ÎNFORMATIOIM TO USERS
This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted.
The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction.
1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity.
2. When an im a ^ on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You willa find good image o f the page in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap, if necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete.
4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced.
5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received.
University Microfilms international 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 USA St. John's Road, Tyler’s Green High Wycombe, Bucks, England HP10 8HR 70196OS
GRASHEL, JOHN WILLIAM A COMPARISON OF SEVERAL INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES UTILIZING POPULAR MUSIC IN THE teaching OF MUSICAL FORM TO INTERMEDIATE INSTRUMENTALISTS. THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, PH.D., 1978 A COMPARISON OF SEVERAL INSTRUCTIONAL
STRATEGIES UTILIZING POPULAR MUSIC IN
THE TEACHING OF MUSICAL FORM
TO INTERMEDIATE INSTRUMENTALISTS
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
John William Grashel, B.S., M.A.
The Ohio State University
1978
Reading Committee: Approved By
A. Peter Costanza
Burdette L. Green
David L. Meeker Advisor o' School of Music Copyright by John William Grashel 1978 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his appreciation to the
members of his reading committee: Dr. A. Peter Costanza,
Chairman, Dr. David L. Meeker, and Dr. Burdette L. Green.
Without their guidance, this study would not have been possible.
Appreciation is also expressed to Mr. James L.
Swearingen, Mr. Richard Froton, and the many teachers and students who participated in this study. A special note of thanks is offered to the author's parents, Mr. and Mrs.
Harry W. Grashel, and wife, Mrs. Janice Grashel, whose support and encouragement was essential for the completion of the study. October 17/ 1947 .... Born - Columbus, Ohio
1969 ...... B.S., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1969-1975 ...... Instrumental Music Director, South-Western City Schools, Grove City, Ohio
1973 ...... M.A. , The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1975-1978 ...... Graduate Administrative Associate, School of Music, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Music Education
Studies in Music Education. Professors A. Peter Costanza, David L. Meeker, Jere Forsythe, George Kyme
Studies in Music Theory. Professors Norman Phelps and Burdette L. Green
Studies in Music History. Professor Herbert Livingston TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii
VITA ...... iii
LIST OF T A B L E S ...... vi
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Need for the S t u d y ...... 3 Purpose of the Study ...... 20 Definition of T e r m s ...... 21 Limitations ...... 24
II. REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH ...... 26
Form in Music Education Research ...... 26 Musical Preference as it Relates to Popular Music ...... 29 Studies Utilizing Popular Music in Experimental Programs ...... 33 S u m m a r y ...... 35
III. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES ...... 36
Design of the S t u d y ...... 36 S u b j e c t s ...... 38 Stage I: Statement of objectives and the development of the Form in Music programmed instruction booklet and cassette tape ...... 39 Stage II: Development of the in-class b o o k l e t ...... 44 Stage III: Construction and evaluation of the Form test ...... 45 Stage IV: Implementation and testing of the three teaching strategies ...... 48 Page
IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF D A T A ...... 52
Means, Ranges, and Standard Deviations . . 52 Analysis of Covariance ...... 53 Scheffe Procedure ...... 55 Analysis of Incorrect Responses on the Form Test (Post) ...... 56
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 57
Purpose of the S t u d y ...... 57 Limitations of the S t u d y ...... 58 Design of the S t u d y ...... 59 S u b j e c t s ...... 59 Stage I ...... 59 Stage II ...... 60 Stage I I I ...... 60 Stage I V ...... 61 Data A n a l y s i s ...... 61 R e s u l t s ...... 62 Conclusions ...... 63 Implications of the S t u d y ...... 65 Recommendations for Future Research . . . 65
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 67
APPENDIXES
A. Program and Unit Behavioral Objectives . . . 75
B. Sample Frames — Form in M u s i c ...... 80
C. List of recordings in positions 1-30 of Billboard magazine's "Hot 100" between September 17 and October 29, 1977 ...... 88
D. Sample Units — In-Class Booklets...... 91
E. Form Test — Directions and Sample Questions. 96
F. Schedule of Experimental Groups ...... 102
G. Raw D a t a ...... 105
H. Analysis of Incorrect Responses on the Form Test (Post) ...... 110 LIST OF TABLES
Table
1. Population and Grade Levels of Experimental Groups ...... 38
2. Popular Music Recordings Used for Programmed Instruction Musical E x a m p l e s ...... 42
3. Form Test Results — Pilot Study Subjects ...... 47
4. Paired Observation t Test for Significance Between Means — Form Test Pre — P o s t ...... 48
5. Means, Standard Deviations, and R a n g e s ...... 53
6. Analysis of Covariance on the Posttest of the Form Test with the Pretest as a C o v a r i a t e ...... 54
7. Results of Scheffe Procedure ...... 55
8. Raw Data for the Form T e s t ...... 106
9. Incorrect Responses on Form Test (Post) . . . Ill CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
For many years music educators have been urged to
integrate historical, theoretical, and structural musical
learnings into the performance-oriented curricula that have
dominated music course offerings. Music teachers - espe
cially those responsible for ensemble groups - have re
jected these suggestions, however, citing such factors as
community and administrative pressure for performance em
phasis, lack of planning and rehearsal time, and an hypoth
esized rejection of any non-performance activity by the
students.
As cries for competency based curricula are being
sounded throughout education circles, non-performance musical activities in the ensemble situation are no longer simply attractive appendages, but a potentially necessary component of the performance class. Indeed, Shoup states that, ". . . a competency base for music education should occupy many hours of thought in the months and years ahead.
Can we, and are we willing to subject the product of music 2
education to serious evaluation? From all appearances we
are going to be called upon to do just that.
How then, can these musical competencies be incor
porated into the curriculum of the performance organization
without a subsequent loss of performance quality? Several
important considerations must be taken into account:
1. Only a minimal percentage of the rehearsal
period can be devoted to non-performance
activities.
2. The learnings covered by this activity
should correlate, as much as possible,
with the literature being rehearsed in
the ensemble period.
3. The musical learnings should be appropriate
to the age and skill level of the students.
4. Non-performance activities should be pre
sented to the ensemble members through
challenging and interesting media and
techniques.
This study was an attempt to meet these criteria by
designing a two-week program for intermediate instrumental
ists in basic concepts of musical form. Popular music was
^E. Richard Shoup, "Back to Basics", Triad, Vol. XLV, No. 1 (September-October, 1977), 12. 3
utilized as an introductory agent, while literature being
rehearsed by the ensemble was used as reinforcing material.
Three instructional strategies were developed.
Need for the Study
Recent articles in professional publications, posi
tion papers resulting from MENC-sponsored conferences, and
recommendations in research studies have identified many
troublesome issues facing music educators. Two of the most
challenging are:
1. The need for re-evaluation and innovation
in the performance group curriculum.
2. The place of popular music in the school
music program.
"Performance of music is important and wonderful;
no one doubts this. But performance alone is
not enough.
The implications of this statement have disturbed music educators for many years. Once a concern expressed by a handful of theoreticians, ever-increasing demands placed on the music profession by the advocates of
^Marguerite V. Hood, "Non-Performance Music Classes in Secondary Schools", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 53, No. 5 (May, 1967), 79. accountability and competency-based procedures have ex
panded the problem into one directly affecting all perform
ance group instructors.
Accountability is defined by Von Haden and King as
"the extent to which an individual or institution is will
ing and able to stand behind its work or its product and
to correct a demonstrated or perceived fault.As funding
for education becomes increasingly tenuous, the educator is
thrust into the position of constantly defending and pro
viding a sound rationale to justify the existence of his
specific program. This situation has been especially
alarming to those teachers involved with the arts - many of
whom have too long justified their program on undefinable
aesthetic or social grounds. Behavioral objectives have
been suggested as an effective technique in remedying this
situation.
"Behavioral" or "instructional" objectives are a product of the science-based educational theories forwarded by such behaviorists as Thorndike and Skinner. Deibert and
Harmon, commenting on this movement, stated:
Perhaps the most important part of new treat ment approach for changing behavior is that it is based on sound scientific principles. This is the first time that a treatment system
^Herbert I. Von Haden and Jean Marie King, Innova tions in Education: Their Pros and Cons (Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones Publishing Company, 1971), p. 61. for human problems has been based on experi mentally obtained information rather than on personal speculation or opinion.^
A behavioral objective has the following character-
1. It describes the behavior expected.
2. It describes the behavior in detail.
3. It describes the condition under which
the behavior will be performed.
4. It is a realistic objective for the learner.
5. The behavior can be observed.
6. The quality of the performance can be
evaluated.^
For the instructor of young instrumentalists, be
havioral objectives can become a significant tool in his
approach to the rehearsal situation. Without a valid
understanding of what is to be achieved in the rehearsal,
evaluation is often based on the amount of material covered
rather than by the attainment of specific, previously
defined goals. Mager stated:
4 Alvin N. Deibert and Alice J. Harmon, New Tools for Changing Behavior (Champaign, Illinois: Research Press, 1970), p. 8.
^Sidney J. Drumheller, Teacher's Handbook for a Functional Behavior-Based Curriculum (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, Inc., 1972), p. 19. When clearly defined goals are lacking, it is impossible to evaluate a course or program efficiently, and there is no sound basis for selecting appropriate materials, content, or instructional methods.^
While many traditionalists maintain that the arts,
and specifically music, are not structured to identify its
parts for ordering in a logical learning sequence, the writer feels that attempts must be made toward this goal.
With many school districts turning to the Planning, Pro gramming, Budgeting System (PPbS) as a basis for financing, the music educator is not only requested, but required to show his program's effectiveness in measurable, concise terms. Plowman provides a rationale for behavioral objec tives in art and music:
The need for behavioral or performance objec tives is obvious, as is the fact that we must be precise in stating goals and in determining how to judge whether they have been reached. This is as true in art and music as it is in science and mathematics. We should know what a child is expected to gain from school-sponsored experiences and how he might be expected to change or improve his attitudes, interests, knowledge, and skills.^
“Robert F.. Mager, Preparing Educational Objectives (Belmont, California: Fearon Publishers, 1962), p. 3.
Success Through Student Performance (Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1971), pp. 153-154. 7
Mercer, examining the curricula of typical perform
ance groups, stated, "With a few notable exceptions, band
directors were unable to state what it is they are trying
to accomplish educationally with their students.Croft
concluded that this type of curriculum, "based . . . on the
performance aspects of the art (to the exclusion of its
broader aspects oftentimes) is facing increasing diffi
culties in justifying its existence. In fact, where
budgets are tight, it has sometimes failed to do just that,
and finds itself either severely restricted or out of the
curriculum altogether.
Colwell has observed that accountability procedures
have strengthened music programs, but warns that "...
where music educators have avoided the accountability issue
and hoped it would go away or apply only to regular sub
jects, or have argued that benefits from the study of music
cannot be evaluated, the weaker programs are found.
Regelski argues for accountability in the ensemble
R. Jack Mercer, "Is the Curriculum the Score - or More?", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 58, No. 6 (February, 1972), 52.
^James Edwin Croft, "A Related Arts Approach to the Band", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Oklahoma, 1970), reviewed by Leon Karel, Council for Research in Music Education, Bulletin No. 30 (Fall, 1972), 51-53.
^*^Richard Colwell, editor, "Accountability", Council for Research in Music Education, Bulletin No. 35 (Spring, 1974) , 2. situation through careful evaluation of student behavior.
He comments, "Tempering performance goals to permit the
integration of concepts, listening skills, and useful
musical knowledge into the rehearsal will help make these
classes relevant.
A review of the literature suggests three major
areas of criticism concerning the existing performance
curricula in the public schools:
1. Performance curricula concerned exclusively
with the acquisition of technical skills
fail to provide incentives and experiences
that encourage participation in musical
activities after the student leaves school.
