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AUTHOR Duffy, Gerald G., Ed. TITLE Reading in the Middle School. Second Edition. INSTITUTION International Reading Association, Newark, Del. REPORT NO ISBN-0-87207-121-9 PUB DATE 90 NOTE 242p. AVAILABLE FROM International Reading Association, 800 Barksdale Rd., .P. 0. Box 8139, Newark, DE 19714-8139 (Book No. 121; $11.50 member, $17.25 nonmember). PUB TYPE Books (010) Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Classroom Techniques; Cognitive Processes; Content Area Reading; Instructional Effectiveness; Junior High Schools; *Middle Schools; *Reading Instruction; Reading Programs; *Reading Writing Relationship; Staff Development IDENTIFIERS Instructional Preparation; Teacher Collaboration

ABSTRACT Intended for practitioners, this book's major purpose is to reaffirm the unique and integral roles reading and literacy play in middle school curriculum and instruction. The book emphasizes: (1) the research-based re%ionale for what educators teach in reading and how it is taught; (2) an integration of reading with writing; (3) an acknowledgement that middle school reading instruction occurs within a context that imposes constraints which, in turn, shape the nature of middle school reading curriculum and instruction; (4) the importance of gradual, contextually bound charge relative to the conditions impozed by both policy and environment; and (5) a strategy of creating effective instructional improvement through collaboration among practitioners, teacher educators, and theorists. Part 1 includes -our chapters that provide a frame of reference for middle school reading. The five chapters in Part 2 focus on middle school reading curriculum and instruction. Part 3 consists of five chapters in which reading educators and/or practitioners describe a particular perspecL-ve on how effective reading programs are implemented in specific school settings. Part 4 consists of a single chapter that foreshadows what to expect in middle school reading during the 1990s. (MG)

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Points of view or ognions st at ed in th is dpcv ment do not necessarily represent official INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." OERI position or policy r . Reading in the Middle School

S ECC:20 INI 1:30Ersirritcor4

Gerald G. Duffy Michigan State University Editor ca le -_. International Reading Association C) Newark, Delaware 19714 IRA BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Carl Braun, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta. Canada, President Judith N. The len, Frostburg State University, Frostburg, Maryland, Vice President Marie M. Clay, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, Vice President Elect Joan F. Curry, San Diego State University. San Diego, California Vincent Greaney, St. Patrick's College, Dublin, Ireland Dolores B. Malcolm, St Louis Public Schools, St. Louis, Missouri Mary D. Marockie, Region! Education Service Agency VI, Wheeling, West Virginia Ann McCallum, Fairfax County Public Schools. Annandale, Virginia Joy N. Monahan, Orange County Public Schools. Orlando. Florida John J. Pikulski, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware Kathryn Ann Ransom, Springfield Public Schools. Springfield. Illinois Richard T. Vacca, Kent State University. Kent. Ohio Robert G. Jones, Acting Executive Director

IRA DIRECTOR OF PUBLICATIONS Jennifer A. Stevenson

IRA PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE 1990-19:1 Donna Ogle, National College of Education. Chair Irene West Gaskins. Benchmark School, Media. Pennsylvania M. Jean Greenlaw, University of North Texas Robert G. Jones, IRA Edward J. Kameenui. University of Oregon Adria F. Klein. California State College Ann McCallum, Fairfax County Public Schools. Annandale. Virginia Anne McCourt-Lewis, University of Delaware John T. Ridley. Houghton Mifflin Company Timothy Shanahan. University et Illinois at Chicago Circle Jon Shapiro, University of British Columbia Dixie Lee Spiegel. University of North Carolina Jennifer A. Stevenson. IRA Barbara R. E. Swaby, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs

The International Reading Association attempts, through its publications, to provide a forum for a wide spectrum of opinions on reading. This policy permits divergent viewpoints without assuming the endorsement of the Association.

Copyright 1990 by the International Reading Association. Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Reading in the middle school / Gerald G. Duffy. editor. 2nd ed.

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. I. Reading (Secondary) 2. Middle schoolsUnited States. I. Duffy. Gerald G.II. International Reading Association. Le1632.071990 90-34028 428.41371' 2 dc20 CIP ISBN 0-87207-121.9

Graphic design: Boni sash Typesetting: Wendy Mazur Staff Editors: Karen Goldsmith, Romayne iMcElhaney, John Micklos

Photo Credits: Mary Loewenstein - Anderson, pg. 230: Robert Bennett. pgs. 216, 227: Lalma Druskls, pgs. 7. 19, 45, 52, 102, 121, 160; Robert Finken, pgs. 13.83, 91. CONTENTS EC> IIIZENP1/41:3 61.100

VII PREFACE ix

PART ONE A Frame of Reference

ft,1ts, Middle School Reading: A Historical Perspective David W. Moore, Greg P. Stefanich 3

t''2ht Understanding Middle School Students Gayla Preisser, Patricia L. Anders, Peggy Glider 16

ft,3ft, What Have We Done with the Middle? Richard L. Allington 32

ts.4 The Influence of Classroom Management Mark W.F. Condon, James V. Hoffman 41 PART TWO Curriculum and Instruction in Reading

Content Knowledge in Reading: Creating a New Framework Charles W. Peters 63

ui.6ta. Cognitive and Metacognitive Goals in Reading and Writing Beth Ann Herrmann 81

isTs.. Affective Goals in Reading and Writing Donna E. Alvermann, K. Denise Muth 97

w8t- Instructional Planning and Thaching in Reading and Writing Mark W. Conley 111

ta,9:. Assessing Reading and Writing Sheila W. Valencia, William McGinley, P David Pearson 124

6 iv PART THREE Implementing Reading Programs

w1011' Accomplishing Change In Reading Programs Patricia L. Anders, Ned S. Levine 157

ks 1 1 Developing a Strategic Reading Program Joy N. Monahan 171

=81,2 Developing Integrated Programs Laura R. Roehler, Kathryn U. Foley, Mara T. Lud, Carol A. Power 184

tal3ht. Implementing Content Area Reading with Limited Finances Donna E. Alvermann, Victoria G. Ridgeway 200

14A' Improving Staff Development through Cooperation Mark W. Conley, Karen Tripp-Opple 209

V PART FOUR Reading in the New Decade

Where to from Here? Patricia L. Anders, Gerald G. Duffy 225

a

vi FC:, Ft. E NASTCP it. ED

Our typical educational pursuit is characterized by a search for the answer, the solution, the perfect program. And, characteristically, our best efforts are followed by dissatisfaction: we can always do it better. We have learned that answers, solutions, the best we can dothese are no more than mo- mentary perceptions. Tomorrow brings different answers, different solu- tions, better bests. What we envision today is unlikely to be what exists tomorrow. We imagine and strive, but who could have imagined our present family structures, the social issues affecting how and what we teach, and the needs and motivations of today's middle school students? Consequently, planning and innovation must occur without a preconceived picture of what will be when the new program is in place. And once the program is in place, a new picture emerges and, again, we are dissatisfied. So what does all this have to do with the second edition of Reading in the Middle School? Hopefully, it puts it in a historical perspective. This book is neither a beginning nor a solution; it is a necessary stage some- where in between. At this time, the hopes, biases, perceptions, and pre- scriptions expressed by the authors are the best they can be. But they will have to move over for others that will come along. For, like osier educa- tional enterprises, the middle school reading program must be a dynamic phenomenon. While it is true that reading programs must change with changing soci- etal and student needs, it is also true that nothing comes to pass without the passage of time. So program developers are caught between the need for change and the need for time to let change work, a discomfiting situation. Several chapter authors in this book express their disappointment with the gap between past recommendations for middle school reading and actual classroom practices. They are understandably disappointed in how slowly schools change. Piet Hein, a Danish poet and aphorist, expresses the factor of time cleverly: ' 9 vii T. T. T. Put up in a place Where it's easy to see The cryptic admonishment

T. T. T. When you feel How depressingly slowly you climb It's well to remember that Things Take Time

The first reality for all who work to improve reading educationfor mid- dle school students is that those who speak todayare unlikely to have the last word. Who knows what's around thecorner: a middle school with no structured classes, no tests, no report cards,no books (at least not as we know them now), no teachers? To what grand and currently unthinkable programs will middle schools evolve? The second reality is that new programscan be planned faster than they can be implemented and tested. Things take time. This book is an important contribution to the evolution of middle school reading programs. It will not be the last word, and it will take timeto put it in place and test the recommendations of the authors who havelooked at what was, what is, and what might be. They have turnedsome corners. What they have written for this book is thoughtful and timely. Ina historical sense, they stand bet'?Ai the past and the futurea necessary position if the future is to be better than the past.

Richard J. Smith University of WisconsinMadison

1 6

viii IP R. E FAMC E

The middle school concept is simultaneously compelling in its rationale and frustrating in our failure to achieve its potential. What middle school read- ing instruction should be is one thing; all too often it is something less. This book helps teachers, reading consultants, and administrators bring in- structional practice closer to the ideal. The book's major purpose is to reaffirm the unique and integral roles reading and literacy play in middle school curriculum and instruction. Ad- ditionally, the book emphasizes (1) the research-based rationale for what we teach in reading and how we teach it; (2) an integration of reading with writing; (3) an acknowledgment that middle school reading instruction oc- curs within a context that imposes constraints which, in turn, shape the nature of middle school reading curriculum and instruction; (4) the impor- tance of gradual, contextually bound change relative to the conditions im- posed by both policy and environment; and (5) a strategy of creating effective instructional improvement through collaboration among practi- tioners, teacher educators, and theorists. The book is divided into four parts. Part 1 includes four chapters that provide a frame of reference for middle school reading. The five chapters in Part 2 focus on middle school reading curriculum and instruction. Part 3 consists of five chapters in which reading educators and/or practitioners de..cribe a particular perspective on how effective reading programs are im- plemented in specific school settings. Part 4 consists of a single chapter that foreshadow.; what to expect in middle school reading during the 1990s. It is our hope that this book will be of practical assistance to practitioners seeking to achieve the potential of the middle school concept, particularly as it relates to literacy development. GGD

IX " C I C,N I C P A / E L E ED 4G OWL E IN TS

This book could not have been compiledwithout the assistance ofmany people. First, the conceptual frame for the bookresults from the collaborative efforts of Patiicia Anders, DonnaAlvermann, Mark Conley, and Laura Roehler. Second, the individual authorsprovided substantive chapters ina timely fashion. Third, Christine Harveyprovided extraordinary editorial assistance that was essential to thesuccess of the book. Additionally, the authors of Chapter 2 wishto acknowledge the contribu- tions of E. Ellen Thornburg andto note that the chapter was based on work done by the late Hershel D. Thornburg.Richard Allington, author of Chapter 3, wishes to acknowledge theassistance of Nora Boxer, Anne McGill-Franzen, and Kathy Broikou.

GOD

1 t

x CCI014111/1.111131.11 IV> IRS

Richard L. Allington James V. Hoffman Charles W. Peters State University of New York University of Texas Oakland Schools Albany, New York Austin, Texas Pontiac, Michigm Donna E. Alvermann Ned S. Levine Carol A. Power University of Georgia Tucson Unified School DistrictLansing School District Athens, Georgia Tucson, Arizona Lansing, Michigan Patricia L. Anders Mara T. Lud Gayla Preisser University of Arizona Lansing School District Eastern Montana College Tucson, Arizona Lansing, Michigan Billings, Montana Mark W.F. Condon William McGinley Victoria G. Ridgeway University of Louisville University of Michigan University of Georgia Louisville, Kentucky Ann Arbor, Michigan Athens, Georgia Mark W. Conley Joy N. Monahan Laura R. Roehler Michigan State University Orange County Public SchoolsMichigan State University East Lansing, Michigan Orlando, Florida Fast Lansing, Michigan Gerald G. Duffy David W. Moore Greg P. Stefanich Michigan State University Arizona State University, West University of Northern Iowa East Lansing, Michigan Phoenix, Arizona Cedar Falls, Iowa Kathryn iJ. Foley K. Denise Muth Karen Tripp-Opple Lansing School District University of Georgia Plymouth-Canton Lansing, Michigan Athens, Georgia Community Schools Plymouth, Michigan Peggy Glider P. David Pearson University oPrizona University of Illinois Sheila W. Valencia Tucson, Arizona Champaign, Illinois University of Washington Secede, Wasbinwon Beth Ann Herrmann University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina PART ONE

A Frame ofReference

MIZELL; ID E

The concept of the middle school is not a new one.It was developed decades ago to meet the special needs of earlyadolescent students. The chapters in this section provide a perspective on themiddle school as it relates to reading and literacy. Chapters 1 and 2describe the development of the middle school, its unique student population,and its unique instructional function, particularly in terms of literacydevelopment. Chapter 3 suggests that the middle school may not be achievingits unique function, and Chapter 4 describes how the goals ofmiddle school reading are influenced by variousclassroom management styles. Together, the four chapters introduce you to the middle school generally, and tomiddle school reading particularly, and provide a frame of reference forthe remaining sections of the book.

14 Middle School Reading: A HistoricalPerspective

David W. Moore Greg P. Stefanich

AN UNDERSTANDING as school districts inserted of the reasoning and actions Z'S, a level of schooling be- that led to the establishmer.. 1w tween elementary and sec- of middle schools enhances an under- undary. This new middle level grouped standing of how reading instruction is grades 4-9 into different patterns. For ex- conducted in these schools. This chapter ample, grades 4-6 were grouped and la- presents a broad perspective on both beled intermediate or upper elementary middle schools and middle school read- school. In 1970 the dominant pattern ing instruction. We describe apparent consisted of junior high schools with differences between recommended and grades 7-9, but by 1984 the dominant actual practices associated with this insti- pattern shifted to middle schools with tution and suggest explanations for these grades 6-8 (McEwin & Alexander, differences. 1987). Thus, most accounts of the estab- lishment of middle schools begin with Establishment of Schools the founding of junior high schools in the in the Middle early 1900s (Barton, 1975; Peeler, 1975; The organization of American public Toepfer, 1982). schools has moved from two levels to three. Most public school students in the Junior High Schools early 1900s attended an 8-year elemen- Around the turn of the century, educa- tary program and a 4-year secondary tors began recognizing the value of a dis- program; however, by the 1980s most tinctive educational program for students students attended a three-level structure in the middle grades. Reports by national 315-- 4

committees of educators who studied for high schools eventually assumed. secondary schooling reflected changes The number of junior high schools that were occurring and helped shape fu- grew enormously during the first half of ture changes. the twentieth century. The first junior In 1892 the National Council on Edu- high schools opened in Columbus, Ohio, cation named Harvard University Presi- and Berkeley, California, in 1910. Fifty dent Charles W. Eliot to chaira years later, about 80 percent of all high committee whose purpose was torecom- school graduates had experienceda 6-3- mend a program of studies for secondary 3 program (Alexander, 1987). schools. Among other things, the influ- School conditions are rooted in theec- ential Report of the Committeeon Sec- onomic and social situationsas well as ondarySchoolStudies(National the psychological theories of the time Education Association, 1893/1969)rec- (Chubb & Moe, 1986; Kliebard, 1986; ommended changing the dominant 8 Wiebe, 1969), and the impetus for junior year/4 year structure to a 6-year elemen- high schools was no exception. Forex- tary and 6-year secondary program. To ample, when early reportson secondary achieve this 6-6 structure, seventh and schooling were written, U.S. societywas eighth grade students were to be moved moving from an agrarian toan industrial to a secondary environment with special- economy. Improved technology reduced ized course offerings. This recommenda- the need for chores and responsibilities tion marked a change in the treatment of in the home, and promoted the hiringof middle grade students in comparison specialists in manufacturing andserv- with primary grade students. ices. Industrialists concerned with edu- The Cardinal Principles of Secondary cation wanted to change the curriculum Education (National Education Associa- for middle level students in orderto pro- tion, 1918) explicitly called for second- duce citizens and workers educated ary education to be divided between enough to meet the rapidly changing de- junior and senior periods. Among other mands of the new order. things, this report called for students in Child labor laws and compulsory the junior period to explore their apti- schooling laws of the time kept students tudes in order to tentatively choose the in school. These laws, and the increasing type of occupation they would pursue population and urbanization of the early later; students in the senior periodwere 1900s, led to the need fora new school to receive training in their chosen fields. structure that would relieve the enroll- Another recommendation contained ment pressures on elementary and high in Clis report was to broaden the post- school buildings. Another impetus for elementary school curriculum. Thecom- junior high schools was provided by G. mittee stated that secondary schools Stanley Hall, who pioneered the studyof should do more than prepare students for child development during this period. college. This recommendation paved the Hall (1904) published an influentialtwo way for the life adjustment and voca- volume work that emphasized the tional guidance functions junior andsen- uniqueness of early adolescents and

Moore and Stefanich 16 5 stressed the importance of considering tion: their special needs when planning educa- Function 1 tional programs. Integration In sum, a distinctive school organiza- To provide learning experiences in which tion for middle level students bega,. with pupils may use the skills, attitudes, inter- the ernett,ence of junior high schools in ests, ideals, and understandings previously acquired in such a way that these will be- the early 1900s. These schools resulted come coordinated and integrated into effec- from the work of three influential tive and wholesome pupil behavior. groups: (1) those who were concerned To provide all pupils a broad, general, about efficiently producing good work- and common education in the basic knowl- ers and enlightened citizens,(2) those edges and skills which will lead to whole- who wanted to relieve overcrowded some, well-integrated behavior, attitudes, interests, ideals, and understandings. schools, and (3) those who wanted to provide children with an environment Function 2 that fit their particular stage of develop- Exploration To lead pupils to discover and explore ment. The concerns and beliefs of many their specialized interests, aptitudes, and people were combined in producing this abilities as a basis for decisions regarding particular school structure. educational opportunities. To lead pupils to discover and explore Middle Schools their specialized interests, aptitudes, and abilities as a basis of present and future vo- The notion of middle schools as an al- cational decisions. ternative to junior 11,F,h schools emerged in the 1960s. Educators noted that junior Function 3 Guidance high schools were not serving the edu- To assist pupils to make intelligent deci- cational purpose for which they were sions regarding present educational activi- intended. As Eichhorn (1980, p. 57) ties and opportunities and to prepare them stated, the movement "erupted as a pro- to make future educational decisions. test against the program, not againstthe "b assist students to make intelligent de- cisions regarding present vocational oppor- concept, of the junior high school." tunities and to prepare them to make future The concept of the junior high that vocational decisions. middle school advocates wanted to pre- To assist pupils to make satisfactory men- serve was stated best byGruhn and tal, emotional, and social adjustments in Douglass (1947) in The Modern Junior their growth toward wholesome, well- High School. They summarized their adjusted personalities. To stimulate and prepare pupils to partic- concept of an optimal educational pro- ipate as effectively as possible in learning gram for early adolescents by statingthe activities so that they may reach the maxi- six functions of the junior high school: mum development of their personal powers integration, exploration, guidance, dif- and qualities. ferentiation, socialization, and articula- Function 4 tion. The following excerpt from The Differentiation Modern Junior High School describes To provide differentiated educational fa- these functions of middle level educa- cilities and opportunities suited to the vary-

1 7 Middle School Reading: A Historical Perspective 6

ing backgrounds, interests, aptitudes, highs were seen to reflect the academic abilities, personalities, and needs of pupils orientation of senior highs. in order that each pupil may realize most economically and completely the ultimate aims of education. Modern Middle Schools In order to clarify how Function 5 a program Socialization :ould be designed to fulfill the classic To provide increasingly for learning ex- 1 'nctions of middle level education, re- periences designed to prepare pupils for ef- cent publications list the essential char- fective and satisfying participation in the acteristics of middle schoolprograms present complex social order. (Lipsitz,1984; NASSP'S Councilon To provide increasingly for learning ex- Middle Level Education, n.d.; National periences designed to prepare pupils to ad- just themselves and contribute to future Middle School Association, 1982) and developments and changes in the social describe surveys of the features ofexem- order. plary middle school programs (George Function 6 & Oldaker, 1986). These publications Articulation help answer the question, "What makesa To provie- a gradual transition from pre- middle school a middle school?" After adolescent education to an educational pro- all, simply grouping grades 5-8or 6-8, gram suited to the needs and interests of attaching a high sounding rationaleto the adolescent boys and girls (pp. 59-60). new school organization, and calling it a middle school will not sufficiently fulfill The..e functions of the junior high the educational needs of early adoles- school can be taken as the theoretical cents. In fact, some junior high schools foun-..atior. of middle level education. with grades 7-9 fulfill the needs of early Middle level programs were expectedto adolescents better than named middle provide a transition between elementary schools (Yoder, 1982). and secondary schooling to meet the needs of early adolescents. Thesepro- Recommended Practices grams were to blend the child-centered Alexander (1987) examined the litera- nurturing emphasis of elementary schools ture on middle level education andsum- with the subject-centered competitive marized the essential characteristics ofa emphasis of secondary schools. true middle school E.ogram. A para- As noted previously, middle school ad- phrased version of his summary follows. vocates asserted that junior high pro- grams were not performing the desired 1. An interdisciplinary organization functions of middle level education. Jun- with a flexibly scheduled day. Teachers ior high schools were seen to bemere from academic specialties suchas lan- replicas of senior high schools. Thera- guage arts, mathematics, science, and tionale for junior high schools might social studies meet regularly in orderto have been based on the lofty functions coordinate their instruction fora particu- presented by Gruhn and Douglass and lar group of students. Actual team teach- others, but the actual practices in junior ing might occur, but the emphasis ison

Moore and Stefanich 18 Joint planning can help teachers effectively meet students' diverse needs.

mutual planning in order to meet stu-their classes twice a week for large sec- dents' needs. For instance, teacherstion activities that last twice as long as might meet weekly in order to monitornormal. A homeroom period might be the behavior of students who are acting offered that allows students to participate up or becoming overly withdrawn. Inter- in activities they choose on a daily, ventions are designed to promote the weekly, or monthly basis. personal development of such young- sters. During the meetings, teachers 2. An adequate guidance program, might plan lessons that capitalize on including a teacher advisory plan. what is being presented in one another's Teachers meet regularly with a home- classes. Science and social studies teach- room or advisory group of students in ers might have their students summarize order to perform various activities and materials according to the guidelines provide guidance. Teachers might publi- presented by the language arts teacher. cize and encourage students to partici- With a flexibly scheduled day, class peri- pate in different clubs during this time, ods of unequal times might be presented. or they might counsel students individu- For example, teachers might combineally or in groups about personal, aca-

0 Middle School Reading:A Historical Perspective 4-4 I 8

demic, and vocationalissues.For 5. Varied and effective instructional instance, programs that deal with smok- methodology for the age group. Teachers ing, alcohol, and drugs might be offered do more than present lectures, conduct in homerooms. Teachers assumea spe- recitations, and monitor seatwork with cial responsibility for the personal well- whole-class groups. Instead, they might being of the students assigned to them. follow up a large group presentation with 3. A fill -scale exploratoryprogram. small group interaction, use multimedia Exploration is offered in differentways. presentations, and allow peer tutoringor First, teachers offer short courses in sub- some form of cooperative learning. jects such as foreign langu,:ges and the Teachers present material at rates thatare fine and practical arts in order to expose appropriate for particulargroups of students totheircontents. Longer learners. The methodology is variedto courses in these subjects are offered later respect the diversity and the increasing in individuals' programs. Second, teach- sophistication of middle school students. ers offer programs and clubs in special 6. Continued orientation and articu- interest areas such as photography and lation for students, parents, and teach- aviation. Students are able to participate ers.Administratorsandteachers in these activities because of the flexibly introduce the middle school program to scheduled day. Minicourses on nontradi- new students and their parents annuallj. tional topics such as mythology and Provisions are made for the orientation medicine also could be offered. Finally, of new families during theyear. Ongoing teachers encourage students to pursue in- communication is maintained between dependent investigations of the topic be- the school and the home. In addition, ing studied during the regularcourse teachers participate in staff development work. activities to refine their skills in carrying 4. Curriculum provision for such out the functions of middle level educa- broad goals and domains as personal de- tion. velopment, continued learning skills, and basic knowledge areas. This rather The first three items noted by Alexan- general goal is meant to underlie all the der describe entities thatare especially course offerings of a middle school. A important for distinguishing middle curriculum of personal development schools from other school levels. An in- seeks to promote areas such as physical terdisciplinary organization, a guidance wellness and decision making. A school program with a teacher advisory plan, that fosters continued learning skills in- and an exploratory programare the cludes attention to higher order literacy hallmarks of exemplary middle schools. and thinking strategies as well as infor- The other items listedprovisions for mation processing tools such ascom- broad curricular goals and domains,ap- puters and reference sources. Basic propriate instructional methodology, and knowledge areas include the concepts continued orientation and articulation and ideas about the world that character- seem to fit primary, secondary, and mid- ize educated citizens. 2 011e grades.

