Quest for the South Magnetic Pole

Teachers Kit

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Contents

Fact sheet # 1 Why are there so many poles?...... 3

Fact sheet # 2 Why were people interested in finding the South Magnetic Pole?...... 6

Fact sheet #3 Why is the Magnetic Pole continually moving?...... 8

Fact sheet #4 Timeline of Antarctic exploration………………………………………..10

Fact sheet #5 Whose who of Antarctic exploration – Test your knowledge………………………………………………………………………………….16

Fact sheet #6 Survival in a frozen land…………………………………………………………19

Fact sheet # 7 Australia’s Antarctic involvement……………………………………….25

Fact sheet # 8 Magnetism on Earth……………………………………………………………… 35

Fact sheet # 17 Dogs………………………………………………………………………………………….37

Fact sheet # 18 Blizzards…………………………………………………………………………………39

Fact sheet # 19 Manhauling………………………………………………………………………………40

Fact sheet #20 Antarctica glossary……………………………………………………………….41

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Fact Sheet #1 Why are there so many poles?

True Geographic Pole: either of two points of intersection of the surface of the Earth with the Earth's axis of rotation.

The location of this pole moves approximately 10m a year and is recalculated each year. The true south geographic pole is located near Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. Here there are many markers representing the movement of the true geographic pole. The distance between the south geographic pole and the south magnetic pole is approximately 2,858 kilometres. The geographic pole is also sometimes referred to as the geodetic pole.

South Magnetic Pole: the point on the Earth's surface where the direction of the Earth's magnetic field is vertically upwards.

The magnetic dip, the angle between the horizontal plane and the Earth's magnetic field lines, is 90° at the magnetic poles. The south magnetic pole is not fixed and its position moves about 5 kilometres a year presently in a north to north-westerly direction. The location of the south magnetic pole in 2007: 64.497° S and 137.684° E.

Geomagnetic Pole: either of two points of intersection of the surface of the Earth with the extended axis of a magnetic dipole which is assumed to be located at the centre of the Earth and approximates the source of the Earth's magnetic field.

It should not be confused with the magnetic pole which relates to the actual magnetic field of the Earth. The south geomagnetic pole is at 78° 30' S and 111° E which is near Russia's Vostok Station.

Pole of Inaccessibility: the furthest point from any Antarctic coast.

It is located at approximately 83° S and 55° E, approximately 870 kilometres from the South Pole. The pole of inaccessibility was reached by a Soviet Antarctic Expedition for International Geophysical Year research work in 1958. Today a building, plaque and bust of Vladimir Lenin still remain. They are protected as an historic site. When the site was visited in January 2007, only the bust and plaque were visible. 3

Ceremonial Pole: located near Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station.

It is a red and white striped barber pole capped with a metallic chromium globe. Surrounding the barber pole are 12 flags representing the original Antarctic Treaty signatories. The barber pole was placed on the geographic pole, but this pole moves 10m per year.

Directions Geographic or true directions: North-south is along any meridian and east-west is along any parallel, because of the way the graticule has been defined. These lines are perpendicular except at the poles. The direction determined by the orientation of the graticule is called geographic or true direction. True north is therefore the direction towards the north geographic pole.

Magnetic North: the direction indicated by the north seeking pole of a magnetic needle influenced only by the Earth's magnetic field.

The direction of the magnetic pole is not usually parallel to the meridian. The difference between true north and magnetic north is called magnetic declination.

Grid North: the northwards direction of a line of constant easting on a grid projection.

When a rectangular grid is placed over the graticule of a map, the north direction of the grid will generally not coincide with true north. For example, when a UTM projection is used, grid north and true north only coincide at the central meridian. Away from the central meridian the difference between true north and grid north is known as the grid convergence.

Meridian: a line approximating the surface of the Earth, from the north pole to the south pole and connecting points of equal longitude.

The prime meridian, located at Greenwich, England, is the origin from which the numbering begins for identifying lines of longitude.

Parallel: a circle approximating the surface of the Earth, parallel to the equator and connecting points of equal latitude. 4

Great Circle distance: the shortest distance between two points on the surface of the Earth, assuming the Earth is spherical.

Source: Ursula Ryan, AADC For Australian Antarctic Division

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Fact Sheet #2 Why were people interested in finding the South Magnetic Pole?

The Age of Discovery

The name Antarktikos derives from "opposite the Bear", Arktos being the Great Bear (or Big Dipper) constellation above the North Pole. Yet while the ancient Greeks only imagined the continent, the first human to encounter the Antarctic realm may well have been a seventh century Raratongan traveler, Ui-te-Rangiara who, it is said, "sailed south to a place of bitter cold where white rock-like forms grew out of a frozen sea," according to Polynesian legend.

The discovery and exploration of the Antarctic is very recent in terms of human history —all the great discoveries about the continent have taken place in the space of just 200 years. But from the time of Columbus on, map-makers nearly always included a mythical continent described as 'Terra Australis Incognita " ('The Unknown Southern Land') situated exactly where today we know Antarctica stands.

There were numerous voyages into subantarctic waters by the sailors and explorers during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The first recorded crossing of the Antarctic Circle, however, was in 1773 by British Captain James Cook and his crews aboard the Resolution and the Adventure . Altogether Cook made three voyages through Antarctic waters. Though never actually sighting the continent, he was convinced that there was "a tract of land at the Pole that is the source of all the ice that is spread over this vast Southern Ocean." Cook reached 71° S, a higher latitude than anyone before him, and in three years sailed some 62,000 miles (1000,000 km) in possibly the greatest sea voyage ever made.

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These voyages were followed by a period when American and British sealers travelled south discovering subantarctic islands. From these islands they slaughtered fur seals for skins and giant elephant seals for oil. It was possibly a member of one of these sealing parties, Russian Admiral Von Bellinghausen, who made the first sighting of the Antarctic continent in January 1820. A British officer, Edward Bransfield, sighted the Antarctic Peninsula a month later, and Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer, also claimed a sighting in November of that year.

Scientific expeditions followed in the wake of the sealing parties. From the late 1830s onwards investigations into the earth's magnetic fields encouraged expeditions to set out to locate the South Magnetic Pole. The magnetic poles, one in each hemisphere, are the points where the earth's magnetic lines pass into the Earth. At these points, the magnetic or dip poles, a compass needle will stand vertically.

The North Magnetic Pole had been discovered in 1831, sparking great interest among scientific teams from several different countries to find the southern equivalent.

The Frenchman, Dumont d' Urville, and American Charles Wilkes, from the United States, searched for the South Magnetic Pole in 1840. The following year James Clark Ross of Great Britain sailed into what is now known as the Ross Sea, and determined the approximate position of the South Magnetic Pole but was unable to reach it.

Source: www.doc.ic.ac.uk/kpt/terraquest

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Fact Sheet #3 Why is the Magnetic Pole continually moving?

Earth has a magnetic field. If you imagine a gigantic bar magnet inside of Earth, you'll have a pretty good idea what Earth's magnetic field is shaped like. Of course, Earth DOESN'T have a giant bar magnet inside it; instead, our planet's magnetic field is made by swirling motions of molten iron in Earth's outer core.

Earth has two geographic poles: the North Pole and the South Pole. They are the places on Earth's surface that Earth's imaginary spin axis passes through. Our planet also has two magnetic poles: the North Magnetic Pole and the South Magnetic Pole. The magnetic poles are near, but not quite in the same places as, the geographic poles. The needle in a compass points towards a magnetic pole. When you are far away from a pole a compass is very helpful if you want to find your way around. The compass needle points pretty much due South (or North if you live in the Northern Hemisphere!). However, if you are near either pole, a compass becomes useless. It points towards the magnetic pole, not the true geographic pole. Those two poles could be quite far apart, and in different directions. Think how hard it must have been for early explorers to find their way around in the Arctic and Antarctic without being able to use a compass!

Earth's magnetic field is tilted a little bit. If we pretend that the Earth's magnetic field is made by a giant bar magnet, then that bar magnet would make an angle with Earth's spin axis. That angle is about 11°. That's why the magnetic poles and the geographic poles are not in the same place. If you were standing at one of the magnetic poles, the magnetic field lines would be straight up and down. If you were holding a compass and turned it sideways, its needle would aim straight up and down!

Earth's magnetic poles are actually pretty far from its geographic poles. In 2005, the North Magnetic Pole (NMP) was about 810 km (503 miles) from the Geographic North Pole. The NMP was in the Arctic Ocean north of Canada. The South Magnetic Pole (SMP) was about 2,826 km (1,756

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miles) from the Geographic South Pole. The SMP was off the coast of Antarctica in the direction of Australia.

Did you notice how we said where the magnetic poles were in 2005? Guess what; the magnetic poles actually move around! Remember, swirling motions of molten metal in Earth's outer core make our planet's magnetic field. Those swirling motions are changing all the time. That means the magnetic field is changing, so the magnetic poles move! In the first part of the 20th century, the poles usually moved about 9 km (5.6 miles) per year. Then, around 1970, they started moving faster. In recent years they have been moving about 41 km (25 miles) per year!

Sometimes Earth's magnetic field even flips over! The North and South Magnetic Poles trade places. This doesn't happen very often; usually at least a few hundred thousand years pass between these flips.

Speaking of flipping, did you know that Earth's North Magnetic Pole is actually a south pole? Huh, what? When compasses were first invented, people noticed that one end of the compass pointed towards the North. They called the end of the compass needle that pointed North the "north end" of the needle (makes sense!). Later, people learned more about magnets. They learned that like ends (a north and a north OR a south and a south) push away from each other. They learned that opposite ends (such as a north and a south) pull toward each other. The needle of a compass is a tiny bar magnet. The north end of the needle is pulled toward Earth's North Magnetic Pole. So the North Magnetic Pole is actually the south pole of Earth's magnetic field. Doesn't that just make your brain ache!

The aurora (Northern and Southern Lights) mostly happen near the magnetic poles. That's because the charged particles (mostly electrons and protons) that cause the aurora follow along magnetic field lines towards the magnetic poles. When the particles run into air in Earth's atmosphere, the air glows in pretty colours - making the beautiful aurora!