Labuta observed that "... most band members close
their instrument cases after graduation, never to play again. Unfortunately, they have developed few listening skills that would enable them to become enlightened con sumers of music during their adult lives.House noted that purely technical training results in ". . . little depth of musical understanding, keen sense of discrimina tion, or general, spontaneous pursuit of musical activity
Music Educators Journal, Vol. 55, No. 7 (March, 1969), 81.
Joseph A. Labuta, "The Band as a Learning Labora tory" , Music Educators Journal, Vol. 62, No. 5 (January, 1976), 48. 9
upon leaving school that might have been secured.This
inference was substantiated by Easterbrook, who concluded
that failure to develop musical concepts "... may be a
contributing factor to students' discontinuance in music
activities following their formal education years.
Wolfl e , studying the participation in instrumental
music of Cincinnati high school students, discovered that
while over fifty percent of those students had begun in
strumental study, three-fourths of that group had subse
quently discontinued participation. Significantly, such
responses as "loss of interest" and "boring" predominated
the reasons for dropping out of music.
2. The nature of typical performance groups
cause their objectives to be based on per
formance skills and activities rather than
on musical insight and concept development.
l^Robert W. House, "Developing an Educative Setting for Performing Groups", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 53, No. 1 (September, 1966), 55.
l^Carl W. Easterbrook, "Continued Musical Interests of Senior High School Students in AA Accredited High Schools of Nebraska", (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Colorado State College, 1969), Reviewed by Robert F. Noble, Council for Research in Music Education, Bulletin No. 25 (Summer, 1971), 70-73.
^^Ernest E. Wolfle, "Relationships Between Selected Factors and Participation and Non-Participation in Instru mental Music in the Cincinnati Public Schools", (unpub lished dissertation, Indiana University, 1969), Disserta tion Abstracts, XXX (June, 1970), 2565. 10
Whitbeck stated, "Music educators have long been
accused of building little 'performance conservatories' in
the school system. Too often, in too many schools, this
accusation is still true.Garofalo agreed, remarking
that many ensemble programs are inflicted with "performanc-
itis". He further observes that "... most directors have
no clear conception of what a band curriculum is, nor can
they explain what they are trying to accomplish education
ally with their students.
Evans,discovering that non-performance students
enrolled in a music repertoire class scored higher on a
musical understanding test than the performers in the
class, concluded that this result would indicate that per
formance courses, as presently taught, fail to produce
students who gain in their knowledge of musical composi
tions, composers, structures, and styles.
Gibson criticizes program objectives based on per
formance requirements: "Music education, as such, becomes
for Real Education", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 56, No. 8 (April, 1970), 63.
Educators Journal, Vol. 60, No. 3 (November, 1973), 39.
^^Richard Vance Evans, "The Effect of Two Types of Music Courses on the Musical Achievement and Understanding of Senior High School Students", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Oregon, 1970), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXI (July, 1971), 3580. 11
a by-product . . . What the students learn becomes inci
dental to the goal of performance."^^ According to Labuta,
the purpose of the school performing organization is too
often confused with the aims of the professional ensemble -
"The purpose of the professional organization perform
ance; the purpose of the school group is education through
performance.",.20
3. The acquisition of musical concepts is
not a necessary outcome of performance
group membership.
The development of musical concepts, aesthetic
sensitivity and non-technical skills will not occur with
performance group students unless special provisions for
their introduction and nurture are provided as part of the
total learning experience. According to Leonard, ". . .we
must realize that simply participating in the activities of
singing, playing, creating, moving to music, and reading
music does not necessarily lead to a change in the behavior
of the student.Noble suggests that instrumental stu
dents "... rarely learn the reasons behind what they are
l^Josephine R. Gibson, "Music Education Starts At the Wrong End of a One-Way Street", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 58, No. 5 (January, 1972), 60.
p. 51.
^^Charles Leonard, "The Next Ten Years", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 55, No. 1 (September, 1968), 48. 12
doing or how one thing they are learning relates to an
other. The "fragmented, technical trainingwhich
Karel identifies as a frequent outcome of teaching music
solely through instrumental performance - makes for
shallow, uncoordinated learning experiences which leave the
teacher with only minimal control over any attempt to teach
even the most basic musical concepts.
O a k l e y , i n v e s t i g a t i n g the residual attainment in
music based on the objectives of school music curriculum
guides, discovered that band students had achieved little
more knowledge than the general students - even concerning
forms, terms, style, and notational skills.
Thomson^^ reported that the band curricula in
Michigan high schools were deficient in the teaching of
theory, literature, and style during the rehearsal. He
22Robert F. Noble, "How Much Understanding Do Your Band Students Have?", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 56, NO. 8 (April, 1970), 42.
23Leon C. Karel, "The Musical Assembly Line", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 55, No. 5 (January, 1959), 83.
2^David Lamar Oakley, "The Cumulative Attainment by Missouri High School Seniors of the Musical Learnings Stated in the Music Curriculum Guides Published by the Missouri State Department of Education", (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1972), Disserta tion Abstracts, XXXIII (January, 1973), 352.
25James D. Thomson, "A Model Band Curriculum: Its Development and Implications for Michigan Schools", (un published doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1971), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (May, 1972), 2735. 13
recommended that the band's musicianship should be de
veloped with the addition of formal, stylistic, and
historical training.
These criticisms of the performance-based approach
to music learning suggest that alternate approaches and
curricula should be developed within the structure of the
performance group. Indeed, the "Goals and Objectives for
Music Education" project sponsored by the MENC challenge
the music education profession to, "Assume leadership in
the application of significant new developments in curric ulum, teaching-learning techniques and technology, instruc tional and staffing patterns, evaluation, and related topics, to every area and level of music teaching.
While many published materials demonstrating these reforms have been made available to the elementary special ist, a paucity of literature describing novel approaches for the teaching of broad concepts in the performance class is evident. Noble's criticism - that instrumental classes "have not changed significantly in the past fifty years"- is, unfortunately, all too often justified.
Programmed instruction is one technique whose value in teaching many kinds of musical concepts is obvious.
Francis Andrews, Chairman, "Goals and Objectives for Music Education", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 57, No. 4 (December, 1970), 25. 14
Research utilizing programming has encompassed the gamut of
musical learnings from clarinet fingerings to score read
ing. Importantly, programming and behavioral objectives
have been paired since the inception of programmed instruc
tion. Indeed, effective and valid programming cannot exist
unless those specific desired behavioral outcomes are
determined and categorized into a learning sequence. Trow
contends :
Behavioral objectives should have first priority in the development of educational technology. Without them, all else is meaningless - curriculum, methods, media evaluations, and administrative procedures. The chief contribution of programming may very well turn out to be the emphasis it gave, and still gives, to this neglected phase of the instructional p r o c e s s . 28
The characteristics of programmed instruction point out its close relationship to behavioral objectives:
1. The material to be learned should be presented in a logical series of steps.
2. Material to be learned should be pre sented in the form of numerous, small, logical and graduated steps (or frames) leading from the unknown to the known.
3. A response (written or unwritten) should be elicited from the student to each (or at least most) of the frames.
William Clark Trow, Paths to Educational Reform (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 1971), p. 131. 4. The student should be immediately in formed (feedback) of the accuracy or inaccuracy of his response to each question.
5. A hope-for corollary of the response the student makes is that active stu dent involvement is insured in a manner not possible in a lecture approach or any unindividualized approach.
6. The self-instructional nature of pro grammed materials should permit the student to determine or follow his own learning pace.29
Riemer, speculating on the future of music educa
tion, has stated that the success of the performance group
"... will no longer be entirely a function of performance
skill, but will also depend on what is known about its
educational effectiveness."^® Wersen identified the
teacher's role as one that "transcends the mere technical
training of his students, and encompasses the development
of their inner musicality.It is the goal of this study
to contribute towards making these statements a reality.
Robert J. Hutcheson, "Programmed Instruction and Music Education", Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education (Autumn, 1967), 11-14.
^®Bennett Riemer, "Patterns for the Future", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 63, No. 4 (December, 1976), 25.
"New Directions for Music Education". Music Educators Journal, Vol. 54, No. 7 (March, 1968), 71. 16
If musical concepts should be taught in the perform
ance class as an adjunct to mere technical training, suit
able musical sources for the development of these concepts
must be found. While many types of music may be deemed
appropriate for this function, popular music can provide
the nucleus for the task.
Although popular music was the focus of a spirited
debate in music education circles throughout the 1960's,
recent developments indicate that this phenomenon has been
accepted, if somewhat grudgingly, by the profession. In
deed, the "Implications for the Music Curriculum" committee
of the Tanglewood Symposium stated:
We recommend that teachers be encouraged to experiment with and utilize many types of music in their instructional activities. The fulcrum of the repertoire should be shifted to include more of the many vari eties of contemporary popular and serious music as well as music of other cultures.
McAllester, speaking at that landmark conference, advocated the use of popular music in the school curric-
We can include it in the recognized canon of music along with our great classics and
Karl D. Ernst, Chairman, "Implications for the Music Curriculum", Robert Choate, Editor, Music in American Society, Documentary Report of the Tanglewood Symposium (Washington, D. C .: Music Educators National Conference, 1968), p. 136. world music, and contemporary art music. This is a very telling way to show our young people that we are concerned with the things that matter to them in this world. We can include this music, along with others, in the classroom.
Other writers have further advanced the push for the
inclusion of popular music in the school music program.
According to Roach, "In determining the worth of subject
content, the teacher should be guided by the best repre
sentative art works of all types and styles of music creation. In the past, the model frequently has been fine art music, but much folk and popular music should also be included in the school curriculum.Funes states that popular music should be utilized since "... some of this
'youth music' is aesthetically worthy.Cahn argues that today's music educator should "... participate in some way in the social structure of the current movement, and he must help us to understand the basic elements of that struggle as man experiences them in his art forms, includ ing the newly emerging, imperfectly developed o n e s . T h e
^^David P. McAllester, "The Substance of Things Hoped For", Robert Choate, Editor, Ibid., p. 99.
^^Donald W. Roach, "Contemporary Music Education: A Comprehensive Outlook", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 60, No. 1 (September, 1973), 38-39.
^^Donald J. Funes, "Expand! Expand!", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 60, No. 2 (October, 1973), 55.
36Meyer E. Cahn, "Bach is Not Enough", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 60, No. 3 (November, 1973), 65. 18
importance of popular music in everyday life is emphasized
by Duerksen. He states, "Taking these musics into account
should help extend the usefulness of music education.
Most importantly, says Riemer, music educators should
realize that . . n o single 'establishment' music style
can be identified as 'the good kind of music' all children
must study.Acceptable examples of popular music can be
utilized in conjunction with many other types of music in
the classroom:
Not that Pop music should be an end in itself, any more than jazz or Tchaikovsky, Dunstable or light operetta should be. Its usefulness lies in the fact that, with knowledge, thought and sensitivity on the part of the teacher, it provides the means of linking the children's own lively musical experience with the mainstream of Tnnsi C.39
The use of popular music as a vehicle for teaching musical concepts has been advocated by several educators.
Even Stuart Smith, a vocal critic of rock music, concedes,
"Rock's educational utility is probably limited . . . to an
^^George L. Duerksen, "The Thermos Bottle Knows When to Teach", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 63, No. 4 (December, 1976), 60-61.
^^Michael Burnett, "The Case for Cool Music Teach ing", Music in Education, Vol. 33, No. 339 (September/ October, 1968), 249. 19
introductory, point-of-departure function (basic theory,
elementary formal concepts and so forth)."^0 The Contem
porary Music Project, however, demonstrated that all types
of music contain basic elements that provide common
principles for the study of any other musical style. Funes
relates the similarities in two diverse compositions :
Structurally, . . . 'Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds' by the Beatles and the 'Pastoral' symphony are very much alike. Each, in its own way, develops certain structural expectations, setting the listener up by establishing an obvious pattern of repetition, and then - bang - the pattern is broken. We can react to both pieces in the same way, even though we know the surprise is coming. This occurrence is not rare in the world of music - the more we concentrate on funda mental processes in a composition, the more we will discover, in diverse musics, elements that unite them rather than separate them.