Moore and Stefanich .,,. 9

Actual Middle School Practices Various explanations are possible for In order to determine the extent tothe apparent gap between recommended which practices characteristic of exem- and actual practice in middle schools. plary middle schools were being imple- One is that many groups in U.S. society mented, Binko and Lawlor (1986)combined to establish this level of conducted a small-scale survey. Re-schooling, and not all of the groups were sponses from 237 teachers and 43 schoolmotivated primarily by the theoretical administrators revealed that the recom- considerations of teaching young adoles- mended practices most evident in actual cents according to their particular stage middle schools were: of development. Emphasis on basic skills. For instance, concerns about declining enrollment motivated some people to Differentiation of teaching methodspromote middle schools. In the 1960s according to student abilities. and early 1970s, comprehensive high Utilization of media. schools became underutilized. To rem- Differentiation of subject area ob- edy this situation, the ninth grade was re- jectives according to ability. turned from the junior high to the senior Encouragement of creative ideas by high, and the junior high was called a students. middle school. The practices rated least evident were: Groups working to racially integrate schools also promoted the middle school Interdisciplinary team teaching. structure. Black children and white chil- Single discipline team teaching. dren typically went to separate schools Ability of teachers to function as because they lived in segregated commu- counselors. nities. Integrationists respected the need Provisions for minicourses. for elementary schools to be located within each community, but they wanted Use of a nongraded organization to bring together students from the seg- (p.83). regated communities as soon as possible. Seventh grade was considered too late The findings obtained from this small for successfully mixing children from sample of middle schools reveal a dis- different races, so fifth or sixth grade crepancy between recommended and ac- was chosen, and the new structure was tual practice. Although the respondents called a middle school. reported instructional emphases in some Even if a middle school was estab- recommended areas, not evident were lished according to professional recom- interdisciplinary cooperation, personal mendations, many forces could work guidance, and exploratory programs. against its t-ontinuation. School admin- These findings are consistent with those istrators facing tight budgets have dif- from several dissertations conductedficultyschedulingclassesso that since 1978 (Brown, 1978; Holmes, interdisciplinary groups of teachers can 1981; Munsell, 1984; Nesper, 1981). meet and plan cooperatively. In addition,

School Reading: A Historical Perspective 23Middle 10

teacher education institutions have been articulated the characteristic reading slow to develop distinct programs for needs of middle level students. Morere- middle level educators, and state certifi- cent statements about this topic (Early, cation standards almost universally allow 1984) have retained most of the initial teachers trained in a senior high modelto thinking. In brief, average readersat the work in the middle grades. Accordingto end of fourth graft generally have Alexander and George (1981), "Proba- achieved basic fluency. Theyare Able to bly the greatest problem and need of the read in thought units rather than word by middle school movement is the lack of word. Average readers also have well de- personnel trained for and committedto veloped strategies for decoding unfamil- the education of transescents" (p. 20). iar words. Long words mightstump these students, but the difficulty proba- Middle School Reading bly arises beczPise they do not have the This section turns from the gelieral words in their liswzing vocabulariesor middle school movement to the specific because the words contain spellingcon- reading instruction methods associated structions no yet encountered. with these schools. Reading instruction Average readers at the end of fourth is needed that meets early adolescents' grade also have basic comprehension requirements in areas such as integration, strategies. They can answer questions exploration, and socialization. Appropri- about information stated explicitly in the ate instruction also is necessary inareas text, but they have difficulty with ab- specific to reading development. Know- stractions. Because of the limitedamount ing the general developmental needsas of background information acquiredup well as the specific reading needs ofpre- to this time, these readers frequently teens helps educators plan effective read- misinterpret information and miss allu- ing programs. When considering the sions to ideas. Finally,average readers at reading needs of this agegroup, it is this stage typi.-ally have few studystrate- important to realize thateven average gies. Many studentsprogress readily readers differ considerably. Students through reading tasks in primary grades who achieve the same scoreson reading but are frustrated by tasks presented in tests have different interests, aptitudes, mid(r,e grades. For the first time,stu- personalities, backgrounds, and learning dents must silently understand and retain styles. Moreover, not all readersare av- quantities of complex written informa- erage. Problem readers and superior tion. Preparing for chaptertests and re- readers always exist. porting information synthesized from Hall and other child developmentre- various materials can be frustrating for searchers stimulated inquiry into the these students unless they receiveappro- stages of reading development exhibited priate instruction. by preteens and other agegroups (Gray, 1939). By the mid 1930s, authorities Recommended Reading Practices such as McCallister (1936), McKee In order to determine the featuresof (1934), and Thorndike (1934a, b, c) had successful middle school reading and

Moore and Stefanich 2' 11 writing programs, the Center for Early the way responsible adults learn Adolescence at the University of North through discussion. Carolina at Chapel Hill began the Project Use varied heterogeneous as well as on Adolescent Literacy in 1985. Inves- homogeneous groupings and re- tigators visited 32 sites that boasted group students around interests as successful programs and isolated 11 well as ability levels (Center for characteristics of their literacy instruc- Early Adolescence, 1987, p. 3). tion. Defining these features seems to be the most productive way to recommend The exemplary reading practices listed practices for better reading programs. reflect some traditional and some rela- According to this report, teachers in suc- tively new recommendations from the cessful middle level literacy programs: reading education literature. One of the Spend a high proportion of time on longest standing recommendations found actual reading and writing. in the list is to have middle school stu- Teach skills in the context of actual dents spend a high proportion of time reading and writing. reading. To do such reading, students re- quire access to library books, maga- Stress silent reading, reserving oral zines, brochures, and audiovisual kits, reading for special activities, such rather than being restricted to textbooks as dramatic readings or sharing stu- and workbooks. Spending a high propor- dents' written pieces. tion of time reading helps satisfy general Teach strategies for reading :om- developmental needs for integration and prehension. exploration as well as specific reading Build lessons on the background needs for interest and knowledge of the information and experience of the world. students. Another familiar recommendation is Integrate speaking and listening to include reading instruction across the activities with reading and writing curriculum. The idea is for middle activities. school teachers to teach students how to read subject matter materials. Teachers Focus on writing. of science, social studies, and home eco- Model for students how experi- nomics are not expected to rely on read- enced readers and writers plan and ing specialists to improve students' accomplish their goals. reading performance. The recommended Give students hands-on experiences role for specialists is to support class- that help them understand what they room instruction with resources and sug- read and write. gestions and to work with exceptional Facilitate discussions rather than 'readers. Finally, two other comm'- . Aec- lead them by asking open-endedommendations are to group students questions that elicit answers requir- flexibly according to reading interests ing critical thinking rather than and performance and to emphasize com- yes/no answers, and by modeling prehension.

rir)Middle School Reading: A Historical Perspective 40 12

Two relatively new recommendations Knowing the prevalence of these recom- for middle school reading programs in- mended practices during typical daily in- volve explicit instruction and writing. struction also is important. Middle level One of the practices listed calls for teach- educators who understand the realities of ers to model how they planned and at- actual practice are better able to imple- tained their literacy goals. If studentsare ment ideal programs. expected to summarize passages, teach- Published descriptions of reading ers should summarize a passage first, practices in grades 5-8 reveal many ac- thinking through the process aloud. A tual practices that differ from recom- related recommendation is for teachers mended ones (Good lad, 1984; Shaver, to teach comprehension strategies. Strat- Davis, & Helburn, 1979; Smith & egies differ from skills because strategies Feathers, 1983; Stodolosky, Ferguson, involve knowing when and why to em- & Wimpelberg, 1981). According to ploy particular processes. To illustrate, these reports, students' reading tasks students might be skillful at summariz- generally were to acquire assigned infor- ing passages requested by others, but mation contained in textbooks. This in- they might not summarize passages formation typically was factual, and when interpreting text by themselves. students generally wrote it on work- These students would be skillful but not sheets before going over it in class. The strategic. The call for explicit, direct in- essence of the tasks seemed to be to lo- struction to ensure strategic reading mir- cate textbook sentences that contained rors much of the current thinking in the correct answers. Teachers conducted professional literature about teaching large group recitations based on the as- reading comprehension (Pearson & signed readings and frequently elabo- Dole, 1987). rated on the text's concepts by explaining The second practice calls for a focus selected points and reporting personal on writing. The Center for Early Adoles- experiences related to the information. cence list was derived from literacy pro- Students tended to read little connected gramsratherthan from programs text during the school day. Many stu- limited to reading. However, the connec- dents were able to progress through the tion between reading and writing has day by relying on the comments of teach- been well established Juring the past ers and other students to get required in- decade. An emphasis on writing is con- formation instead of reading for themsel- sistent with much of the current literature ves. Practically no time was spent prepar- about middle level reading programs ing students for reading assignment:, or (Atwell, 1987). teaching specific reading strategies. As , Good lad (1984, p. 105) summarized, Actual Reading Practices "The data from our observations...sup- Recommended reading practices pro- port the popular image of a teacher stand- vide goals for program development. ing or sitting in front of a class imparting They specify what middle level educa- information to a group of students. Ex- tors should seek in this curricular area. plaining and lecturing constituted the

Moore and Stefanich 2 13 most frequent teaching activities' One caution is important to remember when considering reading practices. Be- cause a comprehensive, methodologi- cally adequate description of middle school reading practices is not available, the precise nature and extent of practices is difficult to pinpoint. The findings about actual reading practices reported here come from studies that include rides 5-8. If the description of reading practices presented here applies to most middle schools, there is a clear discrepancy be- tween recommendations and actualities. Having students spend a lot of time read- ing and writing, building lessons on the background information and experience of students, giving students hands-on experiences, discussing information crit- ically, ana grouping students flexibly are missing from the reports of actual practices. As noted earlier, many forces affect what happens in schools. One that seems responsible for the actual reading prac- tices reported centers around social con- Middle school =dents must be able to read trol. Teachers who conduct whole-class and understand various technical and scien recitations on information contained in a tific materials. single textbook control the content cov- ered. Middle school teachers perceive pressure from upper grade teachers, ad- ministrators, and parents to produce stu- peditiously. In addition, teachers are dents who have acquired the information expected to produce students who exhibit customarily presented in school. For in-orderly, submissive behavior, and teach- stance, most middle level science curric-ers typically desire such behavior during ula call for students to learn the steps ofthe school day in order to reduce ten- the scientific method, the parts of thesion. Because recitations allow teachers eye, the life cycle of bean plants, and the to control student behavior, their use stages of mitosis. Text based recitationspersists. The persistence of recitations is allow teachers to present this infor-explained by Doyle (1983, p. 186) as mation (and only this information) ex- follows:

2aMiddle School Reading: A Historical Perspective 14

Some tasks, especially those which involve practices are inadequate, educators must understanding and higher level cognitive determine how to enter the twenty-first processes, are difficult for teachers and stu- century with the nations middle schools dents to accomplish in classrooms. In at- tempting to accomplish such tasks, students implementing appropriate teaching prac- face ambiguity and risk generated by the tices. accountability system. Teachers, in turn, face complex management problems result- ing from delays and slowdowns and from References the fact that a significant portion of the Alexander, William M. (1987, Summer). Toward students may not be able to accomplish schools in the middle: Progress any prob- lems. Journal of Curriculum and Supervi- the assigned work. As tasks move toward sion, 2, 314-329. memory or routine algorithms, these prob- Alexander, William M., & George, Paul S. lems arc reduced substantially. (1981). The exemplary middle school. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Conclusions Atwell, Nancic. (1987). in the middle: Writing, reading, and learning with adolescents. The recommendations and the realities Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. relative to middle school reading seem to Barton, Ronald R. (1975). A historical stud) of be disparate. Too many middle schools the organization and development of the jun- ior high and middle school movement, 1920- fall short in practices such as providing 1975. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, abundant time and materials for wide University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR. exploratory reading, teaching rea ling Binko, James, & Lawlor, James. (1986, Septem- across the curriculum through interdis- ber). Middle schools: A review of current practicesHow evident are they? NASSP Bul- ciplinary teaming, teaching compre- letin, 1(70), 81-87. hension strategies explicitly, providing Brown, William T. (1978). A comparative stud , enriched opportunities for writing, and of middle school practices recommended in current literature and practices of middle eliciting thinking. schools in South Carolina. Unpublished doc- Implementing recommended practices toral dissertation. University o: South Caro- seems to be the primary issue facing lina, Columbia, SC. Center for Early Adolescence. (1987). Adoles- middle level educators. Relatively well- cent literacy: What schools can do. Common accepted guidelines are available about Focus. An Exchange of Information About the type of educational program best Early Adolescence, 8, 3-4. Chubb, John E., & Moe, Terry M. (1986, Fall). suited to the needs of early adolescents. No school is an island: Politics, mulcts, and However, there are no simple procedures education. The Brookings Review, 4, 21-28. for effectively instituting and maintain- Doyle, Walter. (1983, Summer). Academic ing these guidelines in middle schools. work. Review of Educational Research, 53, 159-199. Educators have the task of implementing Early, Margaret. (1984). Reading to learn in recommended practices in the face of grades 5 to 12. San Diego, LA. Harcourt powerful social, political, and economic Brace Jovanovich. Eichhorn, Donald H. (1980). The school. In constraints. Much progress has been Mauritz Johnson (Ed.), Toward adolescence: made in defining developmentally appro- The middle school years. Chicago, IL. Uni- priate reading instruction for early ado- versity of Chicago Press. George, Paul S., & Oldaker, Lynn S. (1986). A lescents. However, in order to avoid past national survey of middle school effective- and present criticisms that middle level ness. Educational Leadership, 43, 79-85.

Moore and Stefanich 26 15

Good lad, John I. (1984). A place called school. National Middle School Association. (1982). New York: McGraw-Hill. This we believe. Columbus, OM: National Gray, William S. (1939). Reading. In Guy M. Middle School Association. Whipple (Ed.), Child development and the Nesper, David P. (1981). A study to determine curriculum. Bloomington, IL: Public School the current level of implementation of eigh- Publishing. teen selected critical attributes of middle Gruhn, William T., & Douglass, Harl R. (1947). schools in the United States. Unpublished The modern junior high school. New York: doctoral dissertation, Ball State University, Ronald Press. Muncie, IN. Hall, G. Stanley. (1904). Adolescence. New Pearson, P. David, & Dole, Jani. A. (1987, York: D. Appleton. November). Explicit comprehension instruc- Holmes, James F. (1981). Implementation status tion: A review of research and a new concep- of selected middle school principles in named tualization of instruction. Elementary School California middle schools: A descriptive Journal, 88, 151-165. study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Peeler, Thomas H. (1975). The middle school: A University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, historical frame of reference. In Gerald G. CO. Duffy (Ed.), Reading in the middle school. Kliebard, Herbert M. (1986). The struggle for Newark, DE: International Reading Associa- the American curriculum, 1893-1958. Bos- tion. ton, MA: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Shaver, James P., Davis, 0.L., Jr., & Helburn, Lipsitz, Joan. (1984). Successful schools for Suzanne W. (1979, February). The status of young adolescents. New Brunswick, NJ: social studies education: Impressions from Transaction Books. threeNSFstudies. Social Education, 43, 150- McCallister, James M. (1936). Remedial and 153. corrective instruction in reading: A program Smith, Frederick R., & Feathers, Karen M. for the upper grades and high school. New (1983, December). The role of reading in York: Appleton-Cent'ry. content classrooms: Assumption vs. reality. McEwin, C. Kenneth, & Alexander, William M. Journal of Reading, 27, 262-267. (1987). Report of middle level teacher educa- Stodolosky, Susan S., Ferguson, Teresa L., & tion programs: A second survey (1986-1987). Wimpelberg, Karen. (1981). The recitation Boone, NC: Appalachian State University persists, but what does it look like? Journal of Media Services. Curriculum Studies, 13,121-130. McKee, Paul G. (1934). Reading and literature Thorndike, Edward L. (1934a, October). Im- in the elementary school. Boston, MA: proving the ability to read. Teachers College Houghton Mifflin. Record, 36, 1-19. Munsell, William R. (1984). A study of the ex- Thorndike, Edward L. (1934b, November). Im- tent to which identified programmatic charac- proving the ability to read (part 2). Teachers teristics of middle level education are College Record, 36, 123-144. implemented in the middle schools and junior Thorndike, Edward L. (1934c, December). Im- high schools in the state of Colorado. Unpub- proving the ability to read (concluded). lished doctoral dissertation, University of Teachers College Record, 36, 229-241. Colorado, Boulder, CO. Toepfer, Conrad F., Jr. (1982). Junior high and NASSP'SCouncil on Middle Level Education. middle school education. In Harold E. Ng...zel (n.d.). An agenda:or excellence at the middle (H.), Encyclopedia of educational research level. Reston, VA: National Association of 5th ed., vol. 2). New York: Free Press. Secondary School Principals. Wiebe, Robert H. (1969, Summer). The social National Education Association. (1918). Cardi- functions of public education. American nal principles of secondary education. Wash- Quarterly, 21, 147-164. ington, DC: U.S. Govrnment Printing Yoder, Walter H. (1982). Middle school vs. jun- Office. ior high misses the point. Educational Lead- National Education Association. (1969). Report ership, 40, 50. of the committee on secondary school stuc;us. New York: Arno Press. (Original work pub- lished in 1893.)

27Middle School Reading: A Historical Perspective Understanding Middle School Students

Gay la Preisser Patricia L. Anders Peggy Glider

SPEND A DAY WATCH- high energy levels and so- ing the immensely diversi- 4, cial needs. Likewise, the fied students in the halls 4.2 organization of most mid- of a middle school or a junior high. The dle schools is flexible so that the expand- students you see vary in their physical ing needs and interests of students in this development, social maturity, cognitive age group may be encouraged and ac- ability, and emotional growth. This di- commodated. versity presents educators with special The aim of this chapter is to provide a challenges that are best met by those global description of early adolescence. who are well grounded in theories of ad- Specifically, we (1) present various psy- olescent development and sensitive to the chological theories of early adolescent complex nature of this age group. The development; (2) summarize physical, middle school movement is an example cognitive, and affective characteristics of of educators responding to these special this age; (3) highlight the influences of characteristics. For example, the curric- environmental forces on development, ulum typically provides a broad range of and (4) suggest some general implica- options from which students may sam- tions of this information for middle ple, thus appealing to their diverse and school educators. expansive interests. Options range from opportunities for interdisciplinary study Theoretical Views of Early and for making connections between dis- Adolescent Development ciplines (Gardner, 1983) to project ori- It is evident from the literature that ented activities to accommodate their there are few conceptual frameworks de-

-2-8- 16 -40 17 signed to "understand, research, and in- early adolescent development. terpret early adolescent development, learning, and experience" (Thornburg, Erikson's Industry and Identity 1980, p. 216). For the most part, early One of the grand theories that is par- adolescent researchers have extrapolatedticularly relevant to middle school edu- insights from the grand theories of hu-cators and researchers is Erikson's man development. While such theories (1963) theory of personality. It suggests can be used as guidelines, they are lim-that individuals encounter the following ited because they do not address this spe-eight developmental stages or tasks cific developmental stage. Moreover, throughout life: (1) Trust vs. Mistrust, while grand theories may consider(2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, (3) school-aged adolescent youth, the era in Initiative vs. Guilt, (4) Industry vs. Infe- which they were constructed does not re- riority, (5) Identity vs. Role Confusion, flect accurately the complex and multifa-(6) Intimacy vs. Isolation, (7) Generatiy- ceted world many modern young people ity vs. Stagnation, and (8) Integrity vs. are experiencing. Many of the traditional Despair. Of these, Stages 4 and 5 are rel- perspectives also are limited to uni- evant to the early adolescent. dimensional views of development, and Each age-related stage consists of a it is apparent that development is much"crisis" or turning point that must be re- more complex. solved. Positive resolution of a crisis aids However, theoretical models related in the resolution of subsequent crises, and specifically to adolescent developmenteach resolution contributes to healthy have begun to emerge. Recent modelspersonality or ego development. If crisis have expanded to incorporate the interac- resolution is not achieved during the tion between adolescents and their envi-appropriate stage, later experiences can ronment as a factor in their development. provide further opportunity for successful For example, some research has focused resolution. For example, a teacher who is on the interplay of biological and psy-supportive of a student's activities may chosocial aspects of development among help reverse feelings of guilt or inade- young adolescents (Brooks-Gunn &quacy from a previous stage. Peterson, 1983). These studies have In the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, given rise to multidisciplinary models ofthe school-aged child is engaged in de- development that address the relation- veloping a sense of industry that leads to ship among biological, psychological, a feeling of competence. It is during this and social factors (Lerner & Foch, 1987) stage, from ages 6-12, that broader skills and contextual orientations (Lerner &and knowledge are acquired. For exam- Kauffman, 1985). ple, prior to age 6, children are commit- Despite their shortcomings, grand the-ted to learning basic skills such as ories do provide insight into adolescent walking, dressing, and playing coopera- development. Therefore, we presentively with peers. As the child reaches overviews of both the relevant grand the-early adolescence, these basic skills give ories and more recent approaches torise to greater and more demanding

29 Understanding Middle School Students 18 skills, including the ability to demon- models. Moreover, during this stage strate productive work, increased inde- young people may temporarily overident- pendence, and greater responsibility. In ify with the heroes of cliques and crowds. short, the individual "learns to win rec- These cliques provide both peer support ognition by producing things" (Erikson, and the opportunity to test one another's 1963, p. 259). Consequently, individuals growing sense of identity. Prior to estab- may develop a sense of inadequacy at lishing this sense of self, however, adoles- this age if they are not afforded the op- centsoftenexploreandchallenge portunity to master these tools and skills, extremes. These extremes, according to to participate in society in a responsi- Erikson, often include rebellious, devi- ble fashion, and to receive recognition. ant, and self-destructive acts. These feelings of inadequacy or inferior- In sum, Erikson perceives the early ity may discourage students from subse- adolescent and the adolescent years as a quently establishing a sense of identity, time in which individuals are seeking the crisis confronting adolescents. new adventures and challenges in order While exploring a sense of accom- to establish a sense of competency. It plishment and skill, early adolescents also is a time to compare themselves also are concerned with others' percep- with others and test social limits in order tions of them as well as with their role or to ascertain a sense of their own identity. place in the broader social context. Ac- cording to Erikson, this growing concern Maslow's Needs Theory with the self is a rudimentary step in re- Another viable approach for under- solving one's identity, or the beginning of standing and working with young adoles- the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage. cents is Maslow's (1943) theory of The adolescent task is one of resolving human motivation. In brief, Maslow ar- the identity conflict, either by establish- gued that all individuals express five ba- ing an identity or by falling into a state of sic human needs that must be met or identity diffusion. This state is marked satisfied in order for physical and psy- by the increasing need for the individual chological growth to continue. These to balance childhood assumptions and needs are hierarchical in nature and in- behaviors with the oncoming adult roles clude, from the lowest to the highest: as prescribed by cultural surroundings. physiological needs, safety, love and be- Many early adolescents begin the initial longing, esteem, and self-actualization. steps of identity formation in response to From this perspective, early adoles- bodily changes caused by puberty as cents must first satisfy basic physiologi- well as accelerated social norms and cal needs such as hunger and thirst. expectations. When these needs are not fulfilled, they Erikson notes that in the struggle to re- dominate one's thinking or existence. For define themselves and their roles, adoles- example, hungry students are probably cents often confront the adults with whom more concerned with their empty stom- they interact, challenge existing so- achs than with their academic tasks. Sen- cial structures, and adopt idols as role sitive teachers recognize the increased

Preisser, Anders, and Glider 30 19 nutritional needs of their rapidly growingtempt by the individual to gain control or students. feel secure within the environment. The next need is safety, being free of When physiological and safety needs danger and feeling safe and secure. are satisfied, love and belonging become Maslow suggested that safety needs areimportant. For early adolescents, at- especially apparent it young people, tempts to satisfy belonging needs are evi- who are less able than adults to controldent in their friendships, formation of theirsurroundings.Accordingto groups or cliques, and identification with Maslow, one indication of young people'srole models. Once individuals are secure need for safety is their "preference forin their belonging needs, their attention some kind of undisrupted routine orturns toward fulfilling esteem needs. rhythm" (1943, p. 377). Maslow further Maslow defined esteem needs as the stated that children "generally prefer a"desire for a stable, firmly based, usually safe, orderly, predictable, organizedhigh evaluation of [oneself], for self- world, which [they] can count on, and inrespect, or self-esteem, and for the which unexpected, unmanageable, or esteem of others" (p. 381). Esteem needs other dangerous things do not happen" are broken into two categories. One cate- (p. 378). Instances of injustice, unfair-gory is the desire for feelings of achieve- ness, or inconsistency can make thement, adequacy, and confidence within early adolescent feel anxious and unsafe.oneself; the other is the desire to be rec- Such feelings may manifest themselvesognized and appreciated by others. Simi- in unruly, rebellious, withdrawn, or de-lar to Erikson's (1963) idea of Industry, pressed behavior. Such behavior is an at-satisfying esteem needs leads to confi-

Friendship and peer acceptance are especially important for early adolescents.

