Natural Technical Information Note TIN013 Traditional orchards: site and tree selection

This information note provides guidance on how to select sites for new orchards and the types of tree to within new and existing orchards. Other information notes in the series provide guidance on other aspects of tradition orchards. For an explanation of terms used in this leaflet see TIN021 Orchard glossary.

Key points cultural, wildlife and historic interest and many have occupied the same sites for centuries.  New orchards can be important in linking Many traditional orchards have been lost to existing habitats and reinforcing landscape neglect, grubbing up and development over the character. last 60 years.  The siting of new orchards should be considered carefully to ensure that they While the management and restoration of strengthen the local landscape character and existing orchards takes priority, creating new that the location is suitable for growing fruit orchards is important in areas where they have trees. been lost, both for wildlife and to restore the  Orchards vary greatly across the country in character of the landscape. terms of scale, situation and density, tree form and the type of fruit grown. Types of orchard  In both new and existing orchards new planting Traditional orchards are widely distributed should reflect the species, fruit varieties and across England. At one time, virtually every farm traditional management practiced locally, as would have had a mixed orchard close to the well as the uses of the fruit. farmhouse to shelter livestock, grow fruit for the  In most situations trees should be grown on family and provide an alternative source of vigorous rootstocks and trained according to income. These would have included a wide local practice (usually as standards or half range of species including walnuts, apricots, standards). peaches, medlars and quince. Background Some areas including , East Anglia, Somerset and the three counties of The term 'traditional orchard' generally refers to , Herefordshire and groups of fruit and nut trees planted on vigorous also had traditional orchards rootstocks at low densities in permanent growing fruit commercially. These orchards were grassland and managed in a low intensity way. usually planted away from the farmhouse and There are many regional variations on this often covered large areas. theme widely distributed across England, including apple, pear, cherry, and damson They originally provided dessert or culinary fruit orchards, and cob-nut plats. for local markets or for cider and (in the three counties) perry, which was sometimes given in Traditional orchards contribute to the landscape payment to farm workers. mosaic of rural England and have significant

© Natural England 2010 Second edition 19 October 2010 www.naturalengland.org.uk

Natural England Technical Information Note TIN013 Traditional orchards: site and tree selection

The arrival of railways that could transport fresh prioritised where orchards are widely accepted fruit long distances to urban centres encouraged as a typical landscape feature. the growth of culinary and dessert orchards, particularly in the South and East. These Historic land use orchards varied greatly in scale, situation and To maintain historical continuity, new orchards density within the landscape, the forms of tree are best planted on former orchard sites. These and the types of fruit grown. They often can be identified by checking old maps. It can contained just one species of fruit tree with few also usually be assumed that an established different varieties. Examples include damsons in orchard or historic site will be positioned Cumbria, Bramley’s Seedling apples in correctly in terms of soil type, aspect and micro- Cambridgeshire, perry pears in the three climate. counties, in the Severn Vale and cobnuts and cherries in Kent. Archaeological interest Tree planting should be avoided on sites with Most traditional orchards would have been known archaeology. This is most likely to be an grazed to provide an extra source of income issue when creating new orchards, but should from the land and to control the vegetation still be considered when restoring existing around the trees. However, some orchards orchards or replanting on former sites, would have had temporary trees, or even soft particularly on sites close to existing or former fruit, vegetables or arable crops, between rows. settlements. These provided an earlier crop, before the permanent trees matured. There are also Planting on ridge and furrow grassland should historical examples of ungrazed orchards, generally be avoided. When restoring extant sometimes planted in row systems and orchards originally planted on ridge and furrow, associated with walled gardens. replanting should follow the historic pattern, so new trees are planted in areas that are already Boundaries disturbed. Maiden trees and sheep-proof guards Orchards are most commonly surrounded by are preferable, to minimise ground disturbance. mixed, often tall, hedges, planted to shelter the fruit trees. The hedges themselves often contain Wildlife fruit trees, sometimes wild species or seedlings, An important reason for planting new orchards is to act as pollinators and provide an extra crop. In to benefit wildlife. When planted adjacent to some parts of the country dry stone walls were existing orchards they can extend habitat and used, or single species windbreaks planted to link blocks of orchard on a landscape scale (see shelter the orchard. Ditches and dykes TIN020 Traditional orchards: orchards and sometimes form boundaries, often in conjunction wildlife). Ecologically, orchards are similar to with hedges. parkland, wood pasture and woodland edge habitats and may also be planted near such Site selection and preparation sites. Whether planting a new orchard, or replacing Aspect and location trees in an existing orchard, it is important to get Sheltered, sunny, south or south-west facing everything right at the start as it is difficult to sites are generally best for planting new rectify problems at a later date. orchards, as they provide the best micro-climate Landscape character and surrounding for pollination and fruit development. Although orchards are not usually planted on exposed or land use shaded sites or at high elevations, they can grow Orchards can be a major component of in most situations across the country. landscape character. Any planting, either within existing orchards or creating new ones should Marginal sites may even be more beneficial to reflect historic patterns in location, size and certain wildlife such as fungi and lichens. Tree species. Generally, new planting should be species and varieties should be chosen carefully

