Selling An/Other Wales. a Deconstructive Approach

Vol. 4 Nº 1 págs. 29-52. 2006 https://doi.org/10.25145/j.pasos.2006.04.003 www.pasosonline.org

Selling an/other Wales. A deconstructive approach

José Igor Prieto Arranz † Universitat de les Illes Balears (España)

Resumen: Por contraposición a los materiales turísticos galeses destinados a un público británico, per- fecto ejemplo de creación de una imagen gratamente distinta, aunque fundamentalmente anglizada, de Gales (Prieto, 2004), aquellos otros orientados a mercados extranjeros se esfuerzan por crear una nación culturalmente diferente. El presente trabajo se concentrará en estos últimos para analizar las estrategias utilizadas por la Oficina de Turismo Galesa para atraer al visitante internacional. Siguiendo a Halliday (1994) y a Kress & Leeuwen (1999) para el análisis de los componentes verbales y visuales, respectiva- mente, este estudio atestiguará el uso del patrimonio como instrumento de creación de identidad, siendo nuestra meta última la deconstrucción de dicha imagen, que posiblemente resulta de la delicada situación de Gales dentro de lo que parece un Reino crecientemente (des)Unido.

Palabras clave: Patrimonio; Hibridismo; Otredad; Promoción turística; Gales.

Abstract: As opposed to the Welsh tourist materials addressing a British readership, which excel in creating a gratifyingly dissimilar although mainly anglicised image of Wales (Prieto, 2004), those others targeting foreign markets struggle to create a culturally distinct nation. The present work will focus on the latter in order to analyze the strategies used by the Wales Tourist Board to appeal to the international visitor. Following Halliday (1994) and Kress & Leeuwen (1999) in the analysis of the verbal and visual components, respectively, this study will bear witness to the use of heritage as an identity-creation tool, our ultimate aim being the deconstruction of such an image, possibly resulting from the delicate situation of Wales within what seems an increasingly (dis)United Kingdom.

Keywords: Heritage; Hybridity; Otherness; Tourist promotion; Wales.

† • José Igor Prieto Arranz es doctor del Departament de Filologia Espanyola, Moderna i Llatina de la Universitat de les Illes Balears. E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction possible idiomaticity.

The Welsh tourism industry and most Wales. Land of Nature and Legend. The specifically its promotional policy, results textual corpus from its market distribution. On the one hand, Wales is overdependent on domestic WTB’s overseas-oriented IPP is avail- –especially English- tourism (ECTRC, able in several languages, including (Brit- 1998: 107), which somehow parallels the ish) English and Spanish, on which we situation to be found in Scotland and shall concentrate. What follows is a list of Northern Ireland. On the other hand, the texts analysed for the present study. Wales has always found it very difficult to -WTB/BTA [trans. unknown] (1999) attract overseas visitors, which may be Gales. Tierra de belleza Natural y de le- caused by the low awareness of Wales in yendas. Cardiff & London: WTB/BTA. many foreign countries (WTB, 2002a: 20). ISBN: WB/SP/00ISBN 1 85013 099 X. This At all events, the main sources of overseas IPP was available throughout 2000. inbound tourism in Wales are the United -WTB/BTA [trans. unknown] (1999) Le States (21%), Germany (11%), Ireland (9%), Pays de Galles. Terre de nature et de lé- the Netherlands (9%), Australia (8%), gende. Cardiff & London: WTB/BTA. ISBN: France (7%) and Canada (5%), Spain rank- WB/FR/00ISBN 1 85013 095 7. This IPP ing 13th with a mere 2% (WTB, 2002b: 11). was available throughout 2000. Domestic and foreign visitors in Wales -WTB/BTA [trans. unknown] (2000) follow different patterns, the former being Gales. Tierra de belleza natural y de leyen- more interested in the area’s natural re- das. Cardiff & London: WTB/BTA. ISBN: sources than in its cultural peculiarities WB/SP/01/ISBN 1 85013 109 0. This IPP (ECTRC, 1988: 107), which is very much was available throughout 2001. related to the long-held vision of Wales as -WTB/BTA (2001) Wales. Land of nature England’s backyard. This is a very different and legend. Cardiff & London: WTB/BTA. position from that of overseas visitors, who ISBN: R2WMGEN/ISBN 1 85013 118 X. seem to be primarily drawn by Wales’ dis- This IPP was available throughout 2002. tinct cultural heritage. In order to cater for All of them feature a standard size (29.7 both of these opposing trends, the Welsh x 21 cms) and a standard number of pages national tourist organization (NTO), the (64, except WTB/BTA 2001, which has 72). Wales Tourist Board (WTB) publishes two All of them include full-colour photographs sets of info-promotional texts: A View of plus a map of Wales on the inner side of the Wales, which targets an exclusively British back cover, a section with suggested routes (mainly English) readership; and Wales across Wales and a final supplement with Land of Nature & Legend, targeting a for- practical information on Wales and a selec- eign audience and available in different tion of recommended accommodation in the languages apart from English. The former different areas. excels in the outstanding task of creating a Even if we shall only be considering the gratifyingly dissimilar although mainly Spanish and English texts, the inclusion of anglicised image of Wales (Prieto, 2004). the French version of the 1999 IPP is quite The aim of the present work, however, is to enlightening in that it allows us to check focus on the foreign-oriented Welsh info- that it presents no significant variations promotional publications (IPPs) in order to when compared to its 1999 Spanish coun- analyse the strategies used by WTB to ap- terpart. Its visual component is exactly the peal to the international visitor. In this same and its verbal component not only regard, our approach will be a functional contains the same information but could one, following Halliday (1994) and Kress & also be said to be almost identical, to the Leeuwen (1999) in the study of the verbal extent that sentence-by-sentence corre- and visual components, respectively. Eng- spondences could even be found. It is to be lish translations of Spanish texts will be expected, therefore, that similar correspon- provided in which faithfulness to the dences will also be found between the re- source-text structure will prevail over their maining versions in languages other than

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English, most probably because they are all WTB/BTA 2000, in which the highly evoca- translations from an English original. tive ruins of Dolbadarn Castle seen in the (WTB/BTA, 1999 & WTB/BTA, 2000) dim dusk light against a probably artifi- As mentioned above, WTB/BTA 1999 & cially-blurred background add a sense of WTB/BTA 2000 are very similar texts. In mystery and intrigue which perfectly com- fact, their respective verbal components are plements the title of the publication. almost identical, the main difference lying And the same could be said of WTB/BTA in that WTB 2000 updates some of the in- 2001 (Figure 2). Such emphasis on cultural formation already provided in WTB 1999. heritage was only to be expected since it Consequently, we shall be mostly referring has already been noted that foreign tourists to WTB 1999 in our analysis, resorting to show a marked tendency to practise heri- the 2000 edition only in those cases when tage tourism. substantial changes must be noted. How- And indeed, a marked emphasis on cul- ever, significant differences can be appreci- tural distinctiveness is what we are to find ated in their non-verbal components, as we in WTB’s exportable materials –a cultural shall see. To start with, their respective distinctiveness which, incidentally, is given covers are different (see Figure 1). extra attention in the 2000 issue. Thus, the If the covers above are considered, it is inner part of the cover in WTB 2000 con- clear that unlike A View of Wales, WTB’s tains a new section bearing the same title British-oriented publication (see Prieto, as the whole publication (Gales. Tierra de 2004), Welsh exportable IPPs focus on cul- belleza natural y de leyendas), while the tural heritage. This is especially visible in main text goes like this:

Figure 1: Gales. Tierra de belleza natural y de leyendas 1999 & 2000

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belleza natural y de leyendas’. However, Sp. 1. Eso es Gales, una cautivadora this Token is actually a more complex one parte de Gran Bretaña que no se debe since it is composed of two Noun groups perder. in apposition: ‘Gales, una cautivadora [That is Wales, a captivating part of parte de Gran Bretaña que no se debe Great Britain you must not miss]. perder’ [‘Wales, a captivating part of (WTB/BTA, 2000: inner cover) Great Britain you must not miss’]. The second half of this apposition is significant since it occupies final position in the sentence and is therefore given extra emphasis. We will ignore the rather trite use of the Epithet ‘cautivadora’ [‘captivating’] as well as the qualifying relative clause and concentrate instead on its core, the Nucleus ‘part’ and its immediate Quali- fier ‘of Great Britain’. The fact that this text should openly state its allegiance to the Union from the very beginning is, indeed, significant, since it makes it easy for us to foresee that whatever ideological use might be made of Wales’ historic and cultural heritage, such use will never be as aggressive as that found in, for example, Scottish IPPs (see Prieto, 2003). In principle, the Value in this clause highlights both Wales’s natural wonders and its legendary past, although the final position of this latter aspect seems to indicate that it will be treated more thor- oughly in the IPP. This is certainly the case, since the text will keep referring to this type of aspects. Thus, it goes on to Figure 2: Wales. Land of nature & legend say that: (WTB/BTA, 2001) Sp. 2. Gales es una tierra de castillos y cultura, de relatos del pasado y de tradiciones aún vivas que dan cabida a un The first remarkable fact is the use of país vibrante y moderno. a relational process, which conveys a [Wales is a land of castles and culture, sense of objectivity. But this is no ordi- of tales from the past and traditions nary relational process but an intensive still alive which [however] allow for a identifying relational process in which vibrant, modern country]. (WTB/BTA, the Subject (‘eso’ [‘that’]), a pro-form 2000: inner cover) clearly standing for a ‘tierra de belleza It should be noted that, once again, natural y de leyendas’ [‘land of natural the process chosen is a relational one, beauty and legends’] functions as the although intensive attributive this ti- Identifying Value for the Complement me. The Nucleus of the Attribute is ‘Gales’ [‘Wales’], Token in this case. This ‘tierra’ [‘land’], which has not one but identifying relationship is far more effec- three different Qualifiers. The first one tive than a simple attributive one since is a rather simple prepositional phrase the relationship between Identifier and which emphasises the idea already Identified is far closer than that between commented on. More interesting are Carrier and Attribute. It almost amounts the second and third ones. These two to saying that Wales is the ‘tierra de Qualifiers emphasise the importance of