Source : www.windows.ucar.edu/tour

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Fact Sheet #4 A timeline of Antarctic exploration

A brief history of the exploration of Antarctica What else was happening in the world?

350 B.C. It was the ancient Greeks who first came up with the idea of Antarctica. They knew about the Arctic - named Arktos - The Bear, from the constellation the great bear and decided that in order to balance the world, there should be a similar cold Southern landmass that was the same but the opposite "Ant - Arktos" - opposite The Bear. They never actually went there, it was just a lucky guess!

1773 In January, James Cook crosses the Antarctic 1776 - USA becomes circle and circumnavigates Antarctica, though he independent from Great doesn't sight land, deposits of rock seen in Britain icebergs showed that a southern continent exists. His comment - " I make bold to declare that the 1780 - James Watt world will derive no benefit from it ". perfects the steam engine 1819 - 21 1815 - Battle of Captain Thaddeus Bellingshausen a Russian naval Waterloo officer in the Vostok and Mirny circumnavigates the Antarctic, first to cross the Antarctic circle since Cook.

He made the first sighting of the continent , reaching 69° 21'S, 2° 14'W - describing an "icefield covered with small hillocks." on Jan 27th 1820. For some considerable time, exactly who and when first set eyes on Antarctica were in dispute as British naval officers, William Smith and Edward Bransfield also saw Antarctica on Jan 30th the same year - followed by American sealer Nathaniel

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Palmer on Nov 16th.

This was the first time a continent had truly been "discovered" (i.e. there weren't any native peoples living there who'd known about it for ages already). All sightings are of the Antarctic Peninsula.

1821 February the 7th. 1st known landing on continental Antarctica by American sealer Captain John Davis, though this is not acknowledged by all historians.

In the winter of 1821, for the first time ever a party of men spent a winter in Antarctica. An officer and ten men from a British sealing ship the Lord Melville had to spend the winter on King George Island - part of the South Shetlands group, north of the Antarctic Peninsula. The ship had been driven offshore and did not return to pick them up again. They were rescued the following summer.

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British whaler James Weddell discovers the sea named after him and then reaches the most southerly point at that time 74° 15' S. No one else manages to penetrate the Weddell sea again for 80 years. 1830 - World's first railway opens 1840's Separate British, French and American expeditions establish the status of Antarctica as a continent after sailing along continuous coastline.

In 1840, British naval officer and scientist James 1840 - Victoria becomes Clark Ross takes two ships, the Erebus and the queen of Great Britain Terror , to within 80 miles of the coast until 1859 - Darwin publishes stopped by a massive ice barrier - now called the "Origin of Species" Ross Ice Shelf. He also discovers the active volcano that he names after his ship Erebus , and identifies 11

145 new species of fish (not personally you understand - a scientist on the ship did that bit).

Late 1800s to early 20th century 1885 - Karl Benz builds Many expeditions largely by sealers and whalers the first motor car to all parts of Antarctica. Mainly marine exploration and exploration of the sub Antarctic 1896 - Marconi invents islands. wireless telegraph (radio) 1898, March Adrien de Gerlache and the crew of the "Belgica" become trapped in pack ice off the Antarctic Peninsula in the first scientific expedition to the continent. They become the first to survive an Antarctic winter (involuntarily!) as their ship drifts with the ice (they didn't enjoy it).

1899 Carsten Borchgrevink leads a British expedition that landed men at Cape Adare and built huts. This 1901 - Australia becomes was the first time that anyone had wintered on an independent nation. the Antarctic landmass. Believed by some historians to be the first confirmed landing on Queen Victoria dies. End continental Antarctica. of the Victorian era.

1902 President McKinley shot, Captain Scott, UK, leads his first Antarctic USA. Roosevelt takes expedition to reach the South Pole, with Ernest over Shackleton and Edward Wilson. They are forced to turn back two months later having reached 82 1903 - Wright brothers degrees south, suffering from snow blindness and make the first powered scurvy. flight of an airplane

Several other publicly and privately sponsored Marie Curie becomes expeditions around this time. By now, these are first woman to win a driven by science, geography and exploration - Nobel prize less by the exploitation of resources such as seals and whales.

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1907 - 1909 1908 - Ford motor Shackleton leads expedition to within 156km / company produce the 97mls of the South Pole , turns back after supplies "Model T" are exhausted.

1909 January, Australian Douglas Mawson reaches the 1910 - Republic of South South Magnetic Pole. Africa established

1911 December 14th. Norwegian Roald Amundsen leads a five man expedition that reaches the South Pole for the first time.

1912 January 18th. Britain's Captain Robert Falcon 1912 - Titanic sinks on Scott reaches the South Pole to discover he has maiden voyage killing been beaten by Amundsen. All of the five-man 1500 people team (Scott, Bowers, Evans, Oates and Wilson), are to perish on the return journey only 11 miles from supply depot. Bodies are not discovered until November.

December. Douglas Mawson begins his trek across George V Land back to his base at Commonwealth Bay. His two companions had died, and against the odds he makes it home. A new section of coast is discovered and described, and radio is used for the first time in Antarctica. 1914- 1918 World War I

1915 October. Shackleton returns to Antarctica in an attempt to complete the first crossing of the continent. The goal is not attained, but one of the 1919 Professor Ernest greatest adventures of all time follows . Their Rutherford splits the ship is crushed in the sea ice and a small party sets atom out for South Georgia and the whaling station. The party is eventually rescued in 1917.

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1923 The beginning of large-scale factory ship whaling in the Ross Sea. 1927 Al Jolson stars in 1928 the "Jazz Singer" the Australian Sir George Wilkins and American Carl first talkie film Benjamin Eielson are the first to fly over Antarctica around the peninsula region.

1929 Richard E. Byrd and three others - US - become the first to fly over the South Pole. 1930's - Great depression era 1935 Lincoln Ellsworth - US - flies across the continent. 1939 - 1945 World War Caroline Mikkelsen, Norway, is the first woman to II set foot on Antarctica when she accompanies her husband, a whaling captain.

1947 1947 - Picard invents the Operation Highjump - US - sends the largest ever bathyscaphe and expedition of over 4700 men, 13 ships and 23 descends to 4000m in airplanes to Antarctica. Most of the coast is the ocean. photographed for map making. 1953 Edmund Hilary and 1956 Sherpa Tensing climb US aircraft lands at South Pole. First people Mount Everest for the there since Scott and his team in 1912. first time

1st July 1957 - 31st Dec 1958 International Geophysical Year (IGY) 12 nations establish over 60 stations in Antarctica. The beginning of international cooperation in Antarctica and the start of the process by which Antarctica becomes "non-national".

The first successful land crossing via the South Pole is led by British geologist Vivian Fuchs with New Zealander Edmund Hillary leading the back up

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party, over 40 years after Shackleton's expedition set out with the same aim.

1961 Antarctic treaty comes into effect. 1969 – Man first walks on the Moon 1997 Boerge Ousland (Norway) becomes first person to cross Antarctica unsupported. Taking 64 days from Berkner Island to Scott base towing a 180kg (400lb) sled and using skis and a sail.

March 2007 - March 2009 International Polar Year - Actually Spans two years in order that researchers get the opportunity to work in both polar regions or work summer and winter if they wish.

Source : www.coolantarctica.com

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Fact Sheet #5 Whose who of Antarctic exploration Test your knowledge

Question 1: Who led the first team to reach the South Pole? o Roald Amundsen o Robert Falcon Scott o Ernest Shackleton o Douglas Mawson The answer is: Roald Amundsen

Question 2: What was the means of transport of the first team to reach the South Pole? o Ski-doos o Horseback o Dog sled o On foot The answer is: Dog sled

Question 3: What was the nationality of the SECOND team to reach the South Pole? o Norwegian o American o British o French The answer is: British

Question 4: What happened to the members of the second team on their return from the pole? o Though disappointed, return was uneventful o They all died o They were welcomed as heroes The answer is: They all died

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Question 5: After the first two teams reached the South Pole, how long was it until the next one? o 5 years o 16 years o 22 years o 46 years The answer is: 46 years

Question 6: The first voyage to set eyes on Antarctica was: Palmer - American Bellinghausen - Russian Bransfield - British Dumont d'Urville - French The answer is: Bellinghausen - Russian

Question 7: The first ship to spend a full winter in Antarctica was: o Antarctic - Nordenskjold o Gauss - Drygalski o Belgica - Adrien de Gerlache o Southern Cross - Borchgrevinck The answer is: Belgica - Adrien de Gerlache

Question 8: What did Richard E. Byrd do in Antarctica? o First to set foot on Antarctica o First to fly over the South Pole o First to map Antarctica o First to cross Antarctica The answer is: First to fly over the South Pole

Question 9: Which was the first expedition to DELIBERATELY winter in Antarctica? Antarctic - Nordenskjold o Gauss - Drygalski o Belgica - Adrien de Gerlache o Southern Cross - Borchgrevinck The answer is: Southern Cross - Borchgrevinck

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Question 10: What was the name of Sir Ernest Shackleton's ship in his most famous expedition? o Discovery o Terra Nova o Endurance o Aurora The answer is: Endurance

Source :www.coolantarctica.com

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Fact Sheet #6 Survival in a frozen land

Humans are essentially tropical animals and are not equipped to deal with even mild cold. That we can live in cold climates is a result of behavioural adaptations such as wearing appropriate clothing and building shelters.

Successfully surviving cold requires two simultaneous events. Firstly, generating sufficient body heat by burning appropriate food and secondly, preventing the loss of that heat by suitable clothing and shelter.

The lowest temperature that can be endured is a combination of the duration and the extent of the exposure, so it is not easily determined. A naked person will start to feel cold if the surrounding temperature drops below around 25°C (77°F). Physiological responses such as shivering and diverting blood away from the extremities and surface of the skin will then kick in.

These physiological responses mean that a reasonably well nourished adult can maintain their core temperature in still air just above freezing point wearing only light clothing.

