers waterbirds European settlement. some protection from predators such as foxes, cats and birds of prey. The Australasian bittern is now listed as rare or likely to become extinct by the Western Australian government because their numbers have significantly declined. The combination of an increase in salinity and excessive inundation or waterlogging kills trees and shrubs within a few years. This has implications There are 63 species of waterbirds found in the Avon. From left to right, top to for species such as herons, ibis and bottom: freckled duck, hoary-headed grebe with young, little pied cormorant, eastern spoonbills that predominantly nest in live great egret, hooded plover and swamp harrier. Photos (in order) - Ian Montgomery/ trees above water. Birdway, Babs and Bert Wells/DEC, Rohan Clarke/Wildlife Images, Ian Montgomery/ Birdway, Ian Montgomery/Birdway, Rohan Clarke/Wildlife Images. Submerged plants, aquatic invertebrates, fish, frogs and tortoises Sixty three waterbird species have been Natural freshwater wetlands, which are tolerant of salinity to varying recorded in the Avon region since 1981 are used by breeding waterbirds, have degrees. Egrets, herons, bitterns, during various projects conducted declined in abundance and condition. cormorants and pelicans, which by the Department of Environment Artificial freshwater wetlands, such predominantly feed on larger animals and Conservation. Waterbirds such as farm dams, are important for the such as fish, frogs, yabbies and as freckled ducks, little grassbirds and maintenance of some populations in tortoises, are significantly affected by bitterns have declined in abundance the area, most notably the Australian salinisation because these prey are due to impacts from agriculture shelduck and Australian wood duck, mainly intolerant of saline conditions. and other forms of development. which have benefited from agriculture. Some other waterbirds, such as ducks Secondary effects of dryland and shorebirds, which mostly feed on salinisation, such as reduced plant Emergent plants such as reeds, rushes submerged plants and invertebrates, cover, food, and freshwater availability, and sedges are generally intolerant are the least affected by salinisation. are the primary causes for reduced of even a slight increase in salinity, Although these food resources decline waterbird diversity in the region. and are a continually declining in diversity and abundance with an habitat at wetlands in the Avon. increase in salinity, they are still present This most significantly affects birds in moderately saline conditions. It has such as bitterns, waterhens, crakes, been observed that numbers of the

70 71 Waterbirds

Ducks and swans Ducks and swans Chestnut teal Breeding (Family Anatidae) (Anas castanea) Nests are made of down in a variety Ducks and swans are characterised of locations: on the ground, among by their short flat bills and webbed Most ducks and swans can only Distinctive features reeds, or in tree hollows, logs or rabbit bob their heads under the water feet. Eleven species of duck and two The chestnut teal is similar in burrows. to feed (dabblers), while some species of swan have been recorded appearance to the grey teal, but ducks can submerge themselves in the Avon region. generally darker in colour and Distribution completely (divers). Dabblers have without the paler throat. Breeding This bird is found in south-western legs located in the middle of the males have a green crown and neck, and south-eastern Australia at body making it difficult for them to and chestnut breast and flanks. freshwater and saline wetlands, but completely submerge their rumps, Size: 40 to 50 centimetres. most commonly in the great southern and can often be seen feeding with coastal lakes and inlets. their tail in the air. Divers have legs Feeding situated at the rear of the body to Occurrence in the region propel the duck to the bottom of It dabbles on aquatic vegetation and the lake to feed and then back up invertebrates. Uncommon. to the surface. Ducks and swans are generally found living in groups, but Congregation of grey teals. some can also live in pairs or alone. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC During the summer and autumn, flocks of thousands of individuals may be seen congregating on the larger, more permanent wetlands.

Chestnut teal. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC 72 73 Waterbirds

Grey teal Breeding Australasian shoveler Breeding (Anas gracilis) Grey teals are opportunistic breeders (Anas rhynchotis) This bird nests on the ground in dense that nest on the ground, among vegetation and occasionally in tree Distinctive features reeds or in tree hollows, logs or rabbit Distinctive features stumps or hollows standing in water. This inconspicuous species is burrows. The Australasian shoveler has chestnut distinguished from the chestnut teal by flanks and belly with a dull brown head Distribution its paler throat. It is grey-brown in colour. Distribution and a large pointed (shovel-shaped) dark It is found throughout Australia, Size: 37 to 48 centimetres. They are found throughout Australia bill. Breeding males have a white-yellow where it prefers large, permanent, at freshwater and saline wetlands, vertical crescent in front of the eyes. heavily vegetated swamps but is Feeding estuaries and sheltered coastal areas. Size: 47 to 53 centimetres. also commonly recorded on open It dabbles on aquatic invertebrates, moderately saline wetlands and aquatic and terrestrial vegetation, Occurrence in the region Feeding brackish inlets. seeds and insects. Common. It dabbles on aquatic invertebrates and macrophytes by using special grooves Occurrence in the region along the edge of the bill to filter-feed. Common.

Grey teal. Australasian shoveler. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

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Pacific black duck Breeding Hardhead Breeding (Anas superciliosa) This bird nests on the ground and (Aythya australis) The hardhead prefers deep, open in tree stumps and hollows around freshwater or densely vegetated Distinctive features wetlands. Distinctive features wetlands for breeding. It builds its nests on a trampled platform of reeds, The Pacific black duck has The hardhead is a chestnut brown sticks and vegetation near water. characteristic horizontal black and Distribution colour with a white undertail and a white stripes on the head and a brown It is common throughout Australia light blue tipped bill. The sexes can be distinguished by eye colour: males have Distribution body. at freshwater to moderately saline white eyes, females have brown eyes. Size: 50 to 60 centimetres. wetlands, estuaries and sheltered This bird is found throughout Australia Size: 45 to 60 centimetres. coastal areas. at freshwater to moderately saline Feeding wetlands. Feeding It dabbles on aquatic invertebrates and Occurrence in the region Occurrence in the region macrophyte seeds. Common. It dabbles and dives for food such as aquatic invertebrates and Common. macrophytes.

Pacific black duck. Hardhead (male). Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

76 77 Waterbirds

Musk duck Breeding Australian wood duck Breeding (Biziura lobata) It builds an untidy nest in reeds or tree (Chenonetta jubata) This bird makes a down nest in tree hollows. hollows near water. Distinctive features Distinctive features The musk duck has dark plumage and a Distribution The Australian wood duck has a dark Distribution short triangular bill. It floats low in the The musk duck is found in south- brown head with a mottled breast It is found throughout Australia at water so the tail is partly submerged. western and south-eastern Australia and neck and two dark stripes down freshwater and sometimes moderately The male has a large lobe beneath the at freshwater to moderately saline the back. Males have grey sides and saline wetlands, but also commonly bill and a distinctive spiky tail. It uses wetlands. females have mottled brown and inhabits farm dams and flooded its feet to make loud splashing noises white sides. The short bill gives it a pastures. during courtship displays. Occurrence in the region goose-like appearance. Size: 60 to 70 centimetres. Common. Size: 45 to 60 centimetres. Occurrence in the region Common. Feeding Feeding This bird dives for aquatic It grazes and dabbles mostly on invertebrates, macrophytes, molluscs, terrestrial grasses and aquatic frogs and fish. macrophytes.