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the past and link it to the essence of process. contemporary Wales. The Noun ‘tradi- What matters the most, then, is that ciones’ [‘traditions’] is postmodified by this open declaration of differentness a Classifier ‘aún vivas’ [‘still alive’] and would have been impossible in WTB texts a qualifying relative clause in which targeting a purely British audience. And, the relative pronoun, clearly referring as in WTB/BTA 1999 & 2000, this differ- back to those same traditions, becomes ent, current Wales is linked to its fasci- the Actor of a material process which nating past, as can be seen in En. 3. has as a Beneficiary ‘un país vibrante y En. 3. The country’s distinctive per- moderno’ [‘a vibrant, modern country’]: sonality [...] springs from a rich heri- Wales itself. This syntactic constructi- tage and history. (WTB/BTA, 2001: in- on is most interesting in that it captu- ner cover) res the ultimate message which the In this case, Difference is given a life copywriters want to put through: the of its own as Actor in a clearly material existence of a continuous line at one process in which the associations with the end of which stands the past whereas past are clearly emphasised. The text at the other the present can be found. then goes on to mention the living testi- The aim, therefore, is to create the monies of such a past and, consequently, illusion of an uninterrupted, unique Wales’s Difference: tradition giving shape to today’s Wales. En. 4. The Welsh language is still spo- The same aim can be appreciated in ken, along with English. the same section in WTB/BTA 2001. In En. 5. Countless hundreds of castles fact, it is enlarged, so that the part de- and Celtic sites dot its hills and val- voted to Wales’ past and heritage is even leys. more explicit: En. 6. It’s a place where myths and En. 1. To be inspired is to be taken to a legends, tales of King Arthur and the different place. [...] medieval Welsh Princes, are still En. 2. You’ll know that you are some- charged with the power to captivate where different. [...] and inspire. (WTB/BTA, 2001: inner cover) (WTB/BTA, 2001: inner cover) The English text opens with an unam- Not surprisingly, the first aspect high- biguous declaration of Wales’s different- lighted is the Welsh language. To be ness which would have been unthinkable noted in En. 4 is, of course, the use of a in WTB’s British-oriented materials. In passive structure, which allows for the En. 1 an identifying attributive structure deletion of the Sayer/Actor in the proc- equals two almost parallel non-finite ess.1 Thus, the illusion is created that clauses. The first one, functioning as To- Welsh still is the language of habitual use ken, could be interpreted as either an throughout the country, although it is intensive attributive process, thus taking significant that special emphasis is ‘inspired’ as an Attribute, or as a passive placed on the Circumstantial element of material process structure in agreement Accompaniment (Comitation) so as to with the second clause. In neither of them encourage non-Welsh speakers to visit is the Actor mentioned, although there is the country. an extra Participant in the second clause Such early emphasis on the Welsh which cannot be ignored, and this is the language is indeed noteworthy, since Location ‘to a different place’, which oc- WTB/BTA 1999 & 2000 deal with the cupies final position. Thus, the two most subject not in their promotional but in- salient positions in this clause complex formative section. And so does WTB/BTA relate the highly evocative and almost 2001: semi-divine concept of inspiration to, we The Welsh language has been in daily assume, Wales’ Difference. The same use in Wales for centuries, but don’t emphasis is to be found in En. 2, also as worry about encountering any lan- part of a Location within an existential guage difficulties – EVERYBODY in process functioning as Phenomenon of an Wales speaks English, the road signs emphasised (note the use of ‘will’) mental are bi-lingual and you’ll frequently

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come across dual place-names eg present itself to others (1997: 50). Swansea/Abertawe, Cardiff/Caerdydd. However, this partiality is exactly (WTB/BTA, 2001: 31) what WTB pretends to avoid. Thus, in the El idioma galés es el idioma cotidiano inner part of the cover in WTB 1999 we en el país desde hace siglos, pero no se can read: preocupe porque no tendrá problemas Sp. 3. Por más bonitas que sean las fo- lingüísticos. TODO EL MUNDO en tografías, o detallada la información, Gales habla inglés, las señalizaciones un folleto no puede nunca transmitir están en ambos idiomas y los topóni- fielmente la realidad de un país. mos a menudo se expresan en los dos [Pretty or detailed though its photo- idiomas, p. ej. Swansea/Abertawe, graphs and contents may be, a bro- Cardiff/Caerdydd. chure can never faithfully transmit a [Welsh has been the day-to-day lan- country’s reality]. guage in the country for centuries, but Sp. 4. Es por eso que en este folleto do not worry because you will not have hemos procurado acercarnos todo lo linguistic problems. EVERYONE in posible a la realidad de Gales por me- Wales speaks English, signs are in dio de enfoques personales de este no- both languages and place names are table país, desde la perspectiva de al- often written in both languages, e.g. gunos hijos e hijas de esta tierra. Swansea/Abertawe, Cardiff/Caerdydd]. [It is for this reason that in this bro- (WTB/BTA, 1999: 26; WTB/BTA, 2000: chure we have attempted to bring our- 27) selves as close as possible to the real- In introducing the subject at such ity of Wales through personal ap- an early stage, WTB/BTA 2001 pushes proaches to this outstanding country, the matter of cultural differences even from the perspective of some sons and further. En. 5, on its part, can be easily daughters of this land]. related to Sp. 2, although the new 2001 (WTB/BTA, 1999: inner cover) rephrasing is even more effective in It must be acknowledged that the way that it gives heritage an active role as this IPP introduces this subject is a very Actor in a material process, not to clever one indeed. Sp. 3 starts with a mention the hyperbolic measure ex- Marked Theme of contingency (conces- pression in the Nominal group functio- sion), thus implying that the brochure ning as Actor in the aforementioned really is comprehensive as regards the process. information it contains, and features the Slightly less evident is the text’s best-quality photographs (the assumed equally early mention of Celticness, status of photography as the most objec- around which the image of the entire tive way to portray reality should be country will be constructed, as we shall borne in mind here). However, according see. Lastly, we cannot help pointing to the copywriters, this is not enough out WTB/BTA 2001’s introduction to since ‘un folleto nunca puede transmitir Arthurian themes, which –just like fielmente la realidad de un país’ [‘a bro- WTB/BTA 1999 & 2000- it will deal chure can never faithfully transmit a with at length in later sections. country’s reality’]. In this case, the mate- For the time being, it is clear that rial process of faithfully transmitting a WTB bases Wales’ tourist appeal on its country’s reality (the wording: ‘país’ / supposedly age-old historical and le- country is indeed significant, especially in gendary tradition. But at this point it the Spanish version, in which it has final is worth mentioning that Gruffudd position and therefore receives extra em- reminds us that such Welsh traditions phasis) is quite categorically denied in particular, and all traditions in ge- through the use of the negated Finite ‘no neral, are ‘ethno-histories’, very fre- puede’ [‘cannot’], in turn modified by the quently blunt inventions with an im- equally categorical ‘nunca’ (never). It portant ideological component in that would seem, therefore, that the aim of the their preservation mostly indicates authors of this brochure is an impossible how an ‘imagined community’ wishes to one. However, this is qualified in Sp. 4.

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This sentence is a clear instance of a aforesaid picture of Wales will be ob- Thematic Equative structure,2 through tained (‘por medio de enfoques personales which any constituent in a sentence may de este notable país’ [‘through personal become a Marked Theme and, conse- approaches to this outstanding country’] – quently, gain additional prominence in also to be noted is the expression used to the sequence, whilst allowing some other refer to Wales). This Means clearly an- element to benefit from the emphasis nounces the use of WTB’s trademark, always to be derived from occupying final namely the testimony strategy (see position in the sequence. In this particu- Prieto, 2004), but to the non- lar case, the Marked Theme is ‘por eso’ knowledgeable reader this may sound as [‘for this [reason]’], which unambiguously a rather subjective approach. This is why refers back to the proposition stated in last, but not least (final position always Sp. 3 (in this case we should more prop- involves emphasis) comes the Angle erly talk about a postponed Marked through which this picture will be taken Theme, since it follows the copula). (‘desde la perspectiva de algunos hijos e However, let us concentrate on the hijas de esta tierra’ [‘from the perspective Rheme, which contains an interesting of sons and daughters of this land’]). This instance of the clause as representation. Angle is clearly included in order to add Once they have established the difficulty some sense of authority to the result to be of the initial task, the authors state that achieved. Especially relevant is the use of ‘en este folleto hemos procurado acercar- the patriotic construction of the nos todo lo posible a la realidad de Gales land/Wales as a mother raising her own por medio de enfoques personales de este children/Welshmen and Welsh women. notable país, desde la perspectiva de al- Indeed, WTB 1999 & WTB 2000 use gunos hijos e hijas de esta tierra’. If we personal testimonies on several occasions, focus on the verbal element, we shall see always including the name of the person that this ‘hemos procurado acercar(nos)’ to whom the words are attributed. Most [‘we have attempted to bring ourselves important of all is the reproduction of the close’] is a rather complex verbal form testimony of Sir Anthony Hopkins, a well- which, in our view, conforms to what known Welsh film star. However, the Alarcos calls a verbal periphrasis likelihood of Hopkins having uttered the (‘perífrasis verbal’) (1994: 257-265). words attributed to him is just as little as Equally interesting is the analysis from that of him having actually posed in front the Mood perspective, in which ‘acercar’ of the beautiful scenery depicted in the (a material process) becomes Predicator figure below. and ‘hemos procurado’ is seen as Finite As Figure 3 shows, there are substan- with a significant modal meaning which tial differences between the Hopkins pic- conveys the Actor’s every effort in carry- ture in WTB/BTA 1999 and that to be ing out the material process. The Goal of found in WTB/BTA 2000. There is no such a feat is the reflexive ‘nos’ [‘our- doubt that his pose is exactly the same. selves’], whereas the real Wales, that However, the background image is sig- unattainable object of desire, is con- nificantly different. On both occasions, it structed as Beneficiary in the Process. represents the same scenery (Llyn Gwy- These are the main Participants in this nant, in Snowdonia National Park), but Action but, since the Action itself has on the first one the picture was taken on been said to be impossible from the very a dull, grey day whereas on the second it beginning, it is also surrounded by quali- was taken on a perfectly clear day. This fying circumstances. First of all, we have makes us suspect that Hopkins never a circumstance of Manner or Degree was in Snowdonia for the photo session. (‘todo lo posible’ [‘as much as possible’]) And if the visual fails us, why should we which makes it clear that the view we place any more trust on the verbal com- will get of the real Wales will be neither ponent? complete nor absolutely objective. Then, All this reveals nothing but the con- we also have another circumstance which structedness of the discourse of tourism specifies the Means through which the promotion and will make us stay alert to