Moving Air

This maintenance of temperature becomes much more difficult in moving air and also in damp or wet conditions. If the extremities fall below freezing point, even if only barely, then frostbite and possible permanent damage will occur.

The cooling effect of moving air is well known and the phrase "wind chill factor" was coined by the American Paul Siple to describe the fact that

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wind increases the rate of heat loss and has the effect of making it seem as though it's really colder than the thermometer is showing.

His original experiments were conducted in Antarctica in 1941 by measuring how long it took water to freeze in baked beans tins in different strengths of wind and at different temperatures.

The use of wind chill is show the effective temperature at a particular wind speed. For instance in calm conditions at -29°C a well clothed person is in little danger, a light wind of 10mph gives the same effect as a temperature of -44°C when exposed flesh can freeze in a minute or so. A breeze of 25mph gives an equivalent of -66°C with severe danger to exposed flesh within seconds rather than minutes. This is one of the reasons why Antarctica is such an extreme environment, it is often both very cold and very windy.

Getting Cold

A reduction in body temperature results in impaired body function. This is seen most easily in cold weather when you try to do something like tie a shoe-lace or do up an awkward button with fingers that are clumsy with cold. The nerve cells that transmit impulses work more slowly as do the muscles controlling your fingers. 12°C is the critical air temperature for good manual dexterity and 8°C for touch sensitivity.

In Antarctica, I was most aware of this when axing through sea-ice to make a hole for a diver (to set fishing nets). After five minutes or so of chopping away I had to prise my fingers individually away from the axe handle as the blood flow had been reduced by gripping it so tightly.

Low temperatures also reduce the efficiency of pain receptors, so putting an ice pack on a burn or sprain helps to reduce swelling and damage, but also helps with the pain.

A common symptom of cold weather is its effect on urine production. Exposure to cold causes a reduction in blood flow to the surface of the skin by constriction of blood vessels. This reduces the overall volume of the circulatory system so increasing the blood pressure. The body's response to this is to reduce the fluid volume by getting rid of water in the urine. So when you get cold, you want to pee. 20

Another reaction you may notice is that when the skin temperature falls below about 10°C, the surface blood vessels dilate (get wider) rather than constrict, If the temperature falls further periods of blood vessel dilation alternate with periods of constriction, This is because your body is trying not to lose heat from the extremities, but at the same time wants to supply the skin with blood for oxygen and nutrients. This phenomenon explains the red cheeks and nose characteristic of frosty weather. Eventually however the body stops the dilation of the blood vessels to the skin and the skin falls to the surrounding temperatures when frost nip or frost bite may occur.

Goose pimples are an obvious sign that a person is feeling cold. They are caused by the tiny erector pili muscles attached to the base of the hair follicles covering the body. The scientific name for this is horripilation . In man it has no effect as we don't have enough hairs to make a difference, but in animals with a dense coat of fur it improves the insulation considerably.

A final response to decreasing temperature is the increase of heat production. Muscular contraction is an inefficient process and causes much heat to be produced, so when we start to feel cold, we may begin to shiver, movements that are useless in themselves, but that generate heat as a by-product and so help to warm us up. Shivering can increase the production of heat five-fold.

In conditions when the body starts to lose more heat than it can easily generate to keep all parts at the normal 37°C it will start to allow the extremities, fingers, toes, ears, nose, and cheeks start to get cooler. There is still a blood flow to these body parts, but not as much flows as does normally. In order to keep the extremities at normal body temperature, greater blood flow would be required which would bring cooled blood back to the body core so cooling the body even further. The extremities have a high surface area/volume ratio, so they lose heat very easily.

This reduction of blood flow is not normally a problem and happens to some extent for most people much of the time. In extreme or prolonged cold however it can lead to frost-nip and even frost-bite. These are situations in which the body has made the decision to risk or sacrifice

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some of the more expendable regions to preserve the core temperature and so avoid death from hypothermia.

Frost Nip Most often observed at the end of the nose, tops of the ears or possibly fingers. The skin goes an unnatural looking "pasty white" colour and loses sensation. This is caused by a lack of blood flow to those regions because they are losing so much heat. Frost nip is an early warning sign that, if left, it will lead to frostbite . It can be readily corrected however by putting on extra clothing. The skidoo gloves I used in Antarctica had a large patch of sheepskin on the back to hold against and warm up any frost-nipped parts. The important thing with frost nip is to keep an eye on your companions as it is so easy to miss it on yourself.

Frost nip can actually freeze the surface layers of the skin and lead to symptoms like sun burn with the warmed skin later turning bright red and being sloughed off. There is no permanent damage.

Frost Bite Left unattended, frost-nip will lead to frost bite. The difference is that in frost bite, the skin actually falls below freezing point and ice crystals form within the live cells of the skin killing them in the process. On rewarming, the skin swells and blisters turning blue-purple to black - this then forms a hardened black carapace. If the damage is not severe, the dead layer is sloughed off revealing new healthy skin that has grown underneath. It is however very painful. This is known as superficial frost bite.

"The temperature was -47°F and I was fool enough to take my hands out of my mitts to haul on the ropes to bring the sledges up. I started away with all ten fingers frostbitten. They did not really come back until we were in our tent for our night meal, and within a few hours there were two or three large blisters, up to an inch long on all of them. For many days those blisters hurt frightfully" - Apsley Cherry-Garrard, The Worst Journey in the World

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More serious is when frostbite affects the deeper layers of muscle and bone. This almost always results in permanent tissue damage and may result in amputation of fingers, toes, even feet, hands and parts of the arm or leg. Many polar explorers and mountaineers have lost parts of some fingers or toes because of frostbite.

Treating severe frostbite - serious damage can be caused when badly frostbitten body parts are rewarmed, particularly if it is done too rapidly. It is therefore better to keep the parts frozen until medical attention can be received.

Cold weather on a modern society has a number of effects , most dramatically on the general population mortality rate. The average mortality on a winter's day is about 15% higher than on a summer's day. Cold weather is directly responsible for deaths through such things as hypothermia, influenza, and pneumonia. It is also an indirect factor in a number of ways such as death and injury from falls, accidents, carbon monoxide poisoning, and house fires all of which are partially attributable to cold.

The sex and race of a person are important when it comes to how susceptible they are to direct cold injury and hypothermia. Non-white elderly men are the most at risk, while white women are the least at risk. Women have a higher gradient of temperature from the skin to the body core (they're more likely to have cold hands for instance) and so it seems are more able to maintain a constant body core temperature in cold conditions. Subcutaneous fat has a part to play of course as an insulator and women generally have more than do men so helping them stay warm. On the other hand, because of the high temperature gradient from skin to core, women are more likely to suffer from surface cold injury such as frostbite.

Age has the highest influence, more so than gender, with elderly people of any race or sex having the least ability to survive cold injury. Studies have shown that shivering and vasoconstriction to reduce blood flow to the body periphery are not so prominent in older people, putting them at greater risk. Also as we get older, we become less able to

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distinguish changes in temperature and so older people are more likely to start to lose heat early on before it may become a problem.

Adaptation plays a major part too. Living in a cold environment means that people become used to the temperature and the metabolism changes to adapt. I remember quite vividly, having been in Antarctica for nearly a year, when the supply ship came in on what we considered a balmy day. The winterers were walking around in t-shirts and loose untucked over shirt with rolled up sleeves, while those who were new arrivals were well wrapped in fastened jackets and hats and still feeling cold.

The old idea of cold showers or baths and "washing in snow" to toughen up against the cold does indeed work. When a cold snap hits a normally warm city, the mortality rate will be significantly higher than the same temperature at a colder city which may show no increase in mortality at all if the effect is fairly mild. These cold-related deaths differ from the immediate impact of cold injury in that there is a time lag of about 2-3 days after the period when the cold snap happened.

Source: www.coolantarctica.com

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Fact sheet #7 Australia’s Antarctic involvement

Australia's long history of involvement in Antarctica has its foundations in the 18th century when Australia depended on the sea for its trade and communications, and was conscious of the vast unknown region that lay close to the south. Because of this proximity it was inevitable that Australia became closely involved in Antarctic exploration.

The sailing vessels upon which the colonies depended for their supplies and trade with Europe followed the Great Circle routes south of the Cape of Good Hope and sought the favourable westerly winds found well to the south. These voyages brought familiarity with the high latitudes, but were not without risk - in the second year of settlement HMS Guardian was almost lost after striking an iceberg.

From the first days of colonisation in 1788, Australia was closely associated with sealing and whaling industries. These industries rapidly assumed commercial importance but, as Australian waters became exhausted, the attention of sealers and whalers turned inevitably to the subantarctic islands. By 1820, just ten years after the discovery of Macquarie Island, the fur seal had been virtually exterminated and elephant seals were being slaughtered for their oil.

Over-exploitation around Australia also forced whalers to explore the southern waters. The Hobart barque Venus reached 72°S in search of whales in 1831. Its return to Australia with a cargo of sperm whale oil stimulated others to explore the far south. Elsewhere around Antarctica other voyages by English, American and Russian vessels were making significant discoveries. The geographic and scientific exploration of Antarctica was thus encouraged by the early commercial ventures.

Many explorers bound for the Antarctic visited Australia for supplies for their southern journeys, including John Biscoe, Charles Wilkes, Dumont d'Urville and James Clark Ross. The use of Hobart as a port of call for most of these expeditions and its support for the southern sealing and whaling industries fostered Australian interest in Antarctica.

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The scientific era begins Despite the brief extension of harvesting activities to Heard Island, the middle of the 1800's saw a decline in Antarctic whaling and sealing. Commercial exploitation gave way to scientific exploration.

A Tasmanian scientific journal of 1842 saw the first promotion of Australian research in the Antarctic. However, the call was not taken up until after the highly successful Challenger expedition was concluded in 1876 and the studies of the International Polar Year completed in 1883. Australian scientific societies then became keen to develop research into Antarctica's geological, meteorological and magnetic phenomena.