Musk duck (male). Australian wood duck. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

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Black swan Breeding Mute swan Breeding (Cygnus atratus) The black swan makes its nest from (Cygnus olor) The mute swan makes nests from reeds and sedges either built on an reeds and sedges on an island or Distinctive features island, on mounds in shallow water, or Distinctive features floating in deeper water. The black swan has black plumage floating in deep water. The mute swan is a large white swan except for the white outer wing with an orange bill and black on its Distribution feathers that are sometimes visible Distribution fore face. It was introduced to Australia in 1886. when folded, and bright red bill. It is found throughout Australia at Size: 1.3 to 1.6 metres. Some colonies are still present on the Size: 1 to 1.4 metres. freshwater or saline wetlands and Avon River at Northam. estuaries. Feeding Feeding It dabbles on aquatic macrophytes and Occurrence in the region It dabbles on algae and macrophytes. Occurrence in the region occasionally eats frogs and tadpoles. Resident at Northam; very rare elsewhere. Common.

Black swans and cygnets. Mute swan. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

80 81 Waterbirds

Pink-eared duck Feeding Blue-billed duck Breeding (Malacorhynchus It dabbles on plankton by using (Oxyura australis) Its nest has a canopy and is built within membranaceus) special grooves along the edge of the dense reeds over water, lined with soft bill to filter-feed. Distinctive features grass and down. Distinctive features The male blue-billed duck has a very Breeding Distribution The pink-eared duck is so named for dark head and chestnut body while the pink spot behind the eye. It has This bird makes its nest in those built the female is mottled brown all over. It occurs in south-western and south- a square-tipped grey bill and a white by other species or in tree hollows near The bill of breeding males turns bright eastern Australia at freshwater lakes head, with dark markings around the the water. blue. and swamps, and occasionally at eye, and a brown back. The neck, Size: 36 to 44 centimetres. moderately saline wetlands and breast and flanks have zebra-like Distribution estuaries. stripes. It is found throughout Australia at Feeding Size: 38 to 45 centimetres. freshwater to moderately saline wetlands. This duck dives for aquatic Occurrence in the region invertebrates and macrophytes. Uncommon. Occurrence in the region Common.

Pink-eared duck. Blue-billed duck (breeding male). Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

82 83 Waterbirds

Freckled duck Breeding Australian shelduck Breeding (Stictonetta naevosa) It uses down, twigs and debris to (Tadorna tadornoides) It usually nests in a hollow tree far from make a nest in dense reeds or in tree water, and sometimes on the ground Distinctive features hollows. Distinctive features under vegetation. In unusual cases, it The freckled duck has dark plumage The Australian shelduck has black nests in a rabbit burrow. with light speckles. The crown of its Distribution plumage with a cinnamon (male) or head is slightly peaked and the bill It is found throughout Australia. In chestnut (female) chest, a white ring Distribution curves slightly upwards. south-western and south-eastern around the neck; and white around the It is found in south-western Size: 50 to 60 centimetres. Australia it is most commonly found at eye and base of the bill (female only). and south-eastern Australia at freshwater lakes and swamps. Size: 57 to 73 centimetres. freshwater or saline wetlands and Feeding estuaries. This duck dabbles on aquatic Occurrence in the region Feeding invertebrates and macrophytes. Rare. It grazes on grass and dabbles on Occurrence in the region aquatic invertebrates and macrophytes. Common.

Freckled duck. Australian shelduck (male). Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

84 85 Waterbirds

Waterhens, coots Waterhens, coots Eurasian coot when breeding. Nests are made of and crakes (Fulica atra) sticks, twigs, reeds and leaves in and crakes vegetation, at the base of trees or (Family Rallidae) shrubs, on the ground or on the water. Waterhens, coots and crakes have a Distinctive features These birds have also been known to plump body (much like that of a hen), The entire body is dark grey to black The Eurasian coot and some waterhens steal nests of other species and push thick strong legs, long un-webbed with a white bill and shield extending possess a shield, which is an extension their eggs into the water. toes, and a strong, stout bill. of the bill up between the eyes to up between red eyes. Size: 35 to 38 centimetres. Six species of waterhens, coots the crown of the head. Behaviourally, Distribution and crakes have been recorded on most species tend to be secretive and Feeding This species is found throughout wetlands in the Avon region. are often found hiding and feeding in Australia at freshwater to moderately It dives, dabbles or grazes on aquatic reeds, rushes and grasses surrounding saline wetlands. a wetland. macrophytes, insects and rarely fish. Occurrence in the region Breeding Common. Eurasian coots become very territorial and aggressive towards other birds

Eurasian coot and nest. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

Eurasian coot. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

86 87 Waterbirds

Dusky moorhen Breeding Purple swamphen take small animals such as frogs, snails (Gallinula tenebrosa) Their nests are made of sticks, reeds, (Porphyrio porphyrio) and the occasional duckling. bark and grass over water, on the Distinctive features ground near water or in low trees Distinctive features Breeding It has dark brown plumage on the back and reeds. The purple swamphen has black This species nests in emergent and head, dark grey plumage on the plumage on the back and wings and vegetation by trampling reeds to form a belly and breast, and a white undertail. Distribution purple-blue plumage on the breast, platform and lining it with softer grasses. It has a yellow-tipped red bill with a red This species occurs in south-western belly and neck, and a white undertail. shield extending between the eyes. and eastern Australia at freshwater to It has a bright red bill and a shield Distribution Size: 35 to 40 centimetres. slightly saline wetlands. extending between the eyes. It has This species is found in the south- large red legs and feet. western, eastern and northern parts of Feeding Occurrence in the region Size: 45 to 50 centimetres. Australia. It inhabits freshwater to slightly It dabbles and grazes on aquatic Uncommon. saline wetlands and is also common invertebrates and macrophyte seeds, Feeding around grasslands and pastures. shoots and roots. It forages in shallow water and on land for aquatic vegetation, mostly reed Occurrence in the region and rush shoots. It is also known to Uncommon.

Dusky moorhen. Purple swamphen. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

88 89 Waterbirds

Australian spotted crake Breeding Baillon’s crake Breeding (Porzana fluminea) It makes a shallow bowl-shaped nest of (Porzana pusilla) It builds a saucer-shaped nest aquatic vegetation and grass hidden in made from reeds and grass in Distinctive features reeds and rushes around wetlands. Distinctive features emergent vegetation surrounding The back and wings are mostly brown The back and wings are a cinnamon- wetlands. with black and white mottling, and Distribution brown with black and white mottling. the breast and face are grey. It has This species is nomadic and is found The underwing, neck and breast are Distribution red eyes and a greenish bill with a red in south-western, eastern, and grey and the belly is barred brown- This species is found in south-western base. north-western Australia. It prefers black and white. It has red eyes and a and south-eastern parts of Australia Size: 19 to 22 centimetres. vegetated margins of freshwater to yellow or green bill. in dense emergent vegetation moderately saline wetlands. Size: 15 to 16 centimetres. surrounding freshwater to slightly Feeding saline wetlands. It forages in shallow water for aquatic Occurrence in the region Feeding invertebrates and macrophytes. Rare. It forages in shallow water for aquatic Occurrence in the region invertebrates and macrophytes. Rare.