Despite many pleas to use popular music in music
education, little concrete progress has occurred in suc
cessfully assimilating this music into the curriculum.
Bennett remarked:
The call to meet today's students on their own musical ground has been sounded many times, but the offerings
^Ogtuart Smith, "Too Much Music!", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 59, No. 4 (December, 1972), 22.
'^^Funes, op. cit. , p. 55. of specific proposals for doing^this has lagged considerably behind.
Based on these writings, it appears that changes in
the performance group curriculum and the appropriate
utilization of popular music in the classroom require
innovative programs and teaching strategies.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was the development of a
behaviorally stated introductory program in musical form to be used in conjunction with the traditional middle school band rehearsal. Three strategies - in-class instruction, programmed instruction, and a combination of in-class and programmed instruction - were utilized as devices to teach concepts of form. All strategies employed the same se quence of instruction and musical examples. Popular music was used as introductory material in all strategies.
The study attempted to answer the following ques-
1. Can concepts of musical form be understood by
intermediate band students if special provisions
are made for their inclusion as part of the
ensemble's course of study?
^^Michael E. Bennett, "Make the Top 40 Work for You", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 61, No. 5 (January, 1975), 33. 21
2. Will intermediate instrumentalists participating
in a band program that includes instruction in
concepts of musical form by utilizing popular
music as an introductory device in conjunction
with appropriate band literature be able to
learn these concepts and apply them to un
familiar band literature?
3. Will groups receiving programmed instruction as
a supplement to in-class instruction in concepts
of musical form achieve an understanding of
these concepts better than groups receiving only
classroom instruction?
4. Will groups receiving only programmed instruc
tion achieve an understanding of those concepts
significantly better than groups receiving only
classroom instruction?
5. Will grade level have a significant effect on
the attainment of those concepts?
Definition of Terms
For the purposes of this study, the following defi nitions were employed : 22
Behavioral objectives - "Statements which describe
what students will be able to do after completing
a prescribed unit of instruction."„43
Programmed instruction - "An instructional procedure
that makes use of the systematic presentation of
information in small steps (frames), usually in the
form of a textbook . . . Programs . . . require
the learner to make responses and provide him with
immediate knowledge of results."„44
Popular music - music appearing on Billboard maga
zine 's "Hot 100" national survey from September 17,
1977, through October 29, 1977.
Form in Music : Programmed Instruction - a programmed
instruction package including a booklet consisting
of 81 frames with accompanying cassette tape divided
into seven units, concerned with the development of
concepts of musical form.
Robert J. Kibler, Behavioral Objectives and Instruction (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1970), p. 1.
"^^Guy R. Lefrancois, Psychology for Teaching (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1975), p. 360. 23
Form Test - a 35 item multiple-choice criterion
measure devised specifically for this study consist
ing of 25 informational and 10 listening questions.
In-Class Instruction - an instructional strategy,
based on the Form in Music: Programmed Instruction
program, developed for use by the band director in
the rehearsal period.
The following terms concerning musical form were
used as definitions for the programmed instruction and
in-class instructional programs. Several texts were con
sulted for this task.
Form - the term given to the organization of music.
Beat - a regular, rhythmic pulsation.
Lessons in Music Form (Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania: Oliver Ditson Company, 1904), pp. 1-38, 69-74, 83-95; Jere T. Hutcheson, Musical Form and Analysis, Volume ^ (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1972), pp. 1-41, 104-293; Elias B. Kohs, Musical Form (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1976), pp. 1-46, 55-72, 99-110; Hugo Leichtentritt, Musical Form (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1951), pp. 3-25, 95-97 ; Roland Nadeau and William Tesson, Form in Music: Process and Procedure (Boston: Crescendo Publishing Company, 1968), pp. 46-59, 62-63; Leon Stein, Anthology of Musical Forms (Evanston, Illinois : Summy-Birchard Company, 1962), pp. 5-13, 51-55; Leon Stein, Structure and Style (Evanston, Illinois: Summy-Birchard Company, 1962), pp. 3-74, 92-99; William Thomson, Introduc tion to Music As Structure (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company), pp. 8-9, 40-44, 50-53, 64-70, 73-79, 102-105; Charles W. Walton, Basic Forms in Music (New York: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc., 1974), pp. 1-29, 122-134. 24
Meter - arrangement of accented and unaccented beats.
Duple Meter - beats arranged in an accented- unaccented pattern.
Triple Meter - beats arranged in an accented- unaccented-unaccented pattern.
Motive - a short melodic fragment.
Phrase - an independent melodic unit formed by joining together two motives.
Cadence - a point of rest in the music.
Sentence - structure formed by joining together two phrases.
Section - another term for "sentence" when it makes up the entire structure of a piece of music.
One-Part Form - form using the section (sentence) as its basic structure symbolized by the letter "A".
Binary Form - form consisting of two sections symbolized by the letters "A B".
Ternary Form - form consisting of three sections symbolized by the letters "A B A " .
Theme and Variations Form - form consisting of a statement of the theme followed by several variations of this theme.
Limitations
This study did not attempt to measure either:
1. the amount of literature covered in rehearsals
during the two-week instructional program; or
2. the level of performance achieved during the
instructional program. 25
Research studies by Coleman,Linton,Gebhardt,'^®
and Zorn'^^ have indicated that non-performance musical
learnings can be incorporated into the rehearsal without a
lowering of performance standards. Benner cautioned, how
ever, that "performing group participation has little
effect on musical behavior other than the acquisition of
performance skills, unless there is a planned effort by
the teacher to enrich the performing experience with addi
tional kinds of musical understanding.
^°E. L. Coleman, "Some Effects of Teaching Musical Knowledge in a Performance Class", (unpublished master's thesis. University of Kansas, 1966).
^Stanley Linton, The Development of a Planned Program for Teaching Musicianship in the High School Choral Class (Washington, D. C . , U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare: Office of Education, USOE Research Project No. 6-8220).
Evaluation of an Integrated Plan of Study Providing for Increased Musical Perception and Skills by Students in the Junior High School Band", (unpublished doctoral disserta tion, Indiana University, 1973), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXIV (July, 1974), 4312.
Jay Daniel Zorn, "The Effectiveness of Chamber Music Ensemble Experience for Members of a Ninth Grade Band in Learning Certain Aspects of Music and Musical Experi ence", (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1969) .
^^Charles H. Benner, "Teaching Performance Groups", From Research to the Classroom No. 2 (Washington, D. C . : MENC, 1972), 10. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH
The development and effectiveness of programmed in
struction techniques in music teaching have been well docu
mented and disseminated throughout the music education
profession. Monographs by Hutcheson,^ and Deihl and
Partchey^ have summarized the significant research in this
medium. For this reason, this review of related research
will focus on three areas :
1. Form in music education research.
2. Musical preference as it relates to popular
3. Studies utilizing popular music in experimental programs.
Form in Music Education Research
Several research studies have included the develop ment of formal concepts in the organization of their experimental programs.
Ned C. Deihl and Kenneth C. Partchey, "Status of Research: Educational Technology in Music Education", Council for Research in Music Education, Bulletin No. 35 (Winter, 1973), 27
Neidinger^ developed a listening program for third
and fourth grade students to aid in their perception and
conceptualization of various musical elements, including
time and simultaneity. The experimental group utilized
peg-boards to enable them to externalize these concepts.
No significant differences as to concept attainment between
the experimental group and a traditionally instructed control group were indicated.
Masden^ included units on structural analysis in his method for intermediate bands concerning the introduction of contemporary musical idioms and techniques.
Smith^ tested for the ability of beginning seventh grade band members to determine the formal point where a prematurely ended minuet or sonata - allegro movement was terminated. The experimental group, equipped with lighting devices through which the instructor could give positive or
^Robert J. Neidinger, "A Study in Teaching Musical Style and Form to Elementary School Children Through the Perception of Musical Dimensions", (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Washington University, 1967), Dissertation Abstracts, XXVIII (March, 1968), 4201.
^Dean Masden, "Introducing Contemporary Musical Idioms to Junior High School Band Students", (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Utah State University, 1969, Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (March, 1972), 1553.
^Alan Arthur Smith, "Continuous Aural Awareness of Musical Form: An Investigation of its Cognitive Value as a Listening Skill and a Comparative Study of Two Methods of Instruction", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Oregon, 1971), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (March, 1972), 1557. 28
negative reinforcement from their responses, failed to
achieve significantly better than students receiving
traditional instruction.
Hagen® developed a prograiraned, self-instructional
procedure for teaching form to high school musicians. He
concluded that this instructional technique was as success
ful as traditional, grade-motivated, and interest-motivated
approaches in teaching formal concepts.
A direct-read digital clock that provided students
with a reference concerning the occurrence of musical
events was utilized by Nelson^ to teach form to seventh
grade general music students. This chronometric technique
enabled students to achieve a better synthesis of formal
concepts than those taught traditionally. Members of the
experimental group were also more aware of musical events
that were not specified on the class worksheets.
^Dennis Bert Hagen, "An Experimental Study of Teaching Musical Form to High School Choral and Instru mental Performers Through a Self-Instructional Method of Learning", (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1973), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXIV (December, 1974), 7807.
^Gerald Owen Nelson, "A Chronometric Approach to the Study of Form in Seventh Grade General Music Classes", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. The University of Minnesota, 1973), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXIV (February, 1974), 811. 29
Rouintree^ constructed a theoretical model of
sequential study of musical concepts, including form, pre
sented in a Bruner-like progressive spiral.
An experimental choral rehearsal method - based on
a musical learnings approach, including formal concepts -
was developed by Hedberg® to determine if attitudes,
achievement, and performance levels would be different from
those attained in a traditional rehearsal setting. He con
cluded that both approaches were effective, but noted
trends which seemed to favor the experimental model.
Musical Preference as it Relates to Popular Music
The majority of studies dealing with popular music
(or its often used euphemism, "youth music") have been
concerned with preference, usually with a sociological
emphasis.
^James Paul Rouintree, "A Theoretical Position for the Development of Musical Learning Experiences for Bands", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Illinois, 1975) Dissertation Abstracts, XXXVI (September, 1976), 5906.
^Floyd Hedberg, "Experimental Investigation of Two Choral Rehearsal Methods: Their Effect on Music Attitude, Music Discrimination, Music Achievement and Music Perform ance", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Northern Colorado, 1975), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXVI (November, 1976), 7263. 30
Inglefield^® proposed to investigate the role of
conformity behaviors in influencing the musical preferences
of adolescents. Utilizing examples of jazz, folk, rock,
and classical music, Inglefield concluded that all subjects
exhibited conforming behaviors regardless of their person
ality type, the peer group leader by which they were in
fluenced, or the type of music presented.
Booker^l determined that disc jockeys are very in
fluential - concerning both personal and musical prefer
ences - on teenagers. The Florida high school students
surveyed, listened an average of nineteen hours weekly to
disc jockey programs, identified "top 40" music as their
preferred music, and had a favorable opinion of disc
jockeys by an overwhelming (89.6%) majority. Music
teachers questioned felt that disc jockeys were more in
fluential, albeit in a negative manner, than themselves.
"The Relationship of Selected Personality Variables to Conformity Behavior Reflected in the Musical Preferences of Adolescents When Exposed to Peer Group Leader Influences", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Ohio State University, 1968), Dissertation Abstracts, XXIX (September, 1969), 3170.
^^George A. Booker, "The Disc Jockey and His Impact on Teenage Musical Taste", (unpublished doctoral disserta tion, The Florida State University, 1968), Dissertation Abstracts, XXX (July, 1970), 3038. 31
Appleton,comparing the musical preferences of
black and white college students, concluded that while
blacks expressed greater ethnically-oriented preferences
than whites, both groups responded in a very stable manner
within the group. Among examples of black and white rock,
folk, and popular musical styles, blacks preferred soul,
jazz, and black gospel, while whites preferred rock music.