In 1886 the Australian Antarctic Exploration Committee was established by the Royal Society of Victoria to investigate, among other things, the establishment of research stations and the use of steam powered ships to penetrate areas inaccessible to sailing vessels. However, proposals put forward by the Committee to mount a purely scientific expedition did not bring immediate results.

First landing on the continent 1895

A revival of interest in whaling towards the end of the nineteenth century prompted a Norwegian expedition to explore Antarctic waters south of Australia for new whaling grounds. The manager of the expedition was Norwegian H J Bull, of Melbourne, and signed on as expedition scientist was another Norwegian, C E Borchgrevink, who had been working in Australia as a teacher.

In January 1895 they were in the party that made the first landing on continental Antarctica, at Cape Adare. During the Carsten brief visit ashore Borchgrevink made collections of rocks and Borchgrevinck lichens. No new whaling grounds were found, but when the Antarctic expedition arrived back in Australia the specimens were proof of the opportunities for research.

First planned wintering party 1898-99: Australian expeditioners

Borchgrevink proposed a return visit to the Antarctic with a scientific party that would, for the first time, stay for a winter on the continent.

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The expedition, mounted in England, sailed from Hobart in November 1898 aboard the Southern Cross and carried a research staff of seven.

The first Australian to land on the Antarctic continent was the scientist of that party, the young Tasmanian physicist, Louis Charles Bernacchi. He concluded that although there were poor prospects for commercial advantage, "Antarctic exploration is of capital importance to science". This expedition became the first party to spend a winter on the Antarctic continent.

Robert Falcon Scott 1901-04: Australian involvement

Over a short period around the turn of the century research expeditions were mounted by several countries. Australia took particular interest in Scott's 1901-1904 expedition, on the Discovery, offering financial support and port facilities. Bernacchi returned to the Antarctic as Scott's physicist.

Shackleton 1907-09: Australian involvement

Australia also played a major role in the success of Shackleton's 1907-09 expedition. The Australian Government donated 5000 pounds (sterling) to the expedition.

Australians directly participating included geologist Professor Edgeworth David, who joined Shackleton as chief scientific officer; Bertram Armytage of Melbourne; Leo Cotton of Sydney; and Captain John King Davis, master of the expedition's vessel, who would go on to play a major part in Australia's exploration of Antarctica.

The AAT is the largest territorial claim on the continent and covers much of east Antarctica. The total area is approximately 5,800,000 sq Km – about the area of Australia excluding Queensland.

It consists of all islands and territories south of 60°S between 45°E and 160°E, with the exception of the French sector of Terre Adélie, which comprises the islands and territories south of 60°S and between longitudes 136°E and 142°E. 27

Australia is among seven nations which have claimed territory in Antarctica. The other claimant nations are Argentina, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom.

The Australian claim is based on discovery and a long historical association with this part of Antarctica.

Douglas Mawson: AAE & BANZARE

Australia's Douglas Mawson led the 1911 to 1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) which established bases at Commonwealth Bay and the Shackleton Ice Shelf. The expedition explored extensively along the coast near the bases and claimed this land as British territory.

Sir Douglas Mawson In 1929 – 1931 further extensive claims to in the Commander's sovereignty were made by the British, Australian Cabin, Discovery. and New Zealand Antarctic Research (BANZARE) Photo: Frank Hurley expedition again led by Douglas Mawson.

Three new landings were made and aircraft flights discovered the BANZARE Coast and Princess Elizabeth Land. The expedition also generated scientific results that were so voluminous that reports were still being published three decades later.

In two summer voyages Discovery and the expedition aircraft traversed the whole coastline from 45°E to 160°E, defining the limits of what was to become the Australian Antarctic Territory. Mawson made proclamations claiming sovereignty for Britain over Antarctic lands at each of landfall.

Proclamation of the AAT

On 7 February 1933, the British Government issued an Order-in-Council placing the Territory under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia.

That part of the Territory in the Antarctic seas which comprises all the islands and territories, other than Adelie Land, situated south of the 28

60th degree south latitude and lying between the 160th degree east longitude and the 45th degree east longitude, is hereby declared to be accepted by the Commonwealth as a Territory under the authority of the Commonwealth, by the name of the Australian Antarctic Territory.

The AAT became permanently occupied in February 1954 with the establishment of Mawson - the oldest continuously occupied station south of the Antarctic Circle.

ANARE is created To capitalise on the achievements of BANZARE, plans turned towards the establishment of permanent Antarctic stations which could support further exploratory work as well as conduct meteorological and other studies. Wilkins' ship Wyatt Earp was purchased by the government to support these proposals, but progress in Australian exploration had to be deferred with the outbreak of the Second World War.

Revival of interest after WW2

Australian interest in Antarctica revived after the War.

The immediate interest was in Antarctic meteorology and in 1947 a number of reconnaissance flights were conducted over the Southern Ocean but the principal aim was to establish permanent scientific stations on the Antarctic continent.

As a result of representations to the Government by Mawson's BANZARE Sir Douglas Mawson an inter-departmental committee party at Proclamation recommended, in December 1946, that firm Island. commitment be made to an Antarctic expedition. Photo: Frank Hurley

The government then moved quickly to approve the immediate establishment of meteorological and scientific research stations on Heard Island and Macquarie Island and the use of Wyatt Earp to reconnoitre a site for a permanent station on the Antarctic continent.

ANARE is born

To coordinate preparations for the work an Executive Planning Committee was established in May 1947, with Sir Douglas Mawson as advisor. Group 29

Captain Stuart Campbell, who had been in charge of BANZARE flying operations, was appointed chief executive officer of the expedition, which in August 1947 was given the formal title, Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition (ANARE). Dr Phillip Law, a physics lecturer from the University of Melbourne, was appointed to plan and organise the scientific program.

First ANARE season

In the first season of ANARE, using the naval vessel LST 3501, stations were established on Heard Island, in December 1947, and at Macquarie Island, in March 1948.

Meanwhile, under Karl Oom's command, Wyatt Earp sailed south to find a site for a continental station. Although weather and ice conditions prevented the small ship from reaching the coast, the voyage achieved some of its scientific aims, notably in Law's cosmic ray research.

However, it was clear that Wyatt Earp was not suitable for the work planned for ANARE and another six years were to pass before Australia could secure a vessel adequate for the task.

Despite the setback in not achieving the continental part of the program, the first expedition was deemed a success and the government resolved to put ANARE on a permanent footing.

Establishment of the Antarctic Division

The Antarctic Division of the Department of External Affairs was created in May 1948 to administer and coordinate ANARE. In January 1949 Phillip Law was appointed Director of the Antarctic Division and leader of ANARE - a position which he was to hold for the next 17 years.

The work on the subantarctic islands continued to develop, with a wide range of scientific disciplines being studied.

Law wanted the ANARE effort extended to the continent, where the greatest scientific opportunities were to be found, and devoted considerable energy to seeking vessels that could safely support extended journeys into the Antarctic pack ice. His solution to the 30

problem was to look to the northern hemisphere where ice strengthened vessels lay idle during the northern winter.

In 1953 he found a ship, the Kista Dan , that would prove ideal for his purpose of penetrating the Antarctic. His plans to establish a permanent station on the continent could be realised.

Establishment of Mawson

Kista Dan sailed from Melbourne in January 1954 for Heard Island and MacRobertson Land. A suitable site for a station was found on a rock outcrop surrounding a natural deep-water harbour. It was ideal. The site was one of the few rock exposures along the coast and offered excellent access to the interior of the continent. The site of Mawson Station on 13th Over a period of twelve days prefabricated buildings, February 1954 food, stores, scientific equipment and over-snow Photo: AAD

vehicles were landed and construction of the station was commenced. On 13 February 1954 Phillip Law opened Australia's first permanent station in Antarctica, naming it in honour of Sir Douglas Mawson.

After leaving Robert Dovers and the winter party to finish construction work, commence the scientific program and make a start on the inland exploration, the ship sailed east to explore Mackenzie Bay and the Vestfold Hills in Princess Elizabeth Land. This set the pattern for Law's future work, where each voyage would support the permanent stations and then remain in the Antarctic conducting extensive surveys along the coast of the Australian Antarctic Territory.

Establishment of Davis

Following the successful establishment of Mawson and the great gains made in inland survey work, further impetus to concentrate on the continent came from the decision to participate in the International Geophysical Year (IGY). This was to Davis in 1957 run from 1957 to 1958 and emphasised the unique Photo: P. Law (AAD) scientific opportunities of Antarctica. 31

Law's plans to establish a second station in the Vestfold Hills, which he had visited in 1954, were therefore timely. Law saw it as essential that Australia build its second station in this extensive ice free area which promised unique scientific opportunities.

Kista Dan was again used to carry the party and materials for a new station, and on 13 January 1957 Law opened Davis, naming it in honour of Captain John King Davis.

International cooperation

International Geophysical Year (IGY)

In 1958 a new Lauritzen vessel, Thala Dan , was brought into service for ANARE.

The expedition conducted a coastal survey in Oates Land, in the eastern sector of AAT, completed the annual relief of Davis and Mawson stations, and concluded with a survey westward to Enderby Land. This complemented extensive inland surveys that had been completed by the winter parties.

By the time the IGY commenced, Law had established Australia's ability to visit most parts of the AAT and to collect data simultaneously from a station in the subantarctic, two permanently occupied continental stations, and an automatic weather station which had been installed on Lewis Island in Wilkes Land.

The conclusion of the IGY saw Australia firmly committed to continuing exploration and research in AAT and in 1958 Law was able to negotiate the transfer to Australian administrative control of Wilkes, which had been established for the IGY by the United States.

Wilkes, on the coast of what is now Law Dome, was permanently placed in Australian custody on 4 February 1959. Due to snow and ice build up, Wilkes was closed replaced at first by Casey Repstat and later by modern-day Casey.

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Antarctic Treaty

The IGY had proved to be a hugely productive scientific experiment and had demonstrated that many nations could amicably work together in the Antarctic.