Australian spotted crake. Baillon’s crake. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

90 91 Waterbirds

Black-tailed native hen Breeding Swamp harrier Feeding (Tribonyx ventralis) Their nests are made of sticks, reeds, It glides low over wetlands watching leaves, bark, grass and feathers in Swamp harrier for movements of any small animal including small waterbirds, frogs, Distinctive features dense vegetation near water. It will (Family Accipitridae) This bird has dark plumage with the breed at any time of the year after tortoises, fish, small mammals and large black tail often held upright. The rainfall. (Circus approximans) aquatic invertebrates. upper bill and shield is lime green and The swamp harrier requires wetlands the lower bill is red. Their legs and feet Distribution for feeding and breeding and is closely Breeding are bright red and it has yellow eyes. This species is found throughout related to other birds of prey such as Nests are made of trampled rushes Size: 32 to 38 centimetres. Australia at freshwater to moderately eagles and hawks, which all have a built in dense rush beds or tall grass, saline wetlands and permanent bores. hooked bill, long wings and strong over water or near water. Feeding It will appear at large inland wetlands talons that are used to grasp their prey. It wades and grazes on aquatic to breed shortly after heavy rainfall. Distribution invertebrates and terrestrial and aquatic Distinctive features This bird is found throughout vegetation. Occurrence in the region The plumage is variable, usually Australia at freshwater and saline Uncommon in most years; large ranging from greyish-brown (adults) to wetlands, mangroves, estuaries and numbers occasionally. dark brown (juveniles) with a distinctive occasionally pastures. white rump in adults and light outer underwing feathers. Mostly seen in flight. Occurrence in the region Size: 50 to 60 centimetres. Uncommon.

Black-tailed native hen. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Swamp harrier (juvenile). Photo – Rohan Clarke/Wildlife Images 92 93 Waterbirds

Grebes Grebes Great crested grebe Breeding (Family Podicipedidae) (Podiceps cristatus) The nest is round and is made of Grebes superficially resemble small aquatic vegetation supported by reeds ducks but on closer inspection there The legs of grebes are placed at the Distinctive features or partly submerged branches. rear of the body, which makes it easy are some distinct differences. Firstly, This bird has a white face with a to dive for food and escape danger. the bills on grebes are smaller and distinctive black crest and a brown and Distribution This feature makes it awkward for much pointier. Secondly, grebes do not black ruff around the neck. The back This species is found throughout them to walk on land so they spend have webbed feet like ducks, instead of the neck, wings, flanks and tail are Australia at freshwater and most of their time on the water. each toe is lobed similar to the blade brown and the underparts are white. occasionally moderately saline Grebes are rarely seen flying, except of an oar. Size: 47 to 61 centimetres. wetlands. when disturbed by boats. Most Three species of grebes occur in movements between waterbodies Occurrence in the region Australia and have been recorded in occur at night. Feeding the Avon region. It dives for small fish and aquatic Uncommon. invertebrates.

Australasian grebe with nest. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

Great crested grebe. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

94 95 Waterbirds

Hoary-headed grebe Breeding Australasian grebe Feeding (Poliocephalus poliocephalus) This bird builds a nest of floating (Tachybaptus It dives for small fish and aquatic aquatic vegetation that is anchored and novaehollandiae) invertebrates. Distinctive features supported by reeds or fallen branches, Breeding adults have a conspicuously usually far from the shore. Distinctive features Breeding white-streaked dark head. Non- Breeding adults have a prominent Australasian grebes build a round breeding adults have a dark cap that Distribution yellow marking behind the bill and nest of floating aquatic vegetation ends just below the eye. This species is found throughout Australia a chestnut to red marking which anchored and supported by reeds or Size: 29 to 30 centimetres. at freshwater and saline wetlands. extends from the side of the head fallen branches. Feeding Occurrence in the region to the upper half of the neck. Non- breeding adults appear very similar Distribution It dives for aquatic invertebrates. Common. to the hoary-headed grebe but This species is found throughout have a slightly browner, less greyish Australia at freshwater to slightly saline appearance and the lower edge of wetlands. the dark head cap passes through the eye, not below it. Occurrence in the region Size: 23 to 25 centimetres. Uncommon.

Hoary-headed grebe. Australasian grebe. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

96 97 Waterbirds

Cormorants and darters Darters Australasian darter Breeding (Family Anhingidae) (Anhinga novaehollandiae) Nests are made of twigs and sticks Cormorants and darters are Darters are a small group that are and lined with leaves, built in a tree characterised by long bills and wings, Distinctive features distinguished by a very long and overhanging water. Breeding can be short legs, and feet with all four pointed bill. One species has been The Australasian darter has a either solitary or occasionally in small toes webbed. They are piscivores, recorded in the Avon region. streamlined body with a long slender colonies with other species. which means that they eat mostly neck, pointed yellow bill and a long, fish. These birds float very low in the rounded tail. Adult males have dark Distribution water and often only the head and plumage with some white on the wings This species is found throughout neck may be visible. When not in and a chestnut breast. Females have Australia in estuaries and at open the water, they may be seen perched brown and white mottled plumage on freshwater to slightly saline wetlands. on banks, logs or trees drying the back and pale underparts. their plumage with their wings Size: 85 to 90 centimetres. Occurrence in the region outstretched. This is because their Uncommon. feathers absorb rather than repel Feeding water, which reduces their buoyancy It springs its long, kinked neck and thus assists them to submerge rapidly forwards to spear fish and dive for hours while feeding. with its dagger-like bill. It is also known to feed on tortoises, aquatic invertebrates and vegetation.

Little pied cormorants and Australasian darters can often be seen drying their plumage with their wings outstretched. Photo – Rohan Clarke/Wildlife Images

Australasian darter. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

98 99 Waterbirds

Cormorants Feeding Great cormorant Breeding (Family Phalacrocoracidae) It dives for fish, frogs and aquatic (Phalacrocorax carbo) Nests are made of sticks and invertebrates (mainly crustaceans). vegetation and are usually placed in Cormorants are most easily Distinctive features trees or shrubs. It breeds in colonies distinguished from other waterbirds by Breeding It has mainly black plumage with white with other species. their long hooked bill. Four species have Nests are made of sticks and lined or yellow facial skin and a yellow to been recorded in the Avon region. with leaves, built in a tree overhanging grey bill. Distribution water. It usually breeds in colonies with Size: 80 to 85 centimetres. This species is found throughout Little pied cormorant other species. Australia at freshwater to slightly saline (Microcarbo melanoleucos) Feeding wetlands, and in estuaries, bays and Distribution It dives for fish, frogs and aquatic inlets along the coast. Distinctive features This species is found throughout invertebrates. This species has black plumage on Australia at freshwater to saline Occurrence in the region the crown of the head, back of the wetlands and along the coast. Rare. neck, back, wings and tail. It has white underparts, face, and a yellow bill. Occurrence in the region Size: 55 to 60 centimetres. Uncommon.