Meadowsattempted to provide the music teacher
with a knowledge of musical preferences as they relate to
certain variables. He concluded that these preferences
were significantly influenced by socioeconomic status,
race, musical experience, school level, and geographical
location.
Johnson^^ contended that radio programmers select
recordings by record sales, personal taste, and an in
tuition of audience perference - data which he determined
was subjective or irrelevant. After administering a
^^Clyde Robert Appleton, "The Comparative Prefer ential Response of Black and White College Students to Black and White Folk and Popular Musical Styles", (unpub lished doctoral dissertation. New York University, 1970), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (May, 1972), 2723.
l^Eddie Spencer Meadows, "The Relationship of Music Preference to Certain Cultural Determiners", (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXI (November, 1971), 6100.
l^joseph S. Johnson, "Radio Music - The Gatekeepers" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State Univers ity, 1970), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXI (November, 1971), 6086. 32
preference test to 609 adults, Johnson reported that top
selling rock and country-western music were the least pre
ferred. It should be noted, however, that no adolescents
participated in this study.
The conclusions of this research tend to mirror
those forwarded by Farnsworth,Mueller and Hevner,!^ and many others. Lundin summarized this research:
Thus, there tends to be a great similarity in musical taste due to cultural condition ing. There is no evidence that taste is an inherent function of the organism or due to any necessary natural property of the musical stimuli. Musical taste tends to be a fairly stable kind of response; we tend to agree as a group on what composers and music we like, but our taste may often be an individual matter and subject to change from time to time.
Preference research has historically attempted to link musical taste with several factors, including musical experience, repetition, personality type, age, I.Q., con ditioning, or a mixture of these elements. Benner synthe sized several pertinent findings from the recent research:
^^Paul R. Farnsworth, Musical Taste : Its Measurement and Cultural Nature (Stanford, California; Stanford Uni versity Publications, 1942).
H. Mueller and Kate Hevner, Trends in Musical Taste, Humanity Series No. 8_ (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Publications, 1942).
(New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1967), pp. 181-182. 1. Out-of-school influences are more dominant in molding the musical tastes of the general student population than are in-school experi-
2. Regardless of kind and extent of musical experience, teenagers show a predominant interest in the popular music of their time.18
Since, according to Farnsworth,1^ taste can influ ence, positively or negatively, the motivational level of individuals toward selective behavior, the implications of research in musical preference seem extremely relevant for the public school music educator.
Studies Utilizing Popular Music in Experimental Programs
A minimal number of research studies have utilized popular music as part of an experimental program.
H a y n e s developed an interdisciplinary course for the development of musicality in seventh grade general music students. He recommended that more use of popular music would be appropriate and useful in this type of program.
^^Paul R. Farnsworth, "The Phenomenon of Musical Taste", Psychology Today, Vol. 1 (August, 1967).
Thomas Stanley Haynes, "The Value of an Inter disciplinary Course in Developing Musicality in the Junior High School", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of California at Berkeley, 1970), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (November, 1972), 6477. 34
Hiscott^^ - determining that opinion supported the
use of contemporary youth music and, thus, music educators
should know about it - authored a course of study for music
educators. Using six rock styles to discuss pitch, timbre,
duration, loudness, form, and cultural representation,
Hiscott concluded that the teacher's knowledge and atti
tudes relative to rock as legitimate material for instruc
tional purposes were significantly improved.
Helfrich22 utilized background rock music as an
adjunct to remedial reading classes.
R o g e r s 23 attempted to teach the Contemporary Music
Project's "common elements" approach through popular music
in junior high general music classes. She concluded that there were no significant differences in concept attainment between groups taught with only contemporary popular music, only traditional music, or by a combination of the two.
^Gilbert Edgar Hiscott, "The Effect of a Programmed Course of Instruction on Music Educator's Knowledge Of and Attitudes Toward the Use of Contemporary Youth Music", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Pennsylvania State University, 1971), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (November, 1972), 6477.
^^David Charles Helfrich, "The Effect of Rock Music, Controlled for Tempo and Volume, on Disabled Readers in Remedial Reading Classes", (unpublished doctoral disserta tion, University of Georgia, 1973), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXIV (June, 1974), 3024.
23]y[onica Rogers, 'Teaching Comprehensive Musician ship Through Youth Music at the Junior High School Level", (unpublished doctoral dissertation. Northwestern University, 1975), Dissertation Abstracts, XXXVI (November, 1976), 7267. 35
Summary
While several studies have incorporated the develop ment of concepts of musical form in instructional programs,
they have characteristically centered on the aural recogni tion of musical events. Research studies utilizing popular music have generally investigated the sociological aspects of the music or utilized it as a device to teach musical elements. Thus, this study was an attempt to integrate the findings of those studies into viable strategies for the teaching of musical form to intermediate instrumentalists. CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES
This study was concerned with the development of
several instructional strategies to teach concepts of
musical form to intermediate instrumentalists through the
utilization of popular music and supplementary band litera
ture. In this chapter the design of the study, the de
velopment of the Form in Music programmed instruction
package (booklet and cassette tape), the procedures used
to determine the effectiveness of this package, the de
velopment of the in-class program, the construction of the
Form test, and an overview of the materials and techniques utilized in each treatment group were discussed.
Design of the Study
Three instructional strategies - a traditional "in- class" approach, a programmed instruction package, and a combination of the in-class and programmed techniques - were developed for use with middle school bands. All strategies shared the same set of objectives and used the same musical examples. All instructional strategies were structured to encompass a two-week period, using a minimum
36 37
amount of the band rehearsal class. A fourth "control"
group was given no instruction in musical form. The four
treatments were randomly assigned to the experimental
groups.
A pre and post test were administered to all groups before and after the instructional program to determine differences in the pre and post test results for each group and between the three instructional strategies.
The study was designed in the following stages:
Stage In this initial stage, behavioral
objectives were stated, band literature to
be used as rehearsal and supplementary
material was selected, the Form in Music
programmed instruction package was designed,
appropriate popular music examples were
selected and incorporated into the package,
and the package was pilot tested and revised
with four separate subjects.
Stage II. Stage II was concerned with the
development of the in-class booklet.
Stage III. This stage was centered on the
construction of the Form test and its evalua
tion with a twelve subject pilot experimental stage IV. The final stage consisted of the
actual implementation and testing of the
several instructional strategies with four
separate middle school bands.
Subjects
One hundred sixty-eight students enrolled in the
bands of four middle schools in a suburban district near
Columbus, Ohio, were utilized as subjects. These four
schools were judged by the writer and his advisor as being
similar concerning socioeconomic, scheduling, and perform
ance factors. The total population and grade dispersment of the four treatment groups is found in Table 1.
Table 1. Population and Grade Levels of Experimental Groups
Population 7th 8th Grade Grade
A (Control) 45 21 24
B (In-Class) 42 17 25
C (Programmed Instruction) 42 19 23
D (In-Class and Programmed Instruction) 39 17 22
All subjects completed the instructional program assigned to their group and took both the pre and post tests. 39
Sixteen middle school band students from two other
suburban districts near Columbus were used as subjects in
the pilot studies. Four individual subjects were used in
the initial evaluation of the programmed instruction
package. A group of twelve subjects was utilized in the
evaluation of the Form test.
Stage I: Statement of objectives and the development of the Form in Music programmed instruction booklet and cassette tape.
The initial step was to outline the basic topics
necessary for inclusion in an instructional program dealing
with musical form. These topics included beat, meter,
measure, motive, phrase, cadence, sentence, section, one-
part form, binary form, ternary form, and theme and varia
tions form. These terms divided logically into six units.
Behavioral objectives for the program and for each unit
were stated (see Appendix A),
The Form in Music programmed instruction package
(booklet and cassette tape) was developed between May and
December, 1977. This eight month period included the
assembling, pilot testing, revision, and duplication of
the package.
Selection of Band Literature. After an exhaustive
survey of the Ohio Music Educators Association's 1977
Junior High/Middle School Band Contest List, two 40
compositions - "Variations on a Folk Song" (Kabelevsky, arranged by Dick Thomas) and "Variation Overture" (Clifton
Williams) were selected for use as rehearsal and supple mentary material. These compositions included excellent examples of the topics outlined in the behavioral objec tives and provided superior rehearsal material for the middle school bands.
Development of the Form in Music Programmed Instruc tion Booklet and Selection of Popular Music Examples.
After a division of the behavioral objectives into six units was performed, the process of constructing and se quencing frames in a logical and effective order was begun.
After many revisions and informal evaluative procedures with the writer's advisor and several graduate students, a
67 frame booklet was devised. An eleven frame introductory unit, providing information concerning the operation of the cassette player and the format of programmed instruction, was then added. Subsequent pilot studies and revisions resulted in a final edition of 81 frames. Appendix B pro vides a sample frame from each unit.
Popular music to be utilized as material for the musical examples in the programmed instruction booklet was selected by consulting Billboard magazine's "Hot 100" chart of nationally popular recordings for a seven week period from September 17 through October 29, 1977. From these 41
seven weekly surveys, 51 songs were determined to have
achieved a position of one to thirty (these recordings are
listed in Appendix C). Twenty-five recordings were ran
domly selected from this list (see Table 2). These re
cordings were used as potential material for the programmed
instruction musical examples.
A pair of experts^ listened with the writer to these
recordings to determine the components of musical form
present. Appropriate excerpts were then notated and/or
recorded on a reel-to-reel tape for inclusion into the
frame(s) illustrating that concept. The recorded excerpts
were then sequenced to conform with the order of their
appearance in the programmed instruction booklet.
The frames were submitted to several pilot studies
to determine their effectiveness and the adequacy of the
taped excerpts.
First pilot study. A seventh grader was chosen to participate in the first pilot study. In this and in subsequent pilot studies, the writer operated the tape- recorder and made notes concerning incorrect responses and possible sequencing problems. Troublesome frames were also discussed with the subject in order to determine possible corrections and/or deletions.
1James L. Swearingen and W. Robert Leonard, graduate students at The Ohio State University. Table 2. Popular Music Recordings Used for Programmed Instruction Musical Examples
Title Group or artist
1. I Just Want to be Your Andy Gibb Everything 2. You Light Up My Life Debby Boone 3. Handy Man James Taylor 4. How Deep Is Your Love Bee Gees 5. The King Is Gone Ronnie McDowell 6. Don't Stop Fleetwood Mac 7. Nobody Does It Better Carly Simon 8. Cold as Ice Foreigner 9. Keep It Comin' Love K. C. and the Sunshine Boys 10. Jungle Love Steve Miller Band 11. Surfin' USA Leif Garrett 12. Daytime Friends Kenny Rogers 13. It Was Almost Like A Song Ronnie Milsap 14. Don't Worry Baby B. J. Thomas 15. We're All Alone Rita Coolidge 16. Easy Commodores 17. Brickhouse Commodores 18. We Just Disagree Dave Mason 19. Star Wars - Main Title London Symphony 20. Best of My Love Emotions 21. Smoke From a Distant Fire Sanford-Townsend
22. Baby, What a Big Surprise Chicago 23. Barracuda Heart 24. How Much Love Leo Sayer 25. Hard Rock Cafe Carole King 43
The program was completed in two hours and 15
minutes. Eight frames were in need of revision or re
sequencing. These changes were made for the second pilot
study.
Second pilot study. An eighth grade student was
administered the revised program. The frames were completed in one hour and 55 minutes. The subject's re sponses indicated a need for revision in seven of the frames. In two of these frames notational errors were detected. Before the next pilot study, these several revisions were completed.
Third pilot study. The second revision of the pro gram was administered to an eighth grade subject. The frames were completed in two hours. Three frames were in need of revision, while two frames showed a need for re sequencing.
Fourth pilot study. The final pilot study, per formed with a seventh grader, indicated only two problem frames. These were corrected immediately to the satis faction of both subject and experimenter. The program was completed in two hours and ten minutes. Evaluation of the pilot studies. The four pilot
studies were analyzed and following results were indicated:
1. Programmed instruction using popular
music and band literature excerpts was
effective in teaching concepts of
musical form.