The spirit of cooperation that evolved during IGY prompted proposals that this uniquely successful scheme should be continued, leading to formation of the Antarctic Treaty in December 1959. Australia's credibility in Antarctic matters gave it a significant influence in the establishment of the Treaty. When the Treaty was ratified in 1961 Australia had become a leading nation in Antarctic science and exploration.

Modern expeditions

Thousands of men and women have travelled south over the years since the establishment of ANARE in 1947. All have lived and worked in one of the most challenging environments on the planet for periods of time ranging from a few weeks to eighteen months.

Today Australia administers three Antarctic stations, Casey, Davis and Mawson, and maintains a permanent subantarctic base on Macquarie Island. It conducts an extensive marine science program on its own icebreaker ship, RSV Aurora Australis . Expeditioner in modern polar Scientists, plumbers, electricians, chefs, carpenters, clothing builders, communications technicians, doctors and Photo: T, Taylor engineers have all played an important role in the development and maintenance of our Antarctic program.

The way in which people live and work has changed greatly over the past 60 years. Advances in technology have impacted most obviously on communications and travel, but also on other aspects of daily life such as building techniques, food preservation, clothing and power generation.

Operational advances and local community cultural changes go hand in hand. As people's experiences of Antarctica change, so too do their 33

responses. There has been a major shift in perception of the expeditioner experience from one of survival in a hostile climate, to one of living responsibly in a fragile, pristine environment.

ANARE's operational history is a fascinating story, one that is ongoing as the AAD continually initiates research into new projects and implements innovative engineering solutions to the challenges of living in Antarctica.

Source: www.aad.gov.au

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Fact Sheet #8 Magnetism on Earth

The Earth is a giant magnet. Its hot liquid centre core contains iron, and as it moves, it creates an electric current that causes a magnetic field around the Earth. The Earth has a north and south magnetic pole.

These poles aren't quite lined up with the geographic North and South Poles on a map, because the moving inner core's poles are always wandering around.

The north magnetic pole is currently situated near Bathurst Island in northern Canada, about 1600 km from the North Pole. The south magnetic pole is near the Adélie Coast on the continent of Antarctica, about 2600 km from the South Pole. Both pole positions can wander up to 10 km per year.

Because the Earth has a field just like a magnet, it attracts things. In particular, it will attract a small magnetised needle. A needle mounted in a case that lets it move freely will point to the north magnetic pole. We call this needle a compass.

Using a compass in the north can give you problems. The needle is actually pointing at the magnetic pole, which is not right at the geographic pole. So your compass may read north, when 'north' is actually in a slightly different direction. Airplane pilots use a compass and map which provide corrections for this 'magnetic variation', to allow them to know which way is true north on the map. These have to be updated every few years as magnetic north wanders away from, or towards, actual north.

A compass needle on the surface of the Earth will point along the magnetic field lines, towards the north magnetic pole. The needle is actually a tiny magnet, with the north end painted red. This red end is attracted to the 'north magnetic pole'. This means that, magnetically speaking, the north magnetic pole of the Earth is actually a south pole! We call it the 'north' magnetic pole because it's near the top of the 35

Earth, or geographic north, but really it's a magnetic 'south' pole. That's why a compass needle's north end points to it.

Source : www.worsleyschool.net

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Fact Sheet #17 Dogs

Huskies were used in Antarctica for a little under a hundred years. They were first used for transport during the Southern Cross expedition under Carsten Borchgrevink 1898 -1900.

In the early years, they were the only form of transport other than foot, as the 20th Century progressed, so more effective and more reliable mechanized transport became available. For a long time these motor vehicles were only really trustworthy on relatively flat, smooth surfaces and even then a gifted mechanic nearby was often a necessity.

Dog sleds remained until well into the 1970's as a required transportation solution. They were much more flexible than motor vehicles available at the time, considerably lighter (for travelling across crevassed regions or sea-ice) and could cope with the broken up / fractured terrain often encountered in Antarctica better than the early tracked vehicles.

They were kept, initially as a back-up for mechanized transport and then later when not required for this, for "recreational" purposes. Many generations of Antarctic personnel on scientific bases regarded their experiences in Antarctica as being greatly enhanced by the presence of the dogs and the possibility of sledging trips with them.

In 1991, the fear that distemper from dogs could spread to seals and the impact they could have on wildlife if they escaped led to a new clause in the Antarctic Treaty.

"Dogs shall not be introduced onto land or ice shelves and dogs currently in those areas shall be removed by April 1 1994".

The last dogs were removed from Antarctica on Feb 22nd 1994. All that remains of these most loyal of man's companions in the most extreme place on earth is their history and photographs.

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If you think about it, as Amundsen used dog sleds to reach the South Pole and his sled was being pulled by dogs at the time, dogs even reached the South Pole momentarily before the first man did!

The pictures shows dog tracks initially made in soft snow, the dogs’ paws compressed the snow below the surface. Then along came an Antarctic blizzard and blew away all the previous snowfall except where it had been compressed by the dogs’ paws - leaving raised prints.

Source :www.aad.gov.au

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Fact Sheet #18 Blizzards

In Antarctica, as the temperatures decline in the Autumn, the continent cools rapidly. This results in large pressure differences at the edge of the landmass, and leads to an increase in cyclonic or storm activity. The cyclones carry warmer moister air from the northern latitudes into the continent, though they often do not penetrate very far inland.

Blizzards are a typical Antarctic phenomenon occurring when drift snow is picked up and blown along the surface by the violent winds. Blinding conditions can result in which objects less than a 3 feet away may be invisible. Localized blizzards are caused when the surface wind sweeps up any loose snow, even if the skies above are clear and no snow is falling. A severe blizzard may last for a week at a time with winds blasting at over 100 miles per hour.

Source : www.antarcticconnection.com

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Fact Sheet #19 Manhauling

Manhauling , often expressed as man-hauling , means the pulling forward of sledges, trucks or other load-carrying vehicles by human power unaided by animals or machines. The term is used primarily in connection with travel over snow and ice, and was particularly prevalent during Arctic and Antarctic expeditions before the days of modern motorised traction.

In the years following the end of the Napoleonic wars the British Royal Navy took up polar exploration as its chief peacetime activity. Man- hauling was adopted by the early British naval expeditions, and became traditional, eventually being hailed as inherently more noble than the use of dogs as practised by the native Arctic-dwelling peoples. The technique’s chief advocate was Sir Clements Markham, President of the Royal Geographical Society during the latter part of the 19th century. A figure of considerable influence, he brought his prejudices to bear on the series of great British Antarctic ventures during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, in all of which man-hauling was predominant.

Later writers would condemn man-hauling, particularly with the heavy loaded sledges which were commonly employed, as inefficient and wasteful, citing it as a direct cause of the great Antarctic tragedy of 1910–12—the deaths of Captain Scott and his four companions as they man-hauled their way across the Ross Ice Shelf on their return from the South Pole.

Source: Berton, Pierre: The Antarctic Grail Viking Penguin Inc

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Fact Sheet #20 Antarctica glossary

A ablation - The removal of material from a glacier, melting, evaporation, or calving (bits dropping off the end into the sea to form icebergs). Opposite of accumulation. ablation zone - That portion of a glacier where more material is lost (by melting or evaporation) than gained by snowfall. abyssal plain - The deep ocean plain, a relatively flat part of the ocean floor lying at depths between 3500 meters (11,480 feet / 2.2 miles down) and greater than 6000 meters (19,680 feet / 3.7 miles down). This region is dark, cold (and very gloomy) subject to little or very slow water movements and very stable. accumulation - The addition of material to glaciers, snow, rain, material blown by wind, and avalanches. Opposite of ablation. accumulation zone - The region of the glacier where mass is only added (as snow or rain), no mass is lost. Usually this area is near the origin of the glacier at higher altitudes. albedo - How reflective a surface is. High albedo means that much of the incoming radiation is reflected (for example snow and ice); low albedo means that much of the incoming radiation is absorbed (for example water). algae - A plant group that compose the majority or all of the phytoplankton in bodies of water, mostly unicellular though there are multicellular forms such as kelp. Algae can form lichens in a symbiotic relationship with fungi.

Antarctic Bottom Water - The coldest and densest water mass in the global oceans. Formed in particular places on the Antarctic continental shelf such as Weddell Sea and Ross Sea when surface water cools and becomes more dense and so sinks to the ocean floor. Once formed it tends to flow northwards hugging the seafloor. It can be traced into many ocean basins, including parts of the North Atlantic Ocean.

Antarctic Circumpolar Trough - An atmospheric feature located between 60°S and 65°S. A zone of low pressure that causes variable winds moving from west to east and responsible for the "Screaming sixties" as known to seamen.

Antarctic Convergence (Polar Front) - A surface boundary where which the colder, north flowing Antarctic Surface Waters sink beneath warmer circulating waters. This marks a change in the oceans surface temperature and also chemical composition. North of the convergence, the area is known as the sub-Antarctic.

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arid - Very dry. An area with little rain or precipitation of any kind (snow, hail, sleet etc.) usually less than 25 centimetres (10 inches) of annual rainfall, Antarctica is largely classed as arid. arthropod - A group of invertebrates with hard exoskeletons and jointed limbs such as insects, spiders, and crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, lobsters). atmosphere - The gases that surround a planet. Earth's atmosphere consists of about 20% oxygen and 79% nitrogen with smaller amounts of other gases. "Atmosphere" is also used as a unit for the measurement of pressure. One atmosphere equals 14.7 pounds per square inch being the pressure due to the mass of the gases acting on the earth at sea level. atmospheric circulation - Movement within the atmosphere, winds and air currents, caused by differences in pressure from one region to another. Air moves from a region of high pressure where it is "piled up" to "thinner" areas of low pressure. atmospheric pressure - The amount of pressure exerted by the atmosphere at a given point (force per unit area). Essentially the effect of the mass of the air above a particular point being pulled down by gravity atmospheric sciences - The study of the atmosphere, of the envelope of gases that surround the Earth. Atmospheric science include meteorology and climatology. aurora - The display of "dancing" light patterns seen in areas of high latitudes - nearer the poles. Auroras are caused by magnetic storms from the sun releasing huge amounts of energy. The energy travels toward the Earth as an ionic cloud. On reaching the earth, the cloud "blows" over the poles and interacts with Earth's magnetic field. The ions interact with the ionosphere energize oxygen and nitrogen molecules which causes them to emit light.