Little pied cormorant. Great cormorant. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway

100 101 Waterbirds

Little black cormorant Breeding Pied cormorant Breeding (Phalacrocorax sulcirostris) They nest in a platform of sticks, leaves (Phalacrocorax varius) Nests are made of sticks, plant stems and feathers, which is built in trees and aquatic macrophytes and are built Distinctive features over water. It breeds in colonies with Distinctive features in trees and shrubs, sometimes in It has completely black plumage and other species. It has black plumage on the top of colonies with other species. a dark grey bill. This bird is similar to the head, neck, back, wings, tail and the great cormorant but is smaller and Distribution flanks and white underparts and Distribution without the yellow facial skin. This species is found throughout cheeks. It has yellow, blue and pink This species is found throughout Size: 55 to 65 centimetres. Australia at freshwater to slightly skin on the face, and a grey bill. Australia, most commonly around the saline wetlands and in sheltered Size: 70 to 80 centimetres. coastline but sometimes at freshwater Feeding coastal areas. wetlands. They mostly herd fish in groups. Feeding They will also eat frogs and aquatic Occurrence in the region It dives for fish and aquatic Occurrence in the region invertebrates. Uncommon. invertebrates. Rare.

Little black cormorant. Pied cormorant. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

102 103 Waterbirds

Pelicans Pelicans Australian pelican Breeding (Family Pelecanidae) (Pelecanus conspicillatus) Pelicans breed mainly on islands and in small to very large colonies. Nests The pelican has webbed feet, short Distinctive features are made of a sparse gathering of legs and is often seen swimming, The Australian pelican is a large bird sticks or vegetation in a shallow or soaring in thermals. The Australian with a very long bill, large bill-pouch scraping on the ground. pelican is the only species found in and yellow eye-rings. It has white Australia and has been recorded in the plumage except for some black areas Distribution Avon region. on the wings, rump and tail. This species prefers large expanses of Size: 1.6 to 1.8 metres. open water and occurs throughout Australia at freshwater and saline Feeding wetlands, and in estuaries. The bill is used like a scoop to catch Australian pelicans. fish, shrimp and, very occasionally, Occurrence in the region Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC small birds. Pelicans may feed alone, Uncommon. or in small to large groups that herd fish into shallow water.

Australian pelican. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

104 105 Waterbirds

Large wading birds Egrets, herons Eastern great egret Breeding and bitterns (Ardea modesta) They often breed in colonies with Large wading birds are a distinctive (Family Ardeidae) other species, nesting on a platform of group of waterbirds that are most Distinctive features sticks in a tree over water. easily recognised by their unwebbed Egrets and herons have a long neck This species has white plumage, a yellow feet, large size and long bill and and legs and are often seen wading in bill, and dark legs and feet. During the Distribution legs. They are poor swimmers, so open water, waterlogged pastures, or breeding season the bill turns black, the This species is found throughout wading in shallow water and finding perched in trees overhanging water. space between the eye and the bill (lore) Australia at freshwater to moderately prey by eye or by sweeping or Egrets differ from herons by having turns blue-green, and long white plumes saline wetlands and along the coast probing with submerged bills are the white plumage, while herons can have develop on the back. at estuarine mudflats, mangroves most efficient methods of feeding. grey, black or brown plumage. Bitterns Size: 85 to 105 centimetres. and reefs. These birds are good flyers but are are solitary birds that tend to be much rarely seen diving underwater. stockier, and are more commonly Feeding Occurrence in the region found hiding in emergent wetland It wades in shallow or deeper water for Uncommon. vegetation. There are five species of fish, frogs, invertebrates and reptiles. egrets, herons and bitterns found in It is also known to catch fish by diving the Avon region. from a flying position. Egrets, herons and bitterns are primarily piscivores and use various foraging techniques to catch their prey, including: • standing very still and waiting for prey to swim by; • stalking or chasing their prey in Egrets and herons can be recognised shallow water; in the air by the way they fold their necks during flight. Photo – Ian • sorting through the sediment for Montgomery/Birdway invertebrates; • using their feet to stir up sediment and food items in deeper water; and • locating fish from above and diving to catch them.

Eastern great egret. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

106 107 Waterbirds

White-necked heron Breeding Australasian bittern Breeding (Ardea pacifica) Nests are made of sticks, usually (Botaurus poiciloptilus) It nests in a large platform made of sticks built more than 15 metres up a tree and reeds in a shrub or low tree screened Distinctive features over water. Distinctive features by reeds and rushes, just above the White-necked herons have dark grey The plumage is mottled with various water level. wings, back and flanks with a white Distribution shades of brown, tending to be darker head and neck. When breeding the This species is found throughout on the back of the neck and wings. The Distribution adults develop plum-coloured plumes Australia at freshwater to moderately throat and eye area are paler and the This species is found in south-western on their back and breast. saline wetlands. breast is streaked with off-white and and south-eastern Australia at Size: 75 to 105 centimetres. dark brown. It has a large, stocky build. freshwater wetlands and occasionally Occurrence in the region Size: 65 to 75 centimetres. in estuaries. Feeding Uncommon. It wades in shallow water for fish, Feeding Occurrence in the region frogs and invertebrates. It wades in shallow water at night Rare. for fish, invertebrates, frogs, reptiles and small mammals and birds. It will sometimes hunt in deeper water from platforms of bent-over reeds.

White-necked heron. Australasian bittern. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway

108 109 Waterbirds

White-faced heron Breeding Nankeen night heron (Egretta novaehollandiae) Nests are made of sticks and are (Nycticorax caledonicus) usually built high up in a tree, either Distinctive features over water or up to three kilometres Distinctive features This species has a grey body and white away from water. The plumage is reddish-brown face. When breeding, the adults develop except for the black crown of the brownish-grey plumes on their lower Distribution head and paler underparts. Two neck and grey plumes on their back. This species is found throughout to three long white plumes arise Size: 66 to 69 centimetres. Australia at freshwater and saline from the back of the neck during wetlands, farm dams, pastures, breeding. Juvenile plumage is Feeding mudflats and shorelines. streaked and spotted, brown and White-faced herons wade at white. It has a stocky build. various depths for fish, frogs and Occurrence in the region Size: 55 to 65 centimetres. invertebrates. Common. Feeding It forages at night for fish, frogs and invertebrates. It is also known to scavenge under the nests of other Nankeen night heron. waterbirds for fallen chicks and eggs. Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway

Breeding These birds often breed in colonies with other species, nesting on a platform of sticks in a tree over water.

Distribution This species is found throughout Australia at freshwater to slightly saline wetlands and mangrove areas of estuaries.

Occurrence in the region Uncommon.

White-faced heron. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

110 111 Waterbirds

Spoonbills and ibis Yellow-billed spoonbill (Family Threskiornithidae) (Platalea flavipes)

Ibis and spoonbills have a long neck, Distinctive features bill and legs. Spoonbills, as their name suggests, have a conspicuous long This species has a yellow spoon- spoon-shaped bill. Ibis have bare skin shaped bill, long yellow legs, and white on their heads and a long down- plumage. Breeding adults develop black curved bill. Spoonbills and ibis are often filamentous plumes from the inner seen perched in trees above water or wings and pale yellow breast feathers. circling above wetlands. Two species of Size: 75 to 90 centimetres. spoonbill and three species of ibis have been recorded in the Avon region. Feeding It wades in shallow water for invertebrates, feeding by sweeping its slightly open bill from side to side in the water and soft muds. When prey is felt, the bill is snapped shut and lifted to let the food slide down the throat.