3 Understanding Middle School Students 20

dence and feelings of worth and use in from physical maturation. For example, the world. Conversely, not satisfying during adolescence the physical changes such needs leads to feelings of inferior- of puberty require adjustment to a new ity, weakness, and helplessness. physique as well as to a new code of ac- Last in Maslow's hierarchy of needs ceptable behavior with those of the oppo- are those related to self-actualization. site gender. These needs spring from the individual's Some tasks stem largely from societal desire for self-fulfillment, to "become pressures. According to Havighurst, ad- everything that one is capable of becom- olescents face the tasks of "achieving a ing" (p. 383). Self-actualization is gener- masculine or feminine social role" (p. ally associated with older individuals. 37) and "developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic compe- Developmental Tasks tence" (p. 54). Such tasks are heavily in- Erikson's and Maslow's theories, while fluenced by the views and expectations providing insight into early adolescence, of one's culture and environment. are not specifically theories of early ado- Other tasks involve the development of lescent development. They are broad the individual's personality or self. "As perspectives on personality develop- the self evolves, it becomes increasing- ment and human motivation. For these ly a force in its own right in the subse- reasons, some (Havighurst,1952; quent development of the individual" Thornburg, 1980) prefer to view early (Havighurst, 1952, p. 62). Tasks stem- adolescent development in terms of de- ming from personal goals include those velopmental tasks. related to choosing an occupation and Havighurst initiated the concept of de- developing a philosophy of life. For ado- velopmental tasks, arguing that much of lescents, "acquiring a set of values and human development revolves around an ethical system as a guide to behavior" learning. For example, individuals learn (p. 62) is a developmental task derived to walk, talk, read, work, and interact largely from one's personality. with others. In short, living involves In brief, Havighurst recognized six learning a series of tasks or behaviors. life stages: Infancy and Early Childhood, Because they must be learned to secure Middle Childhood, Adolescence, Ear- reasonable happiness and success, they ly Adulthood, Middle Age, and Later constitute the developmental tasks of life. Maturity. For each of these stages, In general, developmental tasks are those Havighurst delineated approximately 6- encounters or challenges occurring at 10 tasks, or 48 developmental tasks in particular points in the life cycle which, all. Some tasks are universal and invaria- if mastered or .esolved, facilitate the suc- ble from culture to culture (those based cessful well-being and development of on biological maturation), while others the individual. vary according to cultural values (those Developmental tasks have roots in sev- that grow out of societal pressures). eralindividualandenvironmental Developmental tasks can be recurrent forces. Some developmental taskF result or nonrecurrent. Recurrent tasks are

Preissen Anders, and Glider 21

those that "recur over a long period ofrelated issues, it is important that adults time, in varying but closely related as- offer support and guidance toward suc- pects" (Havighurst, 1952, p. 31). For ex- cessful resolution. ample, the task of getting along with one's age-mates occurs within each lifeBiological/Psychosocial Relations stage, although ea,-h stage involves A more recent model addressing ado- ferent aspects of social intcgration. Con- lescent development is that of recipro- versely, nonrecurrent tasks are those cal biological/psychosocial relations that, once mastered, no longer represent (Lerner, 1985). In brief, this model sug- a developmental issue. Examples include gests that adolescents, because of their learning to walk and talk. individual physical and behaN!,,eal char- Havighurst's model, as Thornburgacteristics, elicit different responses (1980) notes, provides a viable means of from people than do other groups. These understanding early adolescents. There reactions by others feed back to adoles- is almost certainly a set of common "de- cents and influence their further develop- velopmental, social, and behavioral ment. Thus, adolescents influence their characteristics [that] are being encoun- own development by influencing social tered by early adolescents today" (p. contexts and socializing agents. 216). These shared experiences or devel- Within this model, there are three opmental tasks are important in making a ways in which the early adolescent acts transition into adolescence. Thornburg as a "producer of his/her own develop- designated seven such tasks for the early ment" (p. 357). First, the adolescent may adolescent: (1) becoming aware of in- be a "stimulus; causing different types of creased physical changes, (2) organizing reactions from others. Variations in char- knowledge and concepts into problem acter, physique, temperament, ability, solving strategies, (3) learning new so- and personality create certain reactions cial/sex roles, (4) recognizing one's iden- from observers that have an influence on tification with stereotypes,(5) de- the adolescent's subsequent behavior veloping friendships with others, (6) and/or development. gaining a sense of independence, and (7) Second, adolescents act as "proces- developing a sense of morality and val- sors" of information gleaned from others' ues (p. 216). reactions. The role of processor is not According to Thornburg, it is essential consistent and predictable; rather, it is that early adole ants have opportunities affected by environmental cues and other to pursue these tasks. Such experiences aspects of development such as physical will enable them to gain a greater under- and emotional changes. Nonetheless, the standing of themselves "developmentally, adolescent as processor suggests that de- socially, and behaviorally" (p. 217) and velopment is influenced by the ways in- to "function better as an adolescent, and formation is processed, cognitively and subsequently as an adult" (p. 220). emotionally, and by the ways perceptions Moreover, as these young people often of others and others' reactions are proc- may not know how to approach task- essed.

33 Understanding Middle School Students 22

Third, during early adolescence indi- interactions may be hindered and subse- viduals become increasingly able to act quent development altered. as "agent, shaper, or selector" in their de- In sum, Lerner (1985) argues that velopment. That is, they are capable ofearly adolescents play an integral and choosing the activities in which they dynamic role in mapping their own de- wish to engage, the peer groups to which velopmental courses. Early adolescents' they want to belong, and the manner in diverse and changing cognitive, social, which they want to conduct themselves. and emotional processing skills enable This ability to independently shape or them to "provide match or goodness-of- select their environment, as well as their fit with adaptational demands emanating behaviors, certainly influences their from the social context" (p. 362) in vary- development. ing degrees. Embedded within this model is the no- tion of "goodness-of-fit." This term refers Applying the Theories to how closely one's individual charac- These theoretical perspectives, both teristics or behaviors match those char- the grand theories and the theories de- acteristics or behaviors called for or signed to describe the adolescent, pro- expected in particular settings or by sig- vide practitioners with assumptions from nificant others. The premise is that if which to organize schools and develop there is a good fit between an adoles- curricula. It is evident that this period of cent's exhibited traits and the traits ex- life is marked by rapid and multiple pected by others, the adaptation to achanges, both individual and environ- given setting will be smoother and more mental, and that these changes interact in successful. Environments characterized a simultaneous and dynamic fashion. by little discrepancy of fit tend to provide Thus, middle level educators who adopt more support for the adolescent and to a multidimensional approach are f,- encourage developmental growth. cilitating their students' growth. Mo Le, For example, teachers may react dif- precisely, attending to the factors of de- ferently to a 13-year-old, early-maturing velopmentphysical, intellectual, emo- male who is attractive, tall, and has a tional, and socialis especially critical well-developed body than to a less devel- while early adolescents are striving to opei age-mate (adolescent as stimulus). gain a sense of competency, worth, es- Teachers may expect advanced cognitive teem, and identity. performance, more refined or mature Early adolescents are faced with a behavior, and greater athletic prowess number of unique tasks such as adapting from the early-maturing male. If the to bodily changes, establishingappro- young man demonstrates delayed cogni- priate gender-related behaviors, and dis- tive function (adolescent as processor), cerning the responsibilities associated engages in unruly or childlike behaviors, with greater independence. Similarly, or expresses apathy toward physical ac- they are experiencing numerous physi- tivities (adolescent as ,gent), a discrep- cal, psychological, and social needs. ancy of fit exists. Consequently, adaptive Teachers must be sensitive to these chal-

Preissen Anders, and Glider ,34 2 3 lenges and respect their students' needsturity will be smoother. and emotions as well as offer guidance Cognitive concerns. Piaget's work and support. Finally, early adolescents(Gruber & Voneche, 1977; Piaget, 1970, are active participants in student devel- 1972) is important in considering re- opment because of their individual char-search on intellectual functioning among acteristics, their processing abilities, and early adolescents. Piaget asserted that the choices they make. This being thecognitivedevelopmentprogresses case, adults wishing to facilitate studentthrough four qualitativelydifferent development will work with them toward stages: (1) sensorimotor, marked by an a successful transition to a new life stage. infant's concept of space, time, and ob- jects; (2) preoperations, involving the Empirical Views young child's ability to adopt symbol of Early Adolescents systems, including language; (3) con- Research on early adolescents and ad-crete operations, the acquisition of olescent development and behavior is ex-conservation and rule learning skills; tensive and varied, and is critical toand (4) formal operations, characterized those who work with these young peo-by increased logical, hypothetical, and ple. A brief v. erview of some of thereflective thinking. more commP a topics and general find- Within this framework, 10- to 15- ings within this body o,' research is pre-year -olds are in a transitional state, mov- sented here. ing from concrete to formal operations. There is great disparity in early adoles- Individual and MaturationalIssues cents' thought capabilities. For example, Physical concerns. The diversity ofBrazee and Brazee (1979) found that of physical development in this life stage,49 seventh graders, 51 percent operated especially in terms of growth and hormo-al. the concrete level, 41 percent were nal change, is more profound than at anyfunctioning at the transitional level, and other stage of life. Both boys and girls6 percent utilized formal operations. begin a major growth spurt during earlyThis diversity in ability requires that adolescence, although females begin ear-middle level educators be aware of the lier (ages 10-121/2) than males (agesprimary characteristics of each cognitive 121/2-16). Puberty is concurrent withphase. It also requires that curricula in- this adolescent growth spurt. clude the presentation of materials for Whether early adolescents interpretboth concrete and formal operational physical maturation positively or nega-tasks, thus ensuring that all students re- tively is influenced by how others reactceive sufficient intellectual success and to their bodily changes. If significantchallenge. adults (teachers, parents, club leaders) In brief, young people operating in view pubertal changes with respect andPiaget's concrete stage of thought are ca- approval and provide ways to express ac-pable of relational and combinatorial ceptance of the individual's more matureprocedures, including simple and multi- status, the transition into full sexual ma-ple classification (using two or more

Understanding Middle School Students t , 3J 24

characteristics), seriation (ordering ob- they are the focus of everyone's attention) jects along a given dimension), and class lead to the heightened self-consciousness inclusion reasoning (seeing something as apparent in adolescence. Formal opera- an entity in itself and as part of some- tions also give rise to what is known as thing else). They have a good concept of the "personal fable" concept, a set of ide- number (more than, less than), cause alistic views regarding how valuable, and effect, irreversibility, and logical important, and indestructible the self is. reasoning about concrete problems or For example, early adolescents believe actual objects and events (Inhelder & that, while others may get sick and die, Piaget, 1958). they will not. Keating (1980) has delineated five Individuals in the transitionr`age are characteristics to distinguish adolescent not capable of consistent formal opera- formal operational thinking from pre- tional thought. Of course, whether a per- vious stages of thinking and language. son in this stage demonstrates concrete One is that individuals in this stage can or formal thinking largely depends upon think about possibilities or consider al- the nature of the task (Brazee & Brazee, ternative solutions to a problem as well 1979). Problems that create emotional as gauge the probability of the success of distress may be approached from a con- a given solution. A second characteristic crete, here-and-now perspective even is the ability to generate hypotheses and though abstract seasoning skills arc accept or reject them on the basis of available. given experiences or information. In ad- Motal development is related to cogni- dition, formal operational thinkers can tive growth. According to Kohlberg's plan ahead; they can think through an (1976) theory, early adolescents are pri- entire sequence of steps related to a prob- marily operating within the conventional lem and gather necessary information level. Thus, moral decisions are based beforehand. Fourth, increased meta- on conforming to stereotypes or what cognitive or reflective thinking ability is pleases others (good boy /good girl ori- evident. Adolescents can think their own entation), or on rules or authority (law thoughts, evaluate them, and determine and order orientation). The formal oper- ways to use their thinking abilities. The ation stage must be reached before moral fifth characteristic is an ability to think judgments can be made on individual beyond immediate situations and to rea- rights and social principles (social con- son about hypothetical settings and ab- tract orientation). stract concepts. In contrast to Kohlberg's theory, Because of their newly developed cog- Eisenberg's (1982) theory addresses nitive skills, especially metacognition, moral development from a prosocial ori- early adolescents become preoccupied entation. This involves the conflict in with themselves and their ideas. Accord- reasoning between satisfying cne's own ing to Elkind (1967, 1980), adolescent wants or needs and satisfying those of egocentrism and the imaginary audience others. Such moral decisions involve phenomenon (adolescents assume that helping, sharing, or comforting behav-

Preissen Anders, and Glider 36 25 iors. Prosocial research shows that early Fear is one of the more common emo- adolescents' judgments on whether to tions within this age group. Broadly, help another are based on whether they young people are fearful of becoming ad- recognize that person's need. As young olescents, in part because they do not people move into adolescence, reasoning know what to expect. More specifically, based on empathy ("I know how she becau -c. of their £trong desire to belong, feels") and internalized values ("It's my early adolescents are fearful of being re- responsibility") increases. jected, of being inadequate, and of fail- Other approaches to understanding ing. Because of increased reflective and adolescent intellect or cognition are evi- hypothetical thinking ability, these fears dent in the literature. One is the informa- often are exaggerated as middle school tion processing approach (Siegler, 1983; students begin to imagine events, reac- Sternberg, 1982), that describes how wetions, and outcomes. Thornburg sug- mentally attend to, store, retrieve, andgested that educators can help alleviate reason about information. Another con- adolescents' fears by role playing to temporary view of intelligence is that ofhighlight differences between real and Gardner (1983, 1985), who contends imaginary states and by providing oppor- that seven distinct types of intelligencetunities for students to openly discuss exist:linguistic, logical-mathematical, their apprehensions. musical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, in- Anxiety also surfaces in adolescence. trapersonal, and interpersonal. Gardner It develops from continued apprehen- asserts that individuals may demonstratesions or fears. Such an emotional state is differentlevels of aptitude in these ar- characterized by prolonged irritable, de- eas. Such a perspective suggests that in- pressed, unhappy, or uneasy behavior tellectual growth is more complex than and sudden mood shifts. We can help was traditionally believed. Moreover,early adolescents reduce anxiety by this view suggests that educators mustcreating situations that lead to positive develop strategies for nurturing manyfeelings and by providing accurate different kinds of intelligence (Gage &information about anxiety-producing Berliner, 1988). events. Affective concerns. Early adolescents Other emotions that intensify during are inconsistent in mood, beliefs, tem-early adolescence are guilt, which stems perament, and behavior. Such inconsis-from lack of congruence between values tencyoften gives riseto personaland behavior; grief, or understanding confusion and brings out numerous and the loss of a significant person (for early diverse emotions. The emotional up-adolescents, grief is often felt in losing a heaval during early adolescence is fur-pet or breaking up with a boy/girl- ther "compounded by the fact thatfriend); jealousy, caused by feelings of adolescents generally mature moreinsecurity (being treated unfairly, being slowly emotionally than they do phy-surpassed in athletics, being less attrac- sically,intellectually,and socially"tive); and shyness, or fear of talking to or (Thornburg, 1982, p. 71). meeting others (usually prompted by fear

3 7 Understanding Middle School Students 26 of rejection). Early adolescents also ex- relationships, by teaching effective perience heightened levels of affection, communication skills, by modeling dem- love, and happiness (Thornburg, 1982). ocratic adult-adolescent relationships, Finally, early adolescents experience and by providing guidance or resources. new dimensions in anger, often mani- Key in the transition from family to in- fested in outward attacks on someone or dependence is the role of friendship and something. At this age, individuals typi- peers. Two major developments occur in cally get angry when they are teased, this area: the emergence of individual treated unfairly, or lied to, or when friendships with members of both gen- things go wrong (Thornburg, 1982). Our ders and the formation of groups or goal in helping young people to cope cliques. Both types of interactions are with anger is not to make them feel as if important because interpersonal skills they should not get angry but, rather, to are developed, values are explored, com- guide them toward constructive emo- petitive and cooperative behaviors are tional outlets. learned, sex roles are developed and ex- In summary, early adolescents are plored, and perspectives are broadened contending with an array of emotions (Thornburg, 1982). Such experiences and are trying to learn appropriate ways help promote healthy social maturation. of controlling these feelings. While it is Both parents and peers influence the difficult to prescribe acceptable emo- adolescent, but in different ways. For ex- tional outlets or settings in which such ample, peers are more influential in sta- outbursts are appropriate, educators can tus approval concerns such as mode of help adolescents build emotional skills. speech, clothing style, and meeting For example, teachers should allow indi- places. Parents have greater influence on viduals to express their feelings without decisions regarding educational, occupa- guilt or shame, thus facilitating self- tional, or life goals (Sebald & White, reflection and opening up alternative 1980). feelings, reactions, or behaviors. The school. Schools are a major so- cialization agent for many adolescents. Context or Environmental Issues Schools teach academic skills and con- Parents, family, and peers. As chil- tent, help students realize their identity dren begin to appear more aduitlike, they and potential, and provide ways for stu- gain greater independence and engage in dents to integrate and interpret their soci- more diverse social interactions, and ety. The ideal middle school offers a vital family relationships take on a new and relevant curriculum including con- dimension. This occurs, in part, be- tent, skills, direction, and learning expe- cause early adolescents must define riences that both enhance individual themselves independently of the family development and foster academic inter- unit, while still maintaining familial est and confidence. bonds. Teachers can aid this process by Providing these functions is important providing students with opportunities to adolescent development for several to discuss developing and changing reasons. Nearly all early adolescents

Prelsser; Anders, and Glider 38 27 demonstrate both the capability and the social issues. Moreover, most students willingness to learn. Factors within the reported that learning content material, school, however, can lead students to be- getting good grades, and doing well in come disheartened. For example, when school are important. In fact, students academic content is outdated or unre- overwhelminglyreportedacademic lated to the students' real world, assign- achievement as the most important as- ments are boring, or the school climate is pect of school. Educators must find ways sterile or nonreceptive, early adolescentsto make school achievement challenging may develop negative attitudes toward and satisfying to students. school. Eventually, such attitudes lead to Media.Mass media, including televi- underachievement, and many young peo- sion, radio, music, film, and literature, ple simply give up and drop out ofhas a great impact on students' develop- school. In fact, approximately 25 percent ment. This influence stems from two fac- of our nation's students drop out oftors. First is the pervasiveness of the school before receiving a high school di- media. On the average, students in ploma, most during the ninth grade (Na-fourth through ninth grades watch 4-7 tional Center for Educational Statistics, hours of television a day (Murray, 1980). 1980). The media is also influential because it Students ages 10 to 15 are acquiring provides common or shared experiences values and perceptions of themselves and that often determine adolescent fads or their abilities that often last into adult- standards. hood, and middle level education can Television is a powerful and broaden- greatly influence these perceptions. To ing tool providing messages about virtu- this end, middle grade teachers and ad- ally every concept, but it is difficult to ministrators need to provide experiences know how much it affects emerging ado- leading to academic accomplishment, lescents. Existing research 'm children esteem, and positive attitude. and adolescents suggests that, to some Not surprisingly, some studies suggest degree, ideas presented in the media are that junior and senior high schools serve assimilated into individuals' world view, more social functions than scholarlythus influencing their perspectives and ones (Coleman, 1965). For example,attitudes. The degree to which attitudes star athletes are likely to receive greater and behaviors are learned through televi- public recognition than star pupils, andsion viewing varies with a number of being named king or queen of the spring factors, including how closely a program dance is apt to draw more attention than matches reality, individual cognitive winning a blue ribbon at the state science processing skills, amount of viewing, competition. However, other studies in- and the level of interest and attention in- dicate that students link school settingsvested (Bandura, 1977). with academics. Mitman and Packer Teachers and parents should monitor (1982) found that early adolescent stu-early adolescents' television viewing and dents are more concerned with academic help them interpret what they see. While issues than with popularity, athletics, orteachers have little control over what

39 Understanding Middle School Students 28

their students watch, read, or listen to, prevalence. While harder substances they can offer guidelines for productive, such as cocaine and amphetamines are healthy, and realistic use of our society's not as common among early adolescents mass media. as they are among older adolescents, ex- Delinquency, substance abuse, and perimentation at this level is on the rise. suicide.In the past 10-15 years, a signifi- Factors leading to substance abuse have cant increase in juvenile delinquency has been studied for years. Research has been recorded within the early adoles- linked such abuse to both peer pressure cent and adolescent populations. At least and parental substance use (Chassin, 2 percent of adolescents have a record of Presson, & Sherman, 1984). juvenile court cases, but the actual num- Suicide among adolescents is increas- ber of those engaged in delinquent be- ing at an alarming rate. This rate has tri- haviors is assumed to be significantly pled since 1950 to make suicide the higher since many such behaviors go un- second leading cause of death for adoles- punished by the justice system (San- cents (Smith, 1980). Depression, which trock, 1987). increases significantly from childhood to Gold and Reimer (1975) found that adolescence (Scoufe & Rutter, 1984), is nontrivial delinquent behaviorsin- the primary factor correlated with sui- creased between 11 and 18 years of age, cide. These depression-based suicides with the greatest acceleration occurring can be caused by family problems at around age 15. Hypothesized causes (Weiner, 1980); by a belief that nne is for delinquency are varied. Ross (1980) "bullet proof" (Lipsitz, 1983); or by such suggested that juvenile delinquents fail to common occurrences as failing grades, develop sufficient behavioral controls, breaking up with a boy/girlfriend, or not while Gold and Petronio (1980) see de- making the ball team (Santrock, 1987). linquency as part of the adolescent's In all three of these behavioral areas search for identity. Research has found (delinquency, substance abuse, and sui- significant correlations between delin- cide), teachers must be sensitive to the quency and family variables such as pa- signs that the'tHents are in need of rental monitoring, discipline, and family help. Strong in..ention and prevention stress (Patterson & Stoutharner-Loeber, programs in the schools have been 1984). shown to reduce many of these high-risk Substance abuse also is on the rise and potentially dangerous behaviors among early adolescents. In a recent (Evans, 1983; Wodarski & Hoffman, study, suspensions for substance abuse in 1984). junior high schools were approximately equal to senior high school suspensions Implications for Middle in the same metropolitan school district Level Education (Glider, Kressler, & McGrew, 1988). According to Gage and Berliner Nicotine and alcohol remain the leading (1988), the instructional process involves substances abused by early adolescents, a number of primary tasks. One of these with inhalants and marijuana gaining in is a clear understanding of student char-