Anything in the northern hemisphere is referred to as "Boreal", in the southern hemisphere as "Austral", hence Aurora Borealis in the north and Aurora Australis in the south. avalanche - A mass of snow and/or ice detached from where it rested and slipping down a slope. axis - An imaginary line through the centre of the Earth, around which the planet rotates.

B bacteria - A group of acellular microscopic organisms, bacteria are found everywhere. Different types may be involved in the decomposition of organic matter, in making food by photosynthesis, in the guts of all multicellular organisms, in the deepest ocean and in Antarctica, even living inside rocks as protection from the elements.

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Beaufort scale - A way of measuring the strength of the wind given as a number or "force":

Beaufort wind scale

Wind Description Speed mph Specifications for use Specifications for force on land use at sea 0 Calm 0 - 1 mph Smoke rises vertically Sea like a mirror 1 Light air 1 - 3 mph Direction of wind shown Ripples with the by smoke drift, but not appearance of scales by wind vanes. are formed, but without foam crests. 2 Light breeze 4 - 8 mph Wind felt on face, Small wavelets, still leaves rustle, ordinary short, but more vanes moved by wind. pronounced. Crests have a glassy appearance and do not break. 3 gentle breeze 9 - 13 mph Leaves and small twigs Large wavelets. in constant motion, wind Crests begin to extends light flag. break. Foam of glassy appearance. Perhaps scattered white horses. 4 Moderate 14 - 19 mph Raises dust and loose Small waves, breeze paper, small branches becoming larger; are moved. fairly frequent white horses. 5 Fresh breeze 20 - 25 mph Small trees in leaf begin Moderate waves, to sway, crested taking a more wavelets form on inland pronounced long waters. form, many white horses are formed. Chance of some spray. 6 Strong breeze 26 - 32 mph Large branches in Large waves begin to motion, whistling heard form, the white foam in telegraph wires, crests are more umbrellas used with extensive difficulty. everywhere. Probably some spray. 7 Moderate gale 33 - 41 mph Whole trees in motion, Sea heaps up and inconvenience felt when white foam from walking against the wind. breaking waves begins to be blown in streaks along the direction of the wind.

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8 Fresh gale 42 - 50 mph Breaks twigs off trees, Moderately high generally impedes waves of greater progress. length, edges of crests begin to break into spindrift. The foam is blown in well- marked streaks along the direction of the wind. 9 Strong gale 51 - 61 mph Slight structural High waves. Dense damage occurs streaks of foam along (chimney-pots and the direction of the slates removed). wind. Crests of waves begin to topple, tumble and roll over. Spray may affect visibility. 10 Storm 62 - 74 mph Seldom experienced Very high waves with inland; trees uprooted, long over- hanging considerable structural crests. The resulting damage occurs. foam, in great patches, is blown in dense white streaks along the direction of the wind. On the whole the surface of the sea takes on a white appearance. The 'tumbling' of the sea becomes heavy and shock-like. Visibility affected. 11 Violent storm 75 - 91 mph Very rarely Exceptionally high experienced; waves (small and accompanied by wide- medium-size ships spread damage might be for a time lost to view behind the waves). The sea is completely covered with long white patches of foam lying along the direction of the wind. Everywhere the edges of the wave crests are blown into froth. Visibility affected.

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12 Hurricane 92 + mph The air is filled with foam and spray. Sea completely white with driving spray; visibility very seriously affected. bedrock - General term for the underlying rock layer in a region. benthic - Benthic organism live at the bottom of a body of water such as sea, river, lake etc. These organisms are sometimes referred to collectively as the "benthos". bergschrund - The crevasse formed where a glacier meets the solid rock of a mountain slope, usually very wide and the widest crevasse on the glacier. beset - The situation of a ship when closely surrounded by ice on all sides. biota - All of the living organisms of an ecosystem or an area, plants, animals, bacteria, fungi etc. black ice - Newly-formed iced over sea water. It is thin enough for the dark water to be visible through it and can be crossed only at speed by a light sledge. blizzard - A cold storm with winds of at least 56 kilometres per hour (35 miles per hour) and temperatures below - 6.7°C (20°F). Usually also characterized by poor visibility due to snow blowing around. Little snow may actually fall during a blizzard, the high winds pick up snow from the ground and carry it around, visibility is often greatly reduced. brash ice - Ice rubble, loose pieces of ice of various sizes from gravel sized to table sized. Originates from sea-ice that is breaking up or commonly as debris from calving ice bergs or ice bergs that break up as part of their ongoing erosion. Whenever one large piece of ice falls off another, brash is also generated and can cover quite large amounts of sea. There were times in Antarctica when we would gather brash ice that had blown into the cove where our base was to melt down and use as fresh water. The ice usually came from ice bergs that had broken up off shore, with the wind blowing it into the cove. breakable crust - A dreadful surface over which to travel. A layer of snow that has hardened on top and sunk below. Walking across such an area means that you lift your foot and place it as for a normal step, but just a few inches higher, it takes most of your weight, but as you lift your weight onto it, at the last second the crust breaks and you're standing there with both feet a few inches below the surface crust. As much effort as walking up stairs just to stay on the level, going up hill is doubly hard.

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C calve - The formation of an iceberg from a glacier. Once the ice flowing from a glacier reaches a body of water it begins to float and may crack at the "hinge zone", once free of the glacier a piece of ice becomes an iceberg and the glacier has calved. cirrus clouds - Thin, wispy high altitude clouds that form at heights of 6 to 12 kilometres (3.8 to 7.6 miles). climatology - The study of weather conditions over long periods of time. commensal - Plants and / or animals living together and gaining benefit from the relationship. Generally a fairly loose bond and not as intimate as a symbiotic relationship. congelation ice - A type of sea ice that forms underneath frazil ice. continental shelf - The region in the ocean around a continent between the shoreline and the continental slope. An area of shallow water where the depth is usually less than 200 meters (650 feet). In Antarctica however, the continental shelf averages 500 meters in depth (1640 feet)! The continental shelf has formed by slow deposition of sediment eroded from the continent and has a gentle slope (around 1°). continental slope - Narrow, steep (3° to 6° slope) transition zone between the shallow shelf and the deep ocean floor.

Coriolis effect - moving objects appear to deflect from their anticipated straight-line course. Coriolis effect is a result of the rotation Earth (and an observer's position on it). Responsible for the fact that water spirals down a plug-hole rather than going straight and the direction is different in each hemisphere. Only at the equator does water go straight down. crevasse - A deep, usually vertical, crack or split in a glacier, occurs as a result of the brittle ice flowing over a uneven surface beneath the ice. Crevasses can easily become covered by blown snow, even very wide ones. Great care must be taken when crossing ice and snow fields to avoid them. cryosphere - That portion of Earth's surface that is permanently frozen through the year. cyanobacteria - Very specialized acellular organisms classified as blue-green algae. Cyanobacteria can photosynthesize, making their own food from sunlight. They are exceptionally tough organisms, able to colonize and survive in harsh environments.

D desert - An area where there is little moisture due to there being little precipitation is low and evaporation is high. Precipitation usually is less than 25 centimetres a year (10

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inches). Large deserts include the Sahara Desert in Northern Africa or the continent of Antarctica. diatoms - Single celled planktonic algae with external skeleton made of silica. The skeletons, or tests, of dead diatoms sink to the sea floor and accumulate in the sediment. If sufficient quantities of skeletal material accumulate, a diatomaceous mud (10% diatoms) or diatomaceous ooze (>30% diatoms) results. The chlorophyll from the diatoms may give it greenish tinge. diversity - The variety of different characteristics, features or organisms. The variety of species in a given region or the number of different species in a particular place. High diversity usually means a more stable and less easily disturbed ecosystem. downwelling - In oceanography, the replacement of deep waters by surface waters moving down because of a change in temperature or more rarely salinity. Downwelling may bring waters rich in oxygen to the deeper parts of the ocean or lake. draft - The distance below the water level (sea level) the bottom of an iceberg reaches. In some cases, icebergs are blown into shallow waters by storms and the bottom ploughs into the ocean causing the iceberg to get stuck. Draft also refers to how far below the water line the keel of a ship reaches and so determines how close into shore the ship can go.

E

East Wind Drift (Antarctic Coastal Current) - Westward flowing ocean surface current that flows anti-clockwise around Antarctica, driven by the polar easterlies. easterlies - Winds that blow from the east (yup-really). The polar easterlies blow close to the continent and help move the ocean surface currents known as the east wind drift. ecology - The study of the abundance of organisms in an ecosystem and the relationships between the organisms and their environment. ecosystem - A particular environment, large or small, with characteristic physical conditions and types of organisms living there. elevation - The height of an object or area above a particular reference point, usually the height above sea level. evaporation - Change in state from a liquid or a solid to a gas. Evaporation takes place most quickly in an arid or dry environment when there is little or no water vapour in the air. Antarctica is arid and solid ice can "evaporate" or turn into a gas, particularly if a (relatively) warm wind blows across a snow or ice field. The change from a solid directly to a gas is properly called sublimation - like the "smoke" you get when you open the freezer door. extraordinary Katabatic wind - Katabatic wind that is particularly long-lasting (days to even weeks) and remains fairly constant in strength during that time. 47

F fast ice - Sea ice that forms in situ along the coastline and remains attached. fauna - Animals. Antarctic fauna includes seals, penguins, whales, krill, ice-fish, nematode worms, mites, and wingless midges (plus a few other animals). Also sometimes used in the phrase "charismatic mega-fauna" large animals with charisma - penguins, seals, whales finnesko - Boots made entirely from fur including the sole. Originally an Inuit item of clothing, no longer in use, much used in the heroic age of Arctic and Antarctic exploration. Packed with sennegrass, a dried grass for additional insulation. firn - A transitional stage between snow and glacial ice, a type of snow that has survived a summer melting season and has become more compact than freshly falling snow. fissure - A long, very deep, narrow opening, sometimes used instead of crevasse. fjord (fiord) - A long, narrow, steep-walled, u-shaped coastal inlet. Fjords typically have been excavated by glaciers. flora - Plants. Fairly limited in Antarctica, mainly mosses. frazil ice - Ice crystals in the water column, usually near the water surface. Frazil ice crystals are not oriented in an organized manner, and have the appearance of slush or separated needles, diving through frazil ice you can see that below the main body, the crystals are quite large and separate. The first stage in the formation of sea ice. frost smoke - Condensed water vapour that forms as a mist above any open sea water in very cold weather.