Breeding This species breeds in colonies with other species. Nests are either made of sticks and twigs built in a tree over water, or made from trampled reeds in reed-beds.

Distribution This species is found throughout Australia at freshwater to moderately saline wetlands and sometimes in pastures.

Occurrence in the region Uncommon.

Yellow-billed spoonbill in breeding plumage. Photo – Adrian Boyle/Wildlife Images

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Royal spoonbill Breeding Glossy ibis Feeding (Platalea regia) This species breeds in colonies with (Plegadis falcinellus) It wades in shallow water and mud for other species. Nests are built in a tree fish, frogs and aquatic invertebrates. Distinctive features over water and are made of sticks and Distinctive features This species has a black spoon-shaped lined with leaves. As its name suggests, the wings Breeding bill, long black legs and white plumage. and tail of this species have a glossy This bird breeds in colonies with The face is black and adults have a Distribution iridescent green and purple sheen in other species. Nests are either made small yellow patch above each eye. This species is found mainly in the sunlight. At a distance the bird of sticks in a tree over water, or of Size: 75 to 80 centimetres. northern and eastern Australia appears black. Breeding adults have trampled vegetation in reeds. at freshwater to slightly saline a dark chestnut brown head, neck Feeding wetlands, mudflats and and back. Non-breeding adults and Distribution It wades in shallow water for fish, mangroves. juveniles have browner plumage on This species is found mainly in northern crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic the head, neck, back and underparts, and eastern Australia at freshwater invertebrates using a similar feeding Occurrence in the region with white flecks or streaks on the to moderately saline wetlands and technique to the yellow-billed spoonbill. Rare. head and neck. occasionally in sheltered bays and Size: 50 to 54 centimetres. mangrove forests.

Occurrence in the region Rare.

Royal spoonbill. Glossy ibis. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway

114 115 Waterbirds

Australian white ibis pastures and wetlands to garbage tips Straw-necked ibis Breeding (Threskiornis molucca) in built-up areas. (Threskiornis spinicollis) This bird breeds in colonies with other species. Nests are made of sticks, Distinctive features Breeding Distinctive features trampled plants and grass built in The plumage is white except for an It breeds in dense colonies, often with The plumage on the wings and back dense paperbark stands over water or unfeathered black head, black upper other species. Nests are made of sticks is black and appears glossy in the among reeds. neck and a few black lacy plumes and trampled reeds built in small trees sunlight. The underparts and neck Distribution covering the tail. The bill is black and or shrubs over water. are white and the head is black and the legs are blackish, sometimes with unfeathered with a black bill. Adults This species is found throughout a smudge of red. Distribution have yellowish straw-like feathers Australia at freshwater to moderately Size: 65 to 75 centimetres. hanging from the lower neck. saline wetlands and wet or dry This species is found throughout Size: 60 to 70 centimetres. grasslands. Feeding Australia at freshwater to moderately saline wetlands, grasslands and built- It often feeds in large groups and Feeding Occurrence in the region up areas. eats mostly aquatic and terrestrial It forages in grasslands, pastures and Uncommon. invertebrates, but is also known to swamp margins mostly for terrestrial eat fish, frogs and garbage. They can Occurrence in the region invertebrates but also eats aquatic be found foraging anywhere from Uncommon. invertebrates, frogs, reptiles and small mammals.

Australian white ibis. Straw-necked ibis. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

116 117 Waterbirds

Shorebirds Plovers, dotterels Red-capped plover Breeding and lapwings (Charadrius ruficapillus) Their eggs are laid in a shallow Small wading birds or ‘waders’ are (Family Charadriidae) scraping on the ground close to the now most commonly referred to as Distinctive features water, sometimes next to a small shrub shorebirds. They forage on or near Plovers, dotterels and lapwings are Males have a chestnut to red head or pebbles. the shore and in shallow water along characterised by their short straight and neck, which is brighter during coastlines and in wetlands. Shorebirds bills and moderately long legs. Plovers breeding. Females have pale chestnut Distribution are mostly less than 50 centimetres in and dotterels have a characteristic head and neck plumage and juveniles This species is found throughout length, have thin twig-like legs, and foraging technique where they dart have brown head and neck plumage. Australia at estuaries, inter-tidal flats, pointed bills. for short bursts along the shoreline, The back, wings and tail are brown then stop abruptly and peck at the and the underparts are white. sandy beaches and saline wetlands. It ground. Lapwings are larger than Size: 14 to 16 centimetres. is less-commonly seen at freshwater plovers and dotterels and prefer to wetlands. forage in grassy habitats at various Feeding distances from wetlands. Plovers, It forages along the shoreline for Occurrence in the region dotterels and lapwings distract invertebrates and sometimes vegetation. Common. predators from eggs and chicks in their nest by feigning a wing injury. They run in the opposite direction to the nest with one wing dragging along the ground. Six species in this family have been recorded in the Avon region.

Black-winged stilt nest. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

Red-capped plover. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

118 119 Waterbirds

Black-fronted dotterel Breeding Red-kneed dotterel Breeding (Elseyornis melanops) Eggs are laid in a shallow scraping in (Erythrogonys cinctus) Nests are a scrape in the ground close sand or gravel near water. to water, which is sometimes lined Distinctive features Distinctive features with sparse vegetation or is placed Adults have a black stripe through the Distribution Adults have black plumage on the next to a small shrub. eye and a ‘V’-shaped band on a white This species is found throughout head, back of neck and chest. The chest. They have a brown crown, back, Australia at freshwater to slightly saline throat and underparts are white and Distribution wings and tail, and white underparts. wetlands and on mudflats. the back and wings are brown. As its This species is found throughout The bill is red with a black tip and the common name suggests, the knees Australia at freshwater and saline eye ring is red. Juveniles lack the black Occurrence in the region and legs above the knee are red. The wetlands. chest band and have a brown eye stripe. Common. bill is red and tipped with black. Size: 16 to 18 centimetres. Size: 17 to 19 centimetres. Occurrence in the region Uncommon. Feeding Feeding They eat aquatic and terrestrial It forages along the shoreline and in invertebrates found in mud and shallow water for aquatic invertebrates shallow water. and seeds.

Adult and chick of the black-fronted dotterel. Red-kneed dotterel. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

120 121 Waterbirds

Grey plover Breeding Hooded plover Breeding (Pluvialis squatarola) Grey plovers breed in the Arctic tundra. (Thinornis rubricollis) Nests are a shallow scraping in the The nest is a shallow scraping on the sand located above the high water Distinctive features ground lined with sparse vegetation. Distinctive features mark. They are sometimes built next to The plumage of non-breeding adults Adults have a black ‘hood’ covering a rock or branch and lined with sparse and juveniles is mottled grey-brown Distribution the entire head and a black collar at vegetation, stones or shells. and white except for white underparts. This species occurs along the coastline the back of the lower neck. The wings Full breeding plumage is not observed of Australia at a variety of habitats are a light grey to brown and the rest Distribution in Australia. including estuaries, lagoons and rarely of the plumage is white. They have a This species is found along the Size: 28 to 30 centimetres. at salt lakes that are close to the coast. red ring around the eye, pink legs and southern coastline of Australia and a black-tipped red bill. Juveniles have a also at inland salt lakes in Western Feeding Occurrence in the region mottled grey hood and collar, and pale Australia. It eats invertebrates and occasionally Rare. brown wings. plants and seeds found in shallow water, Size: 19 to 23 centimetres. Occurrence in the region mud, sand and sometimes pastures. Feeding Uncommon. The hooded plover forages in intertidal zones and along shorelines of beaches and salt lakes for invertebrates.