Prelssen Anders, and Gilder 40 29 acteristics. Thus, understanding de- challenges teachers to devise ways in velopmental growth and capabilities, which they can incorporate companion- differences and commonalities, concerns ship and social discourse into classroom and interests, and physical and emo- learning and management and help stu- tional states of students is a major chal- dents learn how to make and maintain lenge. For example, Braun (1985) friendships. suggests that early adolescents are learn- It is also important for educators to un- ing to negotiate or interact successfully derstand that much early auolescent among peers, striving to handle the pres- behavior is related to gaining status sure to conform, and seeking ways to es- with friends. In considering academic tablish friendships and intimacy as well achievement, they must remember that as to understand their own emerging sex- some students may underachieve to keep uality. Teachers must be sensitive to friends who would feel threatened by these needs and demonstrate competence their accomplishments. Conversely, in positive communication skills. Teach- many times students may excel in an ers also need ample opportunity to mas- area or work harder on a task in order to ter active listening skills, responses to gain or maintain peer status. Teachers difficult questions (e.g., "Why should I must be able to recognize instances care about math? It won't help me get a where student performance is affected by job."), democratic approaches to prob- peer influence and respond accordingly. lem solving, and ways of addressing sex- Finally, teachers should not expect stu- uality-related comments or questions. dents to conform entirely to the manner- In essence, through greater under- isms or standards advanced in the standing of middle school students, classroom. Young people are diverse and teachers will be better able to educate creative in expressing their growing and to support early adolescent growth sense of self. They need guidance in and socialization within the school envi- learning about their world, about others, ronment. Instruction can be designed o and about themselves. However, in aid- provide for individual learning levels, in- ing early adolescents through this proc- centives, examples, and interactions. ess, teachers should not demand that Middle school teachers have many op- they accept another person's views or portunities to positively influence early beliefs. adolescent development. Thornburg (1980) has offered a number of general Conclusions guidelines. One is that teachers should Among the maturational and environ- not compete with their students' friend.3. mental theories that relate to adolescent Instead, they should encourage recipro- development, of special note is Lerner's cal respect between themselves and their (1985) model, which postulates interre- students. Similarly, teachers must be lationships among adolescents, the ro- constantly aware of how important pie with whom adolescents interact, and friendships are to early adolescents. This the environment. This intudependency component of adolescent development captures the complexity of this age group

ncIerstanding Middle School Students 30

and the tremendous importance of Elkind, David. (1967). Egocentrism in adoles- moral, social, and environmental factors cence. Child Development, 38(4), 1025- as they relate to home, school, and com- 1034. munity life. Elkind, David. (1980). Strategic interactions in early adolescence. In Joseph Adelson (Ed.), The middle school student is in the Handbook of adolescent psychology. New midst of dynamic and extreme change. York: Wiley. The metaphor of a swinging pendulum is Erikson, Erik H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton. apt: One moment middle school adoles- Evans, Richard. (1983). Deterring smoking in cents are in love with themselves, with adolescents: Evolution of a research program everyone around, and with everything in applied social psychology. International Review of Applied Psychology, 32(1), 71-83. they are doingthe next minute theyare Gage, Nate L., & Berliner, David C. (1988). Ed- in hate with those very same people and ucational psychology (4th ed.). Boston, MA: activities. Concurrent with these phy- Houghton Mifflin. sical, Gardner, Howard. (1983). Frames ofmind. New emotional, and psychological York: Basic Books. changes, the student is tryingnew areas Gardner, Howard. (1985). The mind'snew sci- of interest and gaining new perspectives. ence. New York: Basic Books. Such exploration may result in unpredict- Glider, Peggy, Kressler, Harry, & McGrew, Gus- tavo. (1988). Early intervention through peer able and sometimes unpleasant behavior. support retreats. Paper presented at the an- Hence, adults in the adolescent's life need nual meeting of the American Educational to be consistent and solid so that testing Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Gold, Martin, & Petronio, Richard J. (1980). can occur within safe boundaries. Delinquent behavior in adolescence. In Joseph Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adoles- References cent psychology. New York: Wiley. Gold, Martin, & Reimer, David J. (1975). Bandura, Albert. (1977). Social learning theory. Changing patterns of delinquent behavior Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Braun, J.A., Jr. (1985). Transescent interper- among Americans 13 through 16 years old, 1967-72. Crime and Delinquency Literature, sonal needs and the preparation of middle 7(4), 483-517. school teachers. Transescence, 13(1), 30-33. Brazee, Edward N., & Brazee, Phyllis E. Gruber, Howard, & Voneche, J. Jacques (Eds.). (1977). The essential Piaget: An interpretive (1979). Cognitive development in the middle reference and guide. New York: Basic Books. school. Colorado Journal of Educational Re- Havighurst, Robert J. (1952). Developmental search, /9(1), 6-8. tasks and education (2nd ed.). New York: Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, & Peterson, Anne C. Longman, Green. (Eds.). (1983). Girls at puberty: Biological Inhelder, Barbel, & Piaget, Jean. (1958). The and psychosocial perspective. New York: growth of logical thinking from childhood Plenum. to adolescence. New York: Basic Books. Chassin, Laur;e, Presson, Clark C., & Sherman, Keating, Daniel P. (1980). Thinkingprocesses in Steven J. (1984). Cigarette smoking and ado- adolescence. In Joseph Adelson (Ed.), Hand- lescent psychosocial development. Basic and book of adolescent psychology. New York: Applied Social Psychology, 5(4), 295-315. Wiley. Coleman, John S. (1965). The adolescent and Kohlbere, Lawrence. (1976). Moral =gas tuld the schools. New York: Basic Books. moralization: The cognitive-developmental Eisenberg, Nancy. (1982). The development of approach. In Thomas Lickona (Ed.), Moral reasoning regarding prosocial behavior. In development and behavior: Theory, research, Nancy Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of and social issues. New York: Holt, Rinehart prosocial behavior. New York: Academic & Winston. Press. 42 Preissen Anders, and Glider

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Lerner, Richard M. (1985). Adolescent matura- psychology (3rd ed., vol. 1). New York: tional changes and psychosocial develop- Wiley. ment: A dynamic interactional perspective. Ross, Alan 0. (1980). Psychological disorders Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14(4), of children: A behavioral approach t P theory, 355-372. research, and therapy (2nd ed.). New York: Lerner, Richard M., & Foch, Terry! T. (Eds.). McGraw-Hill. (1987). Biological-psychosocial interactions Santrock, John W. (1987). Adolescence: An in- inearlyadolescence.Hillsdale,NJ: troduaion (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Erlbaum. Brown. Lerner, Richard M., & Kauffman, Marjorie B. Sebald, Hans, & White, Becky. (1980). Teen- (1985). The concept of development in con- agers' divided reference groups: Uneven textualism. Developmental Review, 5(4), 309- alignment with parents and peers. Adoles- 333. cence, /5(60) 980-984. Lipsitz, Joan. (1983). Making it the hard way: Siegler, Robert S. (1983). Information process- Adolescents in the 1980s. Testimony pre- ing approaches to development. In Paul Mus- sented at the Crisis Intervention Task Force, sen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (4th House Select Committee on Children, Youth, ed., vol. 1). New York: Wiley. and Families, Washington, DC. Smith, Donald F. (1980). Adolescent suicide. In Maslow, Abraham M. (1943). A theory of hu- Rolf E. Muuss (Ed.), Adolescent behavior man motivation. Psychological Review, 50, and society (3rd ed.). New York: Random 370-396. House. Mitman, Alexis L., & Packer, Martin J. (1982). Sroufe, L. Alan, & Rutter, Michael. (1984). The Concerns of seventh-graders about their tran- domain of developmental psychopathology. sition to junior high school. Journal of Early Child Development, 55(1), 17-29. Adolescence, 2(4), 319-338. Sternberg, Robert J. (1982). Reasoning, problem Murray, John P. (1980). Television and youth. 25 solving, and intelligence. In Robert J. Stern- years of research and controversy. Boys berg (Ed.), Handbook of human intelligence. Town, NE: Boys Town Center for the Study New York: Cambridge University Press. of Youth Development. Thornburg, Hershel D. (1982). Development in National Center for Educational Statistics. adolescence (2nd ed.). Monterey, CA: (1980). Projections of educational statistics: Brooks-Cole. 1938-1984. Washington, DC: National Cen- Thornburg, Hershel D. (1980). Early :doles- ter for Educational Statistics. cents: Their developmental characteristics. Patterson, Gerald, & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. High School Journal, 63(6), 215-221. (1984). The correlation of family manage- Weiner, Irving B. (1980). Psychopathology in ment practices and delinquency. Child Devel- adolescence. In Joseph Adelson (Ed.), Hand- opment, 55(4), 1299-1307. book of adolescent psychology. New York: Piaget, Jean. (1972). Intellectual evolution from Wiley. adolescence to adulthood. Human Develop- Wodarski, .Ohn S., & Hoffman, Susan D. ment, 15(1), 1-12. (1984). Alcohol education for adolescents. Piaget, Jean. (1970). Piaget's theory. In Paul Social Work in Education, 6(2), 69-92. Mussen (Ed.), Carmicheals manual of child

40

Understanding Middle School Students What HaveWe Done with theMiddle?

Richard L. Allington

A GENERATION AGO However,thoughmost we did not have middle early adolescents attend a schools. As Moore and middle school, one might Stefanich (this volume) pointout, early ask, "What is this place we call middle adolescents attended junior high schools school?" The questionseems important or K-8 elementary schools, depending since middle schools are less frequently on whether they lived in rural or urban studied than elementaryor secondary communities. As American society schools. Middle schools also havere- shifted from an agricultural to a manu- ceived less attention in current callsfor facturing economy, urban and suburban educational reform. communities grew, and the rural popula- In the following analysis,a description tion declined. The organization of school is provided of the middle school froma districts changed (particularly in rural perspective of the academic workthat areas), with widespread consolidation early adolescents experience in middle that created fewer, but larger, school dis- school instruction. A number ofques- tricts. In the midst of these changes, dis- tions are raised concerning the policies satisfaction with the emerging junior that shape these experiencesquestions high school organizational structure re- about why we create the instructionalen- sulted in the entity we call middle vironments we offer students and about school. Today most school districts call whether these environments meetthe the school that houses early adolescents goals of the middle schoolas described a middle school, and, in that sense, the in Chapters 1and 2 of this volume. shift has been completed. The data for analyzing practicesare 4432 33 drawn from the experiences of 12 middle are presented of the academic tasksof school participants. These students at- other students, but to understand middle tend three schools in two states and rep- school, the whole-day perspective is resent advanced placement, regular class necessary. placement, and regular class placement The most striking aspect of the experi- with either remedial or special education ences of students in middle school is the resource room services. The majority offrequent reliance on worksheets and text- the participants were observedsomebooks to teach. In the sense of teacher for a week, others for one dayas theyexplanation or modeling (Duffy et al., attended classes. All were interviewed 1986), instruction occurred rarely, and about their classes. It is from these datathen typically as corrective feedback af- that the descriptions and questions are ter a student (or a group) responded in- generated. correctly to a question or an assigned seatwork task. A Day in Middle School Lisa's day is fairly typical of tote school A surprising aspect of the study ofday experiences of any of the 12 stu- these 12 students is the remarkable simi- dents. She did attend remedial reading larity of their instructional experiences. instead of a foreign language class, but it The students attend school for about 51/2 was participation in foreign language hours a day and have six or seven differ- instruction that differentiated high- ent classes during that period. Classes in achieving students from low-achieving the three schools are between 43 and 54students. Regardless of which "track" minutes long, but all classes within each students were in, reliance on text mate- school are the same length. All studentsrial and low-level task worksheets domi- attend classes called English/Languagenated their instructional experiences. In Arts, Math, Science, Social Studies, andeach case, students were assigned to Physical Education. Some have classestracks, even if it was not officially ac- called Wood Shop, Technology, Health, knowledged. That is, students typically Keyboarding, or Writing Lab, but thereattended classes with other students with is a consistency to the experiences of allsimilarachievementlevels.These 12 children because of the similarity ofachievement levels (particularly reading their classes. The only noticeable differ- achievement) determined which sections ences in the experiences of these students and courses students attended. lie in the success (or lack of success) As noted, the primary difference in the they have in completing the academicinstructional experiences of these stu- work assigned. dents was their success or failure at the In order to provide a context for thetasks assigned. The academic work was middle school experience, Figure 1 of-largely undifferentiated, although some fers a sketch of the whole-day experi-tracks used different texts. When reme- ences of one eighth grader. Lisa's day dial or mildly handicapped students were was selected because it was representa-in regular education courses, invariably tive of those of all 12 students. Examplesthey were held to the same task require- 45 What Have We Done with the Middle? 34

Figure 1 Lisa's Instructional Day

8:27 Homeroom Attendance and announcements. 8:35 Social Studies T asks questions about assigned text, L cannot answer questions, T has Ss open text and read aloud, L asked to read definition from glossary, quiz given with 10 multiple-choice items. 9:15 Writing Lab T assigns "Spelling Demons" sheet with 24 fill- in-blanks and T-made ditto with sentence frag- ments to be expanded, topic is "Growing Corn." 10:00 Science T assigns workbook unit on "Oceans; 6para- graphs and 6 pages of multiple-choice, fill-in- blanks, incomplete sentences, and crossword. 10:45 Language Arts T assigns "Scope" while Ss write in journal (3 minutes), vocabulary pronounced, play read aloud, questions assigned, T corrects. 11:40 Lunch 12:05 Health T reviews 5-step problem solving method,as- signs unit on "Family," Ss read aloud, writean- swers to 3 questions. 1:00 Math T presents geometry lesson on overhead, Ss copy in notebook, discussion/T questions, T assigns worksheet, monitors. 1:45 Remedial Reading Assigned worksheet, 1 paragraph andques- tions, T corrects, spelling test, match defini- tions, doze worksheet. 2:30 Dismissal

T=Teacher L=Lisa Ss=Students

meats, with no instructional differentia- tasks that required them to simply locate tion, as were the more able students. A or remember literal information from the frequent complaint of the teachers was test base. With the text in front of them, the inability of these students to fit the these students performed a variety of curriculum demands. tasks ranging from "copying out" text in- formation to supplying missing words, Academic Work in Middle School selecting the appropriate multiple-choice The instructional experiences of these response, spelling from memory, com- 12 middle school children were more puting math problems, or answering similar than different. Most of the aca- teacher questions about the text. The stu- demic work required students to work dents were as likely to read these texts alone, reading a text and responding to aloud as silently. The texts read, which

Allington 46 35 tended to be short, dominated the in-Questions about Middle School structional tasks. The instruction these These schools do not seem to be the students experienced gave the image thatunique, vibrant places of learning for learning meant reading and remember- early adolescents that the visionaries ing, and that thinking or understandingdescribed as the middle school move- played a minor role. Tasks were as- ment emerged. What happened along the signed, rather than content taught; tasksway? Several issues seem critically were corrected, rather than explained. influential. The fragmentation of the curriculum was The middle school today seems more nearly complete, with rare evidence oflike the secondary education model than instruction in one class being linked with the elementary school model. That is, an that in another. These students had spell- array of classes is offered, and each is ing tasks that were unrelated to any cur- taught by a separate teacher. Many of riculum area, they did various unrelated these teachers are subject matter special- writing tasks, they were assigned vocab-ists, and current trends seem to be mov- ulary study without instruction, and theying even further in that direction. An completed worksheet after worksheet. unfortunate result is that most middle The 12 students complained that they school teachers see 100-150 students a did not understand their assigned tasks, day and know none of them well. As that they were not taught, that texts were content specialists, they demonstrate difficult, and that they were tested on expertise in their respective disciplines subjects they had not covered. Their but not in adolescent reading or writing complaints were similar, regardless of development. achievement some students just had The school day is segmented into a fewer complaints. number of brief periods, each period Important to these students were their standing alone, with little coherence be- friends, their social relationships, and tween the lessons. The brevity of the per- their own self-images. None wanted to iods and the number of students seem to be seen as a "geek," too heavily invested create instructional sessions that empha- in the academic work of school. All tried size breadth of topic coverage rather than to make their teachers happy and not depth, and low-level single word locating make waves. It was easier for some than and remembering rather than compre- for others. All did homework, but some hension or understanding. Doyle (1984) did more than others. While the type of suggested that a primary task of teachers academic work seemed substantively is constructing class sessions around ac- similar, the quantity seemed to differ. tivities that fit into the time constraints The more able students simply had a allowed and managing the behavior of larger amount of the same work assigned students during that period. As in his to the less able students. The less able study of middle school teaching, the les- students seemed to work as diligently sons here relied on activitiesderived and as long as the more able students, from texts or worksheets, with oral read- but with less 'Access. ing, questions, and tests intermingled to

WhatHave We Done with the Middle? 36

fill the time and keep students on task. sulted in students working ata variety of The dominance of commerciallypre- tasks on a variety of topics. Sizer (1984) pared curricular materials also was contends that the trend toward curricu- evident. As Doyle observes, "Most lum specialization in teaching is the pri- whole-class presentations were introduc- mary contributor to this fragmentation. tions to specific seatwork assignments With each teacher or each curriculum rather than more broadly construed dis- area adopting its own curriculum plan cussions of content and its meaning" and curricular materials, fragmentation (p. 272). of instruction seems bound tooccur. The The proliferation of worksheet tasks result is not a middle school curriculum seems related to teachers' concepts of in- but an array of curriculum areas taught struction as "getting through the mate- in middle school. rial:' A seeming contradiction is that the In an earlier paper, Allington, Boxer, material often was selected by the and Broikou (1987) addressed the issue teacher rather than mandated by a curric- of fragmentation of remedial instruction ulum plan. Nonetheless, completing the from regular class instruction and argued tasks presented by the commercial mate- for the coordination of middle schoolre- rial was equated with teaching the con- medial and resource room tasks with tent. However, unlike teachers in some tasks students found difficult in thecore reports of elementary school instruction curriculum classes. However, the 12 stu- (Duffy, Roehler, & Putnam, 1987), these dents examined here experienced frag- teachers rarely us ..,d teachers' guides or mentation across the day, not just be- curriculum guideF in their daily instruc- tween regular and remedial or resource tion. The tasks assigned were generally room instruction. While the types of aca- completed during the class period and demic demands were similar across the corrected or turned in to the teacher. Inclasses, the reading and writing strate- either event, low-level tasks were more gies needed to accomplish these tasks easily corrected; the students could cor- rarely weic addressed or integrated. rect one another's multiple-choice re- sponses but probably not essays (had Issues and Questions they been assigned). Teachers could cor- In the three schools these early adoles- rect more low-level assignments than es- cents attended, the organization was like says in the single planning period each that of a junior high school. The rela- was allotted. Good lad (1984) noted that tively brief daily class periods, content students seemed to favor the low-levelspecialist teachers (most with secondary tasks and had more difficulty with longer, school certification), and the grouping of higher level tasks, such as compositions, students by achievement levels all mirror summaries, or analyses. Thus, a variety common practice in secondary schools of influences shaped the assignedaca- (Good lad, 1984). Perhaps such a plan is demic work. what the profession has come to accept The fragmentation of the instructional as the most appropriate for the education experiences across the school day re-of early adolescents. Acceptar e of this

Allington 48 37 organizational plan has several conse- content area classes, assigned to re- quences that deserve attention conse- source rooms for science, language arts, quences that may have been under- and math. This school did not officially estimated. acknowledge "tracking" students, but it offered advanced placement courses, re- Standardization of the School Day medial courses in reading, writing, and Scheduling all classes for the samemath, and special education resource length of time denies differences in indi- room courses. The organizationmir- viduals' learning rates and acceleratesrored that of the other schools but was differences in individual achievement. In notable for the proportion of learners as- more flexible scheduling plans, different signed to special education classes. learning rates can be accommodated by The issue here is simply whether a scheduling some learners for larger child's future should be assigned by age amounts of instruction when needed. 12, based crudely on previous school ex- Learners seem to differ primarily in perience. Are we satisfied with organiza- terms of rate of acquisition of new under- tional plans so inflexible and unforgiving standings, assuming there is similar in-that learner differences are viewed as struction and prerequisite learning. Inbarriers so substantial that they must be most middle schools, learners arrive accepted as immutable? Standard peri- with different prerequisite knowledgeods and ability grouping deny that and different achievement levels in sev- schools can make much of a difference; eral basic skills areas. The use of stand- together they shape instruction so that ard instructional periods for all students barriers are enforced, not overcome. denies this commonly accepted fact and results in a steady acceleration of differ- Fragmentation of Instruction ences in ability. This, in turn, results in The fragmentation across the school an earlier, and unnecessary, sorting ofday is made overwhelmingly evident by students. looking at curricular maps of the instruc- tional experiences of these students. We Achievement Tracks attempted to determine how this frag- In response to the differences in stu- mentation affected learners, particularly dent achievement levels, these schools the least prepared learners, but no defi- responded with de facto ability tracks, nite answer emerged. Even within class even in the face of substantial evidence periods, instructional activities often regarding the negative effects on studentwere impossible to link. These activities achievement and the resultant inequality focused on different topics, required dif- of educational opportunities for students ferent cognitive strategies, and involved (Oakes, 1985). In one middle school, texts that varied across several levels of nearly 20 percent of the students had difficulty. Instructional activities ob- been identified as "mildly handicapped" served across several observational days (primarily learning disabled), and these almost appeared to be selected at random students were often segregated even for from any number of methods texts,

4 .What Have We Donewiththe Middle? ) 38 teachers' guides, or commercial materi- but brief selections and brief assign- als. Curriculum is understood (in perhapsa ments, (3) the preferences of the learners too academic sense) to mean a coherentar- to not invest too heavily in academic ray of organized instructional activities se- work, (4) the large student load that the lected tofacilitate the acquisition of scheduling scheme assigned to teachers, mutually agreed upon knowledge, skills, and (5) the intensity of the management and understandings. Observed practices concerns that seem to drive much of rarely matched this concept. teachers' planning (Doyle, 1984). Something resembling a curriculum Obviously, as Dreeben .1987) hasnot- plan assumed previous mastery of all ed, decisions made at tht state, district, reading, writing, and speaking skills, and building levels exert substantial influ- strategies, and operationsnecessary to ence on the nature of instruction in class- complete the assigned instructional rooms.Nonetheless,administrative tasks. It was unclear whether any larger decisions are not completely responsible curriculum plan was in effect for the in- for fragmentation. While inmany in- structional activities experiencedacross stances the teachers had not selected the the various content classes ina single texts they used, they did create or select school day (much less a week, semester, much of the instructional activity. Theuse or year). The notion of an integrated of grammar dittoes, the transcription middle school curriculum plan should tasks displayed on the chalkboard, the not be rejected without serious consider- teacher-made study guides, the round ation. For the least prepared students, robin oral reading of materials, the "hot- learning is facilitated when instructional seat" question and answer formats, theas- activities build on each other and expand signments without explanations, and the and extend the opportunity to learn. emphasis oa locating rather than under- There even seems to be aneconomy of standing were choices made by teachers. effort for both learners and teachers in Wien listening to some of the teacher in- such situations. Fragmentation,on the terviews, one gets the impression that the other hand, makes it more difficult for plan is to keep students busy for 43to 54 the least prepared students to learn. minutes a day, with little suggestion of any larger instructional goal. Doing versus Learning Researchers left these middle schools In these schools therewere far more with a sense that something hadgone in- instructional tasks that required little, if credibly awry, that means and ends had any, comprehension than tasks that pro- been confused, that doing had been sub- moted understanding. Studentswere stituted for learning. It was enormously likely to be doing tasks rather than learn- depressing. ing skills or acquiring understandings. Much of this may be attributable to (? ) A Dire,rent Middle School Model the lack of any clear direction froma The xevious description of several curriculum plan, (2) the brief instruc- middle schools is offered here inan at- tional periods that prohibited anything tempt to portray the nature of the middle

Allington 5O:'