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the allegedly objective image of Wales tion of old lineage with a modern spirit’] these IPPs have promised to provide us (corresponding to another one entitled ‘A with. In this regard, both the 1999 and living history’ in WTB/BTA 2001) in the 2000 editions of this IPP contain a which a substantial part of this image has section entitled ‘Una nación de linaje been concentrated. antiguo con un espíritu moderno’ [‘a na-

Figure 3: Hopkins 1999 & 2000. (WTB/BTA, 1999 & WTB/BTA, 2000: 2-3)

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The very title refers back to the idea of can afford to locate Wales’ origins ‘más an uninterrupted Welsh tradition giving allá que los de la mayoría de las civiliza- shape to today’s Wales, which will be ciones del planeta’. Conscious of the tre- repeated here. mendous effect of this proposition, the Sp. 5. Gales es una nación de linaje copywriter goes on to mention examples antiguo. of ancient peoples who are known to have [Wales is a nation of old lineage]. inhabited Wales, only to reinforce the (WTB/BTA, 1999: 6) idea that Wales’ true origins must be Apart from the word ‘nation’ –it will traced much earlier in time. have been noted that ‘nation’ and ‘coun- Part of the effectiveness of this mes- try’, with all that they connote, are alter- sage, of course, derives from the way this nately used to refer to Wales- the main sentence has been constructed from an feature here is the choice of an apparently interpersonal point of view. Indeed, all objective intensive attributive relational Finites contained above are Indicative process. This choice of process, however, declaratives. They express the highest or does not really identify Wales but simply most absolute type of modality possible in relates to it the Attribute ‘una nación de a proposition. But apart from this the fact linaje antiguo’; in other words, it simply cannot pass unnoticed that highly effec- makes Wales one out of many other native Mood Adjuncts indicating intensity tions ‘de linaje antiguo’. But the rest of have also been added (‘más allá que’ [‘fur- the text will very soon change this. ther back than’], ‘mucho más allá que Sp. 6. Sus orígenes se remontan más incluso’ [‘much further back than even’]). allá que los de la mayoría de las civili- The underlying propositions, therefore, zaciones del planeta. Mucho más allá are presented as declarative statements que incluso los celtas de la Edad de with the highest degree of certainty and, Hierro que se establecieron en Gales y consequently, not as simple hypotheses otras partes de Europa entre los años but as true, real facts. 700-500 a. de J.C. o que los Beaker Sp. 7. Incluso se cree que ciertas es- Folk que llegaron procedentes de la tructuras encontradas en Gales fueron costa de Iberia, Europa Central, hace construidas unos 1.500 años antes que unos 4 ó 5.000 años. las pirámides de Egipto. [Its origins go further back than those [It is even believed that certain struc- of most civilisations on this planet. tures found in Wales were raised some Much further back than even the Iron 1,500 years before the Pyramids in Age Celts that settled in Wales and Egypt]. other parts of Europe between the (WTB/BTA, 1999: 6) years 700-500 BC, or the Beaker Folk, However, the authors go even further who arrived from the Iberian Coast, and present us with Sp. 7, thus openly [or] Central Europe, four or five thou- comparing Wales with one of the oldest sand years ago]. civilisations on earth. Needless to say, (WTB/BTA, 1999: 6) Wales emerges victorious from this battle. In the sentence above, the text quite Once again, the effectiveness of the mes- categorically states the antiquity of the sage lies in the combination of specific Welsh pedigree. In order to do so, it is choices in the fields of the clause as mes- worth noting that a material process sage (interpersonal dimension of lan- (‘remontar’) is chosen for which the na- guage) and representation (ideational tion’s origins are both Actor and Goal. By dimension). From a purely ideational placing an abstract entity as Actor, the perspective, we must remark that the copywriter avoids the selection of a hu- main Process in the sentence (‘se cree’ [‘it man source in charge of measuring the is believed’]) is not material but mental, antiquity of Welshness, since this would which of course connotes subjectivity. undoubtedly involve an act of interpreta- However, this loss of authority is some- tion on the part of such a human agent how compensated for by choosing the and consequently diminish the effective- characteristically Spanish ‘pasiva refleja’ ness of the message. This is why the text construction which, apart from letting the

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Object of the Verb occupy final position tensifying ‘además’ [‘moreover’] and the and, therefore, gain prominence, always Adjunct of obviousness ‘como es lógico’ serves to delete an unwanted Participant [‘as could be expected’] (which, rather (in this case, the Senser). In this, it dif- exceptionally, consists of a full clause and fers from the typical passive construction not a simple Adverb). in which the deletion of Participants is The main process in Sp. 8 is an exis- optional, not compulsory. At all events, tential one, similar to relational processes such deletion is most welcome here since in the objectivity it conveys. What is ex- it certainly helps diminish the inherent pressed here, therefore, will inevitably be subjectivity of the mental process. To this taken as ‘fact’ by the reader. What follows we must also add the inclusion of the after the parenthetical Mood Adjuncts is intensifying Mood Adjunct ‘incluso’ a rather complex Existent with two main [‘even’], which plays an important role in components in apposition (from ‘una mul- the cohesion of the text in that it makes titud’ [‘a multitude’] until ‘nobleza galesa’ the reader interpret this sentence as a [‘Welsh nobility’] and from ‘todo ello’ [‘all further argument backing the original of which’] until the end). The first part of proposition stating the antiquity of this Existent is a list of some of the Welsh Wales. Finally, equally noticeable here is heritage highlights in chronological order the choice of the passive for the material so that the last element is closer in time process presented as Phenomenon of to the reader. It is obvious that the ulti- ‘creer’ [‘believe’]: once again, this is an- mate aim is for the reader to perceive the other example of the perfectly conscious overwhelming presence of Wales’ historic use of the passive as a means of obliterat- heritage as a substantial part of the na- ing unwanted participants. Readers do tion’s essence. At all events, this is more not care who built those constructions –in clearly stated in the second part of the fact, we do not know who did. The only apposition. thing that matters, and that is why it This second element of the apposition appears in final position, is that such is a rather complex Nominal group whose structures were built well prior to the Head is the Pronoun ‘ello’ [‘which’, in our pyramids of Egypt, themselves a symbol translation], which refers back to every of antiquity. single piece of heritage mentioned before Sp. 8. Hay, además, como es lógico, –a fact emphasised by the premodifying una multitud de artefactos celtas, for- Numerative ‘todo’ [‘all’]. But there is also tificaciones romanas, castillos nor- postmodification, as shown by the pres- mandos y las grandes residencias de la ence of a Classifier / Epithet (‘muy bien nobleza galesa, todo ello muy bien con- conservado y a menudo restaurado’ [‘very servado y a menudo restaurado de tal well preserved and often restored’]) and, modo que el pasado vibrante y diverso perhaps most importantly –not in vain de Gales vuelve a la vida una vez más. does it occupy final position- a qualifying [There is, moreover, as could be ex- process (‘de tal modo que el pasado vi- pected, a multitude of Celtic artefacts, brante y diverso de Gales vuelve a la vida Roman fortifications, Norman castles una vez más’ [‘so that Wales’ vibrant and and the great houses of the Welsh no- diverse past comes to life once again’]). bility, all of which very well preserved The aim here is undoubtedly to round off and often restored so that Wales’ vi- the message already conveyed by Sp. 2., brant and diverse past comes to life namely the presence of the past in con- once again]. temporary Wales. And in order to do so a (WTB/BTA, 1999: 6) material process (‘volver’ [‘come’]) is cho- Sp. 8 above could be seen as the cul- sen and the past, in principle an abstract mination of the argument taking up the notion, is endowed with a life of its own whole of the preceding text. That it pro- by being selected as the Actor in the vides some further justification for the above-mentioned material process –the status of Wales as a land of ancient civili- notion of life being inherently present in sation can be seen in the presence of not the Epithet ‘vibrante’ [‘vibrant’] and more just one but two Mood Adjuncts: the in- openly in the spatial Location following

