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"ḤADĪTH", AUTHORITY AND THE END OF THE WORLD: TRADITIONS IN MODERN MUSLIM Author(s): DAVID COOK Reviewed work(s): Source: Oriente Moderno, Nuova serie, Anno 21 (82), Nr. 1, in Modern Islam (2002), pp. 31-53 Published by: Istituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25817811 . Accessed: 04/02/2013 16:32

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This content downloaded on Mon, 4 Feb 2013 16:32:41 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions DAVID COOK

(Universityof Chicago)

HADiTH, AUTHORITY AND THE END OF THE WORLD: TRADITIONS INMODERN MUSLIM APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

1.Authority and tradition: thequestions would doubt that the hadit literature in Islam is of fundamental T^ew impor JL tance for the legal and social structureof Islam. From the earliestyears of the Muslim community, this literaturehas been the focal point for the theological, intellectual and cultural battleswhich have defined Islam.At its core, a hadit is a either statementmade by the ProphetMuhammad about a given situation or one a in response to (or a question), or pseudo-biographical vignette about some action taken by him and observed by his companions. If one accepts theMuslim presentation of the hadit literature,then virtually no aspect of the 's life has gone unrecorded, from the eternally significant to themost (apparently) ba nal and irrelevant.All of thismaterial has been subjected for the past 1300 years to the minute examination of Muslim generations of scholars, who have inter preted it,written tomes and tomes to explain it and comment upon it, to verify its transmission, and to harmonize its numerous inconsistencies. The authority of the hadit literaturefirst of all restsupon the person of the - - prophetMuhammad his unique and divinely protected life and words and secondly upon the reliabilityof generations ofMuslim scholars and their ability our own to transmitfrom the Prophet's immediate companions until .Most western scholars deny that the hadit literature in the form thatwe see it today is dependent upon the ProphetMuhammad or reflectshis views (which are so var ied and mutually contradictory inside the literaturethat itwould be impossible for anybody to saywith any certaintywhat he believed on any given subject). However, Islam is a faithwhich has always stressed the ability of mutually con tradictoryviews to co-exist in harmony, and has not seen this aspect of the hadit as as literatureas a liabilitybut an asset, enabling itdoes widely differing inter pretations ofMuslim law to continue without the necessity for anathemas. as to aware During the past 150 years, have begun be ofWestern critiques of the hadit literature,and especially during the past 30 years, therehas been a marked acceptance among fundamentalist circles (which has also come to can one penetrate the largerconservative religious community) that there be only truth, and one interpretationof the truth. It is ironic, but this intolerance of one other opposing interpretationsof Islam has been of the by-products ofOri entalist research.Many fundamentalists have come to harbor some suspicion

OM, xxi n.s. (lxxxii), 1,2002

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on about the hadit literature,as it is patently impossible to find a single truth the basis of it (even assuming as some do, the use of "authoritative" collections, such as that of al-Buhari, since the usual method was to recordmany mutually con For has meant a return to a tradictory traditions). some, this strictly QurDanic Islam,which would, if actually literallyadhered to, denude the faith of a great a many of itsmost distinguished (and distinguishing) traits.This reliance upon a somewhat 'Protestant'methodology would seek to find given truth in the to use some Qur3an (often times without reference traditional commentary), and parts of the hadit literaturewhich aremost closely in linewith the chosen inter a pretation and ignore the rest.For others, this attitude has lead to search for al ternativesources of authority.This last idea ishighly problematic in Islam.While no one has identifiedexactly what the sources of authorityare fornon-legal tradi tions, ithas never been customary to base a subject of crucial importance upon a or one source of authoritywhich does not include the ProphetMuhammad of as at cer his close companions the fount of the teaching. For peripheral issues, tain timesmaterial ascribed to previous (such as Solomon or ) has as been accepted, and sometimes that of later reveredMuslim figures has been well, for those groups in Islamwho revere them. However, to seek beyond the pale of Islam for sources of authority is ques tionable, and very bold. Never has the community of Islam previously rewarded such boldness with general acceptance. It is a sign of how deeply troubledmod ern Islam sees itself,and how desperate it is in itsfifteenth century, that an im portant set of beliefs in some cases has fallen under the sway of outside influ ences, and moreover has been accepted despite this fact. This set of beliefs is Muslim apocalyptic and the beliefs connected with the end of theworld.1 In this we paper will examine the beliefs, firstof all in theirclassical setting,and then in theirmodern interpretations.Most of the paper, however, will deal with the question of the relative authority of the two foreign influences upon Muslim apocalyptic literature: the anti-Semitic conspiracy theory,and the Biblical evan gelical apocalyptic popularized in the English speakingworld during the past 30 years.

- 1 Wilferd See, e.g., Madelung, "cAbdallah b. al-Zubayr and theMahdl", Journal ofNear Eastern 40 Studies, (1981), p. 291-306; Idem, "Apocalyptic in Hims during the Umayyad Age", Journal of Semitic Studies, 41 (1986), p. 141-85; idem, "The ", Studia Suleiman Islamica, 63 (1986), p. 5-48; Bashear, "Early Muslim Apocalyptic Materials", Journal the Asiatic of Royal Society, 1991, p. 173-207; idem, "Muslim ", Oriental Studies, 13 (1993), p. 75-99; Cook, ", History and the Dating of Tradi Princeton inNear tions", Papers Eastern Studies, 1 (1992), p. 23-48; idem, "The Heraclian Dy inMuslim nasty Eschatology", al-Qantara, 13 (1992), p. 3-23; idem, "An early Islamic apoca lyptic chronicle", Journal ofNear Eastern Studies, 52 (1993), p. 25-29; Lawrence Conrad, "Por tents of the in Der and Hour", forthcoming Islam-, my "Muslim Apocalyptic and jihad\ Studies in Arabic and 20 Islam, (1996), p. 66-104; idem, "Moral Apocalyptic in Islam", Studia Islamica, 86 (1997), p. 37-69 among numerous studies.

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2. Apocalyptic beliefs in Islam

The basis of the authority of the apocalyptist is the assumed ability of the ProphetMuhammad (never claimed in his own lifetime) to see the entire . - "God has lifted theworld up forme [] I am looking at it and at as am at what will happen in it until theDay of just I looking my - hand here a revelation2 fromGod, which He vouchsafed [tome], just as He vouchsafed it to the prophets before him."3 Another tradition reads: "...then he not out [Muhammad] spoke to us until the went down. He did leave any we thing fromwhat is to happen until theDay of Resurrection.. ."4 In brief, will summarize what these events are to be. as a The apocalyptic literaturethat has sprouted up result of this tradition, and theworld-view which supports it,describes theworld (from aMuslim point on of view) as it nears the final, anticipated end. It concentrates four aspects of this process. The firstof these is the phenomenal conquests of the firstcentury most (632-732), which ended with theMuslim empire controlling of the classi cal world, from France, Spain, North Africa and Sicily in thewest to Central Asia and India in the east. Only the ancient Christian empire of the Byzantines (what is now Turkey, Greece, the Balkans, and part of Italy) stood between con them and ultimate victory. So it is hardly surprising that the sub-genre of quest apocalyptic is concerned with the final, end-times fall of Constantinople and the collapse of the Byzantine empire. Other material appears, concerning theTurks, the Indians and theChinese, but thesewere peripheral to theMuslim was understanding of the nature of theirmission. When this literature firstcir was culated this understanding still dominated by the idea of the classical world of theRoman Empire and Persia. However, unlikely though itmight have been at the , the Byzantine empire was fated to outlive that of the firstMuslim a Arabs, factwhich brought home the great disconfirmation of theirapocalyptic conquest hopes. This material continued to be useful to theMuslims as a whole in theirage-long strugglewith the Byzantines, and possibly assisted in the propa ganda of theTurks, who ultimately succeeded where theArabs failed. of literature was involved with the crea Another manifestation apocalyptic were tion (or in some cases adoption) of demonic or semi-demonic figureswho designed to test and trythe Muslim communitywith the ultimate aim of itspu rification.For while apocalyptic groups recognized the evil of their society and a railed against it at every available opportunity, they required focus for their was the the loathing.This focus, for Sunni Muslims, the figure called Daggal, . He representseverything which theyexcoriate, and all of the tempta

- or - the word which is used for the 2 Read jalayan jilliyan this is Syriac gellyona, " Lou of St. John" (see G. Graf, Verzeichnis arabischer Kirchlicher Termini [CSCO, vol. 147, vain, 1954], p. 35). - Dar 3 Nucaym b. Hammad, Kitab al-fitany ed. Suhayl Zakkar, Bayrut, al-Fikr, 1993, p. 13. - are in 4 Ibid. Both of these traditions regularly cited modern apocalyptic books; see, e.g., wa cAbd al-Wahhab cAbd al-Salam Tawilah, al-Masih al-muntazar nihdyat al-calamy al-Qahi rah, Dar al-Salam, 1999, p. 6-7.

