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The Pennsylvania State University the Graduate School Department of Geography the CHANGING LANDSCAPE of URBAN POVERTY in CHINA A The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School Department of Geography THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF URBAN POVERTY IN CHINA A Thesis in Geography by Guo Chen 2007 Guo Chen Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2007 The thesis of Guo Chen was reviewed and approved* by the following: Amy K. Glasmeier Professor of Geography and Regional Planning Thesis Advisor Chair of Committee Lakshman Yapa Professor of Geography Leif Jensen Professor of Rural Sociology and Demography Chris Benner Assistant Professor of Geography and Labor Studies and Industrial Relations Roger Downs Professor of Geography Head of the Department of Geography *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ii ABSTRACT This research explores one of the most important and yet under-researched topics shaping the contemporary urban geography of China—urban poverty. Since the mid 1990s, despite widely recognized success in economic reform and poverty alleviation, China has seen a rise of urban poverty in absolute numbers and in percentages. A close look reveals that the rise of urban poverty is a result of the state’s retreat from urban full employment and welfare provisions, multiplied by the effects of an exceptionally low urban poverty rate in the socialist era due to a manipulated class structure and maintained urban privileges. Along with the rise in rural-urban migration, this spatial relocation of poverty to urban areas has combined with the increasing heterogeneity among the poor, and both poor migrants and native urbanites face growing spatial isolation. This research responds to the “market transition” debate among sociologists such as Victor Nee and geographers, and it critiques structuralist perspectives on third-world migration and development and regional geographic studies on poverty and inequality. It proposes instead a multi-level and multi-actor approach, to analyze pre-existing socialist institutions and market-oriented changes as structures, and to analyze local governments, communities, and families as agents. This study examines how these structures and agents shape the urban poverty spaces in China. I address three questions: (1) how spatial inequality and deprivation in China are shaped at the national level; (2) how the spaces of urban poverty in China are shaped at the intra-city level by urban policies accompanying market-oriented social and economic reforms; and (3) how the livelihood and life chances of rural migrant family households compare with native urban family households. Through a national level census data analysis, a case study of Nanjing, and a case study of housing tenure for poor family households based on survey and interview data, this research explains the nature of urban poverty in China at three levels: (1) at the state level, urban poverty is emerging as a form of moving opportunities and relative deprivations across space; (2) at the city level, the (re)location and concentration of urban poverty is due to migration control and urban redevelopment in the local institutional context; and (3) at the community and individual levels, urban poverty is an outcome associated with individual characteristics and individuals’ connection with the state, conditioned by family and community-based support. These findings suggest that urban poverty exists not simply as the consequence of individual incapacity in the face of marketization or due to the existence of biased national policies towards rural migrants, but argues instead that rising urban poverty is largely a reaction to the emergence of transforming institutions characteristic of a hybrid economy with strong state and local interventions. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………...…………….x LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………...xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………xii CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION…………………………….……………………..…...1 1.1 The Fieldwork………………………………...…………………..…………….5 1.2 Theoretical Approach………………………………………….....……………10 1.3 Outline of Dissertation………………………………………………..……….11 CHAPTER 2 – URBAN POVERTY IN THE CHINESE CONTEXT: PRE-REFORM TO POST-REFORM ERA……...…….………………………..14 2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………14 2.2 Urban Poverty in Maoist China….……………………………………………16 2.3 Urban Poverty in Transitional China………………………………………….21 2.3.1 What’s New About Urban poverty in China?.............................................21 2.3.2 Estimates of Urban Poverty: Is Poverty on the Rise?.................................23 2.3.3 Spatial Characteristics of Urban Poverty…………………………………30 2.4 New Urban Poverty in China: New Concept and New Characteristics……….34 2.4.1 Heterogeneity of the New Urban Poor……………………………………34 2.4.2 Spatial Isolation of the New Urban Poor…………………………………39 2.4.2.1 The Transforming Urban Spatial Structure……………….