1 39 school instructional environment. There standard period. is a feasible alternative structure. Social studies, English, and resource In the alternative middle school, theroom teachers might develop and deliver students would spend longer periods ofa similar unit on colonialism. In other instructional time studyingtopics, words, this middle school would have an themes, and issues that were collabora- integrated curriculum, collaboratively tively organized across curriculum ar-planned and taught by teachers from sev- eas. For instance, one might select aeral disciplines. Depth of understanding, topic such as plants, a common sciencerather than breadth of content covered, topic in middle school, and organize a 6- would be the focus of the instructional or 10-week unit of study. However, thisplan. Even if fewer topics were ad- would be an all day instructional sessiondressed, they would be explored in planned cooperatively by faculty fromgreater dept., and the academic work the science, English, math, and remedial would r:..y..tnt an integrated emphasis. reading areas. The unit would include in- struction and academic work that re-Where to from Here? volved around the topic but that was Obviously, the three middle schools integrated into a long term learning ac-and 12 students observed do not consti- tivity. A variety of composing taskstute any sort of representative sample of would be designed, along with appro- middle schools across the country. Unfor- priate instruction. First, students wouldtunately, what is known about middle receive instruction in keeping obser- schools suggests that these schools are not vational records of plants, relating de-simply worst case example. In the stu- scriptions to the various forms of plantdents' minds, these schools were not bad life. Texts of various sorts would beplaces to spend some time. Their friends used, some primarily for reference infor- were there, and that is what seemed to mation and others as models for particu-matter. The 12 students all seemed bois- lar types of writing or reading demands.terous, social, shy, worried, eager, and The measuring and recording of plantadeptin short, like average early adoles- growth and environmental conditionscents. All were under control. would develop several sorts of needed What do we want from our middle mathematical skills. Groups of studentsschools? If only safe, fairly friendly sites would study and learn together, often in for adolescents to bloom with their so- cooperative groups, sometimes in wholecial destiny rigidly determined, then the groups, and perhaps in tutorials with any schools we observed fill that request. If, of the teachers involved. This curriculumhowever, middle schools are to provide would require more than simply readingmore, to narrow the inequities in aca- and copying out. In addition, the teach-demic achievement, to refine and foster ers would better know the students theythe abilities necessary for students to be- were attempting to teach and could de- come more independent as learners, and sign instructional sequences and tasks to nurture an understanding of the social that extended beyond the 45 minuteand physical world, then a substantial re-

5 .i.,i , What Have We Done with the Middle? 40

thinking of the middle school idea isre- Duffy, Gerald G., Roehler, Laura, Meloth, quired. In this age of calls for reform of Michael, & Vavrus, Linda. (1986). Concep- the educational process, the future of the tualizing teacher explanation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11, 197-214. middle school cannot be ignored. Duffy, Gerald G., Roehler, Laura, & Putnam, Joyce. (1987). Putting the teacher in control: Basal reading textbooks and instructional de- cision making. Elementary School Journal, References 87, 357-366. Allington, Richard L., Boxer, Nora, & Broikou, Goodlad, John. (1984). A place called school: Kathleen. (1987). Jeremy, remedial reading, Prospects for the future. New York: McGraw- and subject area classes. Journal of Reading, Hill. 30, 643-645. Oakes, Jeannie. (1985). Keeping track: How Doyle, Walter. (1984). How order is achieved in schools structure inequality. New Haven, classrooms: An interim report. Journal of CT: Yale University Press. Curriculum Studies, 16, 259-297. Sizer, Theodore R. (1984). Horace'scompro- Dreeben, Robert. (1987). Closing the divide. mise: The dilemma of the American high American Educator, 11, 28-35. school. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Allington 52 The Influence of Classroom Management

Mark W.F. Condon James V. Hoffman

LIKE OTHER CLASS- tive middle school class- rooms,middleschool .4. room environments. classrooms offer a context Before investigating these for literacy instruction. The immediate issues in detail, we discuss the assump- classroom context is nested within a tions and understandings about classroom larger institutional context that includes a management that undergird our treatment school setting, a district structure, and a of the topic. First, the term management is state system for education. This larger used to refer to the classroom teacher's sys- context presents certain constraints for tem for engaging students in curricular teachers in terms of both curricular and tasks ou a day to day basis. In its simplest organizational decision making. It is the terms. management is a teacher's solution individual teacher's responsibility to cre- to the problem of how to ensure an orderly ate a classroom environment that fits into learning environment. Second, good man- the larger system as well as maximizes agement is a necessary prerequisite for ef- opportunities for teaching and learning. fective instruction. Research over the past As Allington (this volume) suggests, iwo decades clearly documents the critical classroom environments in the middle role effective teachers play in planning, in- school do not always reflect the unique troducing, and maintaining a well-man- purpose of middle schools. In this chap- aged classroom environment (Doyle, ter, we explore the issues related to class- 1986). Third, it is important to remember room organization and management that that by itself good management is not a can influence literacy instruction at the sufficient basis for a literacy-rich class- middle school level and present alterna- room. Fourth, there is no single best man- 5? 42

agement system. Teachers must create sys- Her certification is 7-12 English. She tems that take into account the characteris- has done advanced work in reading in- tics of the surrounding context, theirown struction while working on her master's instructional philosophies and theoretical in education. She seldom teaches En- orientations, and the needs of the learners. glish and American literature,even Finally, skills of classroom management though she would like to. Patsays that are learned and refined over time through teaching reading allows her to feel effec- exposure, practice, and reflection. tive and needed. In this chapter, three teachersare intro- The rambling building accommodates duced to provide examples of alternative more than 300 students in the seventh systems for organizing and managinga grade, with similar numbers in sixth and reading program at the middle school eighth. There are 12 classes of seventh level. These teachers represent differentgrade students, and Pat is involved di- backgrounds, philosophies, approaches, rectly with no fewer than 157young peo- and institutional contexts. In noway is one ple each day. Some of these childrenare teacher regarded as more effective or more mainstreamed from special education ideal than another. Although they clearly classes. She teaches more advanced stu- represent different levels of management dents in two honors sections. sophistication, each works in a different Pat's school is administrativelyorga- way to solve the problem of creating an or- nized to conform to the latest trends in derly learning environment. middle school education (Alexander & Throughout the chapter are illustrations George, 1981,, This educational struc- of typical middle school students. Their ture means she shares these students with behaviors represent needs common to her "family" of four other colleagues, middle school children, including the need each of whom specializes in English, for diversity, self-exploration, meaningful math, science, or social studies. The participation in the school and community, physical education, music, and art teach- positive social interaction withpeers and ers are shared by all of the families of adults, physical activity, the development teachers in her building. Each week, her of competence and achievement, and team of teachers plans the weekly sched- structure and clear limits (Dorman, 1981; ule together in extensive work sessions Dorman, Lipsitz, & Verner, 1985; Lipsitz, after school. They work togetheron 1979; Preisser, Anders, & Glider, this vol- some units, such as "African Adventure" ume). The essence of classroommanage- and "The Animals in Town; and in isola- ment is that teachers respond appropriately tion on others. The team has a goodrap- tostudents' needs, developing their port, and the members generally feel that strengths and helping them work through the team's curriculum choices and in- their weaknesses. structional activities do not diminish the individual teacher's particularareas of Pat's Seventh Grade effectiveness. Pat sees her role asa skills Pat teaches seventh grade reading and teacher, supportive to all classes, and for language arts in a public middle school. the most part she follows the direction of

Condon and Hoffman 54 43 the group. Generally, the team attemptsunderstands the management system she to provide a "small school within a largeuses. When her system works, it is be- school" atmosphere for their students. cause the content and her classroom The team's curriculum is determined management complement one another. initially by the school district. The in- Each year, she improves in many areas of structional materials with which Pather teaching as she attempts to respond is provided were selected for theirto the needs of her students, the chang- strengths in offering tasks to promote the ing curriculum in reading and language skills demanded by the state-mandatedarts, and the challenges of teachi,,,:- in tests and the school curriculum. Within this particular middle school. that framework, she attempts to become When Pat's system fails to work, it is involved with the rest of the teachers in because her teaching and her manage- their content units. She is not responsi- ment objectives conflict. Her sense of ble specifically for teaching content the problems in this conflict results in area reading; however, in her team- questions that she asks herself about im- coordinated instruction, she offers les- proving her own teaching and classroom. sons to help her students develop mastery of the texts for their other This kind of response reflects the natural tendency of professionals to consider courses. themselves to be in need of improve- When Pat teddies reading, she at ment. Though some are perennial issues, tempts to use techniques from the maga- Pat's most burning questions for this year zines and journals she reads for her are: "How do I promote reading with the classes at the university, These materials generally unskilled and uninterested often are found in the teacher's lounge. readers throughout the class's range of For example, she has recently included achievement levels, but especially at the in her lessons metacognitive skills objec- lower end of that range?" "How can I en- tives like x-w-L (Ogle, 1986) and other sure that the top students get as much at- study techniques. Usually she teaches di- tention as the lower ones?" "How might rectly, using a straightforward approach reading be better incorporated with con- based on teacher effectiveness research tent area instruction and with the newly (Cummings, Nelson, & Shaw, 1980; mandated emphasis on writing?" Hunter, 1976). She does some oral read- ing with her students and many exercises In answering these questions, there are on grammar and punctuation to aid com- five basic areas Pat must attend to each position and boost test scores, which is year in attempting to ensure that the class the goal of the district administration.will run smoothly and that learning will Her evaluation procedures are based onbe maximized. Classroom management individual effort, objective tests, andand the complementary problem of stu- reading skills quiz grades. dent discipline can be addressed in these Pat's teaching style results from 12five large categories (Emmer et al., years of practice. She-endorses a basic 1982; Mangieri, 1980; Wayson & Pin- skills orientation to the curriculum andnell, 1982).

5!'_)- The Influence of Classroom Management, 44

1. Organizing the Room and Materi- Pat's neat rows of chairs face the larg- als. The work Pat has done to prepare est of the two chalkboards behind her the physical arrangement of the room desk. She takes some pride in the tidi- ald the ways materials are stored and ness and symmetry of this arrangement, distributed help to ensure a smoothly which, in her estimation, maximizeson- running classroom. Pat stores materials task behavior in her students. All in all, used daily on shelves where they can be her room reflects her perception of an ef- reached easily. She stores other items, ficient classroom. those needed later in the year or only on 2. Planning for Self-Discipline. The rare occasions, away from the center of activity. This organization is facilitated rules of the school, stated in the hand- book students receive during orientation, by a system of student helpers who take are included on a poster in Pat's room. turns distributing, collecting, and sorting materials. This arrangement is beneficial She wishes to emphasize what is consid- for the large number of middle school ered appropriate in general terms within students like Jessica who need physical the school. Her class rules echo and em- activity and find it immensely difficult to bellish the school's general guidelines remain seated throughout the entire in- and reflect a consistency within her structional period. teaching team. She thought long and Pat has found that developing small hard about rules, how to communicate "up and doing" tasks, which are assigned and enforce them, Ind how to express systematically to the largest possible them in ways that do not confuse her stu- number of her students each day, helps dents. Expectations for the duties re- students like Jessica get the activity they quired during homeroom, class start-up, need. When a lesson section is com- bathroom and library passes, tardiness pleted, no fewer than half a dozen jobs and absence, the proper format foras- are assigned on a rotating basis up and signments, and discussion and move- down the rows of chairs. Most of these ment during instruction are laid out jobs require the students to get up, move, clearly and colorfully on her largest bul- letin board. Pat has been diligent over the write, count, or distribute things, andre- turn to their chairs. Students anticipate years in adding, editing, and altering the their responsibilities and enjoy the 30 displays of expectations in her class- room. seconds of moving about. it is not a per- fect system, but Pat feels that her stu- 3. Beginning the Year. The basic dents are more attentive as a result. structure of her classroom is in place al- Pat's bulletin boards reflect her flair most immediately. Pat spends much of for art and a pride in her classroom. She her time during the first week of classes uses the boards for displaying class ensuring that students understand and rules, "perfect" papers, and usually a can respond well to her guidelines and motivational expression of the impor- rules. With each new activity, Pat adds tance of literacy or some other generally to the students' understanding of how positive theme, with a seasonal,touch. the structure and the instructional activ-

Condon and Hoffman 5. 45

One classroom management style emphasizes orderliness and consistency

ity work together. teresting, with each student's success be- She began day one last fall with hering the focus of her activities. Having Four A's routine, which would be con- developed a generally positive attitude in sistent throughout the year. Attention,the first five days of school, her job for Attendance, Administrative tasks, andthe rest of the year will be easier if she Assignments. Having initiated the class maintains the controlled atmosphere she period this way, she could conduct what- has established. ever lesson she had planned with confi- If Pat has a problem here, it is with stu- dence that the class was "with" her. Thedents like Teddi who might be character- class ended with another set of activitiesized as groaners. Teddi gets bored easily that became a daily routine. with routine, a common quality of middle During that first week, she wanted toschoulers. Despite Pat's efforts to keep make the students feel comfortable andthings positive, her room does seem to successful in her room. Therefore, shehave a regularity that grates on Teddi. made every-effort-to-keep-the-classes-in- -However, routineis-one-of the-qualities-of 5" The Influence of Classroom Management 46 Pat's room that she works hard to estab- students, the curriculum, and her own lish. To keep the interest of students like instruction. Teddi, while still implementing her estab- 5. Maintaining a Management System. lished standard procedure, Pat must em- The key to maintaining Pat's system is phasize their interests and successes as consistency after the system is estab- well as the routine. lirhed. This is not to say that fine tuning 4. Grading and Evaluating. Pat has is not allowed or encouraged, because been careful to promote a- positive atti- that is a necessary part of anything that tude about the work required in her goes on in schools. New students, fire classes. Along with posting samples and drills, team field trips, or whole team ac- guidelines for assignments, she has de- tivities that alter the day's schedule re- termined the frequency with which she quire Pat to adjust the way she handles needs to grade students and the regular- the class. However, by carefully moni- ity with which she will give feedback to toring her students when they are in her members of the class about their pro- class, by identifying and stopping misbe- gress. During class discussion, for ex- havior, and by focusing on governance ample, she works hard to include by the rules, not the teacher, she man- everyboe; in the activity. ages her classroom effectively. This Grading generally is based on a per- management style has allowed her to centage of the total number possible. Pat teach her reading_and_language arts-les- is as objective as possible in her grading sons manner with which she is com- so the students know that their personali- fortable and effective. ties and attitudes do not affect their Pat begins each class period 15 sec- grades.Studentsaregivenprog- onds after the bell, allowing time for set- ress reports every three weeks during ding in. Having gotten the attention of each grading period, and phone calls and the class, she takes attendance, discusses conferences with parents are a regular or hands out materials from the office or part of Pat's planning period. team, indicates exactly what materials Pat's students are familiar with her dis- the students will need for the period's ac- ciplinary system, which makes her han- tivities (spending time to give her "look" dling of off-task or disruptive behavior to those who indicate that a needed item minimally intrusive into teaching and is not in their possession), and then learning. The assertive disciplinary pro- presents a summary of the class agenda. cedures (Canter, 1976) she uses include She presents the concept, skill, or a visible record of each day's infractions reading materials that will be the focus and clear consequences for each. She re- of the lesson and attempts to elicit re- cently added incentives for consistently sponses from the students. She uses an high marks and good conduct. As with overhead projector for all of the board the more negative consequences in her work she does with her classes, which system, these incentives are fully com- allows her to maintain eye contact while rrehended by the students. Pat has a con- she writes and reads the discussion. It -trolled -classroom; focusing on- -the also-allowsterto-have a record Of what

Condon and Hoffman 47

she wrote that day. Pat uses questions tomanagement styles. shape the discussion and is patient with Pat's classroom is good for certain students who must fumble about in theirthings and not so good for others. For materials to come up with a response.example, metacognitive skills that grow She tolerates no calling out, and calls on out of students monitoring their own students randomly, sometimes whenlearning cannot be taught effectively in a hands are raised, sometimes not. She tol-classroom like Pat's where the teacher erates some whispering and mumbling ifmonitors everything. By the end of the she feels it indicates involvement in theyear, Pat may sense this and make new topic, and while she moves about theadjustments in her program. Although room, she often allows students to workPat has not sensed it, there is also a prob- quietly in pairs if the written work is un-lem with leadership in her classroom. graded. Pat can cover quite a lot of mate-Frederica, for example, seems to have rial in a short period of time, andsome leadership ability among her gum students know they've been working hardpopping crowd of hair combers in the when the end of the period arrives. back corner. Channeling Frederica's strength of personality into academically Summary of Pat's Seventh Grade productive action is a challenge Pat will In reflecting upon Pat's classroomsoon face in the ongoing development of management, her. .professional_prepara-her classroom. tion is a good place to begin (George & Lawrence, 1982). Pat was trained as aDavid's Eighth Grade secondary English teacher. Although she David initially was trained as an ele- is a member of a team and now focusesmentary teacher. His early visions of his on reading, she is basically more ori- career were of worldng with first and sec- ented toward English and American liter- ond graders, helping young children learn ature than she is toward the readingthe basics of language and literacy. When problems of students who enter herhe was first certified, he was fully pre- classroom. It is safe to say that regard- pared to handle the entire curriculum for less of the individual needs of the stu- a class of28 students. However, his vision dents who walk in the door, Pat is likelydid not include students with the kinds of to conduct her instruction, management,interests and needs that his eighth graders and discipline in substantially the same have sex, the freedoms and responsibili- way. ties of adulthood, and ethical issues. Yet Each year, Pat works to improve herhe has worked hard to be the best middle management style to best suit her teach- school teacher he can be. ing style. Part of Pat's professional re- David's class is a group of eighth grad- sponsibility is to stay current in her field ers in a parochial school. He has at- and in her teaching. As education re-tended to many of the same issues Pat search and Pat's own reflections on class-has worked on to ensure that his class room experiences challenge her initial runs smoothly and efficiently. However, training, she alters her teaching andboth the appearance of David's class- 5 9 The Influence of Classroom Management 48 room and its activities are immensely 1. Organizing the Room and Materi- different from Pat's. als. David has carefully arranpd the writing, resource, and other materials so In his school, a single teacher is re- that when one group sends a student to sponsible for the entire curriculum for get supplies or conduct business, no the eighth grade. Because the school other group is bothered. Since students lacks the resources available in public stay in the rootil for most of the day, schools to convene and pay curriculum David can have his students store most committees, it defines the curriculum as books and supplies in their desks, while "the textbook content:" Therefore, there Pat cannot. is little variation in what students are David's bulletin boards include much supposed to learn. How well and in what the same content as Pat's. However, they manner they learn are the prerogatives of lack the mature artistry and slick profes- the teacher. There are no "reading" books sional look one sees in most classrooms. as such, so David provides reading in- This is because everything put on the struction in content areas, vocabulary, walls (class rules, published writing, and study skills. David thinks these areas book reviews,.and even the standard sea- are requirements of each discipline, and sonal or thematic encouragement) is he puts them together with writing and planned, produced, and displayed by oral language when implementing his lit- students. eracy program. The importance of this style of man- Last summer David attended work- agement is clear when one reflects upon shops on cooperative learning and stu- questions like the three Pat asked. To dent teams in the classroom (Glasser, meet identified needs of this age group, 1987; Johnson & Johnson, 1975; John- for example, David is interested in giv- son et al., 1984; Slavin, 1982). In his ing everyone opportunities for meaning- classroom, students are involved in most ful participation in their school, physical decisions about what particulars in a activity, and self-exploration (Dorman, given discipline will be pursued and Lipsitz, & Verner, 1985; Emmer et al., about how the class will conduct itself to 1982). By arranging the room in a man- learn and master the knowledge in those ner that stresses sharing, either through areas. David is convinced that his team placement of chairs in circles or through approach helps him meet the needs of all other peer-to-peer working arrange- the youngsters in his heterogeneous ments, students assume roles as equals in group, and that it will serve to support the ways they use reading, writing, and the literacy program he has planned. Al- conversation to communicate with one though the reality of his classroom is im- another and the teacher. mensely different from Pat's, David's In more traditional classrooms like approach to creating a management sys- Pat's, students with high energy levels tem is not much different from hers. The need _provisions to allow themAo4nove five-critical areas of cTasSroom manage- about. The teacher who assigns students ment focus on how his approach differs. responsibility as distributors, collectors,

Condon and Hoffman so 49 or maintainers of the instructional mate- more careful than Pat in initiating his rials also is trying to provide time to get year. Most students are accustomed to up and move about and an opportunity to teachers being completely in charge and assume and execute responsibility. These telling students precisely what to do. are identified needs of children this ageTherefore, David must be careful how to (Dorman, 1981). However teachers do initiate his students into a different role this, and however well-intentioned thosethan they expect. The introductory teach- managerial moves are, the arrangements ing of group process roles, the art of gen- must be evaluated on the basis oferating a consensus, shared decision whether they complement the general in- making, and cooperative attitudes of structional approach of the teacher. "positive interdependence" (Glasser, 2. Planning for Self-Discipline. The 1987) takes much longer than Pat's first classroom is a sea of movement andweek; yet David's task must be ac- sound. David believes that in order for complished early to ensure that the language and literacy to be taught in a classroom will run productively and way that is both meaningful and effec- smoothly during the year. tive, the_classroom -must -be-filled- with During the first-weeks of school, Lena communication. He has established an was a management challenge for David. orientation at the beginning of each day, Like many middle schoolers, Lena had a problem understanding the structure and with decisions being made under his su- pervision on the amount of time to be limits in David's classroom. She asked a spent on each of the various projects and lot of technical loophole kinds of ques- on study in the curricular areas. Students tions that pulled the class or group away then begin their various group and indi- from the content of a task and into criti- vidual tasks. Furniture is moved, within- cal discussions of what was a legitimate group assignments are made, and process within David's class. It was sev- lessons designed by David to meet the eral weeks before the statement of class needs of specific groups or subgroups rules was composed in a way that al- are begun. Students take roll, collect or lowed the class to respond to Lena's que- distribute money or communicationsries and allowed her to become a productive group member. from the office, and place all appropriate documents and other items in the various 4. Grading and Evaluating. In nearly In/Out boxes on David's desk. It is easier to see how self - discipline is developing every subject there is some form of for David's students than it is in Pat'sgrouping that puts students in coopera- tive work patterns rather than in individ- room. Movement to and from the library, ual competitive patterns. Grades are bathroom, and other areas of the build- awarded to groups. Like Pat's, David's ing and campus are all coordinated so grading-isobjecliVeThiltthe focus is on .that-David-cawbe-availatife as needed the correctness of the group's critical and informed about everything. consensus rather than on an individual 3. Beginning the Year. David must be right answer. Even tests are group ef-

16e1nfluenee of Classroom Management 50

forts. These procedures are no less well- petent and successful, forces him to read defined and understood by David's about and discuss his system with col- students than they are by Pat's. However, leagues daily. He is not dissuaded from the relationships between people in the approach he has taken, for his com- David's classroom during most instruc- mitment to the theoretical underpinnings tional experiences are quite different of cooperative learning is strong. He is from those found in Pat's class. The fo- aware, however, that managerial re- cus of attention is more on what the stu- sponses consistent with that theory and dents are doing than on what David supportive to these e Idren are con- does. He is positive in questioning his stantly under development. students about both their production and their procedures. He makes points about 5. Maintaining a Management System. proper and improper group procedures, David's maintenance system is more the value of productive initiative, and the complex than Pat's. Initiation during the results of poor planning or irresponsibil- firstfew-weeks of school represents the ity on the part of groups or group mem- beginning of a process. Every week bers. Students ask for advice about some new aspect of cooperation, com- procedure, information on the location munication, and group process must be of and access to resources, and clarifica- addressed and handled. Because of tions about the objectives of the curricu- David's strong beliefs in communication lum and potential benefits of their and literacy, issues must be discussed experiences with the content. and "composed" by the entire class. This does not mean that ail students David asks a doubting colleague, "How naturally benefit from David's system. else will they learn to think and respond Pete is a top student who rails against critically in a literate manner?" New stu- working with his less able peers, whom dents, disruptions, feedback on perform- he calls "ding- dongs" He wants to strike ance, and grading are individual in their out on his own, intent on finding the impact, but the entire class has been "right answer," which he has been taught given a share in the determination of dis- will bring him recognition and success. ciplinary procedures and record keeping. Rae, on the other hand, is so quiet she Today, David began his day with re- often seems to become lost in the group. ports from the chairpersons of his vari- She is well liked and seems pleasant, but ous social studies groups, each of which she never respuds critically to reading, is studying a different Middle Eastern to experiences within the classroom, or country. One group found the addresses to the opinions of her peers, even when of most of the consulates for the coun- some_of_thein offer relatively non- tries under -§tildk-inil prepared a list to threatening opportunities for self-explo place on the bulletin board for the other ration and independence. groups to use. They are clearly proud of David's desire to respond to these nat- their "find;' and all members of the ural differences in personalities, while at group seem to need to add a comment to the same time helping students feel com- their chair's report. David announces