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the process. alongside English on signs – during It must also be said that WTB/BTA your travels. 2001 concentrates on this latter message, (WTB/BTA, 2001: 9) namely the important role played by the As we can see, this new addition is past in today’s Wales, and not quite so once again a reference to the Welsh lan- much on the record-breaking antiquity of guage. Even if such emphasis on linguis- Welsh civilisation. tic difference would have been impossible En.7. The past is still very much part in those IPPs targeting a British audi- of the present in Wales. ence, it is worth pointing out that the (WTB/BTA, 2001: 9) treatment of the subject as present in This is the opening statement on page WTB/BTA 1999 & 2000 is nowhere near 9 and, as can be seen, it manages to con- that found so far in WTB/BTA 2001, vey the above-mentioned message per- which turns Welsh into one of the basic fectly. By choosing an (intensive attribu- pillars on which both Welsh Difference tive) relational process, the copywriters and Welsh historical heritage stand. It is endow the text with the sense of objectiv- precisely this latter point that En. 10 ity needed to relate past (Theme) and wants to highlight; hence its peculiar present (Rheme). On the other hand, the thematic structure. What the copywriters power of this statement is enhanced have done here is reverse the normal through the use of ‘very much’, an inten- Mood structure in the English statement, sifying Modal Adjunct. thus taking the Residue to occupy Theme Then, the text moves on to provide position –thereby gaining emphasis in material evidence for that past still living contrast- and leaving Subject and Finite in the present. Thus, we are presented as Rheme. Consequently, a twofold effect with two sentences clearly reminiscent of is achieved: the Marked Theme connects Sp. 8: the sequence with the preceding discourse En. 8. It lives on at a multitude of whereas the Rheme gives extra promi- evocative historic places –at mysteri- nence to a Subject featuring a language ous prehistoric monuments and Celtic whose antiquity is also mentioned. sites, majestic cathedrals and medie- Finally, En. 11 & 12 expand on the val castles. subject, first relating the sound quality of En. 9. All still possess a powerful Welsh with the nation’s stereotypical love sense of times gone by. of poetry and music, a rather slippery (WTB/BTA, 2001: 9) affirmation which could face much con- Many are in fact the coincidences be- frontation. However, the use of not one tween Sp. 8 and En. 8 & 9. To start with, but two relational processes in En. 11 and perhaps most importantly, there is serves to introduce the subject with ap- the selection of the past as Actor in a ma- parently absolute objectivity. The same terial process. But we cannot leave aside topic is also dealt with in a later section the inclusion of the purposefully vague in WTB/BTA 1999 & 2000, which we will yet hyperbolic numerative expressions not, however, discuss here. Lastly, En. 12 that introduce the actual instances of makes a reference to En. 4 above and historical heritage so as to justify the reinforces the illusion of Welsh being a widespread presence of the past through- widespread language whilst appeasing out present-day Wales. And precisely to the fears of the non Welsh-speaking tour- emphasise this main idea, there is a new ist. addition in WTB/BTA 2001, presented Sp. 8. Hay, además, como es lógico, below as En. 10-12: una multitud de artefactos celtas, for- En. 10. Also linking past with present tificaciones romanas, castillos nor- is the Welsh language, one of Europe’s mandos y las grandes residencias de la oldest spoken tongues. nobleza galesa, todo ello muy bien con- En. 11. It’s a lilting, musical language servado y a menudo restaurado de tal that reflects the country’s love of po- modo que el pasado vibrante y diverso etry and song. de Gales vuelve a la vida una vez más. En. 12. You’ll hear it –and see it [There is, moreover, as could be ex-

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pected, a multitude of Celtic artefacts, energy and vigour of the now decayed Roman fortifications, Norman castles stones of Dolbadarn Castle were embod- and the great houses of the Welsh no- ied in this Welsh girl who, as her dress bility, all of which very well preserved signals, represents the whole of the and often restored so that Wales’ vi- Welsh community. In WTB/BTA 2000, on brant and diverse past comes to life the other hand, the background is a once again]. rather more futuristic one, but its (WTB/BTA, 1999: 6) Welshness is also clear all the same Coming back to where we left it in the thanks to the presence of another girl Spanish text, it must be remembered wearing an identical dress. Both female that, apart from the everlasting presence figures in WTB/BTA 1999 and WTB/BTA of the past in the present, Sp. 8 also in- 2000 are presented as female embodi- troduced such past as ‘vibrante y diverso’ ments of an ancient territory while, on [‘vibrant and diverse’]. Although we shall the other, as can be derived from their certainly have occasion to discuss the youth, they are here to represent the lat- extent to which this IPP presents Wales est Welsh generations. In this regard, as a culturally diverse country, for the what we first interpreted as a simple time being let us concentrate on this fas- transactional reaction can also be seen as cination about the past. So great is the a fairly clear symbolic attributive struc- emphasis on this idea that it is actually ture, in which the girl functions as Car- conveyed not only verbally but also visu- rier and the dress she is wearing or, ally. rather, the national flag it consists of, as In terms of representational structure, a clear Symbolic Attribute. what we have in both illustrations is a The red dragon is one of the many reactional process, although in WTB/BTA symbols that are associated with Wales 2000 there is also a secondary action (ma- today. However, its origins are far from terial process) in the man’s holding of the clear. Although it has been traced back to girl. This reactional process, signalled by the Middle Ages, it seems that the dragon the gaze of the depicted Participants, was more of an English invention rather could be seen as a transactional process, than anything else, since it was first since even when we do not actually see widely used by the Tudor monarchs, the Phenomenon (i.e., the object of their probably to emphasise their allegedly gaze), it is evident that they are looking Welsh descent and, consequently, legiti- at the camera, which in turn means that mise their rule over Britain. For a long they are looking at the reader. In other time, it was mostly seen as the adminis- words, their gaze only becomes operative trative symbol of the Council of Wales as long as it is reciprocated by the reader. rather than a native national symbol This interactive gaze, together with (Morgan, 1983: 91). However, today it is the broad smile on their faces, makes us arguably Wales’s most visible symbol and interpret the scenes as visual invitations, this can be seen in that even WTB has unambiguously encouraging the reader to chosen it as its logo, all of which can of visit Wales and so partake of their happi- course be connected with what Hobsbawn ness. & Ranger call ‘the invention of tradition’ But apart from these narrative struc- (1983) and the discursive nature of na- tures emphasised in the foreground, both tional identities. illustrations contain backgrounds which Having said this, it is equally interest- could be interpreted as classificational ing to see that the Welsh nation is repre- structures. In WTB/BTA 1999 we have a sented by a female figure. Indeed, Welsh partial view of Dolbadarn Castle, which IPPs provide us with a very clear example takes us back to medieval Wales –the of feminisation of the nation, which in same function is carried out by the pic- this case reaches a degree of sexual ture insets, evoking even earlier times. provocation not normally expected in the What is clear is that the figure of the girl promotion of a cultural heritage destina- serves as a link between the static past tion and, indeed, not present in Wales and the reader. It is as if all the WTB/BTA 2001.

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Figure 4: The past in the present: Mother/Daughter Wales. (WTB/BTA, 1999 & WTB/BTA, 2000: 7).

At all events, whether male or female, than who carries out the Action, the main what matters is that this is a visual rep- interest lies in the Action itself or, rather, resentation of a nation whose past has when the Action is carried out, since the been described as ‘vibrante y diverso’ Goal of the Action (which, as defined in [‘vibrant and diverse’]. Interestingly, the text, implies the existence of a single, however, such cultural diversity does not distinct Welsh culture) invariably ap- seem to be reflected in the texts, since the pears in thematic position whereas it is one cultural institution promoted in this the temporal Location that receives the section is the so-called ‘Eisteddfod’: emphasis derived from the final position Sp. 9. El primer ‘Eisteddfod’ –festival it occupies. Thus, the parallel construc- de arte y cultura galeses- se celebró en tions contrast the dates of the first and el castillo de Aberteifi (Cardigan) en the latest eisteddfod, thereby creating the 1176. illusion of an uninterrupted tradition [The first ‘Eisteddfod’ –festival of which has existed for almost a thousand Welsh art and culture- was held at years. Aberteifi Castle (Cardigan) in 1176]. This statement is in stark contrast to Sp. 10. El próximo Eisteddfod nacional the description of an eisteddfod provided se celebrará en Llanelli en agosto del in 2000 by A view of Wales (an IPP tar- año 2000.3 geting a purely British and mainly Eng- [The next national Eisteddfod will be lish readership) (see Prieto, 2004), which held in Llanelli in August 2000]. –among some other information- openly (WTB/BTA, 1999: 7) declares it an invention of London anti- The structure of these two sentences is quarians two hundred years ago. This is, exactly the same. On both occasions, a in fact, a far more accurate approach to passive material process (‘pasiva refleja’) the subject. The Welsh word ‘eisteddfod’ has been chosen, which translates as the refers to a formal meeting of Welsh bards compulsory deletion of the Actor. Rather and minstrels, the first of which was held