G gale - A strong wind. On the Beaufort Scale - used to gauge the speed of the wind, a gale has winds of 39 to 46 miles per hour (62 to 74 kilometres per hour). Gales can break twigs off trees (not that you can tell in Antarctica) and make walking very difficult. Gales are common in Antarctica. geology - The study of Earth, the history of the rocks, what processes that have occurred and are occurring on and within it (to the rocks). geomagnetic pole - If the Earth's molten metallic core is imagined to be a giant bar magnet, the Geomagnetic Pole is where you would expect the magnetic field lines to converge. But ocean currents, mountains and solar activity mess things up, similar to how a compass can be confused if you hold it near something metal. Because of this while the geomagnetic pole is where the needle of a compass should point straight downwards, it is the magnetic pole where this is actually the case. The Magnetic Pole can move many kilometres in a day, whereas the Geomagnetic Pole moves much more slowly.

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The geomagnetic poles aren't fixed and wander about, currently the south geomagnetic pole is about 1160 kilometres (725 miles) north (think about it) of the south geographic pole (close to the Russian Vostok Station). With thanks to Glenn Grant - 60South.com geophysics - The study of the physical properties of Earth as a planet. Geophysicists may study the interior of the Earth, the geomagnetic field of the Earth, or the Earth's gravity field. Most of the work is done using very high tech equipment and requires much translation to be understood by normal people. geothermal - Geo - earth, thermal - heat. Heat generated within the interior of Earth. Visible indications of geothermal activity are geysers when underground water comes into contact with a heat source, such as hot rocks near a volcano. In Antarctica, Deception Island is geothermally active, there are also thought to be several regions on the continent where glaciers are melted from below by geothermal heat making them flow more quickly at those regions. glacial erosion - The wearing down of the Earth's surface by glaciers. Rock debris at the bottom of a glacier scrapes and erodes the surface over which the glacier flows like a giant hugely heavy piece of sand paper. glaciation - The formation, activity, and retreat of glaciers through time. The glaciation of a region refers to the growth of ice over that region. Large parts of the Northern Hemisphere experienced glaciation in the past - ice ages. glacier - A river of ice. Usually a mixture of ice, air, water, and rock debris formed at least partially on land. They are large enough for the ice to flow with gravity. Glaciers can be small valley glaciers, ice streams, ice caps, and ice sheets. The term glacier also includes ice shelves if they are fed by glaciers. Freshwater. glaciology - The study of the physical and chemical properties of snow and ice, not necessarily just of glaciers. Glaciologists might study the movement of ice sheets, and how ice flows. Also the study of how snow slowly changes to glacier ice. glaze - A smooth, clear coat of ice. grease ice - A thin layer of ice crystals beginning to show organization on the water surface with a greasy appearance and like a slush puppy in consistency. grounding line - The point a glacier that is flowing into a sea or lake loses contact with seafloor and begins to float as an ice shelf.

H hanging valley - A u-shaped valley that joins the wall of a larger valley. The smaller valley floor "hangs" above the larger valley floor. Hanging valleys are made by valley glaciers carving out a path, when the glacier was active the smaller valley glacier would have flowed into the larger valley glacier.

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heat reservoir - Places where heat is absorbed and then distributed slowly to the surroundings. Oceans and other large bodies of water act as heat reservoirs. They absorb heat and slowly pass it to the atmosphere. This is one reason why coastal areas and islands never get as cold as areas inland in winter. The heat doesn't have to be very great, the sea can still seem very cold, as long as it is above the surrounding air temperature, heat will be transferred. highs (high pressure zones) - Places where the atmospheric pressure is above the surrounding region. Clear weather often accompanies high pressure systems. hoarfrost - A light, feathery ice coating built up from water particles in the air crystallizing out into tiny ice sculptures (you have to look carefully).

I ice age (glacial period) - Periods in the Earth's history when the climate was colder and glaciers expanded to cover large areas of the Earth's surface. Ice ages have come and gone many times and will probably continue to do so. ice blink - A brightness on the horizon, showing in the clouds above it caused by reflection of sunlight from sea ice even in overcast conditions, such a sight is often called an "ice sky". Conversely, a darkness on the horizon when surrounded by ice denotes the presence of open water and is called a "water sky". ice cap - A large dome-shaped mass of ice that is thick enough to cover all the landscape beneath it so appearing as a smooth coating of ice. Ice caps are smaller than ice sheets, usually under 50,000 square kilometres (19,000 square miles). Ice caps can deform and flow with gravity and spread outward in all directions. Freshwater. ice cliff - Walls of ice where glaciers meet the sea. Ice cliffs occur because icebergs calve from the front of them giving a continually breaking edge the full height of the glacier. Freshwater. ice crystals - Tiny particles of ice that grow on all surfaces when the air is supersaturated with water (cold air doesn't hold much moisture so ice crystals are readily formed in Antarctica). Ice crystals account for the majority of the accumulation of glacial ice on the Polar Plateau. They may also be referred to as ice needles, even though they are not needle shaped. Freshwater. ice floe - A large, flat, sheet of sea ice that has broken off contact with the coast where it was formed and is floating in open water. Sea-water. ice foot - A "shelf" of ice that forms around many Antarctic shores in the winter time. Sometimes formed by sea spray, often formed where sea-ice joins the land, as the tide rises and falls, a layer of ice is deposited which builds up. Once the sea ice blows out in the spring a distinct ledge several feet high is left behind that can be difficult to cross for men and also for animals. Sea-water

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ice sheet - A large mass of ice that is thick enough to cover the landscape beneath it so appearing as a smooth coating of ice. Ice sheets can deform and move with gravity, they are larger than ice caps. Ice sheets cover much of Greenland and Antarctica. Freshwater. ice shelf - A large flat-topped sheet of ice that is attached to land along one side and floats in the sea or a lake. Formed where a glacier or ice shelf has reached the water and kept flowing, it is fed from the landward side and eroded from the seaward side by the calving of icebergs and melting. Freshwater. ice stream - A rapidly moving current of ice in an ice sheet or ice cap. Ice streams flow more quickly than the surrounding ice and remove ice from the ice sheet. Antarctic ice streams may flow about one kilometre per year (0.6 miles per year). Freshwater. ice tongue - A long, narrow, projection of ice out from the coastline, similar in origin to an ice shelf, but usually formed where a valley glacier flows rapidly to the sea or a lake. Freshwater. iceberg - A large piece of floating ice that has calved, or broken off, a glacier or ice shelf. Icebergs occur in lakes and the ocean and can be vast, the size of islands or small countries. Freshwater. ionosphere - The electrically-charged layer of the atmosphere that extends from 80 to 400 kilometres (50 to 250 miles) above the Earth's surface. The ionosphere absorbs much of the short wave-length radiation from the sun. As the radiation passes through the ionosphere, it interacts with nitrogen molecules and oxygen atoms. These molecules and atoms absorb the radiation, but in the process they lose an electron (a negatively charged particle) and become a positively charged ion. The ionosphere is where auroras originate.

K katabatic winds - Wind that results from dense, cold air flowing down a slope by gravity. Over Antarctica, air cools over the high plateau region and flows towards the coast, by the time it gets to the coast it can have reached extreme speeds and blow continuously for weeks.

L land-based ice sheet - a large body of ice with a base mostly above sea level. The East Antarctic Ice Sheet is a land-based ice sheet. Freshwater. lapse rate - The change in temperature associated with a change in elevation. When climbing a mountain, the temperature falls approximately 1°C for every 100m in altitude gained. latitude - Imaginary lines that allow for the measurement of position north or south of the equator. Latitude is measured in degrees (one degree - 60 nautical miles, or 111

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kilometres). The equator is at a latitude of 0° and the poles lie at latitudes of 90° north (North Pole) or 90° south (South Pole). Lines of latitude differ in length according to how far north and south they are. lead - Long, narrow opening or fracture in sea ice. Leads can be useful to shipping because they do not have to waste fuel and time by breaking ice, they can be disastrous if travelling over sea-ice as the path is no longer there. Leads are also useful to seals and whales that can use them to breathe and for birds that can feed on marine prey through the lead. lichen - Symbiotic association of alga and fungus. The fungus provides protection and moisture, the photosynthetic algae provide food for the fungus. Lichens are the toughest form of plant life and can live in some of the coldest and most exposed places in Antarctica as long as they have a rock to cling to. They can actively grow and photosynthesize at well below freezing point - albeit very slowly. limnology - The study of freshwater such as lakes, ponds, and marshes. The analysis of the physical and chemical characteristics of the freshwater as well as the plants and animals that live within them. Antarctic lakes are more affected by climatic and other changes than is the ocean and so they are seen as giving an early warning of any impending changes. longitude - Imaginary lines that wrap around the Earth intersecting at the north and south geographic poles. Lines of longitude are numbered from 0° (the Greenwich Meridian, passing through Greenwich in London, England) to 180°. Longitudes are called east if they fall east of the Greenwich Meridian, and west if they fall west of the Greenwich Meridian. Lines of longitude are all of the same length.