Grey plover in non-breeding plumage. Hooded plover in breeding plumage. Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway

122 123 Waterbirds

Banded lapwing Breeding Stilts and avocets (Vanellus tricolor) Nests are a shallow scraping in the (Family Recurvirostridae) ground sparsely lined with vegetation Distinctive features and are built in open areas after Stilts and avocets are characterised by their very long and slender legs and The head has a black crown and band rainfall. bills. Stilts have the longest leg-to- extending from the bill down the sides body ratio of all the shorebirds. This of the neck to the breast. There is a Distribution enables them to forage in water that white stripe through the eye and a red This species occurs throughout is inaccessible to other waders, which wattle between large yellow eyes and Australia except for far northern areas are often restricted to the shorelines a yellow bill. The underparts are white and prefers short grassy habitats. They and very shallow water. Avocets have and the wings and back are pale brown. are sometimes found in the vicinity of slightly shorter legs but longer, up- Juveniles appear similar to adults but salt lakes and claypans. curved bills. with mottled dark brown features. Size: 25 to 29 centimetres. Occurrence in the region Rare. Feeding It mostly eats terrestrial invertebrates but also seeds, grass shoots and herbs.

Banded lapwing. A flock of black-winged stilts in flight. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

124 125 Waterbirds

Banded stilt water’s surface and occasionally feed Black-winged stilt Breeding (Cladorhynchus on plants, seeds and roots. (Himantopus himantopus) They breed in pairs or in small colonies leucocephalus) after heavy rainfall. Nests can be made Breeding Distinctive features in a shallow scraping on the ground Distinctive features Banded stilts congregate on inland The plumage is white except for the on islands at temporary wetlands, on a grassy platform over shallow water or The plumage is white except for black salt lakes after heavy rainfall to breed. back of the neck and wings, which on damp ground. wings. The bill is long and straight Nests are a shallow scraping made on are black. The bill is long and straight and the legs are pink. Breeding adults the ground mainly on small islands in and the legs are pink. Juveniles lack have a chestnut to black band across salt lakes. the black neck plumage but have a Distribution the breast, while non-breeding adults dark patch around the eye and a grey This species is found throughout have a faded band across the breast, Distribution crown. Size: 35 to 43 centimetres. Australia at freshwater to saline or no band at all. Juveniles have black wetlands and mudflats. This species is found in southern legs and no band across the breast. Feeding Australia at salt lakes, and around Size: 35 to 43 centimetres. Occurrence in the region estuaries and mudflats. It picks aquatic invertebrates from the Common. Feeding surface of the water and mud. They pick aquatic invertebrates, Occurrence in the region particularly brine shrimp, from the Common.

Banded stilt. Black-winged stilt. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

126 127 Waterbirds

Red-necked avocet Breeding Sandpiper and allies These birds are most easily identified by their size and the size and shape (Recurvirostra Red-necked avocets breed in small (Family Scolopacidae) novaehollandiae) colonies at inland lakes. Nests are of their bills. Their appearance may made in a shallow scraping on the Sandpipers and allies are migratory change from season to season, which can make identification difficult. The Distinctive features ground, which is sometimes lined shorebirds. Those that migrate to with vegetation or grass and built on Australia breed throughout most of plumage of breeding adults can have This species has conspicuous chestnut islands or near water. Europe and the northern half of Asia slight to considerable differences plumage on its head and neck and a (Eurasia). They fly 12,000 kilometres in colour to non-breeding adults strongly up-curved slender bill. The rest Distribution on the route known as the ‘East and juveniles. In Australia, birds are of the body is white except for two Asian-Australasian Flyway’, which mostly seen in their non-breeding or This species is found throughout black stripes along the wings. extends from Eurasia and Alaska to juvenile plumage because they breed Australia at freshwater to saline Size: 40 to 48 centimetres. Australia and New Zealand. They start elsewhere, however, traces of breeding wetlands and mudflats. arriving in Australia in August and plumage may be present soon after Feeding they arrive in Australia. Eleven species Occurrence in the region stay through to about April. They forage for aquatic invertebrates, Some individuals, particularly have been found in the Avon region. particularly brine shrimp, by sweeping Common. juveniles, may choose to overwinter the slightly open bill back and forth in in Australia rather than make the the water. journey north to breed. Those that overwinter in Australia are mostly found in the northern areas where it is still warm and food is plentiful. All of the birds listed here are protected under bilateral agreements between Australia and China, Japan and the Republic of Korea.

Red-necked avocet. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

128 129 Waterbirds

Common sandpiper Breeding Ruddy turnstone Feeding (Actitis hypoleucos) It breeds across Eurasia, and builds (Arenaria interpres) It feeds on aquatic and terrestrial nests that can vary from sparsely invertebrates along the shorelines of Distinctive features lined depressions in open areas, to Distinctive features beaches or wetlands. The plumage is brown apart from the complex structures of grass and leaves Adults are distinguished by a black chin and underparts, which are white. concealed in thick vegetation. and white banding pattern on the Breeding There is also a triangular white patch head, neck, chest and back, a short They breed in the Arctic tundra. Nests that extends between the wing and Distribution slightly up-tilted bill and short, are a shallow depression lined with dark areas of the breast. The bill is This species is found throughout stocky orange legs. The wings and vegetation and are often protected by a straight and black. Australia at freshwater to saline tail are chestnut and black, and the rock or small bush. Size: 19 to 21 centimetres. wetlands and coastal habitats. underparts are white. The plumage of non-breeding adults is slightly paler. Distribution Feeding Occurrence in the region Juveniles have brown upperparts and This species is found along the coast It eats aquatic invertebrates in shallow Uncommon. throat, and white underparts. of Australia mostly in sandy and stony water and around rocks. Size: 22 to 24 centimetres. habitats and occasionally at mudflats and saline wetlands.

Occurrence in the region Rare.

Common sandpiper in non-breeding plumage. Ruddy turnstone in non-breeding plumage. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway

130 131 Waterbirds

Sharp-tailed sandpiper Breeding Curlew sandpiper Breeding (Calidris acuminata) Nests are a well-hidden shallow (Calidris ferruginea) Breeding occurs in the Arctic tundra of depression in the ground lined with far northern Siberia. Nests are typically Distinctive features grass and leaves. They breed in the Arctic Distinctive features a shallow depression sparsely lined with Adult plumage is mottled brown and tundra of far north-eastern Siberia. The bill is long and down-curved. vegetation. white throughout, with the wings Non-breeding adult plumage is pale and back tending to be darker than Distribution brown to grey with white underparts. Distribution the underparts. The breeding adult This species is found throughout Breeding adult plumage is chestnut This species is found throughout plumage is edged with chestnut. The Australia at freshwater to saline mottled with black and white on the Australia on beaches, mudflats, estuaries crown of the head is reddish-brown wetlands, inundated pastures and in back, wings and head, and chestnut and occasionally at inland freshwater to and the bill is slightly down-curved. coastal habitats. with some white barring on the neck saline wetlands. Size: 17 to 22 centimetres. and belly. Occurrence in the region Size: 18 to 23 centimetres. Occurrence in the region Feeding Uncommon. Uncommon. It eats aquatic invertebrates found Feeding in shallow water or mud, and It forages for aquatic invertebrates, occasionally seeds. particularly worms, in shallow water.