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at Cardigan by the Lord Rhys in 1176. acknowledges, ‘the Eisteddfod had devel- According to Morgan, oped into a fully-fledged folk festival on a The word means simply a ‘session’, large scale’ (NSO, 2002a) and, therefore, and it described a set of musical and po- a bastardised version of its original spirit. etic competitions, of which notice had The Gorsedd was the invention of one of been given a year beforehand, and at Wales’s great inventors of tradition, the which adjudications and prizes were scholar Edward Williams, better known given. An eisteddfod would also be the as Iolo Morganwg. It was he that ‘created occasion in the Middle Ages for the bards the notion that the Welsh bards had been (organised in an order or gild [sic]) to set the heirs of the ancient Druids, and had their house in order, to examine and li- inherited their rites and rituals, their cense the reputable performers, and to religion and mythology (the religion being cut out the bad. a mixture of Iolo’s own Unitarianism and (1983: 56-57) eighteenth-century Nature worship)’ 1176 set a precedent and eisteddfods (Morgan, 1983: 60). What Iolo did, there- (or eisteddfodau) proliferated all through- fore, was turn the Eisteddfod into a visu- out Wales in the times prior to the union ally exciting but also largely fictional with England. However, what is not quite staging of Celtic Welshness whilst creat- so well-known is that this long-held tradi- ing the illusion of a single, Celtic-based tion declined almost to the point of ex- Welsh culture. This Neo-Druidism is still tinction in the 16th and 17th centuries, of very much alive since the Gorsedd of course due to the unavoidable anglicisa- Bards has been linked to the national tion of Wales. Some revivalist meetings Eisteddfods ever since. The NSO defines appeared around 1700 but, by then, the it as ‘an association whose members con- whole event had little to do with the sist of poets, writers, musicians, artists original eisteddfod since ‘[t]he last of the and individuals who have made a distin- professional bards had virtually ceased guished contribution to the Welsh nation, activity in the 1690s, so the poets who language and culture’ and it is clear that attended the new eisteddfodau were ama- it has managed to preserve its character- teurs [...]’ (Morgan, 1983: 57). At all istic Neo-Druidic flavour –not in vain is events, it was not until the 1780s that the its head given the title of ‘Archdruid’ first real signs of recovery appeared. (NSO, 2002b). Thus, big eisteddfodau appeared once Nowadays, eisteddfodau are hugely again under the auspices not of the Welsh popular occasions drawing visitors from people themselves but of a number of all corners of both Wales and the entire London-based antiquarians, interested in UK. It is certainly not our aim to call into things Welsh. Such was the case of the question the holding of such excellent- Welsh Society, one of many associations quality arts festivals. But we cannot help of London Welshmen (Morgan, 1983: 58). pointing out the craftiness of its allegedly Being fully conscious of Wales’ increasing uninterrupted tradition, the more than anglicisation, such societies fostered and dubious authenticity of its druidic cere- sponsored the celebration of new eistedd- monies and, last but not least, its inap- fodau, thus adapting an ancient tradition propriateness as a symbol of the whole of to the modern times, and it was not until Wales. well into the 19th century that eistedd- For Wales, or any other nation, cannot fodau started being organised once again be described as a monocultural entity. by Welsh people in Wales. The turning Consequently, any attempt to bring forth point seems to have been the 1819 Ei- a given cultural tradition and place it in a steddfod held at Carmarthen, in which hegemonic position on any other existing the Gorsedd (‘throne’) of Bards of the Is- one must be denounced as, first, fraud; land of Britain was first introduced. Up to and second, cultural aberration. We do that moment, eisteddfods had always not know what the Welsh cultural pano- been musical and literary in nature but rama might have looked like hundreds of from that moment onwards, as the very years ago. There is no doubt that, at some National Eisteddfod Association fully point, an overwhelming majority of the

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Welsh people spoke Welsh, independently seems to fit comfortably within British of their being of pure Celtic stock or not. Wales, and nor does Newport. Still, they However, it must be remembered that the are different from Welsh Wales. On the union with England was a point of no other hand, significant parts of the North return for Wales in that it started an have been gained by Y Fro Gymraeg inevitable process of anglicisation, the (2001: 119-120). consequences of which are still to be seen. At all events, this division is still im- It is true that anglicization, especially portant in that it basically reflects differ- as regards the promotion of English as ent population origins which normally the everyday language in Wales, was not translate as qualitatively different na- always fair in that it was to a large extent tional identities and distinct voting pat- institutionally crafted by the English terns. This is, of course, a highly complex authorities. Especially noteworthy here subject we cannot go into here unless at was the attempt to abolish the Welsh the risk of oversimplification. But there language in the 19th century, in what has been a recent occasion on which re- came to be known as the ‘Treason of the gional voting patterns proved significant Blue Books’ (Morgan, 1983: 92). In this and that was the 1997 Referendum which context, the many attempts to fight back determined the establishment of a Na- by resurrecting long-gone traditions or tional Assembly for Wales. Even if it is even inventing new ones are perfectly clear that this positive result was the understandable as a self-defence meas- product of several factors (the anti-Welsh ure. However, trying to impose on the language British policy, as felt by the whole of Wales cultural and linguistic Welsh people; the centralisation of the traditions which, at best, had only existed British state, which would not even let its in part of the territory, is just as gross a historic nations participate in the EU mistake as the semi-imposed anglicisa- Committee of the Regions; the result and tion of Wales. circumstances under which the previous Whether Plaid Cymru likes it or not, 1979 Referendum had been held; and, the fact is that history has made Wales a last but not least, the long Thatcherite culturally-diverse nation with at least and Thatcher-influenced years of Conser- three distinct areas originally delineated vative governments), still the different by Denis Balsom in 1979. Thus, we could Welsh regions showed different voting speak about a British Wales, roughly patterns. Osmond interprets this as a taking up the wide border country, in- consequence of the different ethnic ori- cluding the southern coast, plus the gins of the population in each area, stat- north-eastern coast; a Welsh Wales taking that ‘[t]he Yes counties [i.e. those ing up the central and southern areas; counties having voted Yes in the Referen- and, finally, what is commonly referred to dum] contain a higher proportion of peo- as ‘Y Fro Gymraeg’, or Welsh-speaking ple born in Wales and those who most area, represented by the north-western strongly identify themselves as Welsh’ and west-central areas (see Gramich, (2001: 118; see also Keating, 1989). 1997: 97; Osmond, 2001: 118-119). The point that needs to be made is This division is indeed significant that Wales, at least nowadays, is a far since it has proved useful for analysing more complex reality than a well- voting patterns, national identity and preserved enclave for Welsh-speaking other related questions. The fact that the Celtic stock. The centuries of English urban South is included in the area domination, complex migratory patterns known as British Wales is also notewor- and now the globalization era cannot be thy, since it includes the main conurba- obliterated at a stroke or taken as the tions of Cardiff, Newport and Swansea perfect excuse for the imposition of a and covers a significant percentage of the given cultural pseudo-tradition on the total Welsh population. However, as Os- whole of Wales. This is, however, what mond states, it must also be noted that seems to be taking place in Wales nowa- the borders between these regions are not days. In a way, the situation is under- fixed or stable. Thus, Cardiff no longer standable after centuries of what could be

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referred to as cultural oppression on the relational process4 in which ‘forasteros’ part of the English, which arguably con- [‘foreigners’] proudly functions as Value. tinues nowadays, since the British media This is most interesting, since in normal seem to have become the repository of the circumstances, the word ‘foreigner’ in traditionally English ignorance of Welsh English is usually endowed with negative singularity. But this does not justify that connotations whereas the same word, or the inhabitants of Y Fro Gymraeg should rather its Spanish counterpart, is used look down on the Anglo-Welsh of the Val- here with quite the opposite aim in mind. leys as not truly Welsh, whose only result Foreignness or ‘differentness’ becomes an is indignation on the part of the Anglo- asset which WTB proudly proclaims in Welsh who, in turn, although reiterating the shape of non-Englishness. their Welsh identity, harden themselves Such non-Englishness may also take against the Welsh language (Gramich, an extra dimension, namely the appro- 1997: 101). priation of myths and legends widely held The situation, therefore, is a rather as English and their presentation as complex one, with 80% of the population originally Welsh. This is the case of the (the non-Welsh speakers) finding it in- Arthurian legend, around which the next creasingly difficult to prove their section ‘Tierra de mitos y leyendas’ [‘Land Welshness and feeling largely ignored by of myths and legends’] (8-9) (correspond- the national Welsh-speaking S4C TV ing to that entitled ‘Legendary times’ in Channel, whereas a 20% Welsh-speaking WTB/BTA [2001: 10-11]) is centred. minority ‘can also feel like exiles in a land As its title suggests, this section em- which is becoming overwhelmingly Angli- phasises Wales’ mythical component, cised, even in the most remote areas’ which will have a clear interest for the (Gramich, 1997: 103). potential foreign tourist. The text opens What is clear is that IPPs promoting by drawing the reader’s attention to the Wales in overseas markets depict an at- fictional nature of legends but, quite in- tractive fiction with which only 20% of terestingly, the tone changes significantly the Welsh population could easily iden- when it comes to commenting on the tify. The ultimate aim is to make Wales myth of the legendary King Arthur: as different from England as possible, Sp. 12. La historia está basada en un and this can be seen in the last extract we personaje histórico [...]. shall take from page 7 in WTB/BTA 1999 [The story is based on a historical and WTB/BTA 2000: character].5 Sp. 11. La palabra ‘Gales’ tiene sus (WTB/BTA, 1999: 8) orígenes en el término anglosajón The change, in fact, could not have ‘wealas’, que quiere decir forasteros been made in a more straightforward [...]. manner. Noteworthy is the use of a [The word ‘Wales’ has its origins in the passive material process so as to delete Anglosaxon term ‘wealas’, which the unwanted Participant (i.e. the au- means foreigners [...]]. thor of the story). Since the Actor is (WTB/BTA, 1999 & 2000: 7) missing, the main stress falls on the It will be noticed that, once again, the Location and, more particularly, on its copywriters resort to relational processes historic(al) nature, which will make to endow the text with a sense of objectiv- the reader not discard the story as a ity. The main process in this clause com- simple invention on the part of the plex is a possessive attributive one in copywriters. Once the interest has been which, apart from the usual Carrier (‘La fostered, the text goes on as in Sp. 13 palabra ‘Gales’’ [‘The word ‘Wales’]) and below: Attribute (‘sus orígenes’ [‘its origins’]), Sp. 13. Lo que seguirá siendo misterio- there is also a circumstantial element of sa incógnita por los siglos de los siglos Location which will prove essential, as es si Caerleon [...] fue Camelot y si los signalled by its final position. Most im- restos mortales del Rey Arturo están portant of all is the postmodifying rela- enterrados en Snowdon. tive clause, which contains an identifying [What will remain an unsolved mys-