2. The subjects indicated that the frames
were interesting and that programmed
instruction was an effective method in
learning this unfamiliar material.
3. The taped excerpts were excellent repro
ductions of the original recordings.
Reproduction of the Form in Music booklet and
cassette. The Form in Music booklet was duplicated by the
Ohio State University Copy Center and assembled by the writer. The cassettes were recorded by the Ohio State
University Recording Studio from a master reel-to-reel
Scotch magnetic tape (7 1/2 I.P.S.) recorded at the Hughes
Hall Recording Studio.
Stage II: Development of the in-class booklet
The in-class booklet was developed to teach concepts of musical form in the band rehearsal period. The nine page booklet was based on the same behavioral objectives and musical examples as the programmed instruction package. 45
Each of the six units included a statement of
topics, behavioral objectives, an outline of the concepts
(with definitions) to be discussed, and musical excerpts
illustrating these concepts (two sample units are found in
Appendix D). The booklets were duplicated at the Ohio
State University Copy Center.
The musical excerpts necessary for the in-class pro
gram were recorded on Scotch magnetic tape (7 1/2 I.P.S.)
in the. Hughes Recording Studio.
Stage III: Construction and evaluation of the Form test
A criterion test was developed by the author to
measure the experimental subject's acquisition of concepts
of musical form. The test was designed for use as a
pre/post instrument in determining the effectiveness of the
several instructional strategies. While the musical
excerpts used were representative of those found in the programmed instruction package and the in-class booklets, all test excerpts were taken from music found in the Ohio
Music Educators Association's Junior High/Middle School
1977 Band Contest List (A, B, and C classifications).
The Form test was designed with the objectives of the several instructional strategies as a guide, giving the instrument face validity. Content validity was established 46
by a consensus of three experts^ - all familiar with the
instructional programs - that the Form measure tested the
objectives of those programs.
The Form test included a total of 35 multiple choice
items measuring all facets of the programs in a random
order. Twenty-five questions were informational and 10
questions asked for responses based on recorded excerpts.
These excerpts were recorded by the Grove City, Ohio, High
School Symphonic Band under the supervision of the writer.
All test directions were printed on the test booklet and read aurally by the writer on tape.
The band directors of the experimental schools administered the Form test. Subjects were given 12 minutes to complete the first 25 (informational) questions. The final 10 questions were tape recorded, with each musical excerpt played twice. This section also took twelve minutes to complete. At the conclusion of the final question all answer sheets and test booklets were col lected. The Form test directions and ten randomly selected questions are found in Appendix E.
After the test was constructed, it was administered to a group of twelve middle school band students. The
^Dr. A. Peter Costanza, The Ohio State University School of Music, Jack N. Liles and Jeffrey C. Keller, graduate students at The Ohio State University. 47
subjects were then instructed to complete the Form in Music
package within ten days. At that time the test was re
administered. Table 3 records the results.
Table 3. Form Test Results — Pilot Study Subjects
Subject Pre-Test Post-Test
1 14 33
2 17 32
3 13 30
4 9 31
5 22 33
6 15 31
7 22 33
8 13 32
9 13 25
10 14 28
11 14 34
12 12 28
A paired observation t Test for significance between the means was computed. The results of this procedure appear in Table 4. Table 4. Paired Observation t Test for Significance Between Means - - Form Test Pre — Post
Mean Standard Mean t P Deviation Difference
Test (Pre) 14.83 3.67
16.0 4.2808 .001
Form Test (Post) 30.83 2.55
A t value with eleven degrees of freedom must be
4.025 to be significant at the .001 level. The obtained
t value (4.2808) was significant beyond the .001 level.
This result indicated that the programmed instruction package was successful in teaching concepts of musical form and that the Form test was effectively measuring this learning.
The Form test booklets and answer sheets were dupli cated at the Ohio State University Copy Center. Copies of the recorded portion of the test were made on Scotch mag netic tape (7 1/2 I.P.S.) in the Hughes Hall Recording
Studio.
Stage IV: Implementation and testing of the three teaching strategies
After the development of the Form in Music programmed instruction package, the in-class booklet and instructional tape, and the Form test, the several instructional 49
strategies were deemed ready for implementation. This
stage of the program took place between February 13 and
March 6, 1978. Following is an overview of the three groups and the control group. A schedule of the experi mental groups is found in Appendix F.
Group A (Control)
The control group - as were the three treatment groups - was administered the pre and post tests, but was given no instruction in musical form during the experi mental stage of the program.
Group B (In-Class)
The in-class group received six units of instruction in musical form during the band rehearsal period. These six units were administered over a two-week period for a total of approximately seventy minutes. The instruction was done by the band director after several training ses sions with the writer.
All students were given a booklet which included the unit topics, the behavioral objectives, musical examples, and concept definitions. Students were responsible for keeping these booklets in their music folios at all times during the treatment period. These booklets were col lected at. the conclusion of the in-class program. 50
The teacher was provided with large charts of the
musical examples contained in the booklet. This allowed
the students to receive immediate knowledge of the correct
responses. Taped musical examples were played on a
Wollensack portable taperecorder provided by the writer.
Group C (Programmed Instruction)
The Form in Music programmed instruction package was
given to each member of this group. In addition to the six
units of instructional material, a pre-unit - providing
instruction in the operation of the cassette player and an
explanation of programmed instruction - was included.
No rehearsal time, other than the testing procedure
and the rehearsal of the selected band literature, was
necessary with this treatment.
Students were given the option of using their per-
sonel cassette players or utilizing the five players set up
for their use in the school learning center.
The students were given a suggested schedule for the completion of the individual programmed units, but were not discouraged from reviewing the material or completing several units at a time.
At the conclusion of the two week period, all book lets and cassettes were collected. 51
Group D (In-Class and Programmed Instruction)
This group was given both in-class and programmed
instruction treatments. All aspects of this group paral
leled those of the individual in-class and programmed instruction methods.
All instructional (except programmed instruction) and testing procedures took place in the school band room.
The selected band literature was rehearsed by all experi mental groups for approximately twenty minutes daily during the treatment period. Each band was given sufficient num bers of parts for the two compositions and the directors were provided with condensed scores. CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
At the conclusion of Stage IV (implementation and
testing), the pretest and posttest scores of the Form test
were subjected to statistical analysis. Included in the
statistical methods utilized were the computation of means,
standard deviations, and ranges for each treatment group
and for the entire population, an Analysis of Covariance procedure to determine if significant differences between
the groups were present, and a subsequent Scheffe procedure to explore the source of any significant differences determined by the Analysis of Covariance.
Incorrect responses in the Form posttest were also analyzed.
Means, Ranges, and Standard Deviations
The means, ranges, and standard deviations for the
Form pretest and posttest are found in Table 5. (The raw data for this test is found in Appendix G.) Table 5. Means, Ranges, and Standard Deviations
Group Number Number and of of Standard Measure Subjects Items Range Mean Deviation
All Groups (Pre) 168 35 0-25 4.8274 3.4294
Control (Pre) 45 35 0-25 4.1778 4.1467
In-Class (Pre) 42 35 0-12 4.3333 2.8599
Programmed Instruction (Pre) 42 35 0-11 5.4286 3.1557
In-Class and Programmed Instruction (Pre) 39 35 1-13 5.4615 3.2594
All Groups (Post) 158 35 0-35 20.8869 11.0532
Control (Post) 45 35 0-20 5.0444 4.1776
In-Class (Post) 42 35 9-34 23.9286 6.2719
Programmed Instruction (Post) 42 35 14-34 27.5476 5.2182
In-Class and Programmed Instruction (Post) 39 35 15-35 28.7179 5.0469
Analysis of Covariance
Since no random assignment of subjects to treatment groups was possible, an Analysis of Covariance on the post test of the Form test, using the pretest as a covariate, was deemed an appropriate procedure to determine the effectiveness of the several instructional strategies and the influence of grade level. The results of this proced
ure are found in Table 6.
Table 6. Analysis of Covariance on the Posttest of the Form Test with the Pretest as a Covariate
Source Sum Degrees Mean of of of FP Variation Squares Freedom Square
Main Effects 14671.438 4 3667.859 166.670 <0.001
Treatment 14635.090 3 4878.363 221.676 <0.001
Grade 30.965 1 30.965 1.407 0.237
2-Way Interaction
Treatment - Grade 8.632 3 2.877 0.131 0.942
Explained 16903.551 8 2112.944 96.013 <0.001
Residual 3499.074 159 22.007
This Analysis of Covariance revealed that the exper imental treatments were effective in developing knowledge of musical form as measured by the Form test. The F value of 221.676 was significant beyond the .001 level. The effect of grade resulted in a non-significant F value of
1.4 07. The interaction between treatment and grade also resulted in a non-significant F value of 0.131. Scheffé Procedure
Since the Analysis of Covariance demonstrated that a
significant F value was obtained when the effects of the
treatment groups were considered, a Scheffé test was per
formed to determine the source of this significance. This
post-hoc procedure, according to Hays, "... has advant
ages of simplicity, applicability to groups of unequal
sizes, and suitability for any comparison. This method is
also known to be relatively insensitive to departures from
normality and homogeneity of variance.
The results of the Scheffé procedure appears in
Table 7.
Table 7. Results of Scheffé Procedure
Group(s) whose posttest mean(s) differ significantly at the .01 level
In-Class (23.9286) Programmed Instruction (27.547 6) Control (5.0444) In-Class and Programmed Instruction (28.7179)
In-Class (23.9286) In-Class and Programmed Instruction (28.7179)
^William L. Hays, Statistics for Psychologists (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1963), p. 484. 56
All experimental groups were significantly different
in posttest means from the control group beyond the .01
level. A significance level of .01 was also found between
posttest means of the In-Class and Programmed Instruction
plus In-Class groups. A significance level of .01 was not
obtained between any of the other groups.
Analysis of Incorrect Responses on the Form Test (Post)
For the purpose of making future revisions in the several instructional strategies and/or the Form test, an analysis of incorrect responses on the post administration of the Form test was done. This analysis appears in
Appendix H.
With the In-Class instruction group, 26 questions were judged to be effective items. Nine questions (4, 7,
9, 12, 13, 19, 22, 23, and 34) were determined to have exceeded a 40% error rate. Thirty-two items were effective with the Programmed Instruction group. Three questions (4,
7, 23) produced an error rate of over 40%. The group re ceiving a combination of both in-class and programmed instruction exceeded that rate on only one question (4), with 34 items judged to be effective. CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was the development and evaluation of three strategies - in-class instruction, pro grammed instruction, and a combination of in-class and pro grammed instruction - in an attempt to teach concepts of musical form to intermediate instrumentalists by utilizing popular music and selected band literature. The study sought to answer several questions.
1. Can concepts of musical form be under
stood by intermediate band students if
special provisions are made for their
inclusion as part of the ensemble's
course of study?
2. Will intermediate instrumentalists par
ticipating in a band program that in
cludes instruction in concepts of
musical form by utilizing popular
music as an introductory device in
conjunction with appropriate band 58
literature be able to learn these
concepts and apply them to unfamiliar
band literature?
3. Will groups receiving programmed in
struction as a supplement to in-class
instruction in concepts of musical
form achieve an understanding of these
concepts better than groups receiving
only classroom instruction?
4. Will groups receiving only programmed
instruction achieve an understanding
of those concepts significantly better
than groups receiving only classroom
instruction?
5. Will grade level have a significant
effect on the attainment of those
concepts?
Limitations of the Study
The study was limited to the development and evalua tion of the several teaching strategies. The study did not attempt to measure either the amount of literature re hearsed by the experimental groups or the level of perform ance achieved during the two-week instructional program. 59
Design of the Study
The study was designed in four stages. Stage I was
concerned with stating program and unit behavioral objec
tives, selecting the band literature to be utilized,
designing the programmed instruction package, selecting
appropriate popular music examples, and pilot testing the
programmed instruction program. In Stage II, the in-class
booklet was developed. Stage III dealt with the construc
tion and evaluation of the Form test. Stage IV consisted
of the implementation of the several instructional programs
in four separate middle school bands.