………..40 2.4.2.2 Where Do Rural Migrants Live?.......................................................41 2.4.2.3 The Segregation or Integration of Rural Migrants?..........................43 2.5 Summary………………………………………………………………………44 CHAPTER 3 – THE INTERPLAY OF CLASS, MIGRATION, AND THE GEOGRAPHY OF POVERTY AND INEQUALITY: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES…………………………...…………………..47 3.1 Changing Class Structure and Stratification in China: A Social Dimension Inequality ………………………..………………………….………………….48 3.1.1 A Classless Society?...................................................................................49 iv 3.1.2 From Destratification to Restratification………………………………....51 3.1.3 New Class Structure in the Making?..........................................................56 3.2 Rural-Urban Divide and Migration: A Geographic Dimension………………58 3.2.1 Origins of Rural-Urban Divide…………………………………………...58 3.2.2 Migration Selection: Socio-economic, Age, and Gender Differentials…..59 3.2.3 Residential Selection of Migrants………………………………………...62 3.2.3.1 Structural Perspectives on Migrant Housing………………………62 3.2.3.2 Individual and Household Perspectives……………………………63 3.2.3.3 Network Perspectives on Migrant Housing………………………64 3.3 Development, Poverty and Inequality…………………………………………..65 3.3.1 Development Paradigms………………………………………………….65 3.3.2 Debates inside the Chinese Party-State………….…………......................70 3.3.3 Is Development a Cure for Poverty and Inequality in China?....................73 3.3.3.1 Development and Poverty Alleviation……………………………..73 3.3.3.2 Development and Regional Inequality……………………………..77 3.3.4 Summary: Development, Poverty, and Inequality in China……………...82 3.4 Summary: A Turn to a Structure-Agency Approach to Urban Poverty ………..83 CHAPTER 4 – CONSTRUCTION OF URBAN POVERTY AT THE STATE, LOCAL GOVERNMENT, COMMUNITY AND HOUSEHOLD LEVELS: A MULTI-LEVEL AND MULTI-ACTOR APPROACH…………………………88 4.1 The Changing Role and Organization of the State in China…………………....89 4.2 The Rise of Urban Communities in China……………………………………...92 4.3 Introduction to a Multi-level and Multi-actor Research Framework…………94 4.4 Key Research Questions and Hypothesis……………………………………101 4.5 A Three-level Empirical Research Design……………………………………103 4.5.1 Level One: Urban Deprivation across Chinese Cities…………………103 4.5.2 Level Two: Case Study of Urban Poverty in Communities……………104 4.5.3 Level Three: Case Study of Housing Tenure for Poor Family Households………………………………………………………………..105 4.6 Data Collection………………………………………………………………107 v 4.6.1 Population Census Data of China………………………………………107 4.6.2 Population Census Data of Nanjing City……………………………......108 4.6.3 Other Secondary Data…………………………………………………109 4.6.4 Survey and Interview……………………………………………………109 4.7 Research Methods……………………………………………………………..113 4.7.1 Deprivation Analysis across Cities………………………………….......113 4.7.1.1 Variable Selections……………………………………………….116 4.7.1.2 Deprivation Index………………………………………………...117 4.7.2 Intra-city Analysis of Urban Poverty in Communities…………………118 4.7.2.1 Measuring Stratification in Cities………………………………...118 4.7.2.2 Variable Selections……………………………………………….127 4.7.2.3 Multivariate Methods……………………………………………..132 4.7.3 Two-level Regression Analysis of Housing Ownership for Poor Households………………………………………………………………..136 4.8 Summary……………………..………………………………………………..139 CHAPTER 5 – UNEVEN LANDSCAPE OF URBAN POVERTY: EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF DEPRIVATION AT NATIONAL SCALE……....141 5.1 Interpreting Inequality: From Regions to Cities……………………….……...143 5.2 The Uneven Landscape of Urban Deprivation: Empirical Findings from the 1990 and 2000 Censuses…………………………………………….146 5.2.1 Descriptive Analyses: 1990and 2000……………………………..……..148 5.2.1.1 Low Educational Attainment: 1990 and 2000……………………150 5.2.1.2 Disadvantaged Groups: 1990 and 2000…………………………..150 5.2.1.3 Employment Status: 1990 and 2000……………………………151 5.2.1.4 Low-income Occupation: 1990 and 2000…………………….......152 5.2.1.5 Migrants as Vulnerable Population: 1990 and 2000……………154 5.2.1.6 Sub-standard Housing: 1990 and 2000…………………………155 5.2.2 Additional Descriptive Analysis for 2000………………………………155 5.2.3 Deprivation Indices: 1990 and 2000…………………………….………158 5.3 What Contributed to the Changing Dynamic of Deprivation?..........................164 vi 5.4 Summary………….…………………………………………………………...166 CHAPTER 6 – SPATIAL INEQUALITY AND URBAN POVERTY IN COMMUNITIES: A CASE STUDY OF NANJING, CHINA..………………………..168 6.1 Spatial Inequality and Poverty in Chinese Cities: A Hypothetical Model…….171 6.2 Empirical Findings from the Case of Nanjing………………………………175 6.2.1 Intra-city Stratification Patterns based on Principal Components Analysis…………………………………………………………………...176 6.2.1.1 Factor I: Socioeconomic Trend ……………………….………….176 6.2.1.2
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