Page 2 Natural England Technical Information Note TIN013 Traditional orchards: site and tree selection

however, as some may suffer from spring frosts Drainage can be improved on new sites by or require plenty of sun to fully ripen. ploughing, subsoiling or installing a drainage system to break up compacted layers, open the Wind soil structure and allow roots to penetrate. Trees on sites exposed to gales or cold north However, new cultivation of any land over 2 ha and east winds can suffer storm damage, requires screening by Natural England if it has stunted growth and reduced yields. Artificial remained uncultivated over the previous 15 windbreaks can be made from coir netting or years. This is to assess whether an wooden slats but hedges or shelter belts of trees Environmental Impact Assessment is required. such as poplars are normally used. Sites in valley bottoms and on clay soils may be Windbreaks should not shade the crop and more prone to water-logging. Early cropping should be semi-permeable to filter and slow the varieties may be better suited to such sites as wind, as solid windbreaks can exacerbate the the fruit can be harvested when the ground is problem by merely deflecting the wind over them still dry enough to allow vehicular access. and into the orchard. On exposed sites where there is a greater risk of windthrow, maidens When planting new trees it may be possible to rather than standards should be planted. These overcome water-logging without draining the site will then have the chance to form a strong root by creating planting mounds or ridges and system to anchor themselves before they placing a layer of coarse sand or grit in the develop a large crown. bottom of planting holes to aid drainage.

Frost In established orchards that require wet ground may be present in the sward. If this is the Frost damage to blossom in spring can affect case, or if a wider variety of habitats is desired, it crops, particularly in frost pockets (see diagram may be preferable to leave wet areas as they 1 at the end of this note). These are usually in are or create a pond. valley bottoms or hollows but can occur where thick hedges, woods or walls trap cold air on a Grassland diversity slope. Disturbing unimproved grasslands should be It is therefore best to plant on a slight slope, avoided and advice sought from an ecologist preferably in the middle, to allow cold air to drain before planting trees in grassland suspected to away and to make sure it can filter through be species-rich. It is possible that the grassland boundaries. Where frost is a problem, later is of greater conservation value than the trees. flowering fruit species or varieties that are less susceptible to damage should be planted. Tree selection What size/form of tree to plant? Summer rainfall Fruit trees are sold in a number of forms In areas of low rainfall tree growth and fruit depending on their age, size and how they have quality may suffer and summer irrigation may be been shaped at the nursery. needed to establish young trees. In wet areas there is likely to be a higher incidence of Small trees establish more quickly and disease, particularly apple scab and canker. effectively, suffering less shock than trees Careful selection of species and varieties should transplanted as large specimens. They usually help to minimise these problems. grow larger, live longer and develop a stronger root system less prone to windthrow. They are Soils and drainage also cheaper, so most fruit trees are supplied Fruit trees prefer an adequate depth (50 cm or between one and three years old. more) of fertile, well drained, loamy soil, with a good structure and water holding capacity. They Maidens can tolerate a wide range of soil conditions, pH Often called whips, these are usually one to two values and fertility levels. years old and up to 1 m high. Depending on the Page 3 Natural England Technical Information Note TIN013 Traditional orchards: site and tree selection