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tionswhich theymust overcome. For theymust face and master his temptations, as a both personally and group. He is placed against the figure of Jesus,who must fights,defeats and slays him, therebyending the period inwhich Muslims a be tempted by thisworld. For the Slci Muslim figure called the Sufyani,who a same is something of caricature of the evilMuslim ruler, fulfillsthe function. With these cycles of saga, we move out of history and into a sort of end-times hiatus inwhich both supernatural good and evil figuresplay roles in theworld. a Literarymessianic expectations also receive good deal of attention in the apocalyptic material. The , called either theMahdi or theQa^im, is seen as a over God-empowered man, throughwhom God will reestablishHis rule the and overcome human evil (not theDaggal, for example, since he is virtu a ally demon). It is he who will bring true justice into thisworld and right the wrongs of historywhich have been allowed to fester and grow because of the frustrationand impotence of trueMuslims. The figure is the culmination - one of history the point in time duringwhich we can say that therewill be jus tice reigning on earth. "If therewere only one day left in theworld, God would so a man lengthen it to send frommy [Muhammad's] familywho would fill the world with justice and righteousness, just as ithas been filledwith injustice and unrighteousness.".5 This tradition,which is one of themost ubiquitous in all of an the apocalyptic literature,makes incrediblyvaluable promise to the believer. There will be justice in thisworld, even if it is only for one day. God has prom ised it, and He will send someone from the venerated family of the Prophet Muhammad, who will function as His agent and enforceHis absolute justice. The true apocalyptist, therefore,is focused on thisworld, not on the next. Jus tice must even it a at occur, if for brief time, before God's ultimate, final justice to theDay of Judgment. For thishe iswilling sacrificeanything, everything. It should be noted, however, that one of the distinctive featuresof the apoca lyptic landscape is both itsvery cyclicalityand the fact that theDay of Resurrec never tion is quite reached inside the traditions.This plays a part, and indeed a very important one, in other genres ofMuslim tradition and literature,but this never final goal is reached inside apocalyptic traditions. It is like a gigantic cliff the overhanging apocalyptic plain upon which theMuslim trudges through the various trials and tribulationsof theDaggal and the apocalyptic wars and enjoys the rule of themessianic period. It overshadows thewhole of the action, yet is not corporeally . The vision not apocalyptic would be complete without themoral apocalypse in which the ideal society is delineated, mostly in a negative form.6 Since the one trulyMuslim society is the opposite of the inwhich we presently exist, it ex as a ists sort of shadow or a counter-society.However, thematerial in this sort of is the apocalypse weapon by which the apocalyptist enforces his will in society. To this end he on a common relies very world-view prevalent throughout his tory in religious cultures: namely that the past is better than the present, and

- Kanz 5 al-Hindi, al-cummdl, ed. Bakri Hayyani, Bayrut, Mu3assasat al-Risalah, 1987, XIV, p. 267 (no. 38,676). 6 - See my "Moral Apocalyptic".

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that the futureprevious to themessianic age is theworst of all. Therefore, if the apocalyptist can persuade his audience that theyare actually in the end-times, he is in the clear, because the belief that this period will be representativeof all of can out the collective evil that humanity spew is very well-rooted. Since this be lief is in fact fallacious, as any historian knows, what the apocalyptist is actually are attacking characteristics, albeit negative for themost part, common to all humanity for as long as history has been recorded. Since thismaterial is always - contemporary, the apocalyptist has it very easy he can always point out that the period inwhich he is livinghas been predicted by past prophecies, and he is frequentlybelieved.

3.Modern apocalyptic writings

Muslim apocalyptic writing, therefore,has a powerful and coherent tradition available descriptive of the end of theworld. Unfortunately, this picture is for themost part only relevant to the political situation of the firstcentury of Islam, and in numerous ways does not reflectpresent realitiesof our own time. It is the nature of the hadit literatureto favor a conservative,non-interpretative function; not we however, this is simply sufficientin theworld inwhich live.Apocalyptic (and many other genres of hadit) must be made relevant.Against all the grain of Muslim history, during the past 15-20 years therehas been an attempt to do so. Factually speaking, until the recent past apocalyptic literature in Islam has been a kept simply to the purely descriptive.This means that standard book such as that of al-Sawkanl (d. 1834), al-Tawdih bi-md tawdtarafi al-muntazar wa / Daggdl wa UMasih, written during theNapoleonic invasion of Egypt (which the author witnessed), includes absolutely no mention of the great events which took place during the author's lifetime.The traditions about the end of the - world and one has to infer this,but it seems rational that the purpose of the book is to say that theworld is about to end, or that the invasions are at least - are precursors of the end statedwithout any explanation or elucidation on the part of thewriter whatsoever. His functionwas merely to transmit; itwas en tirelyup to the reader to interpret the traditions and note their relevance to events around him. occurring This very passive and assumptive approach to apocalyptic was common among the religious leadership, both because itwas favored by the transmitters more of the hadit literature,and especially because of the politically and relig not iously explosive nature of apocalyptic in particular.They most certainlydid want to provoke reactions on the part of their audience which they could not control.One would expect that the beginnings of colonial rule and the exposure were to to themethods of Christian apocalypticwriting (which known Muslims, a to who had to debate them frequently)would have brought sea-change this - two passivity.However, this is not the case both in India and in Egypt (the major centers of apocalyptic writing during the colonial period) the methods same remained the throughout this time. Comparing Hablbullah al-Sanqaytl

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or or (writing in 1926 in Egypt)7 al-Kasmlri (d. 1933 in India)8 with Ibn Katlr other classical writers reveals no changes. In thewake of the Six Day War of June 1967 with Israel, during the course ofwhich theArabs were decisively de feated, this attitude changed, albeit gradually at first. For some time previous to this date conspiracy literaturehad been making headway inArabic, and by the 1950s had come to be generally accepted as an accurate rendition of political events. Mainstays of the conspiratorial anti as Semitic world-view such The Protocols of the Elders of , Count Cherep Spiridovich's The SecretWorld Government or 'theHidden Hand9 andWil liamGuy Carr's Pawns in theGame10 and other literatureof this sort had been translated intoArabic by this time, and were frequently parroted by political leaders for the benefit of those unable to read them (or sometimes for those un to able grasp the ideas and turgidwriting style of these polemicists). However, no there is evidence that theseworks had any influenceupon the purely religious Muslim world. The astonishing event of the Six Day War required an entirely differentmind-set, and it became obvious that previously accepted frameworks were was not or a obsolete. The Jew victorious because of superior technology more or even a more disciplined army because of coherent and unified ideology, but because he was the agent or even the avatar of theAntichrist. As noted previously, the idea of theAntichrist (theDaggal) undoubtedly en tered into Islam from , and most of the Daggal stories are direct are even translations of Christian material, and sometimes inexplicablewithout of was knowledge theirultimate background. The Daggal not themost popular in the figure fantasy land ofMuslim apocalyptic storiesduring classical times. It is rare to find books dedicated to him, or to find about him the extensivemate rialwhich was constantly flowing back and forthbetween opposing Muslim par ties as to the identityof theMahdi. However, it is clear, as noted above, that the a an Daggal is Jew (again, element taken directly fromChristian sources), and classical not although clearly Muslim apocalyptists had the slightestanticipation a of the foundation of Jewish state some 1400 years in the future, theydid see the as a Jews malevolent force behind the scenes. Jews do not play a prominent role in classicalMuslim apocalyptic, but when theydo appear, it is as manipula