Subjects
One hundred eighty-four seventh and eighth grade
students enrolled in the band programs of three suburban
districts near Columbus, Ohio, served as subjects. Four
individual subjects were used in the pilot studies with the programmed instruction package, and a group of twelve sub
jects was utilized in the evaluation of the Form test. One hundred sixty-eight subjects, representing four middle
school bands, participated in the final stage of implemen tation and evaluation.
Stage I
Topics considered necessary for inclusion in an in structional program dealing with musical form were divided 60
into six units. Behavioral objectives for the program and
each unit were stated. Two compositions - containing
examples of the topics outlined by the behavioral objec
tives - were selected from the Ohio Music Educators
Association's 1977 Junior High/Middle School Band Contest
List for use as supplementary and rehearsal material.
The Form in Music programmed instructional package
(booklet and cassette) was developed and revised in four pilot studies with four separate subjects. Thirty popular music recordings, selected from Billboard magazine's "Hot
100" survey from a seven week period, were utilized as musical examples. In its final format, the Form in Music programmed instruction booklet consisted of 81 frames divided into six units with an introductory unit.
Stage II
Based on the Form in Music package, the in-class booklet was developed to teach concepts of musical form in the band rehearsal period. Each of the six units in the nine page booklet included a statement of topics, be havioral objectives, the concepts to be covered, and musical examples.
Stage III
A criterion measure, the Form test, was developed to determine the effectiveness of the several instructional 61
strategies. The musical examples, representative of those
found in the instructional programs, were selected from the
Ohio Music Educators Association's Junior High/Middle
School 1977 Band Contest List (A, B, and C classifications).
The 35 item multiple choice test consisted of 25 informa tional and 10 aural questions. The Form measure took 24 minutes to complete.
Content validity was established by a consensus of three experts in music education who were familiar with the instructional programs. The test was pilot tested with a group of twelve middle school band students as a pre-post measure with the Form in Music package. A paired observa tion t test between means of the pre and post administra tions was significant beyond the .001 level.
Stage IV
The three instructional strategies were implemented over a two-week period in three middle school bands with a fourth ensemble serving as a control group. All groups were given the Form test before and after the instructional program.
Data Analysis
The Form test was administered to all subjects in the four groups as a pretest and posttest. The data from 62
these testings were subjected to the following statistical
procedures :
1. Computation of means, ranges, and
standard deviations for all groups.
2. Analysis of Covariance on the post
test with the pretest as a covariate.
3. A Scheffé procedure.
An analysis of incorrect responses on the Form post
test was also performed for use in possible program and/or
test revisions.
Results
Based on the statistical procedures reported in
Chapter IV, the following results were determined;
1. There were significant differences
between the pretest and posttest scores
as measured by the Form test for the
four groups. An Analysis of Covariance
on the posttest, using the pretest as
the covariate, yielded an F Value of
221.676, significant beyond the .001
level.
2. There were significant differences
between the posttest means on the Form
instrument between the control group and the three experimental groups as
determined by a Scheffé procedure.
The means of the three groups differed
from that of the control group beyond
the .01 level of significance.
3. There was a significant difference
between the posttest means for the
In-Class group and the Programmed
Instruction plus In-Class group at
the .01 level. No other significant
differences between experimental groups
were found.
4. The Analysis of Covariance procedure un
covered no significant differences due
to grade level as either a main effect
or in an interaction with treatment.
Conclusions
The foregoing results and a review of the purpose and limitations of the study suggest the following con clusions ;
1. Concepts of musical form can be under
stood by intermediate instrumentalists
if provisions are made for their in
clusion into the ensemble's course of
study. 2. Intermediate instrumentalists partici
pating in a program of instruction in
concepts of musical form using popular
music as an introductory device in con
junction with band literature can learn
these concepts and apply them to un
familiar band literature as measured by
the Form test. This suggests that a
transfer of concepts from popular music
to band literature took place.
3. The group receiving programmed instruc
tion as a supplement to in-class instruc
tion achieved a significantly superior
understanding of concepts of musical form
than the group receiving only in-class
instruction.
4. There was no significant difference in
the acquisition of concepts of musical
form between the group who received in-
class instruction and the programmed
instruction group.
5. Grade level had no significant effect
on the attainment of the concepts of
musical form. 65
Implications of the Study
The findings of this study suggest the following
implications :
1. Musical learnings not normally accounted
for in the intermediate instrumental en
semble can be acquired by its members
with only a minimum of time taken from
the rehearsal period.
2. The study suggests that several strategies
are effective in teaching these concepts.
3. Popular music is a viable medium through
which to teach non-performance skills in
the intermediate instrumental ensemble.
The process in which the popular music
examples were selected suggests that
periodic revision would not be a diffi
cult task.
Recommendations for Future Research
The following recommendations are suggested from the findings and limitations of this study.
1. A study in which one or more of the
instructional strategies were repli
cated and expanded in several kinds
and levels of instrumental ensembles. 66
2. A study in which other contemporary
musical styles (country, soul, jazz)
are utilized in teaching concepts of
musical form.
3. A study in which other non-performance
musical learnings (theoretical and
historical) are taught by the instruc
tional methods developed in this study. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Deibert, Alvin N . , and Alice J. Harmon. New Tools for Changing Behavior. Champaign, Illinois: Research Press, 1970.
Drumheller, Sidney J. Teacher's Handbook for a Functional Behavior-Based Curriculum. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, Inc., 1972.
Farnsworth, Paul R. Musical Taste: Its Measurement and Cultural Nature. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1950.
Goetschius, Percy. Lessons in Music Form. Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania: Oliver Ditson Company, 1904.
Guilford, J. P. and Benjamin Fruchter. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973.
Hays, William L. Statistics for Psychologists. New York : Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1963.
Hutcheson, Jere T. Musical Form and Analysis, Volume I. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1972.
Kibler, Robert J. Behavioral Objectives and Instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1970.
Kohs, Elias B. Musical Form. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1976.
Leichtentritt, Hugo. Musical Form. Cambridge, Massachu setts : Harvard University Press, 1951.
Lundin, Robert W. ^ Objective Psychology of Music. New ______York: The Ronald Press, 1967.______
Mager, Robert F. Preparing Educational Objectives. Belmont, California : Fearon Publishers, 1962. Mueller, J. H. and Kate Hevner. Trends in Musical Taste, Humanity Series No. S_. Indiana University; Indiana University Publications, 1942.
Nadeau, Roland and William Tesson. Form in Music: Process and Procedure. Boston: Crescendo Publishing Company, 1968.
Plowman, Paul R. Behavioral Objectives - Teacher Success Through Student Performance. Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1971.
Stein, Leon. Structure and Style. Evanston, Illinois: Summy-Birchard Company, 1962.
Thomson, William. Introduction to Music As Structure. Reading, Massachusetts : Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1967.
Thorndike, Robert L. and Elizabeth Hagen. Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1961.
Trow, Wm. Clark. Paths to Educational Reform. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publica tions, 1971.
Von Haden, Herbert I., and Jean Marie King. Innovations in Education: Their Pros and Cons. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones Publishing Company, 1971.
Walton, Charles W. Basic Forms in Music. New York: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc., 1974.
B. Publications of the Government and Learned Societies
Benner, Charles H. "Teaching Performing Groups". from Research to the Classroom N o . Washington, D.C.: Music Educators National Conference, 197 2.
Boyle, J. David (ed.). Instructional Objectives in Music, Washington, D.C.: Music Educators National Confer ence, 1974.
Choate, Robert (ed.). Music in American Society, Documen tary Report of the Tanglewood Symposium. Washington, D.C.: Music Educators National Conference, 1968. 69
Linton, Stanley. The Development of a Planned Program for Teaching Musicianship in the High School Choral Class. USOE Research Project No. 5-8220. Office of Educa tion, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1967.
C. Periodicals
Andrews, Francis (Chairman). "Goals and Objectives for Music Education", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 57 (December, 1970), 23-26.
Bennett, Michael E. "Make the Top 40 Work for You", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 61 (January, 1975), 32-37.
Burnett, Michael. "The Case for Cool Music Teaching", Music in Education, Vol. 33 (September/October, 1968), 249-250.
Cahn, Meyer E. "Bach is Not Enough", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 60 (November, 1973), 62-65.
Colwell, Richard (editor). "Accountability", Council for Research in Music Education, Bulletin No. 36 (Spring, 1974).
Croft, James Edwin. "A Related Arts Approach to the Band: Aesthetic Growth Through Performance", reviewed by Leon Karel, Council for Research in Music Education, Bulletin No. 30 (Fall, 1972), 51-53.
Delhi, Ned C. and Kenneth C. Partchey. "Status of Research: Educational Technology in Music Education", Council for Research in Music Education, Bulletin No. 35 (Winter, 1973), 18-29.
Duerksen, George L. "The Thermos Bottle Knows When to Teach", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 63 (December, 1976), 60-61.
Easterbrook, Carl W. "Continued Musical Interests of Senior High School Students in AA Accredited High Schools of Nebrasks", reviewed by Robert F . Noble, Council for Research in Music Education, Bulletin No. 25 (Summer, 1971), 70-73.
Farnsworth, Paul R. "The Phenomenon of Musical Taste", Psychology Today, Vol. 1 (August, 1967), 56-69. Punes, Donald J. "Expand! Expand!", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 60 (October, 1973), 52-55.
Garofalo, Robert. "Blueprint for Band", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 60 (November, 1973), 39-42.
Gibson, Josephine R. "Music Education Starts At the Wrong End of a One-Way Street", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 58 (January, 1972), 60-61.
Hood, Marguerite V. "Non-Performance Music Classes in Secondary Schools", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 53 (May, 1967), 75-79.
House, Robert W. "Developing an Educative Setting for Per forming Groups", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 53 (September, 1966), 54-56, 144-149.
Hutcheson, Robert J. "Programmed Instruction and Music Education", Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education (Autumn, 1967), 11-14.
Karel, Leon C. "The Musical Assembly Line", Educators Journal, Vol. 55 (January, 1969), 37-38, 83-87.
Labuta, Joseph A. "The Band as a Learning Laboratory", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 62 (January, 1976),
Leonard, Charles. "The Next Ten Years", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 55 (September, 1968), 48-50.
Mercer, R. Jack. "Is the Curriculum the Score - or More?" Music Educators Journal, Vol. 58 (February, 1972) ,
Noble, Robert F. "How Much Understanding Do Your Band Students Have?", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 56 (April, 1970), 42-43.
Regelski, Thomas. "Toward Musical Independence", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 55 (March, 1969), 77-83.
Riemer, Bennett. "Patterns for the Future", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 63 (December, 1976), 22-29.
Roach, Donald W. "Contemporary Music Education: A Compre hensive Outlook," Music Educators Journal, Vol. 60 (September, 1973), 37-40. Shoup, E. Richard. "Back to Basics", Triad, Vol. XLV (September/October, 1977), 11-12.
Smith, Stuart. "Too Much Music !" Music Educators Journal, Vol. 59 (December, 1972), 18-22.
Wersen, Louis G. "New Directions for Music Education", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 54 (March, 1968), 71.
Whitbeck, Richard. "Wiring Up the Junior High School for Real Education", Music Educators Journal, Vol. 56 (April, 1970), 63.
D. Unpublished Materials
Appleton, Clyde Robert. "The Comparative Preferential Response of Black and White College Students to Black and White Folk and Popular Musical Styles". Unpub lished doctoral dissertation. New York University, 1970. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (May, 1972), 2723.
Booker, George A. "The Disc Jockey and His Impact on Teenage Musical Taste". Unpublished doctoral disser tation, The Florida State University, 1968. Disserta tion Abstracts, XXX (July, 1970), 3038.
Coleman, E. L. "Some Effects of Teaching Musical Knowledge in a Performance Class". Unpublished master's thesis. University of Kansas, 1966.