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tery forever and ever is whether Caer- Finally, WTB/BTA 1999 & 2000 bring leon [...] was Camelot and whether the section to a close as follows: King Arthur’s mortal remains are bur- Sp. 14. En efecto, como en mitos y le- ied in Snowdon]. yendas de tantas otras culturas, los (WTB/BTA, 1999: 8) más imperecederos son aquéllos que In this case we have a Predicated toman la realidad como sustancia. Theme structure which, by turning an [Indeed, as in myths and legends from original intensive attributive structure so many other cultures, the truly ever- upside down, manages to draw the rea- lasting ones are those that take reality der’s attention to two important points. as their substance]. In fact, what in Sp. 13 occupies rhema- (WTB/BTA, 1999 & 2000: 8) tic position would have been presented What is being done here is round off the as Theme in the intensive attributive idea with which the Arthurian myth was structure. But, as presented above, the presented in the first place, namely that Theme includes an intensive attributi- it is based on historical facts. After a ve process which, by selecting an Attri- Marked Theme constituted by a Circum- bute with the connotations of an inso- stantial Participant which compares the luble riddle, clearly encourages the Arthurian legend with others in different curious reader to keep on reading. And cultures (El Cid, for example, might eas- it is then that the important news is ily be recalled by a Spanish reader), Sp. revealed: the Welshness of the Arthu- 14 introduces an identifying relational rian myth in the shape of a relational process (once again, objectivity is con- and a passive material process, respec- noted through the choice of process) with tively, both conveying a obvious sense the two usual Participants organised as of objectivity. Token and Value, the latter occupying WTB/BTA 2001 works in very much final position and receiving, therefore, the same way: greater emphasis. And it is here precisely En. 13. Arthurian connections are es- that the authenticity of the Arthurian pecially strong around Caerleon in the legend plays an important role. In fact we south, where the Roman amphitheatre could not have found a better term, since is reputedly the site of King Arthur’s it is precisely as a Circumstantial Par- legendary Round Table (it’s certainly ticipant of Role (Guise) that the above- the right shape!). mentioned authenticity is constructed En. 14. You can take another voyage of within the Value in this Clause complex. discovery at ‘Grailand’ in North-east If we have a look at the Value, we shall Wales, legendary home [sic] Arthur’s see that it is composed of a complex Noun courts, famous battles and fabled Ava- group whose Head is the pronoun lon. ‘aquéllos’ [‘those’] (myths and legends, we (WTB/BTA, 2001: 11) understand), which is in turn postmodi- What WTB/BTA 2001 manages to do is fied by a relative clause in which the rela- profit from the mystery aura surrounding tive Pronoun itself (co-referent with King Arthur by mixing linguistic re- ‘aquéllos’) is the Actor in a material proc- sources denoting certainty, thus suggest- ess in which ‘la realidad’ functions as ing that Welsh Arthurian legends do have Goal whereas ‘como sustancia’ [‘as [their] a factual component (note the use of rela- substance’], occupying final position, is tional processes in En. 14, emphasised by presented as Role (Guise). Therefore, not the presence of an Adjunct of Probability only is the authentic component empha- [‘certainly’] in the Mood structure, or even sised in the Arthurian legend but also its the wording [‘discovery’] in En. 14) with percentage of truth as opposed to fictional others by which the copywriters imply additions7. low affinity with the statement (in this Thus, to the right of the paragraph de- regard, note the Mood Adjunct ‘reputedly’ voted to King Arthur, we find the photo- and the Epithet ‘legendary’ in En. 13 and graph of an actor dressed in armour the Epithets ‘legendary’ and ‘fabled’ in whose looks, as can be seen in the illus- En. 14).6 tration above (left), remind us very much

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of those of the actor Nigel Terry in the libró sus antiguas batallas y, lo que es role of King Arthur in John Boorman’s más importante, dónde estaba situada 1981 production of Excalibur (right). But Avalon? [...] this picture is not the only visual element [‘Where was Arthur born? Where did in the text. Thus, towards the left of the he fight his old battles and, what is verbal component we can also see a series more important, where was Avalon? of smaller photographs (four overall, al- [...]’] though only two can be seen above). (WTB/BTA, 2000: 8) Given this clear left-right divide, it is As we can see, the text clearly seeks to possible to distinguish here a division interact with the reader by resorting to a similar to what we have been calling the- series of content interrogative proposi- matic structure in verbal language. Thus, tions invariably highlighting Locations the photographs on the left, depicting related to Arthur –his birthplace, his Welsh sights associated with myths and battlefields, his final resting place. And it legends (including Valle Crucis Abbey in is to be noted that the aim of the text is clear competition with Glastonbury Ab- not quite so much to provide an answer to bey in Somerset) can be read as ‘Given’ them as to suggest that all such Locations information, whereas the image of an might well be found within Wales. Arthur-like flesh-and-bone actor on the Sp. 16. Venga a disfrutar de este má- right can be interpreted as ‘New’ informa- gico paisaje y descubra por sí mismo la tion, thus suggesting that Arthurian vida de Arturo. memories are ever so vivid in this land [‘Come and enjoy this magical land- that visitors will no doubt feel as if they scape and discover for yourself the life could come across the legendary king and of Arthur’] his court of brave knights any moment (WTB/BTA, 2000: 8) while in Wales. After all, as the final sen- Once all these suggestions have been tence goes in this section, ‘[u]no no tiene made, the Mood changes again, this time más que venir aquí para ver por qué la to the Imperative, and exhorts the reader imaginación se desborda en esta tierra’ to visit the country, although it never [‘one only has to come here to see why the quite says this but ‘enjoy this magical imagination runs wild in this land’]. landscape’ –note the wording, clearly Finally, it is worth pointing out that reminiscent of the fantastic atmosphere WTB/BTA 2000 gives extra emphasis to to be found in the Arthurian legends. This this question. Both verbally and non- could be taken as an instance of gram- verbally, this section is virtually identical matical metaphor in which an original in both editions,8 but the verbal text material process (‘visit the country’) is changes slightly towards the end in substituted by a highly evocative mental WTB/BTA 2000. Thus, it adds: one (‘enjoy this magical landscape’). Sp. 15. ¿Dónde nació Arturo? ¿Dónde

Figure 5 Hyperreal Arthur. (Source: WTB/BTA, 1999: 8; http://dandalf.com/dandalf/IMG30.JPG)

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In a way, this can also be seen as an ceding one must change, too. In other implicit promise of reward so as to some- words, the link between both clauses (‘y’ how diminish the otherwise authoritative [‘and’]) can no longer be interpreted as an tone derived from the use of the Impera- addition of propositions but as something tive. In this regard, it is interesting to see else. And this is possible since ‘y’ is an tourism as a game in which the tourists, essentially ambiguous link which can be eager for freedom, leave their homeland substituted by almost any other more only to find themselves in a strange terri- clearly stating the semantic relationship tory where, quite paradoxically, they will between such propositions (on this and need to be given instructions as to what other interesting related questions, see to do and see (see Dann, 1996: 101ff). The Álvarez Calleja, 1994). aim of the discourse of tourism in such If we accept this, it follows that the cases, therefore, can be no other than Imperative in this clause is not a real finding the balance between the restric- Imperative and that the theoretically tions inherent to such authority and the ‘additive’ value of ‘y’ is not additive ei- tourist’s freedom. In other words, orders, ther. Rather, the relationship between restrictions and constraints must be dis- both propositions would be much more guised so as not to be perceived as such accurately referred to as ‘enhancing’. In by the tourist. And one of the strategies other words, the second clause is nothing available in order to do this is no doubt but a Circumstantial element of Cause the promise of reward, implicit in the expressing Purpose, which somehow grammatical metaphor now under discus- qualifies the first clause. And this pur- sion. pose is, of course, the promise of reward However, there is another promise of to be derived from a visit to Wales. reward more openly stated in the remain- At all events, what is clear is that the ing part of this clause complex. Note that, text emphasises the Welshness of a myth in principle, Sp. 16 should be analyzed as which is normally seen as typically Eng- an example of parataxis between two lish by the foreign tourist. And it is due to parallel clauses. However, it will be this that WTB/BTA 2000, in a small sub- agreed that Sp. 16 above can be taken to section providing rather curious details mean the same as Sp. 16 Bis below: concerning Welsh history, culture and Sp. 16 Bis. Venga a disfrutar de este sites (always found at the bottom of each mágico paisaje para descubrir por sí section), replaces some information on mismo la vida de Arturo. Prince Llywelyn by the following text: [Come and enjoy this magical land- Sp. 17. Las primeras alusiones a Artu- scape to discover for yourself the life of ro fueron escritas en galés antiguo o Arthur]. en latín por hombres o monjes galeses. What has been done here is substitute [The first allusions to Arthur were the link between the two original clauses written in old Welsh or Latin by Welsh by a clearer one and turn a finite clause men or monks]. into a non-finite one. Our point here is Sp. 18. En estas antiguas tradiciones that, once again, grammatical metaphor la mayoría de los lugares vinculados a has a role to play in this case and we base historias arturianas se sitúan en el this conclusion on the following argu- norte de Gales. ment. The average reader will not nor- [In these old traditions the majority of mally interpret the second clause in Sp. the places linked to Arthurian stories 16 as an order, and this is quite under- are located in the North of Wales]. standable, since the process presented in (WTB/BTA, 2000: 8) the Imperative Mood is not material but a It is quite clear that the aim of this mental one, and here we are entering a last couple of sentences is not only to em- domain where external authority has phasise the Welshness of the myth but very little to do. If we assume that this is also to provide further evidence for the so, and that the Imperative in ‘descubra’ theories supporting Arthur’s links with cannot be taken as an order, the whole Wales. Thus, in Sp. 17 a passive material relationship of this clause with the pre- process has been chosen. As seen before,