- 7 Habibullah al-Gawdb al-muharrar man wa al-Sanqaytl, al-muqnic fi radd taga tagabbara wa aw bi-dac annahu cIsa al-Mahdi al-muntazar, al-Qahirah, al-Manar, 1926. - 8 al-Tasrth bi-md tawdtara nuzul Dar al-Kasmiri, fi al-masih, Bayrut, al-Kitib al-cIlmiyyah, - 1992 this volume was a sourcebook to private designed provide Muslims with answers to the claims of theAhmadh. - 9 Who the to "Whoever is a of a to actually quotes Qur3an say friend Jew, belongs them, be comes one of them. GOD cannot tolerate this mean people. The Jews have wandered away from divine are religion (given by Moses). They usurpers. You must not relent in your work which must show up Jewish deceit". Count Cherep-Spiridovich, The Secret , New The Anti-Bolshevist York, Publishing Association, 1926, p. 126, which appears to be a very loose paraphrase of Qur'an 5:51 (but he does not mention that the are not supposed to be taken as friends either). - 10 William cala trans. Guy Carr, Ahgdr ruqcat al-santrag, Sacid GazaJirli, Bayrut, Dar al NafVis, 1975.

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tors and plotters.This conception fits inwith the interpretationmany Muslims wished to give to the Six Day War, and eased the acceptance of anti-Semitic conspiracy material into the general audience. More specific intellectual prob lems stemming from this acceptance will be dealt with below. With the adoption of the anti-Semitic conspiracymaterial themodern Mus a lim apocalyptist had conceptual frameworkwith which he could work, and one a which explained great number of otherwise inexplicable and frustrating events taking place in theworld around him. However, what he then lackedwas positive proof for thewhole scheme. The anti-Semitic conspiracy theory has deep rootswithin Western religious and secular culture, and ultimately finds support (albeit indirectly) in theNew Testament, with the firstChristians' frus at tration the unwillingness of the Jews to accept Jesus as messiah. When it be came to apparent all that the Jews (leaving aside individualswho passed out of the Jewish people) were unwilling to take this step, and thatJesus did not appear to suddenly judge the evilworld (as is promised inMatt. 16:28), many Christian were hopes and aspirations put off into the eschatological future to be fulfilledat an indefinitedate. Christians developed in the Book of (and in their interpretationsof many other Biblical books, and the apocalypses which spun off these sources) a powerful picture of a scenariowhich would be so dynamic even turn to as a that the stubborn Jewswould Jesus result of experiencing it. Part of this scenario required the evil (at least in theChristian view) to be ex cised from the Jewish people, and manifested in a personalitywhich was so anti to as to an thetical Christ be "Anti-Christ" in allways. Although it is not stated, seems a it clear that this figurewould be something of sacrificial lamb (some what like theYom Kippur scape-goat) who would be the focus of all the nega tive qualities present in the Jewish people, and could be totally loathed because of this. on This figurewould then pay for the collective rejection the part of the Jew ish people of Jesus, and be sent to the ,while the balance of the Jews would be saved and accepted. Christians could not absolutely demonize the Jews because of their dependence upon them for the foundations of the Christian reasons faith, and the for the appearance of themessiah. Through theAntichrist however, the Jews' rejection of Christ could be safelyhated and demonized, and eventually expunged from God's chosen people. While theMuslims accepted no this framework, they felt necessity for dependence upon the Jews. Being far removed from the Biblical events, and in any case possessed of a revelation sepa rate same from (although in the general traditionwith) the , they could safely excoriate the Jewswithout any repercussions rebounding upon the foun dations of their faith. By the time Islam became intellectually independent there was a considerable divide between the Biblical Jewishpeople, and the contempo raneous one. Only recentlyhas thatdivide been broken down once more.11

- to 11 See my "Banu Israel the State of Israel: the changing of Qur^an 17:4-8" forthcoming.

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4. The problem of authority and relevance: the anti-Semitic conspiracy theory are aware Muslim apocalyptists verymuch of theirperilous and marginal situa case. tion, and have thus sought to find other sources to strengthen their In the following sections,we will examine threedifferent apocalyptic writers (although otherswill be noted in the footnotes) for theiruse of hadit, and how it relates to non-Muslim material, such as Biblical and conspiracy-anti-Semiticmaterial. Of the threewriters, two are among themost prominent in the field. The first is SacId Ayyub, who pioneered the synthesisof the above materials in themiddle 1980s. His firstbook, al-Masih al-Daggdl (1987) has been themost influential published thus far,12 and has set the tone formost of the publications in the field. The second writer,Muhammad cIsa Da3ud, has concentrated on para normal manifestations of apocalyptic beliefs, and has connected them success to common fully theMuslim apocalyptic scenario through the link of anti Semitism. However, the book chosen for analysis, al-Mahdi al-muntazar caL\ al not are abwab does emphasize the paranormal.13 Both of thesewriters violent and blood-thirsty anti-Semites, and theirmaterial is extremely graphic. The thirdwriter, Amln Muhammad Gamal al-DIn, is a man who has made a serious attempt to date the end of theworld from a Muslim point of view. His three a pamphlets have stirred up considerable controversy inMuslim religious cir cles.14 All three of thesewriters have a very set scenario inmind. The end is immi nent, and the portents have already been fulfilled.Gamal al-DIn, as a matter of an fact, devotes entire book, al-Qawl al-mubinfi al-asrat al-sugrh li-yawm al to Qiydmahy proving that they have already been fulfilled.He lists off 79 of an are too them (with additional half-dozen which he says indistinct to prove ei two therway). For the other writers, the defining features of the end times are the alleged total Jewish domination of theworld, and theworld-wide concerted to out effort wipe Islam (it goes without saying that the vast majority of the be liefscited fromAyyub and Da3ud are paranoid and have no basis in reality,but will simply be presented according to theirworld-view). Ayyub, for example, makes a maximum effortto present us with a lesson in history: the anti-Semitic conspiracy theory.Jews have infiltratedand corrupted to Christianity fromwithin suit theirpurposes.15 He spends a great deal of time with this issue. For example, the apostle Paul is a secret agent sent by the Jews to

- 12 Sacid al-Masih Ayyub, al-Daggdl: qird^ah siydsiyyahfi usul al-adydn al-kubrd, al-Qahirah, al-Fath li-l-Aclam al-cArabi, 1987. - 13 Muhammad cIsa Da5ud, al-Mahdi al-muntazar cala al-abwdb, al-Qahirah, al-Maktabah al-cArabiyyah li-l-Tibacah wa 1-Nasr, 1997. - c 14 Amin Muhammad Gamal Umr ummat wa al-DTn, al-hldm qurb zuhur al-Mahdi calayhi al-saldm, al-Maktabah al-mubin al-ahdt al-Qahirah, al-Tawfiqiyyah, 1996; al-Qawl fi al-sugrd li-Yawm al-din, al-Qahirah, al-Maktabah al-TawfTqiyyah, prob. 1997; Raddal-sihdm can kitdb cumr ummat al-hldm wa qurb zuhur al-Mahdi calayhi al-saldm, al-Qahirah, al-Maktabah al Tawflqiyyah, prob. 1998 or 1999. - 15 The breadth and of this can to depth conspiracy only be compared the fictional one in Umberto Eco's Foucault's Pendulum, though clearly Ayyub really believes what he writes.