Condon and Hoffman 62 51

that the librarian has requested thatno cratically oriented classroom, the entire more than two groups come to the li-text (the stated curriculum) cannot be brary at one time, since the size of hercovered. Neither can David guarantee collection on the Middle East is rather that the basic skills arranged into grade- limited. After a brief discussion aboutlevel-specific, end-of-year tests will be sending only representatives from each covered in a lesson dedicated to their group, the groups quickly decide who mastery. David accepts that his class's needs to go early and which groups canscores vary on the skills tests. Scores wait until later in the day or until tomor- seem to go up and down according to the row. David begins to consider aloud the enthusiasm he can generate within his question of determining a due date for group activities for the kind of precision this large group project and consults and right answer orientation onvyhich with the groups_about their progress..the-tests dwell. Still-,-DiVidiery ently be- Students observe David as he "juggles"lieves that if all teachers embrace the aloud the needs of six groups that have same orientation to literacy that he does, operated well or poorly. Some of theall the really important skills will be groups are waiting for data from the li- learned and will be learned better than in brary or the mail. One group is beset byclasses like Pat's. This is not to say that a member's illness, and another by a total Pat can or should emulate David, only lack of direction. that David's orientation to literacy and David observes to the class that somededication to his students as language of the groups will finish ahead of others, learners are most productive whenex- and the class discusses how early groupspressed in the management style he could most productively spend their time creates. on preparing their presentations and be- Just like Pat, David knows halfway ginning to plan their science projects on through each academic year that his solar energy while waiting for the oth- room is an imperfect place in which to ers. When they arrive at a date, most ofteach the reading, language, and atti- the students write the date on their pro-tudes about literacy that he treasures. ject folders and begin mumbling about Differences in David's initial preparation their plans for the day. In spending time as an elementary teacher set him apart on such matters, David is demonstratingfrom Pat's departmentalized orientation. his desire to lead his students to manage Differences, in their assigned teaching their time well across many differentpositionsLin_their inserytce_work,--in. curriculum areas, -ratherthan requiring-their university course work, and in their them to meet his due date. classroom experience have brought them to different places as professionals. Summary of David's Eighth Grade Although many differences exist, there As with Pat, some of David's curricu- is a similarity in the needs of Pat's and lum and some of his teaching styles doDavid's students and in the teachers'con- not coincide with the way he conducts cerns with student achievement. David is his classroom management. In a demo-interested in the same three questions

613 1 H Influence of Classroom Management 52

Regardless of their classroom management styles, all teachers hope that their students will develop the reading habit.

that Pat asked herself. Pat's classroom complete control of his classroom. Also Management restricts the choices she like Pat, Judd is the reading and writing ._els she can make to promote achieve- teacher on a team of teachers. However, ment in her classes, while David's expo- instead of seeing his role as a supportive sure and subsequent commitment to one, he feels in many ways that his class- .empowering.students.in.a.group-oriented room is a 'haven' from all the other classroom have led him to establish a classes. What he does is not isolated much different management system. from his other team members' activities, but he believes that reading and literacy Judd's Multigrade Classroom deserve more than support status. In Judd was trained as a middle school Judd's mind, communication and the teacher. He knows much about the char- uses of language allow students to reason acteristics of middle school students and through and record their thoughts, which their educational needs (Johnston & are worthy objectives for children of any Markle, 1986), and like Pat, he is in age, particularly middle schoolers. Judd

Condon and Hoffman 53

expects his team members who special- reading teachers. The curriculum teach- ize in a single subject to teach the chil- ers choose, the instruction they offer, dren the content area reading and writing and the management/discipline they at- that support development in those disci- tempt to develop must all work in con- plines. He offers a place where students cert to maximize reading and literacy from his sixth/seventh grade team cancompetence. Judd's managing style dif- coordinate and integrate learning bothfers from both Pat's and David's, as an from other classes and from their ownevaluation of the five categories of man- lives through their self-selected leadingagement shows. and writing. Judd participates in all of the experi- 1. Organizing the Room and Materi- ences through which he leads his stu- als. Judd's room doesn't look likea nor- dents. When students are engaged in mal classroom. There are desks in the freewriting, library research, publica- middle of the room, but around the out- tion, or careful reading, they can look up side are cubby holes where small groups to see that Judd also is doing this activity. of students can "scooch" up to the wall Each student experiences readership, au- and read one of the several books they thorship, and critical analysis of compo- have going, write a letter to an author or sitions in both reader and author roles. an editor, or discuss some issue of liter- As a result of these experiences, children ary substance with one another without become involved in discussions aboutbothering their classmates. The room how authors decide to publish and how has an abundance of reference materials, they determine what to revise. Judd is a hundreds of adolescent literature paper- student of the process school of literacybacks, and crates of folders with stu- and runs what he would call a whole lan- dents' names. The bulletin boards are full guage classroom (Altwerger, Edelsky, & of student work, and scattered through- Flores, 1987). As a veteran of writing out the room are quotations, both from process training in his graduate work, famous reading and writing experts and Judd has read most of the books pub-from the not-so-famous ones who are lished on this student-oriented approach Judd's students. Rules, general and few to developing the thinking and languagein number, are posted in Judd's rough skills necessary to read and write well inprinting near the front of the room. Judd any discipline (Atwell, 1987; Calkins, is not much of an artist, and adornments 1986; Graves, 1983; Hansen, 1987;in the room seem more serendipitous Stock, 1983). The entire class does not than planned. There may be a play ad- focus on one set of reading or writingvertisement, a movie poster (Holly- objectives at the same time. The curricu- wood's rendition of one of his favorite lum is driven by the approach called kidadolescent novels), student writing, and watching (Goodman, 1978). notes from students to Judd or to other Teachers can respond in a variety ofstudents that are particularly telling ways to the three questions that haveabout their experiences in developing lit- been identified as ongoing challenges for eracy. Judd's room looks like a cross be-

a TI__nfluence of Classroom Management 54

tween a busy, bustling place and Pat's acy by conducting short daily coaching orderly room. lessons, by discussing the ways in which reading and writing may be done, and by 2.Planning for Self-Discipline.Judd's praising the wide range of behaviors that class is a structured environment for constitute literate conduct. He also pro- only a small part of the six instructional vides them with direct experiences in periods each day. Most of the time, it is a communicating appropriately with other workshop for readers or writers. With all of these different activities going on, students and with the teacher, using writ- ing (through notes placed in one an- Judd runs the class the way it makes other's files) and brief on-task dis- sense to him. The rules he uses are de- cussions on matters such as an author's signed less to promote order than to en- style, identification of one's audience, or sure productivity. The organization of the manner in which engaging books in- the management of this class is an out- clude the author's voice. Throughout, growth of students working productively Judd emphasizes productivity, confi- and trying to keep out of one another's dence in each student's ability to be pro- way. Still, some students require more ductive, and the expectation that students encouragement than others because they are less sure of themselves and their serve their peers well as both reading au- diences and producing authors. All stu- roles. Judd spends a few minutes each dents read and write from the first day, day in a whole class meeting, finding out regardless of how they have previously exactly what all students are doing and considered themselves in the realm of lit- what their plans are for the class period. eracy. He also checks on their need for individ- Critical analysis of a peer's writing (a ual conferences or inclusion in group les- poem or longer work), conferences sons (Atwell, 1987). Through this short about issues that trouble the reader or meeting, Judd can inform everyone writer, and sharing of production and lit- amut others' work and .bout his expecta- erary experiences are introduced during tions for all class members. Individual the first week. By the second week, conferences give him an opportunity to some students are beginning to ask about meet with each student at least once a forming book discussion groups, select- week. These 5 or 10 minute conferences ing library materials, writing topics, and are amicable and task-oriented times for coauthorship. communication and reflection. The cul- ture of communication and literacy that 4.Grading and Evaluating.In Judd's Judd wants to develop for his students is opinion, competitive grading is neither unmistakable. informative nor productive in a setting 3.Beginning the Year.Judd begins the that focuses on process. His grading is a year with demonstrations of how he and combination of subjective and objective his students will be working within the judgments about effort and productivity. class. For example, he shows students Determinations of productivity are gen- that he values communication and liter- erally related to publication, panel mem- 66 Condon and Hoffman 55 bership, or some other kind of sharing or 5. Maintaining a Management System. performance that displays the composed As students become accustomed tc the ideas of the student. workshop atmosphere and schedule, they Since there is so much natural individu-generally are eager to get to class and alization within this class, some students disappointed when it ends, even through find themselves uncomfortable in the aca- the work is hard. In this respect, Judd's demic spotlight. It is especially distress- class echoes David's experience. Middle ing for students like Lamar to be asked to school students working on their own write about things they know when they projects tend to be more dedicated to ef- may not have learned much about theficient classroom operation than when world and academics in five years ofworking under other circumstances. Of schooling. Judd commonly asks his stu- course, rules occasionally must be re- dents to write about what they know best, viewed and reinforced, but this is usually and thatis themselves. Lamar was done one to one between Judd and the unwilling to take the social and psycho- students. Managerial adjustments st.;11 logical risk of displaying his knowledge must be made daily for some students. (and ignorance) of himself until he dis-'nicker, for instance, is a big boy who covered that Juad was more than willing tends to bully his way around the school, to publicly take that risk, and that the displaying little ability to communicate. class tended to be supportive and often Judd's classroom is set up in such a way complimentary. that Tucker has been forced to become Talk is a valuable commodity in Judd's conversant, initially with Judd and even- class. Those who converse too little are tually with other students, about their at- as liable to be corrected as those who tempts to make sense of their lives with like to gab. Judd develops a discipline reading and writing. Tucker has falter- focused on managing the talk to optimize ingly produced responses to articles, literacy. In Judd's view, a quiet class si- books, and analyses of writing that per- lences literacy learning. tain to nuances of vocabulary selection Expectations are high for all of Judd'sand sentence construction. Judd is cer- heterogeneously grouped students be- tain that over time Tucker will learn to cause he feels that no nonreaders or non- conduct his academic and social affairs writers walk through his door, only those outside the classroom with more than who may not have begun to read and just physical strength. write Absences or lack of intensity dur- Certainly, Judd must accept the leader- ing the class only mean that the student ship of the classroom, and just as cer- must be productive at home or in othertainly, these students are open to all of settings where supervision is available to the silliness and seriousness that beset verify that time is spent reading, working middle school students. They are effi- on research, or preparing manuscripts. cient and effective in most of the lessons, As should be clear from this description, workshops, and conversations within Judd tolerates neither illiteracy nor ali- Judd's class. teracy in his students. This morning, Judd began as he al- p The Influence of Classroom Management 56

ways does, with his gradebook open. He room management system. He learns uses four or five gradebooks a year be- about the inadequacies of his manage- cause every day he records in them the ment system from his students as an in- students' daily plans, along with grades tregal part of his daily duties. Therefore, given that day. The roll call is not an- his refinements in management and in- s yered by "here," but by a brief state- struction occur daily, ..ot yearly. Judd re- ment of each of the student's intentions sponds to his students' efforts and assists for the class period. Exampies of their them in troublesome areas. His "work- reports (and judd's responses) include: shop" classroom provides a medium for "Finishing a first draft of a poem" individual students to explore, discuss, (Okay.), "Library to take this dumb book and improve their writing and reading back" (That's three this week; bring back (Atwell, 1987; Hansen, 1987). five.), "Writing an article for theFlame Like David, Judd has created a social (school newspaper) with Clarice" (That's support system for his students. Unlike due Friday; can you make it?), "Can we David, Judd has his students create indi- do our panel today?" (How much time vidual products. Judd has generated a will you need?), "Coi!!d I see you to- classroom that builds on nearly all the day?" (Yep, we're due.), "Chapter 16 in qualities identified as supportive of chil- my book" (Three days is too many for dren of this age. one chapter; do we need to discuss Student needs and teacher concerns this?). This takes perhaps four minutes. are the same in Judd's class as in Pat's Then as Judd writes the time schedule and David's. The questions he asks are for the day, the class begins to break up. the same. The difference is that the stu- Some students work alone with a sharp dents in this setting are working as hard pencil and a pad of paper; others begin as the teacher to answer the questions. chatting. Judd clears his throat pointedly, Sharing the load among 30 interested and they get down to business. Judd then parties in each class is an efficient and settles in at his desk the four stu- effective way to handle the individualiza- dents who are sharing their understand- tion in which everyone is interested. ings aboutWhere the Red Fern Grows (Rawls, 1973). This period he will spend The Future 20 minutes with this group, 20 more in There is no single way to manage mid- 5-minute segments with various students dle school teaching contexts. The middle who need conferences, and the remain- school represents a transition between der of the time overseeing the panel and the traditionally student-centered, self- ensuing discussion. contained elementary school and the content-oriented, 50-minute instructional Summary of Judd's Multigrade periods at the secondary level. Tradition Classroom has yet to take hold in the relatively By focusing on developing a culture of young middle school movement. This communicationandliteracy,Judd places great demands for creativity on matches his teaching style to his class- teachers like Pat, David, and Judd.

Condon and Hoffman 68 57

These teachers have addressed the im- integrated with an emphasis on writing? portant instructional questions through Pat is working hard to include more se- differing approaches to classroom man- lections from the content textbooks from agement. her students' other classes. Pat also is How does one promote reading with considering using her class as a place for the generally unskilled and uninterested developing leadership for some of the ac- readers at the lower end of the achieve- tivities and experiences in her teaching ment range? Pat does it through a focusteam's larger content units. Writing, on basic skills and strict grading of as-which builds on the class's daily lesson, signments with immediate feedbackis more likely to occur in short sessions from the teacher. David does it through at the end of her class. It comes in the group membership and responsibility. form of learning logs that children use to The more advanced readers and writers reflect daily on their learning. David is work hard with the less accomplished attempting to do more with less (Sizer, members so that the group grades will be 1985) by focusing on larger issues in sci- as high as possible. Judd assists his stu-ence and social studies (abandoning a dents in selecting reading materials andsignificant amount of the text content) writing topics, demonstrates his own and then studying the large issues more reading and writing efforts, and main- deeply. This can mean doing social stud- tains one to one contact. ies to the exclusion of science for three How can a teacher ensure that the topweeks at a time (and vice versa). It in- students get as much attention as thecludes a lot of content-specific writing lower ones? Pat uses the traditionaland reading, however, and that is what methods of grades and rewards to let herDavid is striving for. Judd attempts to top students know how they are doing. develop a closer connection between all She then attetrlts to enrich her assign-of the disciplines all of the time. He en- ments to challenge all of her studentb oncourages many real world kinds of pro- their level. David sometimes placesjects in individual research and inquiry. these students throughout his groups aseulogies, advertisements, oral histories, potential leaders and resources, and atcommentaries or reviews, and corre- other times places them together to learn spondence with practicing scientists and from one another. He spends time ensur- historians. Through these projects Judd ing that group tasks are as che!enging toenriches the content of his fellow teach- them as to their less advanced peers. ers as well as the competence of his Judd's work with higher performing stu- students. dents is identical to his work with the Middle school teachers who teach lower functioning ones. P.: individual- reading can address these kinds of endur- ization in the workshop provides a natu- ing concerns by orchestrating their gen- ral place to seek the level of challengeeralinstructionalorientation,their appropriate to the student. manner of responding to individual mid- How might reading be better incorpo- dle schoolers (and to the ubiquitous so- rated with content area instruction andcial groups that constantly evolve within 69 The Influence of Classroom Management 58

any given class), and the classroom man- to maximizing achievewent within their agement that forms a teaching context. curricula. However, all these teachers are If the teacher wishes to teach prepara- motivated by the same kinds of concerns tion for standardized testing, the class- about their students. Good teachers are room management style should parallel constantly working to respond by chang- and complement those instructional ob- ing their classroom contexts to meet those jectives. Teaching children to give the needs that dictate the conditions of their right answer to skills questions would students' growth in reading and literacy. not work well in a classroom that asks for student group decisions. Similarly, teaching communication skills and criti- ierences cal response will not be very successful Alexander, William M., & George, Paul S. in a classroom that is quiet, subdued, (1981). The exemplary middle school. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. and full of students working on their own Altwerger, Bess, Edelsky, Carol, & Flores, activities. Only certain combinations of Barbara. (1987). Whole language: What's curricular emphasis, instructional ap- new? The Reading Teacher, 41, 144-154. proach, and classroom management Atwell, Nancie. (1987). In the middle: Writing and reading and learning with adolescents. work well togcaner. At one time or an- Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook. other all teachers find themselves in the Calkins, Lucy M. (1986). The an of teaching position of having a less than optimal writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Canter, Lee. (1976). Assertive discipline: A take combination of these three dynamics of charge approach for today's educators. Santa teaching. In fact, because of frequent Monica, CA: Canter & Associates. changes curriculum, managing styles, Cummings, Carol, Nelson, Cliff, & Shaw, Dian. (1980). Teaching makes a difference. Ed- and the instruction they wish to offer, monds, WA: Teaching, Inc. teachers are constantly reminded that Dorman, Gayle. (1981). 11::ddle grades assess- their classrooms are less than perfect. ment program. Chapel Hill, NC: Center for Changes must be implemented, and Early Adolescence. Dorman, Gayle, Lipsitz, Joan, & Verner, Pat. teachers must recognize that effective (1985, March). Improving schools for young management is a means, not an end. Lit- adolescents. Educational Leadership, 42, 44- eracy, not full-time engagement in aca- 49. Doyle, Walter. (1986). Classroom organization demic tasks, is the ultimate goal. and management. In Merlin Wittrock (Ed.), The context teachers provide for their Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., classes defines the experiences of the stu- pp. 392-431). New York: Macmillan. Emmer, Edmund T., Evertson, Carolyn M., dents. Teachers who are comfortable with Sanford, Julie P., Clements, Barbara S., & giving instruction in reading and learning Worsham, Murray E. (1982). Organizing and skills that are discipline specific, teachers managing the junior high classroom (R & D who cork to integrate several disciplines Center Paper No. 6151). Austin, TX: Re- search and Develcoment Center for Teacher while distributing the responsibilities of Education. teaching and learning, and teachers who George, Paul S., & Lawrence, Gordon. (1982). work alongside students in a workshop Handbook for middle school teaching Glen- view, IL: Scott, Foresman. full of demoristiallom about literacy may Glasser, William. (1987). Control theory to the have different orientations when it comes classroom. New Yo. Harper & Row.

Condon and Hoffman 70 Goodman, Yetta. (1978). Kid watching: An al- Mangieri, John N. (1980). Characteristics of an ternative to testing. The National Elementary effectively organized classroom. In Diane School Principal, 57, 22-27. Lapp (Ed.), Making reading possible through Graves, Donald H. (1983). Writing: Teachers effective classroom management (pp. 10-26). and children at work. Portsmouth, NH: Newark, DE: International Reading Associa- Heinemann. tion. Hansen, Jane. (1987). When writers read. Ports- Ogle, Donna. (1986). x-w-z: A teaching model mouth, NH: Heinemann. that develops active reading of expository Hunter, Madeline. (1976). Improved instruction. text. The Reading Teacher, 39, 564-570. El Segundo, CA: TIP. Rawls, Wilson. (1973). Where the red fern Johnson, David W., & Johnson, Roger T. grows. New York: Doubleday. (1975). Learning together and alone. Engle- Sizer, Theodore R. (1985). Horace's compro- wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. mise: The dilemma of the American high Johnson, David W., Johnson, Roger T., school. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Holubec, Edith J., & Roy, Patricia. (1984). Slavin, Robert E. (1982). Cooperative learning: Circles of learning. Alexandria, VA: Associa- Student teams. Washington, DC: NEW. tion for Supervision and Curriculum Devel- Stock, Patricia. (1983). Forum. Essays on theory opment. and practice in the teaching of writing. Upper Johnston, J. Howard, & Markle, Glenn C. Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook. (1986). What research says to the middle Wayson, William W., & Pilinell, Gay Su. level practitioner. Columbus OH: National (1982). Creating a living curriculum for Middle School Association. teaching self-discipline. In David L. Duke Lipsitz, Joan. (1979, September/October). Ado- (Ed.), Helping teachers manage classrooms. lescent development. Myths and realities. Alexandria, VA. Association for Supervision Children Today, 8(5), 2-7. and Curriculum Development.

.k.

The Influence of Classroom Management PART TWO

Curriculum and Instruction in Reading

lint.ELLII ME

Central to middle school reading are the questions 'What should I teach?" 'How should I teach?' and "How should I evaluate whether I was effective?* This seciion attempts to answer these questions. Chapter 5 provides a framework for literacy instruction; Chapters 6 and 7 suggest what should be taught in the cognitive/metacognitive and affective domains, respectively; Chapter 8 deals with instruction; and Chapter 9 focuses on evaluation. You will note that all five chapters place emphasis on writing as well as on reading. This reflects our twin beliefs that we are engaged broadly in literacy development rather than narrowly in the development of reading acquisition, and that reading and writing are reciprocal language modes best conceptualized and taught in integrated ways.