Sharp-tailed sandpiper in non-breeding plumage. Curlew sandpiper in non-breeding plumage. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

132 133 Waterbirds

Red-necked stint Breeding Bar-tailed godwit Breeding (Calidris ruficollis) Breeding occurs in the arctic tundra of (Limosa lapponica) Breeding occurs in the Arctic tundra of far north-eastern Siberia and north- far northern Eurasia and Alaska. Nests Distinctive features western Alaska. Nests are a shallow Distinctive features are a shallow depression often lined Non-breeding adults and juveniles depression lined with vegetation. Non-breeding adults have pale brown with vegetation. have a mainly grey head, back, and to grey plumage and pale underparts. wing plumage and white underparts. Distribution Breeding adults have mottled dark Distribution Breeding adults have a noticeable red This species is found throughout brown, chestnut and white back and This species is found throughout neck and facial area while the back is Australia at freshwater to saline wing plumage, and chestnut speckled Australia at saline wetlands, mottled red, brown and white. wetlands, beaches, estuaries, and with white underparts. Juveniles are beaches, mudflats and estuaries. In Size: 13 to 16 centimetres. mudflats. similar to non-breeding adults. The south-western Australia it is almost basal part of the long and slightly up- exclusively coastal. Feeding Occurrence in the region curved bill is pink and the tip is black. It forages in mud and sand for aquatic Common. Size: 37 to 39 centimetres. Occurrence in the region invertebrates and occasionally eats Rare. plants and seeds. Feeding It forages in mud, shallow water, and on beaches for aquatic invertebrates.

Red-necked stint in non-breeding plumage. Bar-tailed godwit in non-breeding plumage. Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

134 135 Waterbirds

Little curlew Breeding Wood sandpiper Breeding (Numenius minutus) The little curlew breeds in the Arctic (Tringa glareola) Breeding occurs in northern Eurasia. tundra of far northern Eurasia. Nests Nests are usually a shallow depression Distinctive features are a shallow depression lined with Distinctive features lined with grass and leaves, and are Juvenile and adult plumage is mainly vegetation, usually in open areas. The non-breeding adult has yellow sometimes the old nest of a songbird. mottled brown and white but tends legs, brown, black and white speckled to be darker on the wings, tail and Distribution plumage on the back and wings, a Distribution crown of the head, and the underparts The little curlew is found in the brown and white streaked head, neck This species is found throughout are white. The bill is gently curved northern coastal areas of Australia. and breast, and white underparts. Australia at freshwater and saline downwards with a pink underside. They prefer grassy areas, but also The breeding adult is similar but the wetlands and occasionally in mangroves. Size: 30 to 36 centimetres. occur at freshwater to saline wetlands markings are darker. and mudflats. Size: 20 to 22 centimetres. Occurrence in the region Feeding Rare. It feeds on open grasslands for Occurrence in the region Feeding invertebrates and occasionally seeds. Rare. It forages around fallen tree branches and vegetation in shallow water or mud for aquatic invertebrates.

Little curlew in non-breeding plumage. Wood sandpiper in non-breeding plumage. Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway

136 137 Waterbirds

Common greenshank Breeding Marsh sandpiper sweeping its bill from side to side (Tringa nebularia) It breeds in northern Eurasia. Nests (Tringa stagnatilis) through the water. are a shallow depression sparsely lined Distinctive features with vegetation and are often built Distinctive features Breeding Plumage is brown and white and is next to boulders or tree stumps. It is characterised by very long grey The breeding grounds of this species mottled on the back, wings and tail and to yellow legs and a fine, straight bill. stretch from eastern Europe to Asia. streaked on the head, neck and breast. Distribution Non-breeding adults have mostly pale Nests are a shallow depression sparsely The underparts are white. Non-breeding This species is found throughout brown to grey plumage with white lined with grass built in open areas. areas above the eye and on the breast plumage tends to be greyer than Australia at freshwater to saline and underparts. The back and wing breeding adult and juvenile plumage. wetlands, beaches and on mudflats. Distribution plumage of breeding adults is brown The bill is long and slightly up-curved, with dark brown specks and the head, This species is found throughout and the legs are long and yellow. Occurrence in the region neck, chin and chest are streaked or Australia, though rarely far inland in Size: 30 to 35 centimetres. Uncommon. spotted brown and white. Western Australia. It occurs at freshwater Size: 22 to 26 centimetres. to saline wetlands, mangrove areas and Feeding occasionally at sheltered beaches. It forages in shallow water for aquatic Feeding invertebrates and occasionally fish. It feeds by picking aquatic Occurrence in the region invertebrates from the surface or by Rare.

Common greenshank in non-breeding plumage. Marsh sandpiper in non-breeding plumage. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Ian Montgomery/Birdway

138 139 Waterbirds

Gulls and terns Gulls and terns Whiskered tern dive into the water to catch fish, (Family Laridae) (Chlidonias hybrida) or fly low and skim the top of the Gulls and terns are small to water with their bill to scoop up medium-sized birds that have Gulls and terns are mostly aerial feeders Distinctive features invertebrates. webbed feet and are most often that either dive into the water to catch Plumage on the back, upper wing found in coastal areas. their prey, or fly low over the water to Breeding and tail of non-breeding adults is a scoop up their prey from the surface. medium grey, and the belly, underwing Whiskered terns breed in colonies at There are three species of gulls and Silver gulls are also found scavenging and cheeks are white. The wings have inland swamps. The nest is a platform terns found in the Avon region. around urban areas for garbage. dark outer edges and the bill is mainly of aquatic vegetation that is either black. Breeding adults have a black floating or built on low shrubs in crown that extends from the bill to the shallow water. back of the head, a dark grey belly, red bill and red legs. Non-breeding adults Distribution have a streaked black crown and black This species is found throughout legs. Australia at freshwater and saline Size: 23 to 25 centimetres. wetlands and occasionally along estuaries. Feeding Whiskered terns feed on fish, frogs Occurrence in the region and aquatic invertebrates. They may Uncommon.

Gulls and terns. Whiskered tern in non-breeding plumage. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

140 141 Waterbirds

Silver gull Breeding Gull-billed tern Breeding (Chroicocephalus Silver gulls breed on islands and (Gelochelidon nilotica) Breeding takes place in large colonies inland lakes. Nests are lined with at temporary inland lakes soon after novaehollandiae) Distinctive features vegetation and are built either in a heavy rainfall. Nests are lined with sparse vegetation and are made in Distinctive features small bush, on rocks and jetties or in Adult plumage is white, except for light grey wings with dark outer edges, a black shallow ground-scrapes on sand ridges a shallow scraping on the ground. Adults have white plumage with black- eye patch and a streaked grey-brown and mud banks. tipped grey wings, a red bill and red crown. The short gull-like bill and legs Distribution legs. Juveniles have mottled brown are black and the tail is forked. Breeding Distribution wings, a black bill and black legs. This species is found throughout adults have a dark crown that extends This species is found throughout Size: 38 to 42 centimetres. Australia at any wetland habitat, most from the bill to the back of the head. Australia at freshwater and saline commonly along the coast and in Size: 36 to 42 centimetres. wetlands, grasslands and coastal areas, Feeding urban parks. but is rarely seen over the ocean. Feeding Silver gulls eat fish and invertebrates, but in urban areas they will mostly Occurrence in the region Gull-billed terns mainly eat fish, frogs, Occurrence in the region scavenge on garbage. Common. reptiles and aquatic invertebrates. They Uncommon. fly low over the water and grab their prey at the surface.