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is an corruptChristianity,16 the emperor Constantine's embrace of Christianity were example of "the hidden hand" of the Jews,17 and the Crusades brought about by the effortsof themedieval , who were all themselves Jewish.18 even Martin Luther, who was a fanatical follower of Paul, brought Christianity closer to the Daggal because of his pro-Jewish tendencies (!),19 and when the a to Protestants fled Europe toAmerica, they brought with them subservience was a the Jews.20Napoleon Bonaparte also Jewish agent.21Much attention is devoted to the Jewish connections of Communism, and how this is designed to were destroy Islam,22 and to theWorld Wars (I and II) which arranged by them as well.23 This leads him to state baldly that "all of historybears witness that the United States ofAmerica, which has been occupied in all areas by the beliefs of now theDaggal is the chief enemy of Islam in every place."24 He also rebukes - Muslims harshly for "drinking from the riversof the Jews and Christians be cause a seems to of theirgulping humiliating disgrace has ensued"25 (he immune to a the fact thathe, too, draws upon western thought largeextent). One might legitimatelyask: where in all of this rendition is the hadit} and what benefit can aMuslim hope to derive from it?Ayyub's style is such that for can use him the foreignmaterial is presented first,and then the hadit which he to support his case.Whatever suits his purpose, he quotes, whether in context or out of it. For example, quotations appear from Jewish (Joshua Prawer, Yitzhak Rabin, Abba Eban, Hermann Kahn), Christian (JohnWesley, George Pakhoury, sources Jean Dixon), and historical-philosophical (Will Durant, Bertrand Rus sell, Jean-Paul Sartre and others),without any attempt tomake any division be to tween them, and generally twisting theirwords in order reach the conclusions he seeks.However, much of his material comes from conspiracy theorists.26He does cite hadit when he gets to the point where he has to deal with the actual

- was common in 16 Ayyub, p. 42f.; although Ayyub is ignorant of it, this accusation already van classical Islam: P.S. Koningsveld, "The Islamic image of Paul and the of Barnabas", Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, 20 (1996), p. 200-229.

17-Ayyub, p. 56. - 18 Ayyub, p. 183f.; and Fa'iq Muhammad Da5ud, al-Vmural-izdm, n.p., 1999, p. 27-28. - note wa 19 Ayyub, p. 59f.; and that Hisam Kamal cAbd al-Hamld, Haldk damdr Amrika al was muntazar, al-Qahirah, Dar al-Ballr, 1996, p. 23 makes the assertion that John Calvin origi a name to nally Jew named Cohen who changed his upon coming Geneva.

20-Ayyub, p. 61.

2\-Ibid.,p. 62. 22-Ibid, p. 118f.

23 -Ibid, p. 183.

24-Ibid, p. 64.

25 -Ibid, p. 130. - as at is 26 William Guy Carr, Pawns in theGame (trans, into Arabic Ahgdr cala ruqc lantrag) inMuslim and frequently quoted and is very influential apocalyptic literature, usually provides to as them with the veneer of historical learning; in addition various less savory materials such the Protocols of theElders ofZion (e.g., Ayyub, p. 114).

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events of the end-times; until then it is all western history and the anti-Semitic conspiracy. According toAyyub's interpretation,the Battle ofArmageddon will be fought by a coalition ofwestern Christians, who will be lead by theAntichrist (a Jew), in the traditional location, in theValley of Jezreel against a coalition ofMuslims. For this he manages to find support inMuslim sources by twisting the texts somewhat.27 But fundamentally thisworks not because theMuslim sources would indicate this particular scenario, but simply because Ayyub cites them in such a selectivemanner that in the end they read just as he would want them to. But his base idea is that the battle which will be fought is the Battle ofArma not geddon, and the traditionalMuslim story about what theDaggal will do. He has overlaid theChristian frameworkupon theMuslim sources (citing them only briefly), and made theMuslims win. A great deal of detail appears about thiswar, and the process bywhich theAntichrist will take over theWest.28 The on to Muslims will prevail, and go conquerWestern Europe (remembering that wrote he before the fall of Communism). At that point, apparently, theAnti christ,who will not be slain in the battle,will reappear in the homelands of the so to to Muslims, theywill be required return fighthim.29 The Daggal will not be slain in the Battle ofArmageddon and will reappear in theMuslim landswith a mammoth army of Jews and theirfollowers. He will advance from eastern Iran to the Persian Gulf and occupy Mecca and Medina. Israelwill join him (despite its destruction during the previous battles) and the to Muslims will flee northern Syria,where theywill be besieged by theDaggal and his followers. These will be defeated by Jesus Christ, who will return to earth as aMuslim and therewill be a slaughterof theJews.

"Then theDajjal and his supportersare placed in a press, like the press intowhich the pride of themen ofArmageddon disappeared war... during the great apocalyptic Then the last battle will occur, when the resultsof age-long deceitwill fall intooblivion. I mean by this the pcoblem of the heritageof Israel... thisproblem fromwhich the belief in thegodhood of themessiah of Israel stems,and all of the economic and political ideologieswhich cause theworld to be always atwar. Because of this [problem]chains and fettershave been placed a upon the Islamicworld for such long time".30 is Ayyub really quite blood-thirsty and somewhat sadistic in his delight at the defeat of the Jews.As Jesus and thevictorious Muslims advance upon Jerusalem, he has this to say:

27-Ayyub, p. 28If. - 28 Part of this is achieved by citing Henry Kissinger (an almost demonic figure in many Muslim See Sifr b. cAbd al-Rahman apocalyptic scenarios). al-Huwayll, Wacd Kissingir wa l ahddf al-Amrikiyya fi l-Halig, Dallas, Texas, Mu3assasat al-Kitab al-Islami, 1991, passim; and Ronald whom considers to have been an Reagan, Ayyub agent of the Daggal (p. 166-167). 29- AyyQb, p. 193f.

30- Ibid, p. 283-284.

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"Rejoice,O daughterof Jerusalem!31The Jew in the courtyardwill be likea brokenman, prepared fordeath in any form.The Christian on the crossroadswill find thathis 'messiah [theDaggal] has collapsed... then the was never 'Prince of Peace' [the Daggal] will die. Jerusalem made for the Jews.Weep, O daughter of Jerusalembehind whatever wall you please!The Dictator will die and your destinywill be in the hands of fate".32

He then cites one of the anti-Semitic traditionsfrom classical apocalyptic: - - "As the Prophet [Muhammad] said: His theDaggal's followers will retreat,and on thatday therewill be nothingwhich will conceal them, so that the stonewill say:O Believer! here is an infidel!And the Jewwill conceal himselfbehind stones and trees,and the stones and the treeswill say: 'O Muslim! O servantof God! here is a Jew behind me, come and kill him...' All of the books will be burnt at the end of the road.Those who sucked at deceit, spyingand hypoc risywill be burnt beneath the feetof the prophet of God, Jesus,and the army of Islam: the agents, the followers, the collaborators, the

thinkers, the observers, the supporters, the fans, the mob, the dogs, un thewolves, themonkeys, and the pigs.33They will be trampled der afterthe dawn... [therewill be] a sound like the sound of a groan, but itwill not avail, because his [theDaggal's] followersbelieved in him even before theysaw him".34

Further removed fromAyyub's history lesson and his conspiracy theory isAmin Muhammad Gamal al-DIn's firstbook cUmr ummat al-Isldm. He is steeped in theworld of al-Azhar and traditional hadit interpretation,and knows what the conservative opposition is likely to say to his innovation of attempting to date the end of theworld. Therefore, in his view it is not the issue of European his or were tory deciding which Popes Jews that is the critical deciding factor.He a spends worthy amount of time focusing on the so-called lesser signsof theHour (the political, moral and social events preparatory to the end of theworld).35 There are those events, such as the taking of Jerusalem, the splittingof themoon (Qur^an 54:1), the appearance of plagues and so forthwhich will proceed the distinctive tribulations associated with the end of theworld. In the interpreta

- verses 31 A parody of the in Zechariah 2:10, 9:9.