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passive processes are normally resorted been noted by Pritchard & Morgan (2001) to in order to emphasise the process itself and, as they suggest (although in quite whilst conveniently deleting unwanted different terms), they may well have been Participants. However, they may also be caused by perceived differences in the used with quite the opposite purpose, reception of national discourses. Let us namely to place extra emphasis on one of clarify this latter question. the Participants, specifically the Actor, The underlying assumption of WTB who –when mentioned- will inevitably must have been that the image the Brit- appear in final position. And this is pre- ish (and, most particularly, the English) cisely what we have here. In this particu- have of Wales and the Welsh is signifi- lar case, it is quite important to mention cantly different from that held by any who were the supposed authors of the other country outside the United King- first written allusions to King Arthur dom. As mentioned above, since the Un- since their possible links with the Church ion of England and Wales in the 16th cen- confer an aura of authority upon them tury, England has tried to deprive its which they would otherwise lack. A simi- neighbour of its distinctive cultural traits lar function can be attributed to Sp.18. and it must be said that this has been Once again, a passive material process is carried out quite successfully. For a long chosen, but this time in the shape of a time, the Welsh Other was tamed by be- ‘pasiva refleja’ structure, which means ing anglicised and therefore allowed to that this choice cannot have been made to partake of the sacrosanct spirit of Brit- highlight the Actor. The thematic struc- ishness so proudly defended from the 18th ture is relevant indeed, since the Marked century until quite recently. However, Theme serves as an anaphor referring there are reasons to believe that British- back to the contents of the preceding sen- ness is in crisis today and that Mrs tence whilst letting the Location ‘en el Thatcher’s efforts to preserve national norte de Gales’ [‘in the North of Wales’] unity (by reforming the National Curricu- occupy final position and consequently lum, for example, giving greater impor- receive the main emphasis in the sen- tance to British history) (Scholte, 2000: tence. 165) did not come up to expectations. In this regard, devolution in Northern Ire- Discussion and concluding remarks. land, Scotland and Wales is an obvious sign that the extremely centralised Brit- Welsh tourist promotional materials ish state has changed, seeking to adapt to can be divided into two distinct groups, the new times. This is what some have one targeting a British audience and an- already signalled as the ‘break-up’ or other aiming at an international, non- even ‘death’ of Britain (see Nairn, 1977; British readership, on which the present Marr, 2000). work has focused. Most important of all is Come what may, the fact is that the that the image sold is clearly different in non-English nations in the UK are giving each of them. Thus, British-oriented ma- free rein to their own individual national terials are characterised by their empha- identities and can therefore be felt as a sis on the friendliness of the Welsh peo- threat by an English population whose ple, the beauty of the Welsh landscape own English national identity has long and the old-fashioned Britishness to be been confused with Britishness. It follows found in most Welsh resorts. Exportable from this that a truly different, non- materials, on the other hand, clearly em- English (or, for this matter, British) phasise Wales’s cultural peculiarities, Wales is not likely to be considered as a particularly in the form of its Celtic lore desirable tourist destination by a large and the Welsh language, presented as an proportion of the English people. On the ancient tongue of common use in the contrary, it might well generate feelings area. of aversion in them and ultimately result Such striking differences, which in- in a significant decrease in the numbers deed parallel closely those to be found in of English tourists visiting Wales. On the Scottish IPPs (Prieto, 2003), have already other hand, foreign visitors who have

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never been subject to the discourse of that what intends to become the best- Britishness may well regard non- selling image of Wales in the foreign Englishness as an attractive feature market, as promoted by WTB, does not which will make Wales worth considering even remotely correspond to the complex as a potential holiday destination. reality of contemporary Wales, an area Given this situation, it is only natural not only peopled by Celtic but also Eng- that the Welsh tourist authorities should lish stock who find it increasingly difficult have found that publishing two different to determine where Welshness lies in the sets of materials may well prove more context of the at least 500-year-old angli- beneficial for the Welsh tourist industry cization and the more recent and none- in the long term. Thus, they seek to ap- theless terribly important globalisation. peal to an ever-increasing portion of the WTB’s Welshness, therefore, although British/English audience by presenting understandable as both an intelligent attractive products for the different mar- marketing strategy and a reaction ket niches, each presented in the form of against English hegemony, is not true to a different article in the holiday magazine life and once again, provides evidence of A View of Wales (seaside and activity the political use of heritage, understand- holidays for two- or single-parent fami- ing by such ‘an all-embracing concept lies; walking, bird-watching or cultural that applies equally to landscapes, cus- heritage holidays for a more veteran au- toms and narratives of identity’ (Gruf- dience), although with the common and fudd, 1997: 50). rather patriotic denominator of ‘a good True enough, WTB also publicises the British holiday’. Especially noteworthy is enormous economic spend made on the the fact that families with young children newly redeveloped waterfronts in Cardiff and the 55+ segment seem to be the and Swansea, for example, or the new groups preferably targeted not quite so Millennium Stadium in the Welsh capi- much for long holidays as for short tal, thus following established patterns in breaks, thus following the opinion of ex- international tourism promotion suggest- perts in British domestic tourism (see ing the promotion of a cosmopolitan city Cockerill, 2001; Seekings, 2001). life and the building of landmarks (Hol- On the other hand, an entirely differ- comb, 1999: 58; Thomas & Bromley, ent publication caters for the foreign tour- 2000). But the fact remains that the main ist, also remarking on the beauty and emphasis is placed on Welshness under- variety of the Welsh landscape (aspects stood as Celticness or, better still, non- which have not been studied in the pre- Englishness based on a language which, sent work) but also, and above all, focus- even if it is the only minority language ing on what are presented as the Welsh likely to survive in the UK (Smyth, 1997: cultural distinctive features. 255-257), is only spoken by 20% of the The question may well be posed total Welsh population; on fictional leg- whether this division of materials will ends; and last but not least, a consider- still continue for a long time to come. In able set of invented and re-invented tra- this regard, the new slogan for the British ditions. campaign in 2002 (‘The Big Country’) In other words, we are witnessing how may well indicate a new turn towards a the discourse of tourism promotion may greater presence of Welshness in British- use heritage as an identity-creation tool. oriented Welsh promotional materials. The only problem is that such identities Pritchard & Morgan, although writing are constructs and their use, conse- prior to the launch of this new campaign, quently, a manipulation (Macdonald, already foretell a slow change in this di- 1997: 155). In this regard, WTB has a rection, since –according to them- the function very similar to that of the Mu- English are also rediscovering their own seum of Welsh Life at St Falgans, near nationalism, which would make them less Cardiff, which is of course promoted in hostile to non-English national symbols WTB’s overseas materials but not in the (2001: 177). British-oriented A view of Wales. A Welsh At all events, we have already noted Folk Museum had long been demanded in

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political circles and it is obvious that this nents with a right to proclaim their dif- was not only because of the sociological ference and utter opposition against what function it was to perform but also, and is only too often an enslaving concept of perhaps most importantly, because of a national identity based on what Hall has political one, leading to a ‘manufacture of accurately termed ‘the Constitutive Out- Welsh national identity’ through the ide- side’ (1996: 15). alisation of the countryside, thus creating ‘a classless version of the nation –the Bibliography gwering- united by having its ‘authentic’ heritage revealed to it’ (Gruffudd, 1997: Alarcos Llorach, Emilio 60-61). However, it should be pointed out 1994 Gramática de la lengua española. that all such heritage representations are Madrid: Real Academia Española / Es- actually artificial and inauthentic, pure pasa Calpe. bogus history, in which ‘local people risk Álvarez Calleja, M. Antonia losing the ‘authentic’ meanings of their 1994 “Lingüística aplicada a la traduc- culture and debasing it to mere ‘local ción: interpretación textual en el mar- colour’ by performing for outsiders’ (Mac- co sistémico-funcional y su desplaza- donald, 1997: 156), losing in turn the nec- miento hacia una orientación cultu- essary reference with the Welsh living ral”. Estudios ingleses de la Universi- culture. dad Complutense, 2: 205-220. Notwithstanding all of the above, it Amin, Samir must also be acknowledged that WTB’s 1997 “Reflections on the international somewhat extreme or even fundamental- system”. In Golding, Peter and Harris, ist concept of Welshness is not even half Phil (Eds.), Beyond cultural imperial- as aggressive as STB’s Scottishness: ism. Globalization, communication and whereas the former could be seen as a the new international order (pp. 10- form of non-Englishness, the latter is 24). London: Thousand Oaks & New quite openly constructed as a violent, Delhi: SAGE. potentially offensive form of anti- Bhabha, Homi K. Englishness (see Prieto, 2003). 1996 “Culture’s in-between”. In Hall, Stu- Violent or non-violent, both NTOs fail art and du Gay, Paul (Eds.), Questions to give an accurate account of the complex of cultural identity (pp. 53-60). Lon- cultural variety existing in their respec- don, Thousand Oaks & New Delhi: tive nations. According to Renan, two SAGE. principles constitute the soul of a nation. Cockerill, Jon ‘One is the possession in common of a rich 2001 “Re-inventing a domestic holiday legacy of memories; the other is present- business”. Tourism, 109: 4. day consent, the desire to live together Dann, Graham M. S. [...]’ (1994: 19). We have already seen 1996 The language of tourism. A sociolin- plenty of evidence that the first of these guistic perspective. Wallingford: CAB two principles is invariably based on International. largely fictional elements. So why not ECTRC [European Centre for Traditional simply accept the second, even if this and Regional Cultures] implies a somewhat less romantic concept 1988 Study of the social, cultural and of nation? There is no way nations can linguistic impact of tourism in and escape the hybridity inherent to global- upon Wales. Cardiff: WTB. isation (Amin, 1997), but we must also Gramich, Katie take into account that such hybridity has 1997 “Cymru or Wales? Explorations in a not appeared with globalisation. There is Divided Sensibility”. In Bassnett, not and, of course, there has never been, a Susan (Ed.), Studying British cultures: pure nation. If we follow Bhabha (1996), an introduction (pp. 97-112). London & all such units are essentially heterogene- New York: Routledge. ous and it is precisely in their heterogene- Gruffudd, Pyrs ity that their richness lies, which auto- 1997 “Heritage as national identity: his- matically endows each of their compo- tory and prospects of the national