72 Content Knowledge in Reading: Creating aNew Framework

Charles W. Peters

A FUNDAMENTAL GOAL Using Outmoded of middle schools is compre- Organizational Structures hension of content knowl- 51w The way middle school edge in areas such as English, science, reading is taught has been influenced by and social studies. The purpose of this how it has been organized. Typically, chapter is to propose a conceptual frame- middle school reading programs are or- work for balancing the goal of content ganized in one of two ways. The first re- knowledge and strategy application. flects an elementary perspective in which reading is taught as a separate Factors Influencing subject. Frequently, the basal reader is Reading Instruction the primary means of instruction, and Despite theoretical advancements in formal developmental reading instruc- how reading and learning are concep- tion is usually completed by the end of tualized, middle school reading instruc- sixth grade. If students need additional tion has remained largely unchanged for dr special help in reading, it is generally decades. The hope for a major curricular offered in the form of a separate remedial reorganization generated when junior class. When this perspective dominates, high schools were first converted to mid- a skills-in-isolation approach to reading dle schools has almost disappeared. An instruction often results. Instruction outdated structure for reading remains. moves from one reading selection to an- This section examines four interrelated ether driven by the need to cover the next factors that contribute to this lack of set of skills; thus skills are often pre- progress in reading. sented in a nonintegrated context. As a

63 P13 64 result, reading is viewed as static, and Emphasizing Isolated Skills content or domain knowledge is mini- A second factor influencing middle mized or ignored. school reading is that reading is fre- The second organizational approach quently viewed as a static, skills-driven incorporates reading into the language process. This perspective assumes that arts curriculum. As students move from determining the main idea of a poem is elementary to middle school, a separate the same process as determining the class for reading usually is dropped after main idea of a passage on the causes of the sixth grade and merged with the lan- the Civil War. Not only are there major guage arts/English curriculum in the structural differences between these two seventh or eighth grade. While it is bet- types of materials, but the prior knowl- ter than the elementary perspective, edge required to interpret the two is reading as language arts/English has two much different. In other words, a skills- limitations: (1) systematic transfer of driven approach to reading ignores how learning strategies to other disciplines is the purposes of learning, the type of ma- minimized, and (2) narrative materials terials used, and the assigned task all in- are the prevailing form of text. While fluence strategy selection. language arts instruction can include This static perspective is in sharp con- how to read other types of materials in trast to the current interactive view of other disciplines, often it does not. Fur- reading in which readers build knowl- ther, this approach assumes that the edge from prey .ous experiences and use language arts/English teacher has knowl- that information in conjunction with edge of reading processes and has full re- knowledge about the reading process to sponsibility for teaching students how to construct a holistic representation of a apply reading strategies to ,-;:her disci- text. To do this, readers must be sensitive plines. In fact, language arts/English to the relationships among the various el- teachers seldom possess knowledge of ements of information within a text so reading processes, and even when they they can integrate new and old informa- do, they cannot be expected to assume tion into a complete whole. Inherent in total responsibility for reading because this view of reading is the notion that they have their own content to teach. readers construct meaning for a text as a If learning :.;:rcss the curriculum is to function of the interaction among the occur, all content teachers must share re- reader, the text, and the context of the sponsibility for teaching reading strate- reading situation (Anderson et al., 1985, gies within their disciplines. This means Wixson & Peters, 1984). we must offer a model for learning that Much of what is taught about reading views reading/writing in a broader con- at the middle school level is not consist- text. Without such a perspective, middle ent with precepts that underlie the inter- schools will continue to provide limited active view of reading. Peters (1984) literacy instruction. examined some of the more widely

Peters 74 65

,ecommended instructional activities(1986) corroborated this view by demon- (vocabulary enhancement, graphic orga- strating that the level of one's domain nizers, questioning strategies) to ascer-knowledge influences its assimilation tain how they addressed comprehension and retrieval. It seems clear that teachers in light of the changing nature of com-s: ould spend more time helping students prehension instruction. He found that acquire knowledge. skills often were presented in isolation. b this end, Spiro et al. (1987) recom- And when some activities did utilize fac- mended traversing or crisscrossing a tors such as prior knowledge, text struc- topic from many different perspectives. ture, and metacognitive knowledge, they Presenting information from multiple were limited to one or two of these fac-perspectives allows students to acquire a tors. For example, a teacher might ex-more integrated knowledge base, helping plain graphic organizers but say nothingthem move beyond surface level interpre- about varying this strategy as purpose, tations to deeper levels of understanding. text, and task change. However, implementing the notion of traversing selected topics in a systematic manner requires a different view of read- Deemphasizing Domain Knowledge ing instruction; it means moving from a Middle school reading also has been skills or a narrative-based approach to influenced by a tendency to minimize theone in which content knowledge plays a role of domain knowledge, the transfer greater role. of knowledge to new learning situations, and the flexible use of knowledge. This The role of domain knowledge is even is particularly significant at the middle more important in the transfer of knowl- school level since what students should edge to new learning situations. As Chi be learning is how to apply strategies to a (1987) points out, transfer is impeded variety of content areas. without a well-integrated knowledge Research is increasingly pointing to base. If knowledge acquisition and inte- the importance of domain knowledge in gration are ignored in favor of teaching the learning process. As Rabinowitz and isolated skills or generic strategies, strat- Glaser (1985) point out, people who ex- egies do not transfer. For transfer to be hibit highly competent performance have enhanced, teachers must continually re- easy and fast mental access torelevant structure domain knowled;e under dif- information, are able to view problem ferent types of learning situations. situations in qualitatively distinct ways, Consequently, domain knowledge plays can use strategies effectively andflexi- an extremely important role in the appli- bly, and have good metacognitive skills. cation of strategies because transfer from Therefore, to construct meaning effi-one type of material to another is un- ciently, readers must be able to accesslikely if students' domain knowledge is appropriate domain knowledge. Voss skimpy or poorly organized.

7

Content Knowledge in Reading: Creating a New Framework 66

Pressure from National journalists examined fifth, eighth, and Reform Movements eleventh grade American historytext- A fourth factor inhibitingprogress in books and found them to be poorly writ- middle school reading is the nationalre- tenand,inmost cases,lacking form movement for excellence in educa- substantive information about American tion that began in the early 1980swith history. They concl-ded that what these reports such as A Nation at Risk (Na- materials produce is a curiously disem- tional Commission on Excellence in Ed- bodied style of history that describes ucation, 1983). The pressure created by what happened but not why. These find- these reports pushes the middle school ings are even more critical whenone curriculum in divergent directions. One considers the dominant relianceon a sin- type of reform calls for a predominantly gle textbook at the middle school level content-oriented curriculum; another (Sewall, 1988). While this may not bea type wants to move the curriculum to- startling finding for those who are famil- ward generic learning, wherecontent iar with the research on learning from knowledge is subjugated toa process ap- text (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984; proach. The first sees domainor content Britton & Black, 1985, Otto & White, knowledge as the target; the second 1982), it does provide additionalammu- views development of the learning nition to those who advocatea return to a process as the goal. Each has potential predominantly content-oriented curricu- implications for middle school reading lum. and learning. The arguments expressed in these Content reform movement. Ina series studies are further bolstered by the of recent national reports, the impor- works of Bloom (1987) and Hirsch tance of teaching strategies is beingreex- (1987), who are critical of not only what amined. One of the more influential but also how subjects are being taughtat studies the Report on the First Na- all levels of education. Hirsch advocates tional Assessment of History and Litera- learning a body of culturally approved ture (Ravitch & Finn, 1987). In their information that will enable studentsto report, Ravitch and Finn point out that live successfully as adults. Thepresump- many high school students lack basic tion is that by digesting bits ofsanc- history and literature knowledge. Be- tioned knowledge, students will be better cause this information plays such an im- prepared to deal with the ambiguity,con- portant role ininterpreting human tradiction, and complexity of adult life. experience, they argue fora curriculum To Hirsch, skills have been overempha- in which history and literatureare more sized and information that constitutes prominent and in which strategiesare our literate national culture has been given a relatively low priority. underemphasized. Some critics also believe there isa de- General skills movement. A. the other ficiency in what studentsare asked to end of the curricular reform continuum read. In a study by Sewall (1987),a are those who advocate the use of ge- group of historians, authors, editors, and neric learning strategies (Beyer, 1987,

Peters 7C 67

1988; Chance, 1986). Those who sup- exclusion of content, they ignore the fact port this perspective believe skills and that domain knowledge influences strat- strategies can be uniformly applied egy selection. A balance is needed be- across a variety of content areas. In other tween content and process. words, skills are taught in a decontex- A balance requires teachers to avoid tualized manner where the goal is to separating the acquisition of knowledge learn skills without consideration for dif- from the process or strategy. For in- ferences within and across the various stance, most reading specialists view so- content disciplines. Some of those who cial studies as if it were a monolithic support this position believe that more structure rather than as many different time should be spent learning genericdisciplines (anthropology, economics, strategies such as problem solving so geography, government, history, psy- they can be applied to a variety of learn- chology, sociology) possessing struc- ing situations both inside and outside the tural, conceptual, and methodological classroom. differences (Peters, 1982; Peters & Hayes, 1989). History and geography, Striving for a Balanced Approach for instance, are two important social The ultimate focus of middle school studies courses at the middle school reading and writing must be more con- level. While geography may deal with sistent with what Katz (1982) calls "L.Liti- some of the same topics as history, it also cal literacy," in which a student builds involves examination of the earth's sur- knowledge from previous experiences face, the environment, and the people and uses that information in conjunction who inhabit various regions of the with other knowledge (i.e., knowledge world. Two major features are involved: about strategy use and domain-specific the natural or physical features and the knowledge) to interpret new learning sit- cultural and human features (Backler & uations. The key here is the learner's Stoltman, 1988). History, on the other ability to use content and strategy knowl- hand, includes the study of conflicting edge in a flexible manner and to transfer forces such as wars and revolutio svio- it to new learning experiences. An ap- lent upheavals of nations interpreted in a proach that integrates both process and human context of causations often ex- content facilitates this kind of knowledge plained in terms of impact on institutions acquisition. and on policies (Hegel, 1899, 1956; When content teachers relinquish re- White, 1973). In short, historians look at sponsibility for teaching process, "ap- causation differently than do geogra- propriate" information is emphasized phers. without regard for what Paris, Lipson, Since historians examine events in a and Wixson (1983) call strategic learn- human context of causations that are ex- ing. That is, student:, get little opportu- plained in tern , of their impact on insti- nity to apply learning strategies (process) tutions and policies that exist vithin a across a variety of curricular areas. But specific historical context, these events when teachers emphasize strategy to the are considered unique. Consequently, to 77 Content. Knowledge in Reading,: Creating a NewFramework 68

some historians the past does not predict phy, or governmei, materials. Oncestu- the future, and it is this uniqueness that dents realize that these distinctions exist, explains historical phenomena. This is they can use different strategies when not necessarily true of physical geogra- reading history, biology, mysteries,or phy, where events suchas the formation poetry. of and the climate in certain regionsare If reading is taught from a generic controlled by natural laws thatare invar- skills perspective or if content is decon- iant and, as such, predictable. textualized to emphasize skills, however, The climate in Africa is diffannt from content teachers conclude that their job the climate in Antartica but the factors is to take care of the content withoutwor- that control these differencesare not the rying about teaching process because same as those that control historical students will learn process from the events. Therefore, causation is not reading teacher. If middle school reading viewed in the same manner. Another dif- programs are to improve, this must ference between the two is the methodol- change. ogy historians and geographers use to interpret the past: historians use diaries, documents, journals, newspapers, and Reconceptualizing the letters, and geographersuse maps, Reading Program graphs, charts, demographic data, and This section describes five recommen- measurement devices. This usually dations for balancing readingprograms means examining the relationship be-and the instructional guidelines that tween culture and the physical features of emerge from these assumptions. The the earth. recommendations serve as a framework Such distinctions are important be- for restructuri-g middle school reading. cause each implies a different approach 1. Base reading programs on sound to strategy. DiFerent strategies are theoretical views of reading and learning. shaped by the thinking patterns typical of One of the major weaknesses of the mid- the various disciplines in social studies dle school reading program is its struc- (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984) and re- ture. To be consistent with what we know quirc different approaches to the devel- from research, the reading program must opment of instructional support activities be more than another languagearts (Peters & Hayes, 1989). Students must course of which reading is one compo- be taught to see the differences in thenent. Learning across the curriculum structural composition of various disci- (Katz, 1982) must be its primary focus plines and to make adjustments in how so that the full range cf topics and materi- they read and think about topics within als students encounter is supported. Most those fields. Thus, reading in social of the reading material will be inn.:ma- studies should not merely entail getting tional rather than narrative becausenarra- information from the p:inted page but tive is not the ma' Jr type of material read also learning how to adjust for various at this level. structures when reading history, geogra- However, materials do not determine

Peters 78 69 program structure. Structure comes from bling an integrated instructional environ- the theoretical assumptions underlying ment. To do this, reading teachers must reading as an interactive process. An in- work more closely with cantent area teractive framework suggests that one teachers. Such collaborative efforts are must first establish a clear purpose for important in order to help students apply learning, which then dictates the type ofstrategies systematically across their material and strategies to be used. Goals many different subject matter classes. must be placed in a larger context, one A reading teacher adhering to this that reflects a recursive rather than a lin- strategy would not select a nonfiction ear approach to learning. When learning piece of material merely to expose stu- is linear, students move through skill hi- dents to that particular type of text. The erarchies; when learning is recursive, teacher would address what topics stu- students accumulate and integrate knowl- dents are likely to encounter in their edge. other content classes, what type of non- 2. Integrate domain knowledge (con- fiction or informational text would best tent) with strategies when developing a address these topics, the variety of pur- reading program. Domain knowledge is poses for which they might read this par- an important component in middleticular type of material, the types of school reading and writing. Without suf- strategies required to read the material, ficient domain knowledge, comprehen- and how strategies change as assigned sion is impeded, strategies cannot be tasks change. used appropriately, learning is frag- The instructional process would begin mented, and transfer of knowledge is im- by selecting a topic frequently discussed paired. More attention needs to be given in one of the middle school curricular ar- to how domain knowledge influences eas. The goal is not to turn reading strategy usage, rather than focusing on teachers into content teachers but to take either generic skills or skills that are ap- familiar topics and plan activities that plied to primarily literature-based mate- demonstrate to students how domain rials. knowledge influences strategy usage and Reading topics should be selected how to think about learning in a variety from content areas pertinent to the cur-of contextual settings that link to stu- riculum. By doing so, we avoid using dents' other subject area classes. contrived or irrelevant materials. The The next step in the instructional plan- goal is to make a direct connection be- ning process is the selection of materials. tween the content areas students are pur-If the topic is plate tectonics in earth sci- suing in other courses and the readingence, the material should come from an class. Failure to make this connectionearth science textbook representative of relegates reading to an insignificant posi- the level students encounter in the;r earth tion. In contrast, the goal should be toscience class. The selection can be the create a reading environment that helpssame or different from the one students students shift their view of reading fromalready use in the regular earth science a restricted perspective to one resem-lass, but the material should be used af- 79 Content Knowledge in Reading: Creating a NewFramework 70

ter the topic has been covered in their tional activities are organized. regular science class. Thereare two ad- The next step is to transform thecon- vantages to using a selection thatstu- tent and process goals into ' series of in- dents have previously encountered. tegratedinstructionalactivities. To First, it provides an opportunityto ap- facilitate student learning, these activities proach a topic from multipleperspec- are divided into three phases: (1) before tives. Students can read, write, and think reading activities, where the emphasis is about the topic from new vantage points. on the evaluation and activation of prior Topics used in thismanner facilitate the knowledge; (2) during reading activities, integration of knowledge. Second, this where the reading teacher modelsor technique allows students to explorehow guides students in the attainment ofthe content influences the processes used to identified goals; and (3) after readingac- comprehend. While content determines tivities, where additional application, process, this approach emphasizes how evaluation, and transfer strategiesare the two are inextricably linked. modeled (see Chapter 6, this volume). In Both content goals and process goals the following paragraphs, each phase is are important. Content goals focus on described in the context ofa lesson on the important information in thetext, plate tectonics. thus helping the reading teacher avoid Before reading In the before reading decontextualizing. Examples of content phase, students engage in reading and goals for a selection on plate tectonics writing activities designed toassess and are (1) understanding what is meant by activate prior knowledge. An example of plate tectonics, (2) understanding vari- such an activity is ACCESS (Peters & ous theories that describe plate tectonics, Hayes, 1989), in which studentsare and (3) understanding the strengthsand asked to supply a variety of information weaknesses of each theory. Note that about key concepts relating toa passage these goals focus on the global level of on plate tectonics (plates and boundaries) learning and emphasize holistic under- and to provide information aboutcon- standing of material. Process goals focns cepts related to the process goals (e.g., on the cognitive operations that underlie theory and evidence). (See Figure 1.) the student's interpretation of the reading Each category at the top assesses differ- materials. They are designed to help ent but related types of knowledge. Col- reading teachers make explicitsome of lectively, they assess each student's the steps students must go throug:tto un- knowledge about, plate tectonics. Conse- derstand content goals. Examples ofquently, the activity is more thana vo- process goals related to the content goals cabulary test of unfamiliar terms; it isan are understanding how to link evidence assessment of students' understanding of to a theory, how to compare various the- the central points of the material. ories, and how to use adjunct aidsto in- A writing assignment alsocan be used terpret theories. Content andprocess to activate prior knowledge. Since plate goals are important because they become tectonics deals with provinga scientific the focal point around which all instruc- theory, students can be asked tov.. ::*e Figure 1 Prior Knowledge Assessment

Words Words that describe Examples of Give a definition How arc the following each term the word of the word words related?

Plates Plates and Boundaries

Transform

Boundaries Transform and Plates

Theory

Evidence Theory and Evidence 72

Figure 2 During Reading Activity Linking Evidence and Theory

A. Claim Magnetic reversals support Plate Tectonic Theory. Reason Result Result Result

1. Molten rocks cool and harden with magnetic fieldslocked. 2. Iron particles in rocks becomea permanent record. 3. Iron particles form series of stri;.;es. 4. Each stripe presents a different period of time. 5. Each stripe can be dated.

Conclusion

B. Claim The ocean floor is spreading. Reason Reason Reason Reason

Evidence

1. Older rocks further from ridge. 2. Plates are separating. 3. New molten rock pushed tthe surface. 4. The age of the rock can be measured.

Conclusion

82 Peters 73 about one of their theories or views sequence, they must formulate a conclu- (e.g., boys are better at sports than girls sion about how well the evidence supports or girls are more intelligent than boys) the theory. Keep in mind that teaching and to provide evidence to support their causal reasoning is modeled because it is theory. Such activities can be the basis an important part of scientific reasoning. for discussion of theory and evidence. The activity is designed to help students For example, is the statement "Girls are make this connection. more intelligent than boys" a theory or a Another example of such a during- belief? What distinguishes the two, and reading guide is seen in Figure 3. The ac- why is it important to differentiate be-tivity that focuses on evaluating theory tvt them? What type of evidence do about plate tectonics is designed to have you need to prove a theory? Finally, why students identify at least four claims that is it important to know terms like theoryhave been made to support the theory, and evidence before reading a selection find evidence from the text that supports on plate tectonics? the theory, identify any weaknesses asso- During reading During reading, con- ciated with the evidence, make a judg- tent processing guides can be used. Their ment as to whether they believe the claim, primary function is to juxtapose contentand provide written justification to sup- with process by providing students with port their judgments. an explicit plan for how to read content This activity guides students through a materials (Peters & Carlsen, 1.39; Peters process fundamental to understanding & Hayes, 1989). Because the guides are how scientists establish support for a the- structured to go from .hose that provide ory. Thus, it provides a balance between assistance to those that expect students to content and process that is fundamental operate at a higher level of independence, to an interactive model of reading. they allow a gradual progression from After reading This balance is further teacher control to independent studentexemplified in three types of after read- control. They provide procedural steps ing activities. The first activity is de- that allow students to better understandsignedtohelp students synthesize the strategies used to generate responsesimportant ideas presented in the selec- and how those strategies vary as purpoFz, tion; the second asks students to evaluate text, and task vary. the utility of the guide and make modifi- The first during reading content proc- cations to correct any of its inadequa- essing guide is shown in Figure 2. Its pur- cies; and the third asks students to pose is to help students understand how to transfer strategies to a new learning situ- causally link evidence to theory. Students ation. An example of an after reading ac- are provided with an explicit plan thattivity is seen in Figure 4. Students are models the steps involved in this process, able to analyze two illustrations from the and are asked to tie together a sequence oftext after comprehending the plate tec- reasons and results that support a claimtonics theory in the during leading made by the theory. Once students havephases. They then interpret the illustra- placed the evidence in its proper causa'tions, determine how they are similar 83 Content Knowledge in Reading: Creating a New Framework Figure 3 During Reading Activity Evaluating Theory Theory At one time a supercontinent existed; but because the land was divided into plates, it began to move. As the plates separated,new continents were formed.

Claims made to Evidence used to Weakness Do you believe Provide justification to support the theory support the theory of the evidence the claim? support your judgment 1.

2.

3.

4.

84 Figure 4 After Reading Activity Evaluating Graphic Data

Text What claim is made How are the illus- How are the illus- What conclusions can be reached illustrations in the illustration? trations similar? trations different? about the theory of plate tectonics?

A

B

85 76

and different, and reach a conclusion The purpose is to help students iden- about whether the data support the the- tify ways to prepare to read another ory of plate tectonics. To do so they must chapter. This is important because stu- evaluate the extent to which the two illus- dents are doing more than completinga trations support the theory, combining guide; they are thinking about the reading and writing processes in a man- process used to attain their goals. They ner consistent with interactive .iews of must identify the circumstances under r..ading. which they would use the strategies mod- A second after reading activity is a eled in the guides, make a judgment modification of the content processing about their utility, and explain how they guides used in both the during and after might be modified. In other words, stu- phases of reading, in which students con- dents come to understand when, why, sider one basic question: "How useful and how they would apply these strate- are activities in helping students attain gies in another context. their purpose?" With respect to plate tec- tonics the question would be "How useful 3. Build an integrated strategic knowl- was the causal sequencing activity in edge base by exploring topics that allow helping you understand the theory of systematic transfer across and within the plate tectonics?" In answering this ques- various disciplines of the curriculum. tion, students must identify why the The context in which strategies are guide worked or why it was inappro- taught is crucial. The goal is for readers priate. For example, if students did not to use their cognitive resources in a man- find the content processing guide help- ner that demonstrates purpose and in- ful, they would propose ways to correct tention (Garner, 1987). To build this into it. By focusing on why they used a prac- the reeding curriculum, teachers must do tical guide and whether it was useful in more than merely teach skills-in-isola- attaining their goals, students con- tion or strategic knowledge. They must sciously monitor, regulate, and modify teach students totransfer strategic their strategies. knowledge to new learning situations A third after reading activity helps across a variety of disciplines. This transfer the strategies used with the plate means teaching students that as subject tectonic materials to another earth sci- matter changes, so must strategy selec- ence chapter. Students begin by identify- tion. Therefore, a variety of topics and ing the goals for reading; then they text structures must be used to show stu- identify important information in the ma- dents how to use strategies flexibly (Chi, terial that meets their goals (e.g., Does it 1987). explain a theory? Does it describe how To help illustrate that strategies are not an object functions?). Next, they deter- generic and must be adapted as the con- mine whether the material is organized tent area changes, consider the differ- as it was in previous selections. Finally, ences that exist between reading a they identify strategies they woulduse to chapter on plate tectonics and reading read new materials. the story To Build a Fire (London, 86 Peters 77 1980). While causal reasoning strategies ores and evidence are tied together by are required to-comprehend both texts, causal links; in literature, causal reason- there is a big difference between using ing transforms the plot into a story. causal reasoning in the context of a short Consequently,a differentset of story and using it in an earth science se- r rocessing goals is necessary for To lection. For one thing, a story has a plot Build a Fire. Examples of such goals are structure that requires the reader to caus- understanding how character traits are ally link a problem, a conflict, and a res- causally linked to the though; feelings, olution to understand the thematic focus and actions, and understanding that iden- (Brooks, 1984; Leitch, 1986). it requires tifying character traits is a good strategy knowledge about story schemas, story for identifying the theme of a story. To grammars, and human actions (Mandler, transfer a strategy like causal reasoning 1984; Voss & Bisanz, 1985). This liter- across disciplines, students need to be ary knowledge is different from scieA- shown how to adjust and adapt strategies tific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is from one reading selection to another. a logical and rational approach to ex- plaining the natural world, with the ex- Let's examine how this would be done planation based on a coordination of in a middle sshool program. The transfer theories and evidence that provides acan be handled in two ways: one is framework for the organization and within the same discipline and the other interpretation of natural phenomena is across disciplines. Bo' occur in the (Himsworth, 1986; Kuhn, Amsel, & after reading phase, when students en- O'Loughlin, 1988). gage in synthesizing the ideas in the se- To further illustrate the point, com- lection, evaluating the effectiveness of pare the content goals developed in the the content processing modify- plate tectonics activities with the content ing the guides if necessary, «nd transfer- goals developed for To Build a Fire. In ring the strategy In a new learning the earth science selection, the contentsituation. The first approach is to focus goals focus on understanding theory and on transferring strategies to new material evidence in the context of plate tectonics. in the same field (perhaps the next chap- To understand To Build a Fire, readers ter in the same book, as was described in must use a narrative structure to interpret the plate tectonics after reading phase). human actions; for instance, to under-In the second approach, students are stand how one's feelings can prevent aguided through a series of questions that person from making i:tional judgment,. direct their attention toward the similari- In the plate tectonics selection, causalties and differences between how they reasoning was framed by theories andapproached reading the plate tectonics evidence. But stories are not organized material and how they read a story. Spe- in this manner. As literary theorists pointcifically, they would be asked: out, a story is transformed by causally linking the events to its plot structure o How are tht two selections orga- (Segre, 1988). In science, therefore, the- nized differently?