Evans, Richard Vance. "The Effect of Two Types of Music Courses on the Musical Achievement and Undertaking of Senior High School Students". Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Oregon, 1970. Disserta tion Abstracts, XXXI (July, 1971), 3580.
Gebhardt, Larry Robert. "The Development and Evaluation of an Integrated Plan of Study Providing for Increased Musical Perception and Skills by Students in the Junior High School Band". Unpublished doctoral dis sertation, Indiana University, 1973. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXIV (July, 1974), 4312.
Hagen, Dennis Bert. "An Experimental Study of Teaching Musical Form to High School Choral and Instrumental Performers Through a Self-Instructional Method of Learning". Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1973. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXIV (December, 1974), 7807. 72
Haynes, Thomas Stanley. "The Value of an Interdisciplinary Course in Developing Musicality in the Junior High School". Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Univers ity of California at Berkeley, 1970. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (November, 1972), 5477.
Hedberg, Floyd. "Experimental Investigation of Two Choral Rehearsal Methods: Their Effect on Music Attitude, Music Discrimination, Music Achievement and Music Performance". Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Northern Colorado, 1975. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXVI (November, 1976), 7263.
Helfrich, David Charles. "The Effect of Rock Music, Con trolled for Tempo and Volume, on Disabled Readers in Remedial Reading Classes". Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Georgia, 1973. Disserta tion Abstracts, XXXIV (June, 1974), 3024.
Hiscott, Gilbert Edgar. "The Effect of a Programmed Course of Instruction on Music Educator's Knowledge of and Attitudes Toward the Use of Contemporary Youth Music". Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Pennsylvania State University, 1971. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (November, 1972), 6477.
Inglefield, Howard Gibbs. "The Relationship of Selected Personality Variables to Conformity Behavior Reflected in the Musical Preferences of Adolescents When Exposed to Peer Group Leader Influences". Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Ohio State University, 1968. Dissertation Abstracts, XXIX (September, 1969), 3170.
Johnson, Joseph S. "Radio Music - The Gatekeepers". Un published doctoral dissertation, Michigan State Uni versity, 1970. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXI (November, 1971), 6086.
Masden, Dean. "Introducing Contemporary Musical Idioms to Junior High School Band Students". Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Utah State University, 1969. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (March, 1972), 1553.
Meadows, Eddie Spencer. "The Relationship of Music Prefer ence to Certain Cultural Determiners". Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXI (November, 1971), 6100. Neidinger, Robert J. "A Study in Teaching Musical Style and Form to Elementary School Children Through the Perception of Musical Dimensions". Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Washington University, 1967. Dissertation Abstracts, XXVII (March, 1968), 4201.
Nelson, Gerald Owen. "A Chronometric Approach to the Study of Form in Seventh Grade General Music Classes". Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The University of Minnesota, 1973. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXIV (February, 1974), 811.
Oakley, David Lamar. "The Cumulative Attainment by Missouri High School Seniors of the Musical Learnings Stated in the Music Curriculum Guides Published by the Missouri State Department of Education". Unpub lished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1972. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXIII (January, 1973), 352.
Rogers, Monica. "Teaching Comprehensive Musicianship Through Youth Music at the Junior High School Level". Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Northwestern University, 1975. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXVI (November, 1976), 7267.
Rouintree, James Paul. "A Theoretical Position for the Development of Musical Learning Experiences for Bands". Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Illinois, 1975. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXVI (September, 1976), 5906.
Smith, Alan Arthur. "Continuous Aural Awareness of Musical Form; An Investigation of its Cognitive Value as a Listening Skill and a Comparative Study of Two Methods of Instruction". Unpublished doctoral dis sertation, University of Oregon, 1971. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (March, 1972), 1557.
Thomson, James D. "A Model Band Curriculum : Its Develop ment and Implications for Michigan Schools". Unpub lished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1971. Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (May, 1972), 2735.
Wolfle, Ernest E. "Relationships Between Selected Factors and Participation and Non-Participation in Instru mental Music in the Cincinnati Public Schools". Un published doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1969. Dissertation Abstracts, XXX (June, 1970), 2565. 74
Zorn, Jay Daniel. "The Effectiveness of Chamber Music Ensemble Experience for Members of a Ninth Grade Band in Learning Certain Aspects of Music and Musical Experience". Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1969. APPENDIX A
Program and Unit Behavioral Objectives Program Objectives
The student will define and identify, given aural and notational examples, the following formal concepts:
1. form
2. beat
3. duple meter
4. triple meter
5. meter signature
6. measure
7. motive
8. phrase
9. cadence
10. sentence (period)
11. one-part form
12. binary form
13. ternary form
14. theme and variations form Unit Objectives
Unit Topics ; introduction to form in music, beat, duple and triple meter, measure, bar lines
Unit Objectives :
1. The student will define "form".
2. The student will define "beat".
3. The student will define "measure".
4. The student will distinguish between duple and triple meter signatures.
5. The student will differentiate between recorded examples of duple and triple meter.
6. The student will indicate the position of accented and unaccented beats in duple and triple meter.
7. Given a short melody with only a meter signature indi cated, the student will mark the appropriate bar lines.
UNIT II
Unit Topics ; motive, phrase
Unit Objectives;
1. The student will define "motive".
2. The student will define "phrase".
3. Given recorded/notated examples, the student will identify motive and phrase structures.
4. Using an excerpt of band literature, the student will label motive and phrase structures. UNIT III
Unit Topics : cadence, sentence
Unit Objectives :
1. The student will define "cadence".
2. Given recorded/notated examples of phrases, the student will identify the cadence points.
3. The student will define "sentence".
4. When provided with recorded/notated examples, the student will locate sentences.
5. Given recorded/notated examples, the student will label motives, phrases, sentences, and cadence points.
UNIT IV
Unit Topics : section, one-part form, binary form
Unit Objectives :
1. The student will define "section".
2. The student will define "one-part form".
3. The student will define "binary" form.
4. The student will differentiate between recorded examples of one-part and binary forms.
5. Given recorded/notated examples of one-part and binary forms, the student will label motives, phrases, sen tences, cadence points, and A and/or B sections. Unit Topics : one-part and binary forms (continued), ternary form
Unit Objectives ;
1. The student will define "ternary form".
2. The student will demonstrate an understanding of "A B A" by labeling appropriate sections of a recorded/notated example of ternary form.
3. The student will indicate the differences between forms by utilizing letter designations with recorded/notated examples.
UNIT VI
Unit Topics ; theme and variations form, review
Unit Objectives :
1. The student will define "theme and variations form".
2. The student will indicate the components of the theme and variations form by rehearsal numbers in the selected band literature.
3. Given an eight measure melody, the student will compose a variation, labeling motives, phrases, cadences, and sentences. APPENDIX B
Sample Frames
Form in Music
(The Form in Music programmed instruction booklet and cassette tape is available on loan from the Division of Music Education, The Ohio State University School of Music, Columbus, Ohio) P-5
Your cassette player will have either a dia: or buttons. Re- gardless of the model, all players will have 3 hi sic settings: stop, rewind or reverse, and play or forward. Mcj)iSt cassette players will also have a "fast forward" speed.
The 3 basic settings on your cassette playe]jr
1 . ______
2 . ______
3.
(Check the back of the page for the correct answer.) 1-7
TRIPLE METER indicates that beats are arranged in a "strong - weak - weak" pattern. Some familiar examples of triple meter
Listen to example I B.
START TAPE
Beats arranged in an "accented - unaccented - unaccented" pattern designate ______meter. Listen to example II D and follow along the notated example below. Circle the motives and underline the phrase.
START TAPE
NOBODY DOES IT BETTER (Carly Simon) III-IO
Listen to example III D and follow along on the notated line below. Then perform the following tasks:
1. Circle all motives.
2. Underline all phrases.
3. Indicate by arrows where cadence points are located.
4. Place brackets ^ around the sentence.
START TAPE
IT WAS ALMOST LIKE A SONG (Ronnie Milsap) IV-5
Listen to example IV B and then indicate on the notated line below the following components of musical form;
1. motives (circle) 2. phrases (underline) 3. sentence (brackets) 4. cadence points (arrows)
START TAPE
KEEP IT COMIN' LOVE (KC Sunsnine
This tune is an example of the form. This form's basic structure is really only a V -3
Even though the ternary form has 3 sections, it does not have
3 different parts, but rather 2 parts arranged in the following way:
SECTION 1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3
Ternary form, then, can be defined as one section followed by a different section, with a return back to the first section.
What are the letter designations for the following forms?
binary
one-part
ternary
67 VI-1
As you have probably realized, most of the music you play in band and listen to on the radio and records is basically an example of either one-part, binary, or ternary form. From these forms, how ever, several larger forms are constructed. Our last topic in this instructional program will be one of these larger forms, the THEME
AND VARIATIONS form.
The one-part, binary, and ternary forms are often used as the basic structure for the Theme and form. APPENDIX C
List of recordings in positions 1 - 30 of Billboard magazine's "Hot 100" between September 17 and October 29, 1977. 89
1. I Just Want To Be Your Everything (Andy Gibb)
2. Float On (Floaters)
3. Best of My Love (Emotions)
4. Handy Man (James Taylor)
5. Strawberry Letter 23 (Brothers Johnson)
6. Don = t Stop (Fleetwood Mac)
7. Keep It Comin' Love (K. C. and the Sunshine Band)
8. Telaphone Line (ELO)
9. Smoke From a Distant Fire (Sanford-Townsend Band)
10. Star Wars - Main Title (London Symphony)
11. Higher and Higher (Rita- Coolidge)
12. Cold As Ice (Foreigner)
13. Star Wars Title Theme (Meco)
14. That's Rock 'N' Roll (Shaun Cassidy)
15. On and On (Stephen Bishop)
16. Swayin' To the Music (Johnny Rivers)
17. Easy (Commodores)
18. Boogie Nights (Heatwave)
19. Don't Worry Baby (B. J. Thomas)
20. Nobody Does It Better (Carly Simon)
21. I Feel Love (Donna Summer)
22. Way Down (Elvis Presley)
23. Brickhouse (Commodores)
24. You Light Up My Life (Debby Boone)
25. It Was Almost Like a Song (Ronnie Milsap)
26. The King Is Gone (Ronnie McDowell) 90
27. It's Ectasy When You Lay Down (Barry White)
28. Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue (Crystal Gayle)
29. Heaven On the 7th Floor (Paul Nicholas)
30. Signed, Sealed, Delivered (Peter Frampton)
31. Baby, What a Big Surprise (Chicago)
32. Just F:;meitiber I Love You (Firefall)
33. How Deep Is Your Love (Bee Gees)
34. We're All Alone (Rita Coolidge)
35. Just a Song Before I Go (Crosby, Stills, & Nash)
35. Surfin' USA (Leif Garrett)
37. Barracuda (Heart)
38. Jungle Love (Steve Miller Band)
39. The Greatest Love of All (George Benson)
40. Help Is On the Way (Little River Band)
41. How Much Love (Leo Sayer)
42. She Did It (Eric Carmen)
43. Blue Bayou (Linda Ronstadt)
44. Hard Rock Cafe (Carole King)
45. Do You Wanna Get Funky With Me (Peter Brown)
46. Dusic (Brick)
47. Daytime Friends (Kenny Rogers)
48. I Believe You (Dorothy Moore)
49. Cat Scratch Fever (Ted Nugent)
50. We Just Disagree (Dave Mason)
51. Send in the Clowns (Judy Collins) APPENDIX D
Sample Units
In-Class Booklets Unit Topics : introduction to form in music, beat, duple and triple meter, measure, bar lines
Unit Objectives;
1. The student will define "form".
2. The student will define "beat".
3. The student will define "measure".
4. The student will distinguish between duple and triple meter signatures.
5. The student will differentiate between recorded examples of duple and triple meter.
5. The student will indicate the position of accented and unaccented beats in duple and triple meter.
7. Given a short melody with only a meter signature indicated, the student will mark the appropriate bar lines.
Unit Outline:
1. FORM - the organization of music.
2. BEAT - a regular (steady), rhythmic pulsation.
3. DUPLE METER
accented (strong) - unaccented (weak)
2 4 ^ 4,
4. TRIPLE METER
accented (strong) - unaccented (weak) - unaccented (weak) 3 3 9 4, 8, 8
5. MEASURE - a division based on the meter signature. These divisions are marked by BAR LINES. Mark the bar lines in this melody
HARD ROCK CAFE (Carole King)
* ijJ.- j " UNIT III
Unit Topics ; cadence, sentence
Unit Objectives :
1. The student will define "cadence".
2. Given recorded/notated examples of phrases, the student will identify the cadence points.
3. The student will define "sentence".
4. When provided with recorded/notated examples, the student will locate sentences.
5. Given recorded/notated examples, the student will label motives, phrases, sentences, and cadence points.
Unit Outline ;
1. CADENCE - a point of rest in the music which indicates the independence of a phrase or other structure.
BABY, WHAT A BIG SURPRISE (Chicago)
(the arrow indicates a cadence point)
2. SENTENCE - the structure formed by joining together 2 phrases.
circle motives, underline phrases, bracket the sentence, and place arrows at cadence points in this excerpt
IT WAS ALMOST LIKE A SONG (Ronnie Milsap) in the excerpt below, circle motives, underline phrases, bracket the sentence, and place arrows at cadence points APPENDIX E
Form Test
Directions and Sample Questions 97
Directions for Questions 1-25
Select the best answer for the following questions
or statements by writing the correct letter (a, b, c, or d)
on the appropriate blank of the answer sheet. Do not
write on this booklet.