32-Ayyub, p. 286-287. - are are 33 Usually "monkeys" Jews and "pigs" Christians inMuslim religious literature. - trees 34 Ayyub, p. 286-288. The tradition about the rocks and the and the killing of the Jews is even to add in a note of frequently cited inMuslim apocalyptic sources, and conservatives tend in near cIzz al hope about its fulfillment the future: al-DTn Husayn al-Sayh, Alrat al-Sdcah sugra wa l-kubra> Bayrut, Dar al-Kutub al-cIlmiyyah, 1993, p. 11; Mustafa cAbd al-Qadir wa wa cAta3, al-Masih cIsa nuzuluhu ahir al-zamdn qatluhu al-Daggdl, al-Qahirah, Maktabat trans, al-Turat al-Islami, 1986, p. 23; and it appears in the Hamas (see inJournal of PalestineStudies, 22 [1993],p. 122-134). c - ummat a 35 He deals with the lesser signs in Umr al-Isldm, p. 29-34 in shortened form, in to addition to devoting the volume al-Qawl al-mubin them.

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tion of each of these he, unlike his conservative predecessors, is very careful to not point out relevantmodern facts and does suffice himself with irrelevant or comments about volcanic explosions which happened inAden in 1256, leave signs such as the appearance of theDaggal seven years after the taking of Con stantinople (historically in 1453) unexplained.36 For example, when speaking about the taking of Jerusalem, he has the fol course aware not lowing comments tomake (since of he is that it is under the control of theMuslims at thepresent time):

"[aftergiving an accurate renditionof the history, including the fact to that Muslims gave the city of Jerusalem back the Crusaders twice]... not a nor an from this we learn that Jerusalem is Palestinian issue but a issue with relation toMus Arab nationalist issue, only religious lims and Jews and Crusaders. And for thiswe see that the Jews in - - are to these days from years past making every effort Judaize Jeru even to so that salem, and attempting destroy al-Aqsa Mosque they can build Solomon's Temple on itsplace, claiming that theywill of fer up a burnt offeringon it in accordancewith theiralleged Torah beliefs.The riteswill be performedby theone who theyclaim is their messiah and , theDaggal, togetherwith the chief priest of the Jews".37

Of course, his use ofmodern examples does not merely relyon the anti-Semitic conspiracy theory. Frequently he shows his shock at the loose moral standards among Muslim youth of today; for example when dealing with the appearance reason of sexual promiscuity, he cites the for this being French law adopted by Arab (Muslim) states which allows consensual sexual relations between adults. He says that things have gotten to the point where when an imam preached against this, one of the young men in the audience got up and said "Why did - God prohibit fornication isn't it just likemarriage?"38 However, he, likeAyyub, accepts the anti-Semitic conspiracy theoryas part of the reality throughwhich the end time traditions should be interpreted.The principal difference between the two is thatGamal al-DIn is farmore cautious, and is very careful to make sure that everythinghappens in the order given in the hadit literature.With him, the scenario is dictated by the traditionalMuslim view, and not by the Christian evangelical view of events. A good example of this is thefighting of the Jews.

"For theMuslims' fighting the Jewswhen theywill hide behind the rocks and the treeswill happen after two signsof the greatersigns of theHour: theDaggal, and the descent of Jesus, and there is no dis

- still do not 36 Incredibly, conservatives appreciate that Constantinople has been conquered and use as a not worn out this volcanic explosion sign of the end, seeing that it had itswel come in the as it is no to already Middle Ages (just longer possible speak about theMongols being ): al-Sayh, Asrdt al-Sdcah, p. 21-22, 61-63. - 37 Gamal al-Din, al-Qawl al-mubin, p. 19.

38-/^., p. 31.

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agreementabout thisoriginally! and I should add that the lack of ap pearance of thisfighting as part of the greatersigns of theHour does not mean that it is to be necessarily included among the lesser signs as of the Hour, some have understood it, no!!39 But there are many events occur at without number then, and when they that time the the Hour will greater signs of occur".40

This, of course, should not be taken tomean that he is against the scenario of the fighting of the Jews, just that he is concerned that it be put in its proper place. This place is after the Battle ofArmageddon. a "[speaking about the FifthWar] In more exact sense, the fighting a of thirdof the Jews, since two-thirdsof the Jewswill have perished in the Battle ofArmageddon to such a degree that the Jews that are leftwill need sevenmonths to bury all of thedead in thatbattle, [cit ing Ezekiel 39:12 to prove this]41And then two-thirdsof the Jews will perish in the Battle ofArmageddon, and theMuslims will rule the thirdremaining under the leadershipof theMahdl, and thiswill be after the Muslims' of and conquest Constantinople the appearance of the cursedDaggal, who is theking of the Jews.The explanation of this is that the Jews are expecting theirmessiah, their redeemeror - theirgenius kingwho will redeem themfrom thesecorrupt peoples - those other than the Jews of the earth's inhabitants just like they think,and theybelieve thathis appearancewill happen previous to the year 2000... So theywill hide from theMuslims behind the rocksand trees,but the rocks and treeswill give themno respiteand will point them out and will denounce them. Justas if they shouted because of the smell of theirputrid infidelity,and theirundeserved murder of the prophets,and the offensivesmell of theirhands stained with the blood of innocents, children, old men and women... so the land will be their their stone purified from evil, cunning, and the and treewill speak? which will not be strangeduring this time ofwon ders when theDaggal appears and Jesus descends, and Yagiig and Magug [Gog and Magog] appear against the people, and the entire earth prepares for the last moment".42

As one can an entire scenario see, Gamal al-Din has prepared around the tradi tion of the "rocks and the trees",as it is quaintly called byMuslim apocalyptists, and merely ensures thatwe do not take itout of itsproper context.

- he use of the tradition of the 39 Here is clearly polemicizing with the political fighting Jews. an one: The distinction is important if the "fighting of the Jews" is included among the lesser event can occur to signs of the Hour, then it is just another political which previous the super events it can natural of the end time. But if it is pushed into the eschatological future, then occur as war someone who is known to be the only part of the general Muslim against Daggal. - 40 Gamal al-Din, cUmr ummat al-Isldm, p. 12-13. - he not seem 41 This tradition already passed into classical Muslim apocalyptic although does to aware be of it: IbnMagah, Sunan, Bayrut, Dar al-Fikr, n.d., II, p. 1359 (no. 4,076). - c 42 Gamal al-DTn, Umr ummat al-Isldm, p. 76-77.

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new sources to Like other apocalyptists, Gamal al-DIn is desperate to find cite for his theories. Since the basic idea of his book is that the end of theworld can be dated, and this approach has not been one favored byMuslim apocalyp tic tradition in the past, he has sought sources furtherafield. For example, in the middle of his book, as he comes close to the crux,we find that he cites such well-known authorities as Richard Nixon saying "by the year 1999 we will have completed our complete domination over theworld."43 Pat Robertson, Billy Graham, , JerryFalwell and severalArab Christian apocalyptic writ ers are also featured, all saying that theworld is about to end in the year 2000. It is only fortifiedby this dose of courage from foreign sources that he goes about the process of dating the end using theMuslim sources.44 Muhammad cIsa Da^ud's book al-Mahdi aUmuntazar features a different scenario than eitherAyyub or Gamal al-DIn. It is a very readable volume, filled with fast-paced action (in that,very similar toAyyub). However, he does not re fight the battles which Ayyub has already fought.He largely accepts the anti Semitic conspiracy theory as being themost decisive factor in explaining world politics, and does not spend much time on this issue.Although he is violently anti-Semitic, and very insulting to anybody who is not Muslim, his principal point in the book is to search out new sources of knowledge which can help predict the future. In this he actually goes back to early hadit sources, in addi tion to Coptic, Jewish and earlyChristian material. In doing this he does not sees new ignore the classicalMuslim sources, he merely them in lightof the ma terial.One can easily see his western orientation in the fact that he is fascinated by all things new (even if they are basically old sources). Fundamentally, his problem inwriting a book on theMahdi, is that this figurewas looked upon a with suspicion by great number of the religious caste in classicalMuslim times, who did permit traditions about him to be cited in great numbers (probably be cause of the political explosiveness of thewhole issue).45 Therefore, Da3ud is faced with a paucity of material which will aid him in working with the future events. Some of this is simply supplied by his own imagination and wishful thinking about what a modern Muslim would like to see changed about theworld (i.e., that theMuslims would unified, rid them selves ofwestern influences, take control of theirown destinies, etc.). However, sources he solves the problem of by concentrating on previously unknown manuscripts. Included in these are theDead Sea Scrolls, towhich he devotes a deal great of space dealing with the twistedhistory of theirpublication (includ ing the conspiracy theories involved in that episode, the echoes of which have not yet died down). In the scrolls he finds predictions of theMuslim version of theAntichrist, Jesuswho will fight and kill him, and theMahdI.46 However, his

- 43 Gamal al-Din, cUmr ummat al-Islam, p. 51-52. - 44 His Muslim critics on - see picked up this weakness Mustafa Murad, Matd taqum at Sdcahl al-Qahirah, al-Maktabat al-QudsJ, 1997. - 45 On this see Muhammad Farid issue, Higab, al-Mahdi al-muntazar bayna al~caqidah al wa l-madmun diniyyah al-siydsi, al-Gaza'ir, al-Mu3assasah al-Wataniyyah li-l-Kitab, 1984. 46-Da 5Qd, p. 90-91, 104, 106-107.