species and variety they can be sold with a poorly, develop slowly, yield badly or be number of feathers or with no side branches susceptible to disease. formed. Maidens are easier to establish than standards but will have received less formative Rootstocks pruning in the nursery and therefore require To overcome and control these factors a range careful pruning and training. This is a skilled task of rootstocks have been developed which and if not carried out properly may produce a perform in a known manner to suit different weak and unbalanced tree. situations. As rootstocks determine the tree's vigour and eventual size, they can be used to Standards/half standards grow most types of tree into almost any form. These are bigger trees (two to four years old) They also have other specific influences such as with a more developed branch structure. Much winter hardiness, early yield, increased fruit size, of the initial formative pruning will already have and disease resistance. Although the choice of been carried out in the nursery. Standards are rootstock will have a major effect in determining therefore a safer option for those without much the tree’s eventual size, other factors including experience of pruning fruit trees or in situations the variety, soil type and depth, location, and of such as community sites where an instant course how the tree is trained and pruned will impact is needed or vandalism is a problem. also affect the tree’s growth. However, they may not establish as well and are more prone to windthrow. The dwarfing rootstocks used to develop bush trees are not suitable for the full-size trees Standards should have a clear central leader planted in traditional orchards. These trees (trunk) of 2 m for apple, pear and cherry, 1.5 m require a vigorous rootstock to develop and for plum and damson, and 50 cm for cobnuts, anchor the tall trunk needed to lift the fruit with three to five branches coming off the central branches above the reach of grazing animals leader. Half standards will have a shorter central and support the large tree canopy that will leader, usually with more upright branches develop. coming off it (see TIN014 Formative pruning of young trees). What species/variety of tree to Propagating varieties plant? Fruit tree varieties Propagation is necessary to produce a tree of a particular variety. If grown from a pip, nut or There is a huge choice of varieties of fruit trees, stone, the resulting seedling will be different to particularly apples. Many old varieties grown in the tree it came from, with characteristics traditional orchards were very localised to a inherited from both parents (ie the tree on which particular county or even a specific village. The it grew and the tree that pollinated it). Most fruit same variety may have had different names in trees do not grow well from cuttings and so are different areas. Although many old varieties usually propogated by grafting or budding. have been lost, largely due to commercial pressures, old or local varieties can be obtained Plums and damsons are sometimes grown on from a number of sources. their own roots. Cobnuts are usually propagated from rooted wands and are also on their own Many nurseries stock a large range of trees and roots. Grafted cobnut stock should be avoided. local nurseries may have a selection of local varieties. Alternatively, some nurseries may In the past trees would have been grafted onto propagate to order if an existing tree of the unnamed seedlings. This is still practised to desired variety can be found. Fruit collections, produce standard trees, particularly for plums such as the National Fruit Collection at and pears, and has the benefit of maintaining Brogdale, Kent and local collections are a good genetic rootstock diversity. It may have variable source of old and rare varieties. results however, producing trees which may root

Page 4 Natural England Technical Information Note TIN013 Traditional orchards: site and tree selection

Creation of new varieties Suitability for local conditions Fruit trees grown from seed will not usually Local orchards and fruit growers can give a produce worthwhile fruit which is why named guide as to which varieties do well. Local varieties are perpetuated by vegetative varieties, subjected to the climatic and soil propagation. Occasionally though, seedlings will conditions of the area, may be better suited to produce worthwhile fruit and be propagated to the site than non-local ones. For example, create new varieties. Originally this process Blaisdon Red plum is reputed to flourish only occurred by chance through the discovery of within a few miles of Blaisdon, West 'wildings' (where neither parent is known). Well- Gloucestershire. Foreign fruit varieties are known varieties such as Bramley's Seedling and generally less likely to do as well, often being Ashmead's Kernel apples, as well as Victoria prone to late frosts and requiring sunnier plum were found in this way. summers or drier winters than the British climate provides. Alternatively, the seed from a known variety can be grown in the hope of improving on that Agronomic variety. This can be through natural unaided Although it may not be the only reason for cross pollination (so only one parent is known). planting, the end use of the fruit (eating, cooking Cox's Orange Pippin apple is an example of this, or juicing) will affect the choice of species and raised from a Ribston Pippin pip. variety. If the fruit is to be sold, either to supermarkets, local outlets, mail order or as New varieties can also be raised by the planned pick-your-own then the variety's commercial cross pollination of existing varieties under value should be taken into account. controlled conditions where both parents are recorded, for example Allington Pippin, raised Many large retailers and consumers want from a cross between King of the Pippins and uniformly-sized and blemish-free fruit available Cox's Orange Pippin. New varieties may also all year round that keeps well and does not arise as ‘sports’, mutations that appear on a tree damage or bruise easily. Therefore, yield and of an existing variety. Many red versions of pest/disease resistance, particularly for organic existing varieties, such as Queen Cox and orchards, are also important. Many old varieties Crimson Bramley, been produced in this which were grown primarily for their flavour do manner. not meet all these criteria. There is a growing demand for these varieties however, and thus Selecting varieties the potential to grow a much wider range of Tree species and varieties may be planted for a varieties for sale through local outlets, farm number of reasons, which should be considered shops and markets, or simply for personal carefully beforehand. consumption.

Historic, genetic and cultural value Flowering season and pollination Certain species of fruit tree may be particularly Apart from cobnuts and walnuts, which are wind common to a local area, ie plums in West pollinated, fruit trees are pollinated by insects. A Gloucestershire, cherries in East Worcestershire flower-rich sward or flowering shrubs, trees (ie and cobnuts in Kent. hawthorn and other native woody species, wild plums, crab apples and wild pears) and herbs in To preserve historic continuity, genetic variety the surrounding hedgerows will attract insects. and cultural heritage and to reinforce local Alternatively, bee hives may be brought in to distinctiveness varieties historically grown or ensure adequate pollination. indigenous to the area should be used to restock or plant orchards. Many areas have fruit groups The pollination requirements are an important with detailed records of old local fruit varieties. consideration, particularly where there are a Planting new species or varieties may be limited number of trees or varieties. Although acceptable however, particularly if it helps some fruit varieties are self-fertile (ie they can be ensure the orchard's long-term viability. pollinated from their own flowers) most need to Page 5 Natural England Technical Information Note TIN013 Traditional orchards: site and tree selection

cross pollinate with a different of the Apple trees on vigorous rootstocks generally live same species which flowers at the same time. for 80-120 years, exceptionally up to 200 years. Those on dwarfing rootstocks have a shorter A few varieties, eg Blenheim Orange and lifespan. Apples are fully hardy in the UK, Bramley's Seedling apples, are triploid, requiring although the range of varieties that will flower two other varieties to pollinate them. Triploids and fruit successfully diminishes the further produce little pollen so as well as needing north you go. They generally flower around the another cultivar to pollinate them, a third variety first half of May and so are less vulnerable to is required if the pollinator is to produce a crop of frost than pears and plums. Apples are usually its own. divided into 4-6 pollination groups.

Apple and pear varieties are grouped according Apples have had a much wider range of to flowering season. Varieties will generally only rootstocks developed for them, reflecting their pollinate others in the same pollinating group, or greater economic importance compared to other one group to either side. Therefore, when top fruit in Britain. The variety developed for planting a range of varieties it is preferable to standard orchards is named M25. This is very select from similar pollinating groups to ensure a vigorous and suitable for a wide range of soil good set, though nearby orchards may fulfil this conditions. At maturity it reaches 7-10 m high, role. Crab apples and wild pears are good with a spread of 7 m. It fruits within 5 years and general pollinators, with a long flowering season. when mature can yield 90-180 kg of fruit, Specific pollinating trees may be planted in depending on the variety. commercial orchards which have only a few main varieties. The variety MM111 is sometimes used for creating traditional standard orchard trees. It is Cobnuts flower from January to March. Each less vigorous than M25 and will only be suitable plant carries both sexes but require pollination in certain situations when vigorous varieties by another variety, as the flowering times of the such as Bramley's Seedling are used, or on female (the tiny red tassels at the tips of the fertile sites that are only grazed by sheep or cut buds) and male (the familiar ‘lambs tails’ of early for hay. The variety MM106 is not suitable for spring) flowers on individual plants rarely use in standard orchards. Even if the tree is coincide. Most, if not all, cobnut varieties pruned to a standard shape, the rootstock is not (including Kentish Cob) are compatible with wild vigorous enough to support the size of tree hazel, which is often found in nearby hedges. required. Species of fruit tree Pears Apples Pears have a history of cultivation as long as apples. They have been grown in Britain for The cultivated apple is descended from the wild many centuries but this marks the edge of their apple Malus evers, found in the Tien Shan range. They prefer a milder climate to apples, mountains on the border of China and the former requiring plenty of sun to ripen fully and suffering USSR. From there it was spread west by man to in cold easterly winds. Europe and first brought to Britain by the Romans. Apples have been an important crop Ideally, they should be grown on a sunny, since Norman times, providing a fallback for sheltered, south-facing site and traditionally they farmers during agricultural depressions. were often grown in walled gardens trained as espaliers or fans. Pears are less drought tolerant Their ease of cultivation, climatic tolerance and than apples and fare worse in dry, sandy soils. the range of flavours and uses have made They are more tolerant of wet conditions and apples the world's most cultivated fruit. There heavier clays. are approximately 25,000 named varieties world- wide, 2,500 from Britain alone. Pears trees have a longer lifespan than apples. Dessert and culinary pears will usually reach at least a century and perry pears may live for two Page 6 Natural England Technical Information Note TIN013 Traditional orchards: site and tree selection

or even three hundred years. They also produce commercial scale for jam making and lower yields than apples and begin to bear fruit preserving. Nowadays plums and damsons are at a later age, taking about 6-8 years. They are mainly grown in Gloucestershire, and generally less susceptible than apples to pests in Cumbria. Plums flower around and diseases, fireblight being a big exception. the same time as pears and so may also be vulnerable to late frosts. Bearing in mind their climatic requirements, varieties should be selected carefully to ensure Seedling rootstocks are often used. Suitable they are hardy, particularly in the north. There named vigorous rootstocks are Brompton and are fewer culinary and dessert varieties offered Myrobalan B. These rootstocks produce trees for sale than there are apples. Many French that reach 4.5 m high at maturity, with a spread varieties are of questionable hardiness for of 4.5 m. They fruit within 4-5 years and are growing in an orchard, those of British descent suitable for relatively poor soils and grassed generally being more suitable. orchards. St Julien A produces a slightly smaller tree, but may be suitable for traditional orchards Pears generally blossom about 2-4 weeks earlier on more fertile sites or if sheep are used to than apples, from mid-April onwards. This graze the orchard. makes them more susceptible to frost, so late flowering varieties should be selected. Being Damson and plum varieties that sucker readily less commonly planted, pears are more likely to (eg Blaisdon Red and Pershore Yellow Egg) can require a pollinator. Pears are divided into fewer be raised by digging up the suckers and planting (3-4) pollination groups than apples. Very few on, provided it is certain the parent tree has not varieties are self fertile, although Conference is been grafted. one of these. Cherries There is a much more restricted range of These were mainly grown in Worcestershire, rootstocks available for pears than for apples. Kent, Hertfordshire and the Tamar valley, Seedlings are widely used to produce standard Cornwall. They were traditionally produced on trees but, as with apples, the variable vigour and wild cherry rootstocks and known as Mazzards, compatibility with varieties has led to the use of Gaskins or Geans. Malling F12/1 is a vigorous other rootstocks. The Quince rootstocks Quince avium rootstock, suitable for a wide A, Quince C and Provence BA29 may require a range of soils including relatively poor soils and stem-builder to overcome incompatibility grassed orchards. It produces a tree at least 7 m problems. These and Pyrus communis high at maturity, with a spread of 7 m, which pryodwarf are not vigorous enough to be used in fruits within 5-6 years. The dwarfing Mahaleb, traditional orchards. Colt and Gisela 5 rootstocks are not suitable for traditional ocrhards. Quince Quince Cydonia oblonga may be either apple or Walnuts pear shaped. In the UK they do not usually ripen Those grown for fruiting are types of the English fully to and so are cooked rather than eaten raw. or Persian walnut, Juglans regia. They are often used to make quince jelly, or added to apple dishes. Some common include Broadview, Buccaneer, Franquette and Northdown Clawnut. Quinces prefer a moist soil that does not dry out Walnuts can be eaten pickled, wet () or in summer. Quinces are self fertile, but if two dry. Pickled walnuts are harvested from June- different varieties are planted together they will July before the shell on the nut forms, and produce more fruit. pickled in vinegar or port. Otherwise, walnuts are harvested in September-October and either Plums, damsons, gages and eaten soon after while still fresh, or allowed to Before the advent of imported foreign canned dry out and stored. plums these were grown in domestic orchards for eating, cooking and pickling and on a Page 7 Natural England Technical Information Note TIN013 Traditional orchards: site and tree selection

Cobnuts management advisers. Other Natural England Cobnuts are the fruits of two species of hazel, Technical Information Notes include: the native hazel (Corylus avellana) and the filbert (Corylus maxima), native to southeastern  TIN012 Traditional orchards - a summary Europe. Technically cobnuts are the fruit of the  TIN014 Traditional orchards - planting and former species and filberts the fruit of the latter, establishing fruit trees although the terms may be used  TIN015 Traditional orchards - an introduction interchangeably; for example Kentish Cob is a to pruning variety of Corylus maxima.  TIN016 Traditional orchards - formative pruning of young trees Cobnuts are grown mainly in Kent, but are fully  Traditional orchards - fruit tree health hardy throughout the UK, although they may not bear crops so well further north. Plantations of  TIN017 Traditional orchards - maintenance nut trees are known as plats rather than pruning orchards. They grow in range of conditions but  TIN020 Traditional orchards - orchards and do not like waterlogged soils. Kentish Cob is the wildlife predominant variety found in old plats and one of  TIN018 Traditional orchards - restoration and the best to grow throughout most of Britain, but management of mature and neglected there are several other varieties available. orchards  TIN021 Traditional orchards - glossary Cobnuts require cross pollinators and wild hazel is usually compatible with most varieties For further information contact the Natural including Kentish Cob. Cobnuts are best grown England Enquiry Service on 0300 060 0863 or e- on their own roots. mail [email protected]. Further information This leaflet was written by Chris Wedge, Natural England tel: 0300 060 1998. Illustration by Paul Natural England Technical Information Notes are Lacey. available to download from the Natural England website: www.naturalengland.org.uk. You may reproduce as many individual copies of this note as you like, provided such copies stipulate that This note is aimed at managers of traditional copyright remains with Natural England, 1 East orchards and agri-environment scheme land Parade, Sheffield, S1 2ET. © Natural England 2010

Page 8 Natural England Technical Information Note TIN013 Traditional orchards: site and tree selection

Figure 1 – diagram of frost hollows

Page 9