Below is a sample question:
SAMPLE QUESTION
The director of a band or orchestra is often
referred to as the ______.
a. coach
b. general
c. conductor
d. principal
I think you will agree that c. conductor, is the
correct answer. Thus, "c" is placed on the sample blank
of the answer sheet.
If you don't understand a question, just leave it
blank and go on to the next question. Don't guess.
You will have twelve minutes to complete the first
25 questions. Now, turn the page and begin.
Directions for Questions 26 - 35
Recorded excerpts will be played in questions 26 through 35. For each question the excerpt will be played twice. Choose the correct answer from the four choices
(a, b, c, or d) given. Remember, don't write on this booklet. Sample Questions
2. In duple meter, beats are arranged in what pattern?
a. weak, strong, strong, strong
b. weak, strong
c. strong, weak, weak
d. strong, weak
5. When discussing musical structure, a cadence is best
defined as a ______.
a . tempo
b. point of rest
c. drum section soli
d. meter
8. Another term for binary form is the ______
a. three-part
b. two-part
c. one-part
d . ternary
12. Hov/ many different sections does the ternary form
have?
b. two
c. three
d. four 15. A phrase is formed by joining together two ______
a. sentences
b. motives
c. cadences
d. measures
20. The letter "A" signifies what form?
a. one-part
b. binary
c . ternary
d. theme and variations
22. How does ternary form differ from binary form?
a. The C section follows the B section
b. the A section returns after the B section
c. a second B section follows the B section
d. two A sections precede the B section
24. In the four groups of terms below, which group is
ordered from the smallest to the largest structural
element?
a. motive, section, phrase
b. motive, phrase, sentence
c. phrase, motive, sentence
d. motive, cadence, phrase 100
27. Listen to the following excerpt. On the notated line
below, what element of musical form is enclosed by
brackets?
a. phrase
b. sentence
c . motive
d. cadence 28. Listen to the following excerpt as you follow the
notated line below. What letters best signify the
form of this music?
I °-l-f
AAA APPENDIX F
Schedule of Experimental Groups GROUP A (Control)
Friday, February 17 Pre-Test
Monday, March 6 Post-Test
GROUP B (In-Class)
Monday, February 13 begin rehearsal of selected literature
Friday, February 17 Pre-Test and dissemination of in-class booklets
Monday, February 20 UNIT I
Wednesday, February 22 UNIT II
Friday, February 24 UNIT III
Monday, February 27 UNIT IV
Wednesday, March 1 UNIT V
Friday, March 3 UNIT VI
Monday, March 6 Post-Test and collection of materials
GROUP C (Programmed Instruction)
Monday, February 13 begin rehearsal of selected literature
Friday, February 17 Pre-Test, dissemination of Form in Music booklets and cassettes and student schedules
Monday, March 6 Post-Test and collection of materials GROUP D (±n-Class and Programmed Instruction)
Monday, February 13 begin rehearsal of selected literature
Friday, February 17 Pre-Test, dissemination of in- class booklets. Form in Music booklets and cassettes, and student schedules
Monday, February 20 UNIT I
Wednesday, February 22 UNIT II
Friday, February 24 UNIT III
Monday, February 27 UNIT IV
Wednesday, March 1 UNIT V
Friday, March 3 UNIT VI
Monday, March 6 Post-Test and collection of materials APPENDIX G
Raw Data Raw Data for the Form Test
Subject
1. 3 3 2. 2 2 3. 1 1 4. 5 5 5. 0 0 6. 5 3 7. 4 7 8. 2 4 9. 0 0 10. 1 1 11. 3 4 12. 1 1 13. 3 6 14. 1 3 15. 7 2 16. 2 10 17. 10 12 18. 0 2 19. 4 2 20. 5 5 21. 6 6 22. 9 7 23. 5 8 24. 2 2 25. 2 5 26. 7 9 27. 2 4 28. 2 2 29. 2 2 30. 10 5 31. 1 1 32. 2 4 33. 5 2 34, 7 8 35. 2 2 36. 4 7 37. 1 1 38. 5 11 39. 4 10 40. 5 11 41. 2 1 42. 3 4 43. 25 20 44. 8 9 45. 8 13 Table 8 (continued)
Group Subject
1. 6 29 2. 7 25 3. 8 25 4. 9 23 5. 0 9 6. 2 15 7. 3 33 8. 2 14 9. 2 15 10. 2 26 11. 5 31 12. 8 23 13. 6 27 14. 3 13 15. 4 23 16. 2 12 17. 5 14 18. 4 28 19. 6 28 20. 3 24 21. 6 30 22. 1 16 23. 5 29 24. 9 31 25. 1 25 26. 6 26 27. 3 22 28. 3 34 29. 9 29 30. 9 29 31. 3 29 32. 4 17 33. 2 21 34. 3 28 35. 5 22 36. 0 23 37. 2 18 38. 12 30 39. 2 27 40. 7 27 41. 1 29 42. 2 26 Table 8 (continued)
Group Subject Pre Post
Programmed 1. 5 33 Instruction 2. 8 30 3. 7 31 4. 1 33 5. 10 25 6. 9 29 7. 11 30 8. 11 29 9. 11 34 10. 4 28 11. 6 21 12. 8 30 13. 5 27 14. 4 20 15. 5 22 16. 7 31 17. 7 29 18. 7 29 19. 5 28 20. 5 28 21. 11 26 22. 6 33 23. 6 33 24. 7 33 25. 6 33 26. 5 29 27. 6 28 28. 2 29 29. 3 15 30. 3 26 31. 10 33 32. 3 21 33. 3 25 34. 5 26 35. 0 25 36. 1 14 37. 3 14 38. 8 29 39. 1 34 40. 1 33 41. 2 24 42. 0 27 Table 8 (continued)
Group Subject Pre Post
Programmed 1. 3 26 Instruction 2. 3 31 and In-Class 3. 3 30 4. 3 30 5. 13 27 6. 8 32 7. 7 32 a. 1 17 9. 7 32 10. 6 20 11. 3 34 12. 8 33 13. 12 32 14. 3 33 15. 4 29 16. 2 33 17. 2 15 18. 3 20 19. 4 26 20. 5 22 21. 6 19 22. 8 35 23. 8 34 24. 13 33 25. 12 31 26. 4 24 27. 7 32 28. 2 28 29. 4 33 30. 3 32 31. 5 28 32. 3 30 33. 5 30 34. 9 33 35. 5 32 36. 3 30 37. 3 29 38. 10 27 39. 3 26 APPENDIX H
Analysis of Incorrect Responses on the Form Test (Post) Table 9. Incorrect Responses on Form Test (Post)
Number of Error Rate Group Question Incorrect or % No Responses
Control 1. 44 97.78 (45 subjects) 2. 42 93.33 3, 33 73.33 4. 45 100.00 5. 45 100.00 6. 21 46.67 7. 42 93.33 8. 32 71.11 9. 42 93.33 10. 44 97.78 11. 28 62.22 12. 44 97.78 13. 41 91.11 14. 39 86.67 15. 43 95.56 16. 32 71.11 17. 42 93.33 18. 40 88.89 19. 32 71.11 20. 40 88.89 21. 42 93.33 22. 44 97.78 23. 41 91.11 24. 37 82.22 25. 42 93.33 26. 43 95.56 27. 40 88.89 28. 38 84.44 29. 42 93.33 30. 13 28.89 31. 38 84.44 32. 44 97.78 33. 43 95.56 34. 45 100.00 35. __22 48.89
1345 85.40
In-Class 1. 15 35.71 (42 subjects) 2. 18 42.86 3. 10 23.81 4. 42 100.00 5. 5 11.90 Table 9 (continued)
Number of Error Rate Question Incorrect or No Responses
In-Class 6. 6 14.29 (42 subjects) 7. 20 47.62 8. 7 16.67 9. 19 45.24 10. 16 38.10 11. 8 19.05 12. 32 76.20 13. 19 45.24 14. 14 33.33 15. 8 19.05 15. 12 28. 57 17. 10 23.81 18. 11 26.20 19. 17 40.48 20. 5 11.90 21. 14 33.33 22. 19 45.24 23. 21 50.00 24. 5 11.90 25. 7 16. 67 26. 6 14.29 27. 4 9.52 28. 2 4.76 29. 16 38.10 30. 10 23.81 31. 12 28.57 32. 7 16.67 33. 11 26.20 34. 20 47.62 35. _1 ^ 35.71
463 31.50
Programmed 1. 13 30.95 Instruction 2. 5 11.90 (42 subjects) 3. 6 14.29 4. 35 83.33 5. 2 4.76 6 . 4 9.52 7. 22 52.38 8, 11 26.19 9. 7 16.67 10. 5 11.90 Table 9 (continued)
Number of Error Rate Group Question Incorrect or No Responses
Programmed 11. 10 23.81 Instruction 12. 16 38.10 (42 subjects) 13. 7 16.67 14. 9 21.43 15. 8 19.08 16. 4 9.52 17. 13 30.95 18. 5 11.90 19. 12 28.57 20. 3 7.14 21. 16 38.10 22. 2 4.76 23. 18 42.86 24. 5 11.90 25. 5 11.90 26. 11 26.19 27. 5 11.90 28. 4 9.52 29. 11 26.19 30. 9 21.43 31. 15 35.71 32. 4 9.52 33. 3 7.14 34. 10 23.81 35. ___ 3 7.14
318 21.63
Programmed 1. 7 17.95 Instruction 2. 1 2.56 and 3. 4 10.26 In-Class 4. 30 76.92 (39 subjects) 5. 2 5.13 6. 4 10.26 7. 7 17.95 8. 4 10.26 9. 5 12.82 10. 8 20.51 11. 14 35.90 12. 14 35.90 13. 1 2.56 14. 5 12.82 15. 4 10.26 Table 9 (continued)
Number of Error Rate Group Question Incorrect or % No Responses
Programmed 16. 3 7.69 Instruction 17. 11 28.21 18. 4 10.26 In-Class 19. 9 23.08 (39 subjects) 20. 1 2.56 21. 11 28.21 22. 7 17.95 23. 13 33.33 24. 3 7.69 25. 3 7.69 26. 10 25.64 27. 8 20.51 28. 1 2.56 29. 11 28.21 30. 8 20.51 31. 13 33.33 32. 4 10.26 33. 7 17.95 34. 6 15.38 35. ___ 2 5.13
245 17.95