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to preferredmethod is investigate "new" Islamic manuscripts throughout the world fromwhich he is able to takematerial which can suit his purposes, which we will deal with below. Da3ud does not hesitate to use the anti-Semitic conspiracy theory to out own one his ideas, and fighting the Jews is of the principal goals of his book.

"The beginning of the conquest of the entireworld will be the con quest of Egypt, and its receivingthe oath of allegiance to theMahdI. It is strangethat the leadershipof theJews in theworld would expect theflaring up of a fifthwar between theMuslims and the Jews,while we not we are Muslims do expect one, only absolutely certain. Our Islam gives us certaintythat thiswar is coming!! Itwill be wars!! and itwill end with the 'Jewhiding behind rocks and treesand the rock and the treewill say: {0 Muslim, O Servant of God! here is a Jew, come and kill him'".47

Throughout his book, theMahdI continually fights the entireworld, but his real are are implacable enemies the Jewswho said to be behind every single one of his opponents. Therefore, we find that theTurks, theNorth Africans, the Euro most are peans and especially theAmericans manipulated by the Jews into fight ing theMuslim messiah. In the climacticmoment of the action, the Jews are fi nallywiped out and theirevil is destroyed forever. Although the traditions about theMuslims fighting the Jews are not very prominent in classical Muslim apocalyptic literature, they are cited very fre quently by modern apocalyptists. In many ways, this comparatively rare tradi terms tion (in of the overallwhole) provides the lifelineMuslims need to digest the vast quantity of anti-Semitic material needed to fuel the scenario. Here the can an genuine Muslim tradition give legitimacy to otherwise obviously foreign events version of and "prove" that it has backing from the hadit. In reality,of course, if a Muslim were to look at the balance of the apocalyptic literature in his heritage, he would find that the emphasis on fighting the Jews is not very great, and was generally played down in classical times. Political circumstances and the general acceptance of this anti-Semitic frameworkhave served to legiti mize it and blow itout of proportion.

5. Biblical material

Biblical materials have a difficult and questionable place in theMuslim tradi tion. One of the first criticisms dealt with (or faced after publication) by this new trend inMuslim apocalyptic literature is itsheavy dependence upon Bibli cal citations. Some writers face this problem frankly.Hisam Kamal cAbd al ii amid says, for example:

"Some have protestedwith thewords: 'It is not permitted thatwe take from theTorah or theGospels because of the alteration(tahrif)' This is an incorrectbelief, because one who studies theTorah and

47-Da 3Qd, p. 122.

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theGospels well and compareswhat is brought forth in themwith what is brought forth in theQur3an and the Prophetic traditionwill a between the two of them in most matters find complete identity and issues,and will discover that the alterationdid not extend to all a of theTorah and theGospels, and there is stillwithin them great deal overwhich thehand of alterationdid not extend,especially what is connectedwith the eventsof the end of time".48

It is this 'discovery' (ormore accurately, this rationalization)which has enabled Muslim apocalyptists tomassively depend upon theBible for their scenarios. As a matter of fact,Ayyub was the firstto do this on a massive scale. The can as a bulk of his apocalyptic thought iswhat only be characterized Muslim reading of the (though he quotes also fromDaniel and Eze kiel). He relies upon the conjunction of Christian (according to his interpreta tion) and Muslim apocalyptic sources to an extentwhich was unparalleled in even Muslim apocalyptic until his time. However, though he has rejected the apocalyptic hadit literatureas his primary source, he continues to view the Bibli a cal texts through them, and in all cases he reads the cited texts in very preju diced manner, and reaches conclusions onlymade possible throughhis rejection of everythingwhich does not correspond to his world-view. Ayyub clearly repre sents a turningpoint inMuslim apocalyptic. Previous to him the use of the Bi ble as a source for scenarios is almost after him apocalyptic rare, non-existent; a until the present, number of themodernist-fundamentalist apocalyptists quote the Bible extensively, even sometimesmore than theydo theOur3an. Without never Ayyub thismight have come about. When Ayyub begins to deal with the identityof theMahdl, who will appear after the defeat of theDaggal, he goes to Revelation 19:11, where he finds that name the of themessianic figure to be "Faithful" and "True," which happen to two names on be of the ofMuhammad,49 and thisbasis proclaims their identity. He furthercompares theMuslim messianic tradition "The Mahdl is frommy [Muhammad's] descendants, from the children of Fatima [Muhammad's daugh ter]"50with Rev. 12:1, 5 (specificallywith thewoman giving birth in thisvision) and finds the similaritiesoverwhelming.51 on Continuing with Ayyub's reading of the book of Revelation, he appropri ates the Christian symbolism of the and proclaims it to be Mecca. is a most This very problematic point for other Muslim apocalyptic writers, for the holy cities ofMecca andMedina in Islam have virtually no place in scenarios. apocalyptic As theHamas leader Bassam Girrar says, Islam began in Mecca and will conclude in Jerusalem.52Girrar is entirely correctwithin the

- 48 cAbd al-Hamid, Halak, p. 5-6; compare also comments inGamal al-Din, cUmr ummat al-Isldm, p. 36. - 49 Ayyub, p. 76. - 50 See Nucaym b. Hammad, Fitan, p. 228-232. - 51 Ayyub, p. 76-77. - 52 Bassam Zawdl Israeli: cam Girrar, 2022, Bayrut, Maktabat al-Biqac, 1995, p. 49-50.

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confines of classical apocalyptic and there are very early traditions stating that at the end of time the Kacbah will come to Jerusalem.The Mahdi (theMuslim messiah) in classical apocalyptic material virtually always has his headquarters in Jerusalem.However, Ayyub tries to show systematicallythat the squareNew Je rusalem of Revelation 21 is theKacbah (inArabic, madinah mukac bah)^ the stones of the foundation (Rev. 21:19-20) are said to be the Black Stone and the River of Life (22:1) is said to be theWell of Zamzam.54 Not only that,but the figure of Christ returning in Rev. 19:11 is identifiedwith Muhammad. There to fore according him, theNew Jerusalem isMecca (he does not understand why Christians have not noticed this already).55 In all justice toAyyub, this is only a minute fraction of the amazing new interpretationswhich he has foisted upon Muslim (and Christian) apocalyptic. It is hardly surprising thathis book's conclusions have conservatives. been attacked by several As one might expect, Gamal al-DIn is farmore cautious about the use of Biblical materials, and tries to find justification for it in the hadit literature. However, he sees the apocalyptic awareness of theChristians and the Jews to be one of the signs of the end. For that purpose, he cites a Christian song "O Jesus, Come" as evidence of these beliefs.56 But as one reads furtherinto his volume, it more more becomes and clear that although he uses hadit more liberally than ei therAyyub or Da5ud do, and is less open to biblical material, he has still a adopted large part of their scenario, especiallywhere it relates to the Battle of as . He takes his starting point statements by such prominent as Christian scholars Jimmy Swaggart, JerryFalwell, Scofield, Ronald Reagan and other leading authorities. a Eventually he gets to the point, which is that there is startlingcorrelation between the hadits about the subject and theChristian material. At thispoint he cites the famous tradition about the sulh (treaty) to be made between theMus lims and theChristians:

a secure "'You will make treaty (sulh) with the Rum (Byzantines), and will an you both, together, raid enemy behind them, and you will be secure and take spoils,until you will camp in a fieldwith hills (margdi tuliil).A man from theRum will stand and liftup the cross and say: 'The cross is victorious!' and a man from the Muslims will stand up to him, and kill him. The Rum will betray [theMuslims] and therewill be the apocalyptic battles,and theywill gather against you 80 flags, 12,000 [troops]with everyflag.' [he says that it is ap parent that therewill be two battles, the firstof which isArmaged don, and the second ofwhich is between theMuslims and theRum,

53- Ayyub, p. 83.