Content Knowledge8' in Reading: Creating a New Framework 78

Why are they organized differ- would need to consider whether causal ently? reasoning will be the same in a historical What do these differences suggest context as in a scientific or literary con- about how one reads these selec- text, whether they have to modify their tions? reading strategies to accommodate the How are the processing guides or-differences imposed by domain knowl- edge, and whether the information in a ganized differently? historical ccntext affects meaning. The Why are the processing guides or- intent is to get students to understand that ganized differently? there is a relationship among the content, What do the differences suggestthe structure of the text, and the strate- about how you read the two selec- gies used to read it. This is the essence of tions? becoming a strategic reader. Are the selections similar in any Activities like these create bridges that way? lead to an integrated knowledge base. A What accounts for the similarity? key element is traversing the terrain, not merely covering topics but spending time The emphasis is on understanding the integrating the information through a differences and similarities in strategy combination of reading and writing ac- selection and usage so that students will tivities that focus on topics from a vari- realize that their strategy must change ety of perspectives. when content changes. 4. Base instruction on a holistic inter- This activity could be taken one step pretation of materials that require stu- further by asking students to think about dents to synthesize information rather how they would = the story and plate than concentrate on discrete bits of infor- tectonic selections to help them develop mation. Instruction should focus on a a plan fr..,r reading a history chapter on more global level of learning and move the causes of the American Civil War. away from activities that tend to trivial- First, before students even looked at the ize information or that are overly ana- chapter, they would be asked to think lytic in nature. The primary focus is to about the historical context and circum- move toward a perspective similar to the stances that influence historical events one described in the plate tectonic activi- and to compare these with the earth sci- ties where major instructional decisions ence and story selections. Second, stu- were influenced by the extent to which &nts would previewthechapter, they reflected the content and process developing content and process goak. goals. For example, the plate tectonics based on what they believed to be the activities tried to get students to focus on central purposes of the chapter. Third, the central purpose by having them think they would develop a plan for reading the about the major theories presented and chapter, predicting the types of knowl- the evidence associated with each. They edge and strategies they would need in did not deal with discrete components of order to comprehend the passage. They the theories. The reading teacher cannot

Peters 88 79 assume that a particular line of question- program to focusing on learning across ing will allow students to pull the infor- the curriculum, with equal emphasis on mation together. Instruction must be domain knowledge and strategies. This orchestrated carefully through a series of chapter provides a rationale for achiev- activities that have a holistic focus. ing a balance between content and strate- When left to chance, most students getgies. Subsequent chapters suggest that only fragmented bits of information as the conceptual frame for middle schoc, opposed to significant information. The reading also should include balance : rule of thumb should be that information consideration of cognition, metacogni- should not be considered significant un- tion, and affective dimensions of read- less it contributes to students' under-jug, and attention to writing as well as standing of the ,..untent and process reading. goals. 5. Provide explicit instruction that References Anderson, Richard C., Hiebert, Elfrieda H., identifies the essential steps necessary Scott, Judith A., & Wilkinson, Ian A. (1985). for completion. Teachers cannot assume Becoming a nation of readers: The report of that traditional question asking and dis- the Commission on Reading. Washington, cussion help students understand com- DC: National Institute of Education. Anderson, Thomas H., & Armbruster, Bonnie plex mental operations. As the during B. (1984). Content area textbooks. In and after reading activities on plate tec- Richard C. Anderson, Jean Osborn, & Rc.)- tonics illustrates, teachers must guide stu- bert Tierney (Eds.), Learning to read in American schools: Basal readers and content dents through the steps that texts. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. accomplished readers go through when Backler, Allen, & Stoltman, Joseph. (1988). answering certain questions. Guiding Global geography. Bloomington, IN: Agency for Instructional Technology. students is an extremely important part Beyer, Barry K. (1988). Developing a thinking of showing students how to transfer strat- skills program. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. egies to other content areas. In the past, Beyer, Barry K. (1987). Practical strategic for reading teachers assumed that if students the teaching of thinking. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. completed skills worksheets they would Bloom, Allan. (1987). The closing of :he Ameri- be good readers. Current research, how- can mind. New York: Simon & Schuster. ever, demonstrates that direct, explicit Britton, Bruce K., & Black, John B. (1985). Un- derstanding expository text: A theoretical and instruction is essential if students are to practical handbook for analyzing explanatory improve comprehension performance. text. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Brooks, Peter. (1984). Reading for the plot: De- sign and intention i.narrative. New York: Summary Knopf. Reading has undergone a significant Chance, Paul. (1986). Thinking in the class- transformation, moving away from a room: A survey of programs. New York: Teachers College Press. static, isolated skills orientation to an in- Chi, Michelene T.H. (1987). Representing teractive orientation. Consistent with this knowledge and metaknowledge: Implications changing perspective, middle school for interpreting metamemory research. In 1.2ading programs must shift from being Franz E. Weinert & Rainer H. Klmve (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understand- extensions of the language arts/English ing. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. ,.9 Content Knowledge in Reauing: Creating a New Framework 80

Garner, Ruth. (1987). Metacognition and read- Peters, Charles W.., & Hayes, Bernard. (1989). ing comprehension. Norwood, NJ: Ab lcx. The role of reading instruction in social stud- Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. (1899, 1956). ies classrooms. In Diane Lapp, James Flood, The philosophy of history. New York: Dover. & Nancy Farnan (Eds.), Content area read- Himsworth, Harold. (1986`. Scientific knowl- ing and learning: Instructional strategies. edge and philosophic thought. Baltimore, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Rabinowitz, Mitchell, & Glaser, Robert. (1985). Hirscl E.D., Jr. (1987). Ciu'airal literacy. What Cognitive structure and process in highly every American needs to know. Boston, MA. competent performance. In Frances D. Haro- Houghton Mifflin. witz & Marion O'Brien (Eds.), The gifted and Katz, Marilyn. (1982). Critical literacy: A con- talented. Developmental perspectives. Wash- ception of ducation as a moral right and so- ington, DC: American Psychological Associ- cial ideal. The public school monopoly. ation. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger. Ravitch, Diane, & Finn, Chester E. (1987). Kuhn, Deanna, Amsel, Eric, & O'Loughlin, What do our 17- year -olds know? A report on Michael. (1988). The development of scien- the first national assessment of history and tificthinking skills.San Dieg, CA: literature. New York: Harper & Row. Academic. Segre, Cesare. (1988). Introduction to the analy- Leitch, Thomas M. (1986). What stories are. sis of the literary text. Bloomington, IN. Indi- Narrative theory a' d interpretation. Univer- ana University Press. sity Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Sewall, Gilbert T. (1987). American history text- Press. books: An assessment of quality. New York: London, Jack. (1980). To build I_ fire. Mankato, New York Educational Excellence Network, MN: Creative Education. Columbia University. Mandler, Jean Matter. (!984). Stories, scripts, Sew^.11, Gilbert T. (1988). American history text- and scenes: Aspects of schema theory. Hills- books. Where do we go from here? Phi Delta dale, NJ: Erlbaum. Kappan, 69(8), 552-558. NationalCommissiononExcellencein Spiro, Rand J., Vispoel, Walter P., Schmitz, Ala Luucation. (1983). A nation at risk: The im- S., & Boerger, A.E. (1987). Knowledge ac- perative for educational reform. Washingto. quisition for application. Cognitive flexibility DC: National Commission on Excellence in and transfer in complex content domains. In Education. Bruce K. Button & Shawn M. Glynn (Eds.), Otto, Wayne, & White, Sandra. (1982). Reading Executive control and processes in reading. expository material. New York: Academic. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Paris, Scott, Lipson, Marjorie, & Wixson, Voss, James F. (1986) Social studies. In Ronna Karen K. (1983). Becoming a strategic Dillon & Robert J. Sternberg (Eds.), Cogni- reader. Contemporary Educational Psychol- tion and instruction. New York: Academic. ogy, 8. Voss, James F., & Bisaiiz. Gay L. (1985). Peters, Charles W. (1984). An analysis of content Knowledge and the processing of narrative reading strategies: Interactive or static? Pa- and expository texts. In Bruce K. Britton & per presented at the National Reading Confer- John B. Black (Eds.), Understanding exposi- ence, St. Petersburg, FL. tory text: A theoretical and practical hand- Peters, Charles W. (1982). The content process book for anulyzingexplanatorytext. model: A new approach for conceptualizing Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. content reading. In Judythe Patberg (Ed.), White, Hayden. (1973). Metakstoty. The histor- Reading in the content area: Application of a ic..1 imagination in nineteenth century Eu- concept. Toledo, OH: University of Toledo. rope. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Peters, Charles W., & Carlsen, Marilyn. (1989). University Press. Using a 'ite..ary framework to teach mys- Wixson, Karen K., & Peters, Charles W. (1984). teries. In r:. Denise Muth (Ed.), Children's Reading redefined. A Michigan Reading As- comprehension of text. Research into prac- sociation position paper. Michigan Reading tice. Newark, DE: International Reading Journal, 17, 4-7. Association.

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....-ZIIIMi NM& Cofive and Metacognitive Goals in Reading and Writing

Beth Ann Herrmann

MORE THAN TWO DEC- reading are contrasted to il- ades of research has shown lustrate how much has been that readingis a complexp .. learnedaboutreadingin process involving much more than mas- the past 20 years. tery and application of isolated skills. Expert readers are metacognitive, that Traditional Views of Reading is, they are aware of and in control of the Traditionally, reading has been de- ognitive reasoning processes associated scribed as a linear, procedural, routin- with constructing meaning from text. ized activity. Expert readers have been This chapter focuses on the cognitive viewed as those who can master a dis- reasoning processes associated with ef- crete set of competencies or skills and, fective reading and provides a general with little effort, automatically apply plan for organizing a middle school them when reading. reading curriculum that allows students Traditional views of reading assume to learn how to be in metacognitive con- that skills to be mastered range from the trol of their reading while maintaining an smallest to the largest components of emphasis on content, as specified in the reading. FM' example, to become effi- previous chapter. cient readers, students must first learn the alphabet letters and their associated Background sounds, followed by learning how to Today, we know more than ever before blend sounds into syllables, words, about the reading process. In this sec- phrases, and sentences. "Real" reading tion, traditional and current views of results from the mastery of these sep-

81 91 82

arate parts. Consequently, the typical hension (e.g., an unknown word) is en- reading curriculum has focused on iso- countered, expert readers solve the lated reading skills, such as letter/sound problem by consciously selecting and associations, structural analysis skills, applying "fix it" strategies to "repair" and a series of comprehension skills. As comprehension blockages. After read- a result, reading instruction emphasis ing, expert readers reason about the sig- has been on skill-and-drill practice nificance of what was read and about such as worksheetsgeared toward conclusions to draw and judgments to helping students master skills. Little make about the content. In short, expert emphasis has been placed on the cogai- readers are metacognitive (Baker & tive reasoning processes associated with Brown, 1984; Barr et al., 1987; Flavell, constructing meaning from written text. 1981). Consider the following example. Sup- Current Views of Reading pose two middle school students, one In the past 20 years, research on the who is in metacognitive control of her strategic nature of reading and research reading and another who is not, are as- on metacognition have established that signed to read a short story in their liter- real reading does not occur in a linear, ature book. The student who is not in routinized fashion, and involves much metacognitive control of her reading ap- more than the application of isolated proaches the text in a nonstrategic, me- skills. Instead, expert readers engage chanical manner. For example, she sets in constructive thinking; they begin by `getting done" as her goal for reading constructing an interpretation of written and immediately begins reading with lit- text (Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1983; tle thought given to what the story is Pressley et al., 1985). about. During reading she pays too Current views of reading reflect that much attention to each word encoun- expert readers are aware of and in con- tered, ignoring the overall message. She trol of cognitive reading processes. As in makes little effort to systematically mon- Chapter 5 (this volume), a before, dur- itor comprehension, and on several occa- ing, and after reading structure can be sions she skips over difficult words she used when analyzing the reasoning proc- cannot pronouncr and continues on with- esses used by readers. For example, be- out returning to figure out the unknown fore reading, expert readers consciously words. Frequently, she be..umes con- engage in strategic reasoning when they fused, but she keeps on reading because access appropriate background knowl- the goal is to get done. At the end of the edge to make initial predictions about the story, she closes her book, breathes a text meaning. During reading they con- huge sigh of relief, and mutters some- sciously construct meaning by combin- thing like "Well, I don't know what it ing prior knowledge with new text says, but I got it done." information, monitoring comprehension In contrast, the student who is in meta- and modifying initial predictions when cognitive control of her reading ap- necessary. When an obstacle to compre- proaches the text in a strategic manner.

Herrmann 82 8 3

4

Expert readers approach text with the goal of constructing meaning rather.than "getting done."

For example, her goal is to constructtion. After rect,;ing, she reasons about meaning from the text. Before reading, the significance of the text information she surveys the text to get a general idea by drawing conclusions about the au- of information contained in :ach subsec- thor's message. tion. At the same t;nte, she thinks about Unfortunately, many middle school what she knows at._ at the topic and uses students do not learn how to be in meta- that knowledgt,, as well as headings,cognitive control of their reading be- subheadings, and graphic aids, tu make cause their instruction focuses primarily initial predictions about the text mean-on isolated reading skills. For example, ing. During reading she consciouslymany students enrolled in developmental evaluates how closely the text informa-reading classes spend much of their time tion matches her initial predictions by completing workbook pages designed to combining her prior knowledge withhelp them master individual skills. For new text information. When an unknown the most part, the teacher plays an inci- word disrupts the meaning-getting proc- dental role, ensuring completion of as- ess, she slows down and uses fix-it strat- signments. Little or no instructional time egies to figure out how to pronounce the is devoted to helping students become word. Whenever the author's messageaware of and assume control of the rea- does no match her initial predictions,soning processes that could help them she stops to modify or change the predic- read more effectively. 9 Cognitive and Metacognitive Goals in Reading and Writing 84 Summary works. First, students must understand Reading is no longer thought of as a that the basic function of reading is com- linear activity requiring the mindless ap- munication and that effective reading is a plication of a set of isolated skills. Today, meaning-getting, sense-making, prob- reading is defined as purposeful con- lem-solving process requiring effort, en- struction of an interpretation of written thusiasm, perseverance, thinking, and text. strategic reasoning. Such conceptual un- Despite our changing views of reading derstandings form the basis of compre- and recent research findings, there have hension. been few changes in reading instruction Second, students must understand the practice (Allington, this volume; Press- role of prior knowledge in effective read- ley et al., 1989). For example, in many ing, how to evaluate their prior knowl- middle school developmental reading edge, and the extent to which they use classrooms, little or no emphasis is their prior knowledge when reading. For placed on cognitive or metacognitive example, a student assigned to read a reasoning processes. If students are to chapter on the United States Constitution learn how to be in metacognitive control must first evaluate what is known about of their reading, instruction must focus the Constitution and how to use this more on cognitive reasoning processes knowledge when reading to better com- while also striking the balance between prehend the text message. process and content that Peters describes Third, students must understand their (Chapter 5, this volume). Such instruc- general thinking ability when it comes to tion must be well grounded in a reading completing reading tasks. For example, curriculum that emphasizes cognitive a student assigned to read the Constitu- and metacognitive aspects of reading. tion chapter must maintain attention on the reading task, plan before acting, and Cognitive and Metecognitive relate the task to previous reading en- Elements of Reading counters about similar topics. A reading curriculum that focuses on Controlling the reading process. A cognitive and metacognitive aspects of major portion of the middle school read- reading helps students understand the ing curriculum should focus on helping reading process and control cognitive students develop metacognitive control reasoning processes associated with ef- of the cognitive reasoning processes as- fective reading and studying. These as- sociated with effective reading. Three pects of the reading curriculum are types of cognitive reading strategies described in the following sections. should be taught. First, before-reading strategies are Reading used to activate prior knowledge, to set Understanding the reading process.A goals for reading, and to make initial portion of the middle school reading cur- predictions about the text meaning. For riculum should focus on helping students example, a student assigned to read a understand how the reading process chapter on the United States Constitution

Herrmann 94 85 activates the appropriate background tion is generated. In either case, meaning knowledge by thinking about what is al- is restored and the meaning-getting proc- ready known about the topic. He or she ess resumes. sets goals for what is to be learned and Fix-it strategies are used when an un- makes initial predictions about the text's known word or a difficult segment of a meaning by examining the vocabulary, sentence is encountered and the author's sentence structure, chapter length, sub- message is temporarily obscured. For sections, graphic aids, sequence of in- example, suppose that when reading the formation, and complex associations Constitution chapter the student comes embedded in the text. across the word proclamation and is un- Second, during-reading strategies areable to pronounce it. A combination of used to construct an interpretation of the word identification strategies is used to author's message. Two types of during- figure out how to pronounce the word. reading strategies can be taught. Moni- One type of word identification strategy toring strategies are used to check the that may be used is a context clue strat- accuracy of previously made predictions egy. Using what is already known about and to keep track of newly acquired in-the topic, the student figures out inter- formation. For example, a student read- relationships between text clues (defini- ing the Constitution chapter activelytions,experienceclues,sentence evaluates how well the text information structure clues, mood clues) and key matches initial predictions made aboutconcepts presented in the text. If such the author's message. If the text infor- information is sufficient, the student mation matches the predictions, themakes a reasonable guess at the :tord. If, author's message makes sense and the however, sufficient clues are not in- meaning-gettingprocesscontinues. cluded in the text, another kind of word Newly acquired information about the identification strategystructural analy- Constitution is temporarily stored in the sismay be tried to break the unknown student's short term memory. Since theword apart by its structural units (pre- student's short term memory can holdfixes, root word, suffixes, inflectional only a small amount of information, new endings). While doing this, the student chunks of information are transferred by combines prior knowledge with useful connecting them to existing chunks of in- context clues. A second guess is made at formation stored in the student's long the word. If the structural analysis clues term memory. Whenever text informa- are not sufficient, the student uses a third tion does not match initial predictions type of word identification strategy about the author's message, the studentII!lonicsto identify and blend known slows down and pays closer attention toletter/sound associations located at the the text information. A conscious effortbeginning, middle, or end of the word. is made to connect prior knowledge Although a reader may be able to pro- aboutthe Constitution with the text in-nounce all the words contained in the formation. At this point, either the initialwritten text, middle school readers fre- prediction is modified or a new predic-quently find their reading disrupted be- u5 Cognitive and Metacognitive Goals in Reading and Writing cause of difficult associations at the control of the meaning-getting process. paragraph level (analogies, complex Students in control of this process are comparisons, figurative language, am- more likely to be successful than stu- biguous statements, causal relations, dif- dents who do not know how to use these ficult sequence of events, anaphora). strategies. When this happens, several comprehen- sion fix-it strategies are used to restore Studying meaning. For example, suppose the stu- Understanding and controlling the dent reading the Constitution chapter is studying process.A portion of the mid- core-osed by an implied cause and effect dle school reading curriculum should fo- re.ationship contained in the text. As cus on helping students study more soon as the confusion occurs, the student effectively. Understanding the cognitive stops and pays closer attention to causal reasoning processes associated with ef- clues (e.g., "because") and to the interre- fective studying and assuming meta- lationships between information pro- cognitive control of these processes are vided before and after the clues. Using important goals. Three study strategies what is already known about the topic, should be taught: notetaking, locating, the student makes an inference about the and remembering. causal relationship and tests the infer- First, notetaking strategies are used to ence against the predictions previously record and organize useful notes for the made about the author's message. If the purpose of sorting out complex informa- inference makes sense, the meaning- tion and/or combining material from getting process resumes. If it does not several sources so the information can be make sense, the student consults a ref- remembered. For example, to organize erence source or outside authority. important facts about the Constitution, Finally, after-reading strategies are the student in the example uses back- used to organize and restructure the au- ground knowledge to identify and con- thor's message and/or to make judgments dense relevant information into note about the author's credentials, use of form and to organize these notes into a facts, and potential bias or intention series of major headings with more de- (propaganda), as well as the validity of tailed subheadings. the message. Such postreading reflection Second, locating strategies are used to requires strategic reasoning about text in- identify specific information in different formation relative to what is already types of books. For example, after read- known about the topic. ing the Constitution chapter, the student In sum, teaching students how to use locates and verifies facts in NI encyclo- before-reading, during-reading, and af- pedia about when and where the Consti- ter-reading strategies helps them become tution was written by using duet reading aware of and understand the cognitive rates. First, a skimming rate is used to reasoning processes associated with ef- obtain the gist of the author's message in fective reading and, through this aware- the encyclopedia selection. After learn- ness and understanding, to assume ing that the encyclopedia selection has to

Herrmann 96 87 do with the development of the Constitu- tegic process requiring constructive tion, a scanning pace is used to find spe- thinking that begins with a desire to con- cific information. Finally, after finding vey a meaningful message (Flower & the section that deals with when andHayes, 1981; Hayes & Flower, 1980; where the Constitution was developed, a Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1986a, 1986b). careful reading rate is used to understand Just as expert readers are in metacogni- the information. tive control of their reading comprehen- Third, remembering strategies are sion, expert writers are in metacognitive used to integrate new concepts into exist- control of their writing. ing schemata. For example, to remember A writing curriculum should empha- facts about the Constitution, the student size the cognitive and metacognitive combines background knowledge with az.pects of writing, including planned new text information to construct inter- learning experiences that help students relationships between new and oldunderstand the writing process and concepts. understand and control the cognitive Teaching students how to use notetak- reasoning processes associated with ing strategies, locating strategies, and re- effective writing. Descriptions of aspects membering strategies helps students of the writing process follow. study more effectively because they un- derstand how to obtain and rememberUnderstanding the Riling Process important information. Students who un- A portion of the writing curriculum derstand and control the cognitive rea-should focus on helping students under- soning processes associated with thesestand how the writing process works. strategies are more effective learnersFirst, students must understand that the than those who do not know how to use basic function of writing is to convey a these strategies. message and that effective writing, like effective reading, is a constructive, prob- Summary of the Reading Curriculum lem-solving process requiring effort, en- Effective middle school reading in-thusiasm, perseverance, thinking, and struction puts students in metacognitive strategic reasoning ability. Second, stu- control of their reading. Such instruction dents must understand the role of prior is grounded in a reading curriculum that knowledge in effective writing and how includes planned learning experiencesto evaluate their prior t nowledge when that help students understand and control writing. For example, students must both the reading process and studying. Inlearn how to use prior knowledge to se- the next section, similar curricular ele- lect relevant pieces of information to in- ments are described as they relate to theclude in written text. Finally, students teaching of writing. must understand their general thinking ability when it comes to completing writ- Cognitive and Metacognitive ing tasks. For example, students must Elements of Writing learn how to apply:rategic approaches Like reading, writing is Pn active, stra- to writing tasks, check writing perform- 97 Cognitive and Metacognitive Goals in Reading and Writing 88

ance, maintain attention on writing the text to be written and the amount and tasks, plan before acting, and relate form of information retrieved from long current writing situations to previous term memory. In the case of the student writing encounters. Such conceptual in our example, the goal for writing the understandings serve as a foundation for summary is to organize and learn factual effective writing. ;nformation about the Constitution. Translating strategies are used to Controlling the Writing Process translate meaning into a linear piece of A major portion of the middle school written text that contains organized, writing curriculum should focus on help meaningful ideas. Two types of translat- ing students control the cognitive reason- ing strategies are used. The first is used ing processes associated with effective to organize important ideas about the writing. Three types of cognitive writing topic. Ideas are organized by thinking strategies should be taught. planning, about higher-order relationships among translating, and reviewing. them. For example, the student writing Planning strategies are used before the chapter summary interconnects ideas writing to activate prior knowledge about the Constitution by creating sen- about the topic, to identify the intended tences equivalent in meaning, creating audience, and to set goals for writing. cause and effect relationships, sequenc- Three kinds of planning strategies are ing information, and creating anaphoric used. The first type is used to retrieve relationships. A second type of strategy from long term memory any relevant in- is used to manipulate all the special de- formation about the topic. For example, mands of written English to figure out if the students assigned to read the Con- the best way to express, in visible lan- stitution chapter also are assigned to guage, interconnections between impor- write a summary of the chapter, they re- tant ideas. trieve from long term memory relevant Reviewing strategies are used to de- information about the Constitution. How termine the extent to which the written well organized and developed the re- message makes sense. Two types of trieved information is depends on how reviewing strategies are used. The first is much knowledge students have stored in used to determine whether goals have long term memory and how the knowl- been met fcs.r writing the text. For exam- edge is organized. A second strategy is ple, the student in our example analyzes used to identify the intended audience. the written draft of the chapter summary For the student in our Constitution exam- to determine whether important facts are ple, the intended audience is the teacher, well organized. A second type of strat- who probably has a lot of background egy is used to systematically revise the knowledge about the Constitution. A message and goals as