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pasts”. In Herbert, David T. (Ed.), 24/03/2002b [2002] “The gorsedd of Heritage, tourism and society (pp. 49- bards”. 67). London & Herndon (VA): Pinter. http://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/english/h Hall, Stuart istory/gorsedd/html. 1996 “Introduction: who needs ‘Iden- Osmond, John tity’?”. In Hall, Stuart and du Gay, 2001 “Welsh politics in the new millen- Paul (Eds.), Questions of cultural iden- nium”. In Morley, David and Robins, tity (pp. 1-17). London, Thousand Kevin (Eds.), British cultural studies Oaks & New Delhi: SAGE. (pp. 109-125). Oxford: OUP. Halliday, Michael A. K. Prieto Arranz, José Igor 1994 & 1985 An introduction to func- 2003 “Nation, narration & translation. tional grammar (second edition). Lon- The case of STB”. In Gonçalves de don: Edward Arnold. Hobsbawn, Eric and Ranger, Terence Abreu, Maria Zina and de Castro, (eds) Marcelino (Eds.), Estudos de traduç- 1983 The invention of tradition. Cam- ão. Actas de congresso internacional bridge: CUP. (pp. 485-496). Cascais & Funchal: Holcomb, Briavel PRINCIPIA / Universidade da Madei- 1999 “Marketing cities for tourism”. In ra. Judd, Dennis and Fainstein, Susan S. 2004 “‘Unothering’ Wales. Domesticati- (Eds.), The tourist city (pp. 54-70). on as a tourist marketing stra- New Haven & London: Yale UP. tegy”PASOS. Revista de turismo y pa- Keating, Michael trimonio cultural, 2(2): 233-241. 1989 “Regionalism, devolution and the Pritchard, Annette and Morgan, Nigel J. state, 1969-1989”. In Garside, Patricia 2001 “Culture, identity and tourism rep- L. and Hebbert, Michael (Eds.), British resentation: marketing Cymru or regionalism 1900-2000 (pp. 158-172). Wales?”. Tourism Management, 22: London & New York: Mansell. 167-179. Kress, Gunther and Leeuwen, Theo van RAE [Real Academia Española] 1999 [1996] Reading images. The gram- 2001 Diccionario de la lengua española mar of visual design. London & New (21st edition). Madrid: Espasa Calpe. York: Routledge. Renan, Ernest [Thom, Martin trans.] Macdonald, Sharon 1994 “What is a nation?”. In Bhabha, 1997 “A people’s history. Heritage, identity and authenticity”, in Rojek, Chris Homi K. (Ed.), Nation and narration and Urry, John (Eds.), Touring cul- (pp. 8-22). London & New York: tures. Transformations of travel and Routledge. theory (pp. 155-175). London & New Scholte, Jan Aart York: Routledge. 2000 Globalization. A critical introduc- Marr, Andrew tion. Basingtoke & New York: Pal- 2000 The day Britain died. London: Pro- grave. file Books. Seekings, John Morgan, Prys 2001 “Senior Tourism”. Tourism, 108: 10- 1983 “From a death to a view: the hunt 11. for the Welsh past in the romantic pe- Smyth, Gerry riod”. In Hobsbawn, Eric and Ranger, 1997 “Ethnicity and Language”. In Terence (Eds.), The invention of tradi- Storry, Mike and Childs, Peter (Eds.), tion (pp. 43-100). Cambridge: CUP. British cultural identities (pp. 241- Nairn, Tom 276). London & New York: Routledge. 1977 The break-up of Britain. London: Thomas, Colin. J. and Bromley, Rosemary NLB. D. F. NSO [National Eisteddfod Organisation] 2000 “City-centre revitalisation: problems 24/03/2002a [2002] “Introduction”. of fragmentation and fear in the eve- http://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/english/h ning and night-time city”. Urban stud- istory/introduction.html. ies 37(8): 1403-1429.

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WTB [Wales Tourist Board] / BTA [Brit- ish Tourist Authority] Davids in 2002) which combines colourful cere- 1999a Gales. Tierra de belleza natural y mony with competitions in poetry, dance and de leyendas. Cardiff & London: music. Translation facilities are available’ (17). WTB/BTA. 4 We interpret the expression ‘querer decir’ as a 1999b Le Pays de Galles. Terre de nature verbal periphrasis synonymous with, and func- et de légende. Cardiff & London: tionally equivalent to, the identifying relational WTB/BTA. process ‘significar’. 2000 Gales. Tierra de belleza natural y 5 deleyendas. Cardiff & London: It should be noted that the term ‘historia’, as its WTB/BTA. related adjective ‘histórico’ are essentially ambiguous in Spanish. The former, thus, comprises 2001 Wales. Land of nature and legend. the meanings of both ‘history’ and ‘story’ in Cardiff & London:WTB/BTA. English, whereas the latter corresponds to both WTB ‘historic’ and ‘historical’. Needless to say, this 28/02/ 2002a [2001] Vision in action. ambivalence proves essential when it comes to Wales Tourist Board annual report interpreting the text above. 2000-2001. Cardiff: WTB. 6 It is also worth mentioning that this section in http://www.wales-tourist- WTB/BTA 2001 features not only the myth of board.gov.uk/attrachments/130.pdf. Arthur but also other legends. Especially relevant 01/03/2002b [2000] Visitor statistics 1999. is the following extract, which endows the fairly Cardiff: WTB. http://www.wales- recent symbol of the red dragon with the author- tourist- ity of the mists of time: ‘Also in North Wales, board.gov.uk/attachments/21.pdf. Snowdonia’s beautiful Nant Gwynant Valley is said to be the battleground of two dragons, red and white, from which the former, Y Ddraig Goch (the emblem on the Welsh flag), emerged NOTES victorious’ (11).

7 1 In our view, ‘speak’ could be interpreted as The RAE (Real Academia Española) distinguis- both material and verbal. Hence our double hes, among other meanings for ‘sustancia’, the choice of Participant as Sayer and Actor. following two: ‘Ser, esencia o naturaleza de algo’ and ‘Aquello que constituye lo más importante de 2 It could also be argued that this Thematic algo’ (2001: 2114). By choosing this meaning as Equative structure presents a serious syntactic the Role performed by the Goal ‘realidad’, it is flaw in that Spanish in principle requires both clear that the text not only allows for, but also constituents to belong to the same syntactic cate- encourages, a reading according to which the gory. In this particular case, the Marked Theme is factual base of the legend is greater than its fic- a Prepositional Phrase and we should also expect tional components. Quite interestingly, the use of its twin constituent to be one. However, this the word ‘fiction’ as opposed to truth or fact is a th second constituent is not a Prepositional Phrase long-established one and dates back to the 14 but a clear example of nominalisation. It is not Century, at least in the English language (Wil- our aim here to discuss the possible ungrammati- liams 1988: 134). cality of this structure but its effects. In this 8 regard, whether grammatical or not, parallel It, however, changes in WTB/BTA 2001, where constructions can be heard in the media every day the image of Arthur is replaced by an effective to the extent that it might be argued that these visual collage with three main images: a ruined new ‘faulty’ constructions are replacing the ca- castle (Harlech Castle), a wooden sculpture of Y nonical ones. Most readers will therefore accept Ddraig Goch (the dragon on the Welsh flag) and Sp. 4 as a well-formed sentence and, what is most a Celtic cross. important, they will be sensitive to its underlying message.

3 WTB/BTA 2000 updates this information: ‘El próximo Eisteddfod nacional se celebrará en Denbigh en agosto de 2001’ [‘The next national Eisteddfod will be held in Denbigh in August Recibido: 15 de mayo de 2005 2001’]. Similarly, WTB/BTA 2001 states: Aceptado: 3 de noviembre de 2005 ‘Wales’ distinctive culture and heritage are cele- Sometido a evaluación por pares anónimos brated at eisteddfodau, festivals usually held in the Welsh language. The most important is the National Eisteddfod (taking places [sic] at St

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