54- Ibid., p. 84-85.

55 -Ibid, p. 79-80. - 56 Gamal al-DTn, cUmr ummat al-Islam, p. 20; compare Muhammad al-Bar, al-Masih al muntazar wa l-tacalim al-Talmud, Giddah, Dar al-Sacudiyyah, 1987, p. 125-127, who also was to some to witness Christian evangelical expectations, which he ascribed the influence of the Daggal.

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which he identifiesas America and Europe]... so the battle ofArma we geddon is the firstof what are expecting as the beginning of the final tribulationsand apocalypticwars. Itwill be as we will detail in a chapter 3: "theMahdl" destructivenuclear battle during which most of the strategicweaponry of theworld will perish, and the final word battles afterwards will return back to swords, spears and horses. It is no since the existential law con wonder, therefore, unvarying all ancient civilizations is destruction and cerning after flourishing, diminishing afterrising, and the civilizationof the 20th centuryhas reached the peak of earthly innovationand even speaks ofwhat they call'Star Wars'".57

Gamal al-DIn also explores Biblical prophecies. Towards themiddle of his book to he begins cite evidence for the idea the end of theworld is very soon, between 1999-2000. Although in his latervolume, in response to his critics, al-Radd al sihdm,he was to revertback to theMuslim material to prove his case, in this ini tial volume he quotes Matthew 20:1-16, the Parable of theWorkers. In short, a thisparable details number of groups of people (later identifiedas Jews,Chris tians and Muslims respectively)who are hired to do exactly the same work by master the (God) at differenttimes of the day.When at the end of the day each of them receives the samewages, the earlier groups (the Jews and theChristians) complain, saying that the last ones (theMuslims) were only hired just before sunset, and had not put in a full day's labor, and so did not deserve their wages.58 Using thisparable, he is able to date the end of theworld (by calcula to tions tied theWorld Day of 7,000 years and assumptions on how thatwould fit into a "day" based upon 24 hours). It is ironic, and indicative of the state of modern hadit studies that this very parable, in a Muslim version was already quoted in classicalworks, and he does not seem to be aware of it!59 Again moving back toMuhammad cIsa Da3ud, he is concerned to prove was a thatMuhammad prophet using the Biblical sources. He closely follows themes already developed in classical times, such as the verse inDeuteronomy 18:18 " your God will raise up foryou a prophet likeme [Moses] from own among your brothers." Since obviously this is a about themission ofMuhammad to the (according Muslim perspective, it establishes the bonafi des of the Biblical material sufficientlyfor DaDud to begin to use it in earnest.60 But Da^ud much uses goes further and extensively apocryphal and as Christian Fathers sources.He is extremelyeclectic in his taste, and it is appar ent thathe is to find source merely trying any which will prove his point.61

- c 57 Gamal al-Din, Umr ummat al-Islam, p. 39.

58-Ibid. p. 50-51. - 59 AJ. Wensinck, Concordance, Leyden, E.J. Brill, 1936-62, s.v. ?qirat?; and see Abu Yacla al-Mawsili, Musnad, Dimasq, Dar al-Ma3mQn li-l-Turlt, 1986, IX, p. 343, , p. 208-209. 60-DaDQd, p. 60-61. - 61 E.g., Di3ud, p. 76-82, 114-115, 121, 131.

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Other writers are even more extreme in their pro-Biblical attitude (all the while denying that theyhave one!). For example, Hisam Kamal cAbd al-Hamld wa in his books Haldk damar Amrikd al-muntazar and Iqtaraba hurug al-Masih at a al-Daggdl shows his preferencesby quoting the Bible length every time cita tion ismentioned, while whenever he cites a hadit he merely summarizes it.He almost never gives his sources in the hadit literature,but he always does for the non-Muslim material. Considering the state ofMuslim knowledge of the hadit literature,it really should be the otherway around. But this state of affairsshows which body ofmaterial is themore prestigious.

6. A harmonizing solution a a Modern apocalyptic is quickly turning into synthesisbetween number of dif ferent sources, only one of which is the hadit literature. In certain cases, how answers ever, the temptation to delve deep into foreign literatureand find to problematic issues has been resisted.One of the best examples of this is the apocalyptic fall of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). Gamal al-Din lists this off as one of the signs, especially since it appears (as noted above) to be a necessary precursor of the appearance of the Dajjal. He knows of course that centuries ago Constantinople was taken by theMuslim Ottoman Turks, and that according to the plain logic of theDajjal traditions, the end should have come was in approximately 1460 (seven years after the fall of the city). "... it the - capital of theOttomans untilMustafa Kamal Atatiirk came that imperialist - agent and abolished the Islamic caliphate at the beginning of the century and established secularism in place of it". But he has a solution to thisproblem: themutual defense pact between Israel and Turkey, togetherwith Turkey's pro-Western policies.When this is coupled two togetherwith the training that the countries' armed forces do together,and the threat of the water sources Turkey controlling of the Euphrates and the Ti gris rivers all becomes clear. "The immediate futurewill revealTurkey's true face, and thenwe will say that theMessenger of God said truly 'You will con deserve a quer Constantinople...' Yes, they conquest".62

"The Messenger of God said: 'You have heard of a citywhich one side of it is on thedry land and the other on the sea?'They said 'Yes, O Messenger of God.' He said: 'The Hour will not arrive until 70,000 of the Banu Ishaq will raid (yagzii) it, and when theyhave come to it, theywill camp and not fightwith weapons and not fire arrows, [theywill say] "There is no God but God!", and "God is great!" and one of the sideswill falldown'."63

- c 62 Gamal al-Din, Umr ummat al-Islam, p. 74; and compare al-Qawl al-mubin, p. 113-114; cIzzat Hamzah al-Faqlr, Taldtah yantaziruhum al-cdlamy p. 68-69; and Muhammad cArif, note has Nihdyatal-Ydhud, ai-Qahirah, Dar al-Ictisam, 1996, p. 191. Ayyub, Masih, p. 197 32 a course is different solution (he of preceded the Turkish-Israeli alliance): Constantinople really Rome, and that is the city which will be conquered then. - 63 Gamal al-Din, cUmr ummat al-Isldm, p. 75.