Silver gull. Gull-billed tern in breeding plumage. Photo – Wetlands group/DEC Science Division Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC

142 143 Waterbirds

Reed warblers Feeding Grassbirds Feeding It feeds on aquatic and terrestrial It forages for invertebrates among Australian invertebrates. Little grassbird vegetation such as grass and reeds. reed-warbler (Family Megaluridae) (Family Acrocephalidae) Breeding (Megalurus gramineus) Breeding (Acrocephalus australis) Nests are built in reeds and are Nests are built in reeds or small shrubs made of reeds and other aquatic Distinctive features and are made of reeds and other Distinctive features vegetation woven together to form Plumage is streaked and mottled aquatic vegetation woven together to The Australian reed-warbler has a deep cup-shaped structure that brown and black apart from black form a deep cup-shaped structure that plain reddish-brown to olive-brown may be lined with grass and wing feathers that are edged with may be lined with grass and feathers. plumage that tends to be slightly feathers. white, and mottled white and brown darker on the wings and tail, and underparts. The bill is short, pointed Distribution Distribution paler on the underparts. The bill is and pale black to pinkish-brown, and This species is found in south-western, small and pointed and the tail is long. This species is found throughout the tail is long. The little grassbird is eastern and central Australia, and This bird is not often seen but has Australia at freshwater to moderately a secretive species whose presence is Tasmania, at freshwater to slightly a distinctive call. Its song is a loud saline wetlands with dense stands of often only known by its call, which saline wetlands, mangroves and tidal complicated warble that can be heard reeds, rushes and sedges. is a series of mournful whistles. The marshes with dense stands of reeds, from within the reeds and rushes first whistle is short and the second rushes and sedges. where it spends most of its time. Occurrence in the region and third whistles are drawn out and Size: 16 to 17 centimetres. Rare. slightly higher pitched. Occurrence in the region Size: 13 to 15 centimetres. Uncommon.

Australian reed-warbler and nest. Little grassbird and young. Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/DEC 144 145 Glossary

Acidification Biodiversity Dessication Flanks The process by which environments The diversity of life in a particular The process of drying out. The part of a bird’s body located become acidic (or have a low pH). habitat or region. This can refer to between the wings and the belly. diversity of genes, organisms or Detritivore Adductor muscles communities. An animal that feeds on dead plant and Freshwater Muscles at the anterior and posterior animal matter. Water with very low salinity (generally ends of a mussel that enable the Carapace less than three grams per litre). mussel to open and close its shell. Hard outer shell of organisms such as Detritus crustaceans and insects. Dead animal and plant matter. Genus Aestivation A group of closely related species, State of dormancy where an animal Caudal Duricrust although a particularly unique species slows its metabolic activity to survive a Towards the tail or posterior end of an A thin, hardened layer on or near may have a genus of its own. Forms hot or dry period. organism. the surface of the soil formed by the the first half of the scientific name of precipitation of various substances an organism: e.g. the beetle Eretes Appendage Cilia including silica, salts and calcium australis belongs to the genus Eretes. Parts or organs that are joined to an Fine hairs on the surface of a plant or carbonate. organism’s body (e.g. legs or wings). animal, which can be moving or non- Geomorphology moving. Ecological community The study of the origin of landforms. Asexual A group of different types of organisms Reproduction without fertilisation Cuticle occurring together. Gill or the fusion of sex cells (gametes). Protective, hardened or membranous An appendage found on aquatic This can occur in a variety of ways, outer-covering or case of many Edaphic organisms that improves their ability to including splitting of one animal into invertebrates, such as rotifers. Of or influenced by the soil. breathe underwater. two or more new individuals, or the production of spores. Dabbling Endemic Gnamma A feeding strategy used by waterbirds An organism that is only known to Pool found on a granite outcrop. Benthic where in shallow water they bob their occur in a particular region. Occupying the bottom of a body of head under water to feed from the Hermaphrodite water. bottom, and in deeper water they feed Ephemeral An animal that has both male and from the surface by filtering or pecking Short-lived. female reproductive organs. Biomass at food. The mass of a particular living material Filter feeders Highly saline in a specified area. Degradation Animals that use a filtering mechanism to The salinity of the water is greater than In ecological terms it refers to unnatural remove small particles of food from the 50 grams per litre. damage to an ecosystem. water column.

146 147 Glossary

Hydrology Nomadic Playa Secondarily saline The way in which water moves through Regularly moving from one place to Flat-bottomed intermittently inundated A system that has become saline as a a system. another. lake maintained by wind blowing off result of human activities. sediments when they dry. Inundation Nymph Slightly saline To be flooded. An immature form, usually resembling Plumage The salinity of the water is between the adult. This is in contrast to ‘larvae’ Coating of feathers. three and 10 grams per litre. JAMBA above. Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Plumes Species richness Agreement. Omnivore Delicate filmy feathers that usually Number of species occurring in a An animal that eats a range of food, appear on birds during breeding. specified region or habitat. Kankar including plants and animals. Detrital, often nodular calcium Proboscis Symbiont carbonate formed in soils of semi-arid Overwinter Hollow tube connected to the head or An organism that benefits from living regions. It can also be referred to as To wait out the winter season. mouth of some invertebrates, used to in a close, prolonged relationship with duricrust. consume food and water. another organism, which may or may Palaeo-drainage not benefit from the relationship. Larvae Old, ancient or prehistoric drainage. Pupa An immature form that is very different In the Avon this refers to ancient river The stage some insects go through to Talon to the adult and that pupates before systems that are now filled in and occur transform from a larva into an adult. Claw of an animal, usually a bird of turning into an adult. This is in contrast as chains of salt lakes. prey. to ‘nymph’ below. Predator Palps An animal that feeds on living animals. Turbid Laterite An appendage found near the mouth Water that has high concentrations of Soil layer that is rich in iron oxide and is of invertebrates, often used for Prolegs suspended matter; cloudy or muddy. derived from the weathering of various movement, feeding and as a sensory Fleshy, stubby legs found on the rocks under strongly oxidising and organ. underside of insect larvae. Ventral leaching conditions. On the underside of an organism. Piscivores Rostrum Macrophyte Animals that eat fish. A projection at the front of the head, Wattle (on a bird) Aquatic plant that can be submerged, often beak-like. A fleshy lump or lobe located on the emergent or floating. Plankton head or neck. Organisms that occur in the water Salinisation Moderately saline column. The process of becoming saline. Wetland The salinity of the water is between 10 Any area of land that is either and 50 grams per litre. Planktonic permanently or temporarily inundated, Occurring in the water column. or waterlogged.

148 149 Bibliography

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