M magnetic storm - Times when the sun radiates large amounts of ions and electromagnetic energy out towards the solar system, tied to sunspot activity. This influx of high energy disturbs the Earth's magnetic field causing interruptions to telecommunications broadcasts and particularly pretty auroras. marine biology - The study of plants and animals living in the seas and oceans. maritime - Bordering or next to the ocean or sea. Maritime climates are oceanic climates, and are milder than the inland climates because of the moderating influence of the sea which acts as a huge heat sink absorbing heat in the summer and giving it out in the winter. meteorology - The study of the Earth's atmosphere and the movements of air and moisture within the atmosphere. Includes the study of the atmosphere for weather forecasting. meteorite - Fragments of rock that reach the Earth from beyond the atmosphere. Most are believed to come from asteroids, some are believed to be pieces from other planets. Antarctica is a particularly good place to find meteorites as they show up against the 52

snow and ice and are accumulated in some places by the flow patterns of ice streams and glaciers. migrate - Moving from one area to another. Some animals migrate in certain seasons to find better conditions, such as weather, food, or for breeding. Many whales migrate to the Southern Ocean in the summer to feed on the large the quantities of krill for example. moss - Small, leafy-stemmed plants that grow in carpet-like mats and tufts on moist ground. Particularly abundant in maritime regions of Antarctica where conditions are too harsh for other types of plant. In Antarctica mosses often accumulate in large "moss banks".

N nekton - Free-swimming aquatic animals that move under their own power and can move independently of ocean currents. Whales and squid and many fish are types of nekton. niche - The life style of an organism, its "job" also - the place in which it lives, what it eats, how it gets nutrients, and the interplay it may have with the environment and other organisms. nip / nipped - a dreaded description of a ship from the early days of polar exploration when she was trapped by ice on both sides that was pushing in hard. In contrast to the gentle sounding nature of the event, the reality was often that the ship suffered considerable damage or was broken and sunk. nunatak - An isolated peak of bedrock that sticks above the surface of an ice sheet. They are the peaks of hills and mountains standing above the ice sheet which flows around them. They offer important information about ice covered regions as they provide a sample of the rocks that lie under the ice.

O oceanography - The study of the ocean. The physical properties of the ocean - currents and waves (physical oceanography), the chemistry of the ocean (chemical oceanography), the geology of the seafloor (marine geology), and the organisms that live in the oceans (marine biology and marine ecology). ordinary katabatic wind - Short-lived katabatic winds with constant direction but a highly variable speed. Originate in cold dense air flowing coastward from the high Antarctic plateau over the pole. ozone layer - A layer in the Earth's upper atmosphere, the stratosphere that contains almost 90% of the Earth's ozone. This forms a protective blanket against the harmful ultra-violet rays coming form the sun.

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P pack ice - Often used interchangeably with sea ice. Pack ice is frozen sea that formed somewhere else and has floated to its present position carried by wind, tides and currents. It is broken up and of variable size and thickness, some pieces can be the size of a coffee table and about 1 foot (30cm) thick, other pieces are larger than a tennis court and can be 30ft (9m) or more thick. Usually pack ice is in its second season. Sea- water Open pack - when the pieces of ice don't touch Closed pack - when the pieces of ice touch pancake ice - Pancake ice grows from thickened grease ice and resembles pancakes or lily pads. The edges of each piece is upturned because the plates bump into each other as they gently move around in the sea. Usually between about a foot (30cm) and 6 feet (2m) across. Pancakes tend to be smaller the closer to the shore line they are. Sea- water physical oceanography - The study of the physical aspects of the seas and oceans such as the temperature, salinity, density variation, and the optic and acoustic properties of the ocean. Also includes the study of nature of currents, waves, and tides. phytoplankton - Plant plankton. Microscopic free-swimming or suspended marine or freshwater plants within the plankton. Plankton is defined as being those organisms that inhabit the upper regions of a body of water, but cannot move about against the influence of water movements such as currents, they move generally with the water although may be able to move small distances. Phytoplankton includes diatoms and other photosynthetic algae, a crucial part of almost all aquatic food webs. plate tectonics - A theory that ties together many observations made about the activity and movement of Earth's crust (earthquakes, volcanoes) and creation of ocean basins. Plate tectonics divides the surface of the globe into a number of rigid plates that move around the earth's surface over the period of millions of years. polar - To do with the regions of the north and or south poles of the planet. The poles are cold, icy regions, a polar climate is a cold climate, with average temperatures less than 10°C (50°F). polar easterlies - Winds that blow from the east as they flow off the high Antarctic polar plateau. Polar easterlies help generate ocean surface currents (east wind drift) in the Southern Ocean.

Polar Front (Antarctic Convergence) - A surface boundary where which the colder, north flowing Antarctic Surface Waters sink beneath warmer circulating waters. This marks a change in the oceans surface temperature and also chemical composition. North of the convergence, the area is known as the sub-Antarctic.

Polar Plateau - The relatively flat, high altitude central region of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. The plateau has an average height of 2000 meters (about one mile) above sea level and a smooth surface with a small slope towards the coast in all directions. 54

polynyas - A polynya is an area of open water in pack ice or sea ice, they may be kept open by constant winds or the upwelling of water and so tend to recur in the same locations year after year. They are particularly important for wildlife as they allow mammals such as whales and seals to have a breathing hole and birds access to the sea in order to fish. precipitation - Rain, snow, hail, sleet etc. moisture falling from clouds to the surface of the Earth, usually as rain, snow, and ice. The amount of precipitation is always measured as water or rain equivalent so allowing for the fact that snow can have various structures and densities productivity - A term used to describe the rate of production in an ecosystem. Extra nutrients usually increase productivity.

R reflectivity - The amount of light or energy that bounces off a surface relative to the amount of light or energy that reached the surface. A mirror is an example of an object with high reflectivity. The ocean has low reflectivity. Reflectivity may also be called albedo. rookery - A colony of rooks, the term is also used for a colony of penguins. rotten ice - Old ice, partially melted and often honeycombed

S salinity - The amount of dissolved salts contained in sea water. The average salinity of sea water is 35 parts per thousand, but can vary with location. sallying a ship - from the early days of polar exploration, causing the ship to roll by crew and passengers running from side to side to prevent adhesion of the ice around her. sastrugi - Irregular ridges of snow on a small scale (rarely more than 1 foot, 30cm) that lie parallel to the direction of the wind. Sastrugi can make travel very awkward or difficult, they can be quite soft or as hard as ice. sea ice - A general term for any ice that forms from frozen seawater. Sea ice covers large parts of polar waters in the winter and melts back each summer. sleet - Frozen or partially frozen rain that form when rain passes through a layer of air that is below the freezing temperature, falls to earth as a slush. Freshwater.

South geographic pole - 90°S. The south geographic pole is the southern location where the axis of rotation of Earth intersects Earth's surface.

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South geomagnetic pole - The point on Earth's surface in the Southern Hemisphere where the axis of the Earth's magnetic pole intersects. The south geomagnetic pole is approximately 1160 kilometres (725 miles) north of the south geographic pole (think about it). The south geomagnetic pole is tilted about 12 degrees to the axis of rotation of the Earth (geographic pole).

South magnetic pole - the point on Earth's surface that a south-seeking compass needle seeks. At the South magnetic pole a compass needle will point vertically downwards. This point is currently off the coast of Wilkes Land and wanders around. stratosphere - The layer of the atmosphere that is above the troposphere, it extends from approximately 10 to 50 kilometres (6 to 31 miles) above Earth's surface. The upper region contains the ozone layer. subglacial - Underneath the glacier. supercooled - A condition when water is still liquid even though it is at a temperature at which it normally would freeze. Often under these conditions a small physical movement a small knock or tap will cause the water to freeze almost immediately.

T tabular iceberg - A flat-topped iceberg, like a table. Freshwater. terrestrial - Dry land. Terrestrial flora and fauna live on land not in water. tide crack - Any crack in sea ice that is caused by the rise and fall of the tide. As the tide rises so the area of the sea increases and a crack forms, as the tide falls, so the area decreases and the crack closes. Often form around offshore rocks, between the shore and sea-ice, around grounded ice bergs or even stretching for miles between islands. tongue - A mass of ice projecting from a glacier into the sea. It is still fixed to and forms a part of the larger glacier. freshwater trade winds - One of three major circulation cells in both the northern and southern hemispheres. The trade winds from approximately 0° to 30° north or south latitude. Within the regions of the trade winds, prevailing winds blow toward the west. They were given their name as in the days of sailing ships, they aided the progress of the ships and hence the trade of goods carried by those ships.

U ultraviolet radiation (UV) - A part of the electromagnetic spectrum that has shorter wavelengths than visible light. Ultraviolet radiation has more energy than visible light and can damage tissue (like human skin). Much of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed within the ozone layer before it reaches the Earth's surface.

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upper atmosphere physics - The study of processes that take place in the upper atmosphere. Includes study of the interactions between the various atmospheric gases and cosmic radiation, such as the ozone layer. upwelling - An oceanographic term, the rising of deeper waters to replace surface waters. Upwelling often brings waters rich in nutrients to the surface, resulting in a region where ocean productivity is high.

W

West Wind Drift (Antarctic Circumpolar Current) - A Southern Ocean surface current flowing east and driven by westerly winds. The West Wind Drift carries a large volume of water and it is a strong current because no continents are in the way of the flow path. white-out - A weather condition in which the horizon cannot be identified and there are no shadows. The clouds in the sky and the white snow on the ground blend - described as like walking along inside a ping-pong ball. White out conditions are potentially dangerous because it is difficult to find a point of reference and it is very easy to walk over a cliff or fall down a crevasse in such conditions. wind chill - A way of describing the temperature that takes into consideration the effect of the wind speed in the temperature reported. Wind makes any temperature feel colder and wind chill factor is a way of expressing how cold the wind might make the temperature feel. First described after experiments by the American scientist Paul Siple on baked bean cans containing water and a thermometer left in the wind.

Z zooplankton - Animal plankton. Microscopic free-swimming or suspended marine or freshwater animals within the plankton. Plankton is defined as being those organisms that inhabit the upper regions of a body of water, but cannot move about against the influence of water movements such as currents, they move generally with the water column although may be able to move small distances. Many marine animals spend part of their lives as zooplankton, often as a juvenile life stage. One of the most important components of the Antarctic zooplankton is krill.

Source :www.coolantarctica.com

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