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a At lasthere we see a clear example ofMuslim interpretationof hadit untainted one by any foreignmaterial, but still relevant to themodern situation.As could expect,Muhammad cIsaDa3ud takes itfrom there.As he continues on with his scenario of theMahdi's conquest of theworld, he comes to the question ofTur swear key.According to his view, the rulersof Turkey will refuse to allegiance to mass are theMahdi, and to fight him. Da^ud says "... but among theTurks thosewho areMuslims, helpers and pure, and long for the day during which a new everythingwill return to its origin. Turkey is trulyMuslim, but needs conquest forGod to strengthen it in Islam, after the government ofAtatiirk the accursed and his allieswho have imprisoned Islam into secrecy and left it only in the books and in themosques".64 Other writers also use this tradition,which has proved to be fruitful.Al though he has his dates wrong (Constantinople was conquered in 1453, not in as a 1353 he says)Mansur cAbd al-Hakim, spends quite good deal of timewith the idea of what the conquest of Constantinople means. He is perfectly aware that it has already fallen and that the traditionmust be reinterpreted,but does not to even choose follow Gamal al-DIn in his anti-Turk interpretation, though a he knows thatAtatiirk was Jew and tried to destroy Islam. But overall, he an to makes attempt allegorize the taking of Constantinople away from the tak a ing of geographical location to an ideal. Constantinople and the Byzantines represent the temptations of thewest which has seduced Islam and lulledMus a lims into deep sleep. The Mahdi will awaken them from this sleep, and lead to them victory, takingConstantinople from anew, and entirely expunging the western foreign influencesfrom theMuslim world.

are in a the Christians "They living stupor, drugged, having drugged themwith promises and oil wealth and the softand carefreelife, and to the easy life,and going their lands in order to pleasure themselves - in everythingthat is allowed and forbidden without any difference between the two of them. The are Europeans and American lands for them so that can came to opened they spend moneys which them easily from the ground, from oil and the richesof the ground, and have that are 'the best nation forth to they forgotten they brought mankind bidding the right and forbidding the wrong [Qur3an 3:110]".65

more Muhammad cIsaDa^ud also focusesmuch completely upon otherwise un to out known Muslim manuscripts flesh his scenarios. He is obviously not en satisfiedwith the reliance not tirely upon Biblical material, and there is enough hadit to base aMahdi was actually fantasyupon. For him the solution to (appar create new sources. no to ently) There is way know whether thesemanuscripts exist or most or really not; probably theydo not, at least it is unlikely that they what he do. A of sort say says they good example this of tradition is the following:

64-Da3ud, p. 133-134. - 65 cAbd trans, al-Hakim, p. 23-26 (quote from p. 26); Qur3anic fromMajid Fakhry, The Qur^dn, London, Garnet, 1997.

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"The war of the treeand the palm, and theKacbah and theNile to war to a a crown - wards Syria, the of nobility cup and humiliated this is theprophecy of themessiah of theLord that theLord's rightly guided, the treeof life,the treeof lightand the treeof the fish, the Lord fights Israel in Egypt, and Egypt fights the Lord heatedly and regretfully.The Lord approaches victoriously to Israel and is angry with Israel, and the anger of the Lord approaches vengeance. The Lord puts Israel to shame, and a kingwill not kill Israel.The Lord has mercy on Israel, and all of Israel is angrywith theLord. The Lord becomes angrywith Israel, and the Egyptianman kills Israel. Israel a becomes king in Egypt and the Lord places new king over Israel. Destruction a fire in Sinai... approaches and the [the manuscript cuts off]".66

to some sense one to Trying make of that, can honestly be glad leave thewhole seems matter to Da?ud's fluent pen, and admittedly throughout the book he one someone an equal to the task.Yet would suspect that for with equally vivid imagination, these sort of prophecies could be interpreted inwildly differing manners. a It isDaDud's good fortunate that thus farhe has had monopoly over his new contributions to theworld of apocalyptic studies.

7. Conclusions

Twice during itshistory Islam has had to confrontChristianity intellectuallyand sources: borrow massive amounts ofmaterial fromChristian the firstbeing dur ing its formative years and the second during the past 150 years. During both a times therehas been problem digesting thismaterial. During the first round it is clear that a vast number of ideaswere absorbed in the initial encounterwhich to ones a proved be which caused Muslim theologians great deal of discomfort. Part of this discomfort stemmed from the absorption of apocalyptic traditions, ofwhich a large percentage ultimately come fromChristian sources. However, over the centuriesmany of these traditionswere either excised from the canon or (and consigned to the category of mawducdt) at least commented upon in such a way as to devoid them of all life.These apocalyptic ideas served Islam one well for centuries.They provide a satisfactoryframework of existence, albeit of a militaristic and aggressive nature, and give it an acceptable place in human history.The apocalyptic traditions are exciting enough to give life to the faith an (providing outlet for apocalyptically minded groups) and focusing their ag on gressiveness areas outside of Islam. It has been Islam's great fortune that the area area it chose for apocalyptic centrality, the of Syria-Palestine, has been the center of conflict for centuries, and has thus created a sense of relevance for these traditions.

- see um 66 DaJud, p. 154; Amir cArab, al-Mahdi al-muntazar: haqiqah hirdfah?, Bayrut, Dar to an al-Rasul al-Akram, 1998, p. 34-35 tries pass off equally ludicrous forgery supposedly names Imami bless from the time of Noah mentioning the of the Ahl al-bayt with their Sici ings.

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Without a doubt, however, this sense of relevance has not sufficed for the Muslim audience during the past 30 years.The hadit literature,in the sub-genre of apocalyptic traditions,which has held uncontested sway over theMuslim new imagination for centuries has had to step aside and accommodate sources of authority.While thishas not entirelydestroyed the authority of the hadit litera ture, it has definitely diluted its authority and perceived comprehensiveness. What more could be expected when even those such as Sacid Ayyub and Mu hammad cIsa Da3ud, both of whom descry the pervasive western influence in Arab societies, find themselves furtheringthis satanic influencewhile attempting to uncover its plots? Even Gamal al-Din, who is the last hope of the conserva tives (if they could only see it!), cites the Bible and western evangelical Chris as tians support for the idea that theworld is coming to an end rather than dee pen his study of his own tradition. Simply put, the hadit literaturehas lost itsprimary defenders simply because of the perceived lack of relevance.Apocalyptists are among the first to feel this are so because they close to the edge of the necessity to constantly up-date and revise theirpredictions and scenarios, as around them Jews control theworld, are Muslims humiliated and defeated, technology leaps and bounds forward, are leavingMuslim societies rootless and disconnected, and treaties signedwith the arch-enemy Israel.The apocalyptic traditions available to theMuslim have not to a been able provide framework capable of absorbing these inexplicable changes, and so apocalyptists have taken an easy route. They have takenChris tian apocalyptic expectations, raided and dissected them for any material of use to on to can them, grafted themwhatever be salvaged from thewreckage of Muslim apocalyptic literatureand then produced a scenario.When this is fur ther combined with the anti-Semitic conspiracy theory (itselfdependent upon Christian beliefs and history), the hadit is relegated to place number three and is only citedwhen it is comfortable for the apocalyptist to do so. to The advantages thismethod are obvious: the scenario is a powerful and relevant one, and it has obviously grabbed the imagination of many. The are as obvious: in western sources to disadvantages just using methods and attack western civilization, theMuslim apocalyptist ismerely furtheringthe westerniza tion his at of culture.Any of his readershipwho looks the bibliographywill in evitably come to the conclusion that if this is thebest that one who would attack westernization can a do, then trulyany chances for achieving completelyMuslim are culture lost.This ismost especially obvious in the disconnected nature of the new so apocalyptic scenario,which relies heavily upon Christian history (and es a sentially teacheswhoever reads this literature short, albeit paranoid, course in western civilization). The apocalyptist is ignoring those conspiratorial elements of his own culturewhich could be used, were he so inclined to do so or knew about it to a a enough actually produce such product, to build paranoid but Muslim scenario. Itmust be added that the tools are all around him, were he but to them From a pick up. classical times the idea of Jewish conspiracy against Is lam is No to well-documented. apocalyptist, the best of this author's knowledge,

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ever to has chosen to highlight thishome-grown paranoid tradition, and culti vate it into something akin to the anti-Semitic conspiracy theory. It isunfortunate, therefore,that one must frequentlypoint out the ignorance of theMuslim apocalyptic writer, and his essential arbitrariness as regards his own one ex heritage in the hadit. Numerous times, ofwhich the above is only seen or statements on ample, this author has traditions cited the basis of Chris tian authoritieswhich are cited in classical Muslim tradition as well. It is rare a that theMuslim apocalyptist shows any awareness of this fact, and in very real own even as trum sense is denying the relevance and worth of his tradition he a pets the need to return to it and to glorify it.There is significantdivide be tween his words and his methods, between his conceptions and his sources. It a would seem that he is not leading back as itwere to normative Islam, but to synthesisbetween Islam,Christianity and anti-Semitism.

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