ISSN 1392-1142 (Print), ISSN 2335-8750 (Online) ORGANIZACIJŲ VADYBA: Rima ŽITKIENĖ, SISTEMINIAI TYRIMAI 2019.81 Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ https://doi.org/10.1515/mosr-2019-0008

The Interplay of Religious Symbols and Cultural Values Theory in Advertising

The purpose of this paper is to analyse symbolic advertising and its effect on cultural values in the consumer society. A conceptual framework is grounded in the scientific literature analysis on Christian religious symbols in advertising along with a critical view of its impact on consumers’ cultural values. There is a lack of empirical studies regarding consumers’ approaches towards religious symbols in advertising and their impact on con- sumption in different cultural values. In this article we are trying to seek an alternative approach to advertis- ing, social, and cultural trends in society. Keywords: religious symbols, consumerism, advertising, branding, cultural values. Straipsnio tikslas – išanalizuoti simbolinę reklamą, jos poveikį kultūros vertybėms, prekės ženklo sekėjams vartotojiškoje visuomenėje ir patikrinti teorijų pritaikomumą praktiškai, atlikti šios problematikos mokslinės literatūros analizę. Pastaruoju metu pasigendama tyrimų apie vartotojų požiūrį į religinių simbolių reklamo­ je naudojimą ir jų poveikį vartojimui skirtingose kultūrose, todėl bandoma pateikti alternatyvų požiūrį į reklamą, socialines ir kultūrines visuomenės tendencijas. Raktiniai žodžiai: religiniai simboliai, konsumerizmas, reklama, prekės ženklas, kultūros vertybės.

Introduction Humans have always sought fulfill- ment, and it is obvious that pure mate- Advertising is a part of our culture where rialism cannot bring since a consumers create their identities with the combination of the spiritual and mate- help of symbols hidden in the goods. Cul- rial is what fulfils our lives. Advertising ture is the mutual programming of peo- billboards claim that you can get friend- ple’s thinking that appears not only in va­ ship, family life, or status through specific lues but also in more superficial ways such things. The process of purchasing could as in symbols, heroes, and . In this be used as a medium between goods and article we state that symbols in culture the real reason one needs that thing or (and its values) can take different forms, service. This necessity can even rise to such as , celebrities (influencers), spiritual level. Normally and most often, slogans, and even social stereotypes (Hof- this spiritual buying process happens stede, Minkov, 2010). through symbolic language or by symbols

Rima ŽITKIENĖ – professor at the Faculty of Economics and Business, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania. Address: Ateities str. 20, Vilnius, LT-08303, Lithuania. Phone: +370 52 714651. E-mail: [email protected] Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ – PhD student at the Faculty of Economics and Business, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania. Address: Ateities str. 20, Vilnius, LT-08303, Lithuania. Phone: +370 52 714651. E-mail: [email protected].

© 2019 Rima ŽITKIENĖ, Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ published by Sciendo. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License. 120 Rima ŽITKIENĖ, Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ

themselves, which we instinctively have such by making comparisons with R. In- known since we started to recognize so- glehart (2000) and cultural dimensions. cial language and our environment. The second part reveals the meaning of Despite negative aspects (brands be- and religious (Christian) symbols coming , making a fetish out of ad- in advertising, emphasising the power- vertising, abusing religious images, or ful meaning of them in culture together changing cultural values), symbolic ad- with the opinions of other researcher on vertising also brings positive ideas which this theme. The third part elaborates on advertising can put together just by repre- branding and fetishism, revealing the senting brands and not seducing buyers by meaning of brands and how they become informing clients (e.g., organic products, a part of our consumer culture. The last genetically modified food, fair trade pro­ part looks at the idea of the brand as a re- ducts) or by creating healthy attitudes and ligion itself, having a secular meaning in habits such as second-hand reuse, recycled, consumers’ lives and how specific compa- eco-friendly, or a local market pro­duct nies use this idea in advertising. purchase. In this article, we are going to The research object of this article review on a more problematic part of this will focus on exploring the link between marketing phenomenon – the use of reli- religious symbols and advertising mes- gious (Christian) symbols as a marketing sages in culture which are bound together strategy and imposed cultural values. by examining the meaning of individuals It is necessary to grasp the features of driven from spiritually commercials ad- religious and spiritual expressions of man- justed by using the cultural value method aging and organizing in order to achieve developed by R. Inglehart (2000). a broader understanding about religious, The aim of this paper is to conceptu- spiritual and as everyday marketplace, alise, analyse, discuss and evaluate emer- and consumption habits. Furthermore, gent symbolic advertising and its effect to marketing and consumption research can cultural values in consumer society. illuminate on a less-understood phenom- The research method is a conceptual enon which is predominant in secularized framework grounded in a scientific litera- societies since today’s consumers com- ture analysis on Christian religious sym- bine values and different ideas as well as bols in advertising along with a critical philosophies from different religious and view and impact on consumers’ cultural spiritual traditions. Furthermore, the in- values. ternet, social media, tourism, and immi- The objectives of the article are de- gration provide access to spiritual and re- fined as the question: Why does adver- ligious resources and societies at a unique tising with symbols, attract people so scale in this present global world. much that it became a part of our cul- This article builds upon a limited but tural values? In short, the scientific prob- growing literature in and sym- lem could be stated as the relationship bolic meaning in advertising, which ex- among religious (Christian) symbols and plores four main parts. First, we look at the messages in advertising as well as the cultural dimensions and will try to elabo- outcomes from the purchasing part. We rate on consumer culture and society as must take into account that brands are THE INTERPLAY OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS AND CULTURAL VALUES THEORY IN ADVERTISING 121 not just the products (or services) or even basic essentials of a consumer ambitious just ordinary labels. They are much more. global economy. The perfect example is of a box of choco- The approach to this culture states that lates: you want to give it to the person you capitalism has transformed the world into like. A lot more is hidden in this choco- a society of consumers with the constant late. You are selecting the specific brand, need of purchasing things. Usually, this and you want to demonstrate your atten- term does not offer a decent understand- tion (and if it is for a beloved, you want ing of what is going on in society, but this to emphasize your relationship with that meaning rather stigmatizes the growing person). Currently, marketing modifies its and uncontrolled passion for goods. Ac- attention point from quality to emotion- cording to J. B. Twichell, the word “con- al or transcendental experience (Klaus, sume” sounds scary. It means to “ingest, Maklan, 2013; Dodson, 1996; Belk, 1995), use up totally” (Twitchell, 1999). J. Bau­ and it becomes the main aspect for suc- drillard (2001) states that consumer soci- cessful brand building. ety via consumption became a new tribal myth which became the morality of today. As for more, it destroys the essence of hu- The rise of consumer culture manity and the stability we created since the Greeks and their mythological foun- dation of the logos. Consumers associate After the Second World War, such terms consumption with innovation, progress, as “consumer culture” (in some literature, achievement, competence, and an assur- consumer culture theory – CCT) or just ance of abundance (Holton, 2000). This “consumer society” became famous by tactical appeal from producers to create such authors as J. Baudrillard (2001), H. similar tastes and needs by establishing Campbell and C. A. La Pastina (2010), R. global consumer segments such as for the W. Belk (1995), M. Featherstone (1991), wealth or for the youths (Hofstede et al., D. Miller (1987), D. Slater (1997), and R. 2010). Inglehart et al. (2000). CCT posits that, in To another extent, culture gives us lan- a modern world, essential personalities are guage, narratives, categories, and other or- explained and concerned with a connec- ganizational schemes by which we make tion to consumption (Holt, 2002). Though, sense of ourselves and everything we deal in this content, consumer culture has been with. Scholars from various disciplines called “a 3.culture of consumption” (Slater, have tried to describe culture (Hofstede, 1997 p. 8). Consumer culture illuminates 1991; Hofstede, 2001; McSweeney 2002; the development of consumer’s choice and Triandis, 2018). Academics have detailed seller’s implications to the produced goods the idea that culture is shaped from people’s and services by building individual also mutual environmental contexts (Hofstede, collective identities (Kozinets, 2001; Holt, Minkov, 2010), life understanding (Heine, 2002). The global market offers consumers 2008), and basic need to live (Keith 2011). plenty of cultural and allegorical resources Essentially, culture survives for pursing a to endorse and identify a cultural scenario happy and significant life. It is almost im- that brings into line personalities with the possible to find a consensus regarding this 122 Rima ŽITKIENĖ, Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ

definition; therefore, culture is a part of an social values are measured and compared individual’s link to physical and psycho- in countries around the world, resulting in logical well-being. the Inglehart-Welzel Cultural Map. Social and individual values are meas- ured and divided in few sets of values that are autonomous, and for each of these val- ues, the two types are dependent on con- trariwise proportional to other type: Survival values high; Self-expression values low (depends from one another); Secular-rational⇔ values higher and Traditional⇔ values lower. Since this sur- vey is mostly used for comparing⇔ coun- tries, we tend to compare⇔ values as cultural acceptance for a person towards religious advertising and its acceptance in consumer Fig 1. The cultural dimensions and their factor culture (as general culture in the western 1 items part of the world). Source: R. Inglehart and C. Welzel (2015). Consumerism, according to P. Ekins (1991), is a cultural model where “the possession and use of an increasing num- ber and variety of goods and services is the principal cultural aspiration and the surest perceived route to personal happi- ness, social status, and national success” Ekins (1991, p. 247). Paraphrasing, it is a progressively mutual pattern among dif- ferent cultures in order to find happiness and meaning as well as recognition via the goods we buy. Researchers, using several different strategies, including the WVS by R. Inglehart and C. Wezel (2005) claim that more goods may bring less happiness Fig. 2. Values in present research in comparison to Inglehart & Welzel’s values as well as more poor countries are more Source: adjusted by the author G. Kriaučiūnaitė-Lazauskienė. happy than rich (Inglehart, Wezel, 2005). This phenomenon is marked by spiritual pauperization, in which human beings are For many years cultural studies have 1 In order to understand the importance of these values, been analysed through the World Values you need to put in a pairs of numbers from 0 to 1, Survey. This survey helps measure the which specifies how person and society comprehends among each other if survival values assumed as high unstable notion of value, which is defined measures and self-expression values as low (or zero), in four parts: Survival, Traditional, Self- so if survival values are low, self-expression values are high. Likewise, secular-rational values are higher if Expression and Secular-Rational. These traditional values are lower. THE INTERPLAY OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS AND CULTURAL VALUES THEORY IN ADVERTISING 123 persuaded, for convenience sake, to desire Kline, Jhally, 1990). The classical implica- material goods, a surrogate for tradition- tion which expresses false needs is Nestlé al forms of pleasure, self-realization and baby formula which was sent to Kenya in identification through work and political order to adapt to modernity (to make life participation. In the second picture, we re- easier) and replace breast feeding. Unfor- established our own perception through tunately, the effect was tragic because the the lenses of consumers’ cultural value formula of the powder required sanitary made by influence of advertising, attached conditions that were not possible in that to branding values creates religious sym- country and a lot of babies became sick and bolism values. even died. It shows that in such a cultural A huge impact for consumerism is es- context, false needs cause much adversity tablished through celebrities (influencers), rather than making life easier and creat- movie stars created by the media, even ing a better place to live (Tiwari, Rajendra, computer game heroes, with perfect bod- 2012). We may raise the question: Are we ies, things or different kinds of entertain- not fulfilling our natural needs in a proper ment trying to seduce us and to present way and we are searching for superficial life as having more goods (even perfect) substitutions? According to J. Baudrillard­ things as a goal of life (even the develop- (2001): “Consumers do not consume spe- ment of the child we defining by the he- cific objects because of concrete and spe- roes one likes at specific age “Batman age” cific needs, but signs which are part of an or “Elza from Frozen age”). It has become abstract system that replace a contingent important not because of natural survival world of needs and pleasures with a special but more for psychological comfort; hap- order of values and classifications. Tools piness, popularity – just a part of the aims and buildings are enduring. But today, we of consumer society. Buyers gather sensa- see the production, improvement and with- tions not just to feel good. The main idea of er of ourselves” (Baudrillard, 2001, p. 112). goods is to possess things for pleasure. J. B. Marketers seek to create visual needs, and Twitchell (1999) argues that we satisfy our consumers get this satisfaction via symbols desires in shops, and not our needs, and we in brands or advertising. Consumer society are doing it just in that order of satisfaction is the culture limited by objects and is built (Twitchell, 1999). from mass consumption of commodities. It is generally agreed that if advertising These models not only make adjustments did not exist, people would not have “false in purchasers’ daily necessities but change needs” and of course, marketers would not their fundamental approaches to the world try to content these needs in fake ways by and themselves. buying countless possessions. As W. S. Leiss A certain relationship exists concern- et al. (1990) notes, a lot of human satisfac- ing the consumption objects in consumer tion takes place in non-material domain, culture, the promoter who manufactures, where objects are not essential. Unfortu- confirms, and manages such items, and nately, in the author’s understanding, the the social groups who use these items as magic in advertising averts by suggesting all well. These relationships assist in filling the our needs will met in the object–laden tra- product with symbolic connotation within ditions in the consumer marketplace (Leiss, a specific cultural background. Consumers 124 Rima ŽITKIENĖ, Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ

demonstrate specific tactics towards pur- fluences us and marketing as such, we chases and their advertisements built upon need to ascertain what place symbolism these cultural relationships. Contradic- has in religion and more precisely in tory observations of symbolic relationships . with commodities and the symbols may It is known, that one first histori- have substantial impact on buying choices, cal hints of symbolic consumption has too. Hence, relating a commodity with an been found in the literature of W. James essential cultural symbol, like the cross, is (1890); J. C. Flügel (1930) and G. Sim- mostly to affect consumer behaviour con- mel (1903) writings. These authors stated cerning the product. that people emphasise their identities Marketing, and the system of econom- thru the goods they buy. Nevertheless, ics in general, works almost perfectly be- the research of this perception as variable cause nothing can be obtained outside of in the marketing field did not find in the it. To clarify more precisely, consumers literature until S. J. Levy (1959). This au- are emotional beings and how one thinks, thor highlighted that companies do not acts, or feels has a marvellous influence on only sell pure products but “managers the way we consume and are persuaded must attend to more than the relatively by advertising. Although, so far, advertis- superficial facts with which they usually ers and companies have not been able to concern themselves when they do not control buyers by the variable powers that think of their goods as having symbolic control our needs: trust, happiness, and of significance’’ (Levy, 1959, p. 117). course, the way we spend our money, but We can call it an indicator of some- we believe culture can make influence. A thing deeper, meaningful, sacral, negative great amount of research on consumerism and positive at the same time. One of the as an effect of advertising has put atten- reasons which increase the conflicts re- tion on cultural symbolism. The idea that lated to symbolism is that we confuse the products represent many things to con- language (meaning and our understand- sumers and their vital uses is well-known. ing of it) used in different disciplines such Therefore, most advertisements use the as sociology, philosophy, and in circumstances in which these symbolic marketing as well in this article we cannot goods act in the marketplace via social en- exclude this interdisciplinary approach. vironmental and buying process. Personal Advertising with symbolic meaning has attachment to objective reality is connect- been evaluated from various views in ed by the symbolic meaning of such com- order to understand this construct: the modities (Solomon, 1992). meaning of products in society as well as consumers’ identity were identified by R. W. Belk (1995), M. Csikszentmihalyi and The role of Christian religious E. Rochberg- Halton (1981); G. Ger and symbols in advertising R. W. Belk (1996), C. W. Park et al. (2010), S. Lee et al. (2014), X. Sun et al. (2014). Advertising plays (games) with our emo- Mainly the majority of studies fo- tions, feelings, -systems and sym- cus on the symbolic contact, specifically, bols. In order to understand how it in- symbolic consumption (Belk, 1995; Ger, THE INTERPLAY OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS AND CULTURAL VALUES THEORY IN ADVERTISING 125

Belk, 1996). Additionally, necessary to (Shachar et al., 2011). However, some of add that in the marketing literature com- consumers perceive religion as a value panies emphasise not only the demand to concept that can be conversed by brands please customers’ desires by offering qual- (Taylor et al., 2010, Minton, 2016). Fur- ity products and good services, however thermore, symbolism is one of the most currently consumers demand emotions or important matters for both sides (some memorable experiences (Pine & Gilmore, state even an essence) in religion and even 1998). more, in all understanding of it. It is wide- Religion is important and enduring ly believed that symbols help to explain power in culture (Mathras et al., 2016), the aim of religion. In telling a narrative, more than 80% of world population con- it builds connection with believer. This sider themselves religious (Pew Forum, perception is found especially in Chris- 2017). Religion is able to effect a diversity tianity (not denying other ). As of consumer behaviours (Mathras et al., T. L. K. Dupré (2000) states: “In religion as 2016), including maintainable consump- in aesthetics, only the symbolization gives tion (Minton, Kahle, and Kim, 2015), its specific character to the experience. brand attitude (Rindfleisch, Wong, and There is no prior to Burroughs, 2010), spirituality in business the religious symbolization. is never (Lee, Lovelace, and Manz 2014), market- an immediate feeling or emotion” (Du- place acknowledgments (Minton, 2016), pré, 2000, p. 20). The religious symbols, as well as consumer’s life in general. like other kinds of symbols, open up a Recent research in marketing shows level of reality which is more hidden than that religious consumers of advertising open. P. Tillich and R. C. Kimball clarifies more trusting than less or non-religious (2009): “There is the fundamental level, consumers (Minton 2015). Religion has the level below all other levels, the level of always depended upon the availability of being itself, or the ultimate power of be- shared symbols, practices and languages. ing” (Tilich, Kimball, 2009, p. 17). Subsequently, most of and Most of marketers agree that Chris- allusions have been seen assimilated into tian messages and symbols have solid advertising strategies (Minton, 2015). We connotation inside a religious context, assume religion as connection to the be- but do these meanings transfer in mar- liefs and values that lead to purpose of life, ket exchanges? Do these religious sym- frequently rooted in credence to or bols have any optimistic consequences other spiritual creature. on consumers? Since there is not enough The connection between branding research studied consumer responses to and religion origins in consumer value is Christian religious symbols in the mar- varied. Some studies states that this con- ketplace, nevertheless, the possible value nection lies in the roots of religions are is still not really clear. Although studies in brands depending on how it is promoted the secular marketplace of religious sym- (Einstein, 2008; Alserhan, 2010). Some bols has been studied before (e.g., Belk, researches advise that brands and religion 1989), the detailed influence of religious are replacement for one another, both symbols (Christian) in advertising on giving to people a feeling of confidence consumer responses to purchasers has 126 Rima ŽITKIENĖ, Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ

not been addressed. Religious symbols after they have first separated it into dis- are symbols of the holy and the reality tinct levels. Lately, psychology and socio­ is holiness, even though the participa- logy have given a great deal of attention to tion is not their identity. Everything that the unique power of symbols to integrate belongs to time and space has become, at values and realities into existential units the same time in the , (Tillich, Kimball, 2009). At this moment, a symbol of the holy and this encounter symbols are used in order to pursue goods rests on the ultimate ground of our exist- and they send hidden messages to the con- ence (relationship between humans and sumers in order to seduce with values or the cosmos). Religious symbols stand ideas companies are representing. Look- symbolically and participate in a position ing into the symbol, which can be used in they refer to, which they are supposed advertising or branding, we have to ask to replace and ultimately become. Con- ourselves: “What stands behind colours, a sequently, in those moments when they frame or a way of performance?” We have start standing in that position, they be- to look into this creative work in the same come idols. P. Tillich and R. C. Kimball’s way as we do with artwork. Then we can (2009) understanding of this: “All idola- distinguish between commercial desires try is nothing else than the absolutizing and public temptations. Consumer goods of symbols of the Holy, and making them are carriers of a meaning, for example identical with the Holy itself. It is always they are the signs of belonging to a power dangerous that a holy person becomes a of social class. Mostly everything depends God or paraphrasing for our topic, a celeb- on what label/brand one is wearing, and it rity who symbolizes an ideal human being already shows how much he (she) earns. becomes an ideal or idol in the consum- Religious symbols in branding show what er’s world” (Tilich, Kimball, 2009, p. 15). values a person is seeking in one’s life and The religious symbol remains beyond our to which category of people we attribute reach and the symbolizing act itself ac- ourselves to belong (Halstead, Haynes, centuates the discrepancy between pres- and Taylor, 2009). entation and content. As T. L. K. Dupré Advertisers want to amaze their au- (2000) noted, religious symbols present diences by choosing symbols out of their origin in such a manner that they their pleasure in a situation where a bit not only signify more than they represent of shock value appears (Dahl, Franken- but also fail to disclose the nature of what berger, Manchanda (2003)); some sup- they signify. Shortly, they are more hiding portive ideas to define this fact: (1) shock than disclosing. always gets full attention; (2) it is better Genuine religious symbols are onto- than other types of requests in that re- logical in nature, and they are (like that) gard contrary to expectation, (3) people prior to any rational reflection. Indeed, memorize the data in the advertising as what we now call “religious” symbols well as involved in message-relevant at- grew out of our ancestors’ first attempt to titude (Dahl, Frankenberger, Manchanda articulate reality. Originally all symbols 2003). Religious symbols are one of the were part of the same sphere of existence shocking methods, which work always. (Dupré, 2000). Symbols reunite the world Religion is still considered taboo as well THE INTERPLAY OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS AND CULTURAL VALUES THEORY IN ADVERTISING 127 as religious symbols, imageries, icons already mentioned. In the western world, (e.g., in Lithuania for offensive advertising most people are familiar with them. In the marketers get fine). The supporting part of eastern part of the world, advertisers have shock in communication, as N. L. Pope et to refer to other images, values and the al. (2004) define, “it is strongly dependent symbols which represent them (Sheffield, upon transgression of a social or cultural 2006). Furthermore, video advertising as taboo with provocation more likely to oc- well as other traditional media more and cur when a substantial portion of the au- more frequently portray individualized dience is shocked by what they have seen” and privatized religion. You could look (Pope, Voges, Brown, 2004). at any product at all, it would seem from is so powerful ordinary bread to a holiday cruise, can be that most people recognize whether they advertised through an appeal to religious belong to the Church or not. Advertising practices like or . can make use of the characters of , As we observed before, “brands used Mary, St. Peter or more widely known as symbols can act as efficient commu- religious symbols as, for instance, heav- nication devices, which enable people to en, hell, eternal life, sin and typical ones convey messages about themselves and to such as a cross, angels, innocent babes. As facilitate expressive gestures” (Sheffield, many of us already recognize, companies 2006, p. 159), such as what kind of credit who use religious symbols in their com- card you are using and what kind of brand mercials try to add a specific message with of lipstick one puts on your friends or an extra meaning or association. For ex- people you would like to impress. ample, an apple is no longer just an apple, It is generally agreed that, while we whereas it is a piece of fruit used for temp- may think that advertising is “just sell- tation in paradise. This kind of language ing a product”, it sells the oppression of used in commercials, which uses religious consumption (Twitchell, 2000). The weak language or symbolic meanings, tries to and marginalized have been tripped into make a ‘divine’ offer which would be hard a commodifying system, a “false con- to refuse (Lee, Lovelace, Manz, 2014). It sciousness” and a “fetishism” that only we, is being arguing for a while that, today’s, the unlighted can correct by using icons, advertising companies desire for an extra which we fall as devout market believers spiritual value is in itself a sign that reli- and, unnoticed, consumers sometimes gious needs are as urgent today in the so- become the seekers of false marketer’s called secular society as they have always idols. been, even if they are no longer satisfied by traditional religions or in traditional ways (Lee, Lovelace, Manz, 2014) People Branding as fetishism buy not just a product but what is behind it, and symbols make it even more real and Scientific research shows that the de- mark it as a part of the consumption tribe. velopment of dominant and flourish- Of course, the understanding of the ing industry with strong brands can be symbols in advertising depends on the understood as commodity fetishism in background of the viewers, as we have a Marxist way and supports inclusion of 128 Rima ŽITKIENĖ, Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ

fetish products into consumption culture. cal conclusion of a thought process that Advertising and the commodity have be- habitually anthropomorphizes the natu- come powerful, basically, because people ral world.” (Godelier, 1973, p. 58). It is started to trust things more than people. widely believed that the term ‘fetishism’ is From this perspective, we do not need to only related to primitive (or even belongs search for the reason as to how we estab- to savage) cultures and their methods to lished this whole economic system which practice, especially for worshipping ‘false we are living in now. Our present culture idols’, or the myth of the “Golden calf” values become, to some extent, part of the From this particular perspective, then, we “fetis”, we have “fetished” ourselves. To want to describe ‘fetish’. It is useful to take elaborate on this idea, commodity fetish- into account, what is a thing (commod- ism belongs to a part of studies in popu- ity) and what it is not. Only then can we lar culture together with advertising and explain and explore from our experience consumerism. We cannot imagine our- what it is to change objects into subjects selves without any symbolical meaning by (and vice-versa). which we put emphasis on our personali- In the symbolic scheme of contempo- ties or on social relationships. rary capitalist society, which is amused by The first-place commodities demon- advertising, the purchase is a fetish. This strate the hidden cultural connections fetish object dismisses meaning and flex- with things, objects through individual ible value, the fetish characterises an un- work, to make them accessible through balanced heart of a shifting collection of social relations and in that way to become religious symbols, values for specific reli- meaningful. The role of advertising is to gion (in this case, Christianity) in which hide ourselves in an imaginary world. this, consequently, always threated to be What researches see are massive creations revealed as rather made with a fake fo- of goods skilled of pleasing and imitat- cus on religious craving (Campbell, La ing various symbolic methods and they Pastina, 2010). Many Apple fans experi- look wholly at consumption to describe ence the bond with their computers as this diversity, forgetting the deeper real- personal and sacred—they are emotion- ity of commodity production. In separat- ally attached to their computer and think ing commodities from their material basis of it as a friend (Pogačnik, Črnič, 2014). in commodity itself, they flow of into the Through interacting with Apple products, perfect “ionosphere” of the “code” or “cul- buying accessories for them, or just read- ture” (Leis, Kline, Jhally, 1990). ing about Apple, they enter into “the Ap- To some extent, a fetish becomes ple world,” where special rules and beliefs ‘a body’ or a certain object with one’s apply, which enable them to escape from consciousness and will, and of course the everyday life (Jindra, 2000, p. 173). with one’s intentions to it. According to Apple users rarely throw away Apple de- M. Godelier (1973), who looks at the fet- vices they own, and they often reuse these ish from a psychoanalytical point of view: religious fetishes—sometimes as aquari- “The fetish is a pathological instance ums or Macquariums or for building their of object – cathexis, or to speak in the own museums of Apple computers (e.g., Marxist vein of the fetish, as a chimeri- Digibarn). In addition, some fans collect THE INTERPLAY OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS AND CULTURAL VALUES THEORY IN ADVERTISING 129

Apple’s promotional merchandise (post- competitor actually is Pepsi Cola, which ers, watches, t-shirts, etc.) and design has 20% of the world market (Chidester, desirable future products, and those who 2015). At the same time, it is the most cannot afford Apple products build them controversial and, we even dare say, the out of paper (Pogačnik, Črnič, 2014). An most successfully advertised product in interesting example of religious symbol- the world. Coca-Cola is a religion because ism connected with Apple’s iPhone is its it is: “A system of symbols which acts to nickname: “Jesus phone” (Campbell, La establish powerful, pervasive and long- Pastina, 2010). Naming a device “Jesus lasting moods and motivations in men by phone” denotes “the gadget being divine formulating concepts of a general order or at least the choice of the divine” (Camp- of existence and clothing these terms in bell, 2010), sent by God to the Earth via such an aura of factuality that the moods Steve Jobs. and motivations seemed uniquely realis- Another example of fetish and the tic” (Pendergrast, 1997). Delony Sladge, work of a symbol is Coca-Cola’s chalice. an advertising director of Coca-Cola in Of all liturgical objects, the chalice is the the early 1990s, proclaimed: “Our work most high-profile and one of the most im- is a religion rather than a business”. Ap- portant recipients in all of western culture. parently, the Coca-Cola company has It is not just a magical container itself, but created its company as a religious mes- it holds the central magic of the entire re- sage (Chidester, 2015). The Coca-Cola ligion. We all heard that it started with a company also presumed that religious secret formula which was tinctured with meaning for the buyer owning “centred cocaine and until now the company has the lives of people”, as one of the man- not revealed this recipe. The agers said, “more than any other prod- of Coca-Cola and the name is the most uct or ideology, including the Christian recognizable in the world. Consequently, religion” (Pendergrast, 1997). Although it can simply be interpreted as: “this cup is the religious importance of Coca-Cola is my blood…which is shed for many” (Mt widely known, in 1931 it gave the US and 26:28; Mk 14:24; Lk 22:20). This metaphor the entire western world its standard im- from the last supper of Jesus Christ is the age of Santa Claus by introducing cheerful blood which the chalice lacks so that the old personality with overweight and white receptacle becomes an equivalent of the beard, robed in Coca-Cola red. Moreover, sacrificial blood (Sheffield, 2006). Coca- it developed into the most significant Cola and its entire company (including of the lifestyle besides for US soldiers du­ Schweppes, Sprite, Fanta) undoubtedly is ring the Second World War, as it was pre- the most known soft drink in the world- sented as an unusual holy moment – “the Coca-Cola is not just the bestselling also pause that refreshes”, redeeming them the world’s best-known brand name es- from usual post-war daily life. As for tablished over the hundred years. Coca- more, from the 1960’s on, it guaranteed to Cola presumes that the only real competi- give a better world “in perfect harmony”. tor for them is water. The company has The company had the idea to introduce 50% share the world market for carbon- a new type of Coca-Cola in 1985 which ated drinks and the main Coca- Cola’s caused one executive to exclaim, “They 130 Rima ŽITKIENĖ, Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ

talk as if Coca-Cola had just killed God” how, from buyers of simple products, we (Levin, 1981). end up being the seekers of new religion? A sceptical question could be raised at this point: how can it be that we are talk- ing about a refreshing drink in the same Brand religion manner as about religion (even putting it in the same context), which maybe Brands are established as cultural codes in was just prosperously sold with the help the consumer society (Batra et al., 2012; of advertising? The surprise here could Albert, Merunka, 2013; Bagozzi, Batra, be that the Coca-Cola company created Ahuvia, 2017). Emotional attachment to a product which nobody actually needs. brands becomes also feelings (Thomson, Therefore, the doubter would finish that it MacInnis, Park, 2005). There are many is just a wise way of manipulation toward terms to describe the phenomenon of a “desire thought” by effective advertisers brand, defining as “the sum total of all and that it has nothing to do with religion. define love for a brand as “a combina- As J. Baudrillard (2001) emphasizes tion of emotion utilities, benefits, values, the use of value by a fetishized social re- personality traits, images, impressions, lation through the manipulation of the associations and experiences a consumer symbolic code, any object can take on any perceives around a product or service” (Tiwari & Rajendra, p. 62, 2012). Scholars symbolic meaning regardless of its physi- approve that this affection mood occurs cal constitution. For instance, a car may with the purchaser and consumer (Car- be elegant, sophisticated, exciting, youth- roll, Ahuvia, 2006; Shimp, Madden, 1988). ful, manly, feminine etc. There is nothing Nowadays, scientists reflect love for brand appropriate in an object as such to give it as a new thing in market (Albert, Me­ an intrinsic meaning and depending on runka, 2013; Carroll, Ahuvia, 2006; Ka- its place in a sign system it can take any mat, Parulekar, 2007). Carroll and Ahuvia one of these meanings. For J. Baudrillard (2006), goes deeper and studies even the (2001) use-value itself is a form of equiva- feeling of passion. With the latter idea lence and as such capable of being mani­ agrees companies, which have been suc- pulated within a system of exchange. cessful in building the strong brands “that Mostly, Coca-Cola is not just an exam- transcend their physical existence, take ple of fetish and symbol effectiveness in on a life and build meaningful relation- society. It is a strong brand as well, which ship with the consumers” (Tiwari, Rajen- describes more than just a sort of drink dra, 2012, p. 63). Brands create structure you choose to refresh yourself. Therefore, of religion with declared love and creates we may continue this line of thought: you even brand cults such as Harly Davidson, are what you wear, what you drive, where Apple, etc. Steve Jacobs took an idea as a you go on holiday, where you live and leader very close to the Jesus in the pro- even what you decide to watch on video. cess of developing Apple brand like Chris- “Tell me what you buy, and I will tell you tianity and according to A. Pogačnik and who you are and who you want to be” A. Črnič (2014) the Apple brand keeps (Twitchell, 2000). The question rises as to they symbol as sacred of the community, THE INTERPLAY OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS AND CULTURAL VALUES THEORY IN ADVERTISING 131 saved by the taboo of criticism. The prod- It promises a new life (Beaudoin, 2007). ucts behave as religious objects to Apple It can even be seen as taken from western devotees, and Apple shops function as spiritual disciplines. It proves that “econo- temples. Followers complete public pil- my as a discipline is not consciously ‘spir- grimages to shop openings, also private itual’ or ‘religious’, but it operates with a rituals of product unboxing (Pogačnik, dynamic similar to classical spiritual dis- Črnič, 2014). Brands as such share the ciplines – anonymously”. We will see how common elements which usually religion companies do this deliberately. has: clear vision; a sense of belonging; an Brand is not just a name of a compa- enemy; sensory appeal; storytelling; gran- ny or a product. It contains even more: a deur; ; symbols (Campbell’s, myth, a symbol which serves emotional 2010; Pogačnik, Črnič, 2014). Further- meaning. It is influenced by many aspects, more, branding can be comparable to re- on the one hand, in the case of creating ligion where people begin to get confused and formulating a brand. Companies ask about the use of symbols. Advertising themselves many questions such as: what companies and brand creatures call it “the is the historical background of the com- act of peace”, to alleviate some problems. pany and country in which they wish to It can remove stigma, sin, guilt, redemp- launch a product. Does it have any na- tion from sorrow, provides resolution and tional or regional thought? What gen- angst (Stolz, Usunier, 2018). der is this brand: male or female? Does C. S. Carver et al. (2000) studied the its packaging or presentation format fit types of brands, the foundation was made with a contrast against the ‘norms’ in its that from ordinary brands after some time market? What kind of message, symbol brands created their own meaning. Even or value does the brand want to spread if advertising uses cliché phrases or jin- among the consumers? Brands with sta- gles the real meaning comes after years, bility in their promises, images, identity, collected of communication and goods quality and advertising are basically the in byer’s memory, and clarify essence. strongest in their class. When a strong The goal of design is to achieve its sym- brand can change, is able to keep pace bolic value. According to N. Klein (2000), and develop, generating awareness, will it branding is about a global lexicon of im- be able to create brand preference? As we agery, music, icons”, and in this fashion, it mentioned before, brands have to adjust transfuses a code into our brains. themselves to individual responses to sat- Branding, as a new member of the isfy one’s needs (Beaudoin, 2007). community (even leadership with com- It is already a part of history: when panies such as Nike, Benetton, and Star- marketing experts discuss about brands, buck’s which have built their brands on they have in mind the product itself with meanings such as transcendence, multi- its quality, its price and, of course, its culturalism and belonging, respectively, function. These days, it’s not enough to puts spirituality into the market), offers sell a product or a service. Moreover, it’s a permanent, bounded identity, in which supposed to place something beyond or you are told about your real self. It sug- behind it. Otherwise, nobody will pay at- gests an invitation to endless confidence. tention to it. No need to think too much. 132 Rima ŽITKIENĖ, Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ

You just need to look at what surrounds ing certain kinds of deeds, establishing a you, which kind of advertising, promo- particular kind of worldview. Secondly, tions you can see around your home, this term ‘brand” also implies that this university or workplace? Is it brightly red is a spiritual message over which Jesus Coca-Cola, a McDonald’s cheeseburger demonstrates proprietary rights (Wilson, or maybe a cup of Starbuck’s coffee? The 2008). These days, of course, it is no sur- question arises: what kind of lifestyles are prise that Jesus is used as a brand. Not we admiring behind or beyond our sur- long ago the boycott was lifted for the rounded brands which reflect our daily life name like that of jeans. and our personalities, what kind of values The branding approach is based on and dreams are they establishing in us? creating a unique and symbolic psycho- These days, the branding culture has logical association and identification be- become the same as religion and could be tween the brand and the consumer. Here, described as Marx (1975) state with his the brand differentiation comes from the famous quotation, as opium for the peo- brand trying to occupy the unique ‘per- ple. It becomes: “a form of alienation; it is sonality’ and ‘lifestyle’ imagery and asso- a symptom of social malformation which ciations that their target audiences identi- distinguishes the exploitative relation- fy with and aspire for. Scholars claim that ships of capitalist society” (Davie, 2007; the nature of branding is to be a promise Tan and Vogel, 2008; Berggren, Bjørn- in the mind of the consumer (Pringle and skov, 2011). Many pessimistic scholars Thompson, 1999). Brand “identity” ele- mention religion as a tool to persuade ments (the promise) usually attack every (Gineikienė, Zimaitis, Urbonavičius, one of us and that’s the reason why we 2015; Putrevu, Swimberghek, 2013; Re- buy one product instead of another. hman, Shahbaz Shabbir, 2010.) and af- Therefore, it is still gratifying to know firm the dominant worldview, thou and, even more, to admit that in this con- brands supposed to work as a product in sumerist and world there is still the place which consumer could trust. More spe- for creed and spirituality. On the other cifically, trust in marketing can be or to hand, it is a deplorable fact that religion brand itself or in the marketplace. They and in this particular context, symbols, say that the market as the new religious values, ideas of Christianity to some ex- groups bring critical but dominant mem- tent, has been used in order to increase bers of society not just with a new name, value of the brand and a company itself. but with new inspirations. Brand in a context of religion is usu- ally taken as a negative meaning, but it Conclusions can have a positive view in the way to ex- plain Jesus as a kind of brand. Firstly, as In conclusion, everybody has his/her be- a name of the product (brand), Jesus has lief in the system which can be ingrained a corporate identity. It is not about the in religion (here we are approaching Jesus brand as “spirituality”, as a generic Christianity, , , or Is- one, which can arise the support of any lam) as well non-religious (, numbers of outcomes. It is about shap- , naturalism, humanism) causes. THE INTERPLAY OF RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS AND CULTURAL VALUES THEORY IN ADVERTISING 133

Therefore, all these systems bring to the always get attention. At the same time, need to pursue some kind of spiritual- it is not just shocking, it demonstrates ity, even if it comes through consuming the need of being seduced by symbols goods. Marketers see this never-ending or by the need to act morally right by necessity to fill our inner selves as a gap choosing specific symbol or the value for their super products. They use brands product advertise. to demonstrate that not only our identi- • Culture gives space to the use of value ties fulfilled as possible but also the prod- with a help of fetishized social rela- uct (service) with specific quality mark. It tionship and through the manipula- is also a part of the cultural values despite tion of the symbolic code with specific the geographical location or historical meaning and effect. heritage (in Lithuania the consumerism • The branding approach is based on phenomenon came later due to the Soviet creating a unique and symbolic psy- occupation). Some conclusions could be chological association and identifica- made from our analysis: tion between the brand and the con- • The cultural dimension (such as ra- sumer. Here, we find that the brand tional values) plays an important role differentiation comes from the brand from the consumer’s point of view trying to occupy a unique “personal- here converts into religious symbols. ity”’ and “lifestyle” imagery and as- This dimension helps advertisements sociations that their target audiences to use the circumstances in which identify with and aspire for. As we no- these symbolic goods act in the mar- ticed, the essence of branding is to be ketplace. For the future research, it a promise for a consumer which helps would be useful to pay more attention to decide what to purchase. to Christian symbolism and their ef- To sum up, since the global processes fect to costumers. erase cultural differences in the future • Advertisers want to amaze their audi- research, we will seek to assess intercon- ences by choosing symbols as shock- nections between cultural environment ing advertising. Religious symbols are and different religions plus their effect to one of the shocking methods which consumer satisfaction.

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Rima ŽITKIENĖ, Gintarė KRIAUČIŪNAITĖ-LAZAUSKIENĖ RELIGINIŲ SIMBOLIŲ IR KULTŪROS VERTYBIŲ SĄVEIKA REKLAMOJE

Santrauka mas arba sveikos gyvensenos skatinimas ir požiū- Reklama yra kultūros dalis, kurioje vartotojai susi- rių bei įpročių keitimas; pvz., antrinis produktų kuria savo tapatybę pasitelkdami prekėse paslėptus panaudojimas, perdirbimas, vietinės rinkos pro- simbolius. Remiantis G. Hofsete (2001), kultū- duktų pirkimas ir pan. ra – tai abipusis žmonių mąstymo programavimas, Straipsnio pabaigoje apibendrinant mokslinių pasireiškiantis ne tik vertybėmis, bet ir paviršu- ir praktinių studijų rezultatus galima teigti, kad tiniškesniais būdais, tokiais kaip simbolių herojų analizuojant kultūros dimensijų poveikį vartotojui, ir ritualų paieška. Mokslinės literatūros analizė svarbus vaidmuo tenka vertybėms. Todėl atkreipti- atskleidė, kad yra ryšys tarp religinių simbolių ir nas dėmesys į R. Inglehart (2000) išskirtą racionalią reklaminių žinučių. Šiuolaikinėje visuomenėje vertę, tiesiogiai susijusią su simboliais. Šiandienė re- ieškant sąsajų tarp kultūros ir reklamos, tikslin- klama pasinaudoja tinkamomis aplinkybėmis, vei- ga naudoti R. Inglehart (2000) kultūrinės vertės kiančiomis ir tiesioginėje, ir virtualioje socialinėje metodą ir atskleisti reikšmes, kurias individai erdvėje, kai simbolinės reklamos pagalba daromas gauna iš dvasingumo „prisotintų“ reklamų. Šiame poveikis vartojimui. Be to, asmeninis prieraišumas straipsnyje teigiama, kad kultūros simboliai (ir jų tam tikriems daiktams yra įtakotas aplinkos ir vei- vertybė) gali būti įvairūs, pvz., logotipai, įžymybės, kia prekių perkamumą. marketingo šūkiai, socialiniai stereotipai ir t. t. Taip Mokslininkų D. W. Dahl, K. D. Frankenberger pat išryškinama simbolių reikšmė ir naudojimas ir R. V. Manchando (2003) nuomone, reklamos kū- reklamoje, nagrinėjama simbolių prasmė vartotojui rėjai nori sužavėti savo auditoriją galėdami pateikti renkantis prekes ir prekės ženklo svarbai. simbolinę reklamą, kur atsiranda šoko elementas. Praktiniai tyrimai rodo, kad rinkodaros spe- Mokslinių darbų analizė atskleidė, kad religiniai cialistai turi būti susipažinę su savo vartotojais, simboliai yra vienas iš šoko metodų, kuris visada jų religiniais įsitikinimais ir numatyti produktų sulaukia vartotojų reakcijos. Siekdami poreikių reklamoje tokius simbolius, kurie gali paveikti patenkinimo vartotojai priima moraliai teisingesnį jų produktų paklausą ir, taikant skirtingus rin- sprendimą ir pasiduoda reklamos simbolių vilionei, kodaros metodus, išlaikyti nuolatinius klientus. kai produktas pažymėtas specifiniu simboliu ar pa- Nors reklamoje neakcentuojama, kad laimę ga- sižymi išskirtine verte. lima pasiekti tik pasitelkus materialius daiktus, Pažymėtina, kad žinomus prekių ženklus nesakoma, jog poreikių patenkinimas skatina vartotojai atpažįsta nepriklausomai nuo kultūros dorovingumą, bet pasiektas moralinis mąstymas vertybių, todėl daugelis mokslininkų sutaria, kad demonstruoja pirkėjo brandos lygį, kuris būtinas naudodamasis fetišuotu socialiniu ryšiu ir manipu- kritiškai mąstančiam šiuolaikiniam pirkėjui ir liuodamas simbolizmu bet kas gali užimti bet kokią tam eiliniam pirkėjui, kuris yra paveiktas simbo- simbolinę reikšmę ir turėti poveikį vartojimui. lių tarpkultūriniame kontekste. Prekių išskirtinumas ir prekių ženklų kūrimas Nepaisant neigiamų aspektų (prekių žen- grindžiami unikalumu ir psichologiniu poveikiu klų pavertimu ikonomis, reklamos fetišizmo vartotojui. Simboliai sukelia asociacijas ir leidžia aukos, piktnaudžiaujant religiniais simboliais identifikuoti prekę pagal prekės ženklą, jo žinomu- ir atvaizdais, keičiant kultūros vertybes), yra mą. Prekės ženklo diferenciacija susijusi su paties daug teigiamų aspektų, kuriuos reklama sukuria prekės ženklo ypatumais, kurie gali suteikti unika- mūsų kasdienėje aplinkoje, atstovaudama prekės lumą asmenybei, jo gyvenimo būdui ar sukelti tiks- ženklams, o ne siekdama nuolatos gundyti mus linei vartotojų auditorijai asociacijų įgyvendinant įsigyti naujų prekių. Pvz., skatinimas įsigilinti į savo tikslus. Mokslininkai sutaria, kad prekės žen- produktų savybes ir įsigyti ekologiškų produktų; klo esmė yra pažadas vartotojui, jog jis įsigyja ko- kova už produktų kokybę ir genetiškai modifi- kybišką ir išskirtinį produktą. Visa tai susiję ne tik kuotų maisto produktų boikotavimas; sąžiningos su poreikių patenkinimu, bet ir tiesiogiai paveikia prekybos skatinimas ir tvarus produktų vartoji- vartotoją priimant sprendimą, ką pirkti. ORGANIZACIJŲ sisteminiai VADYBA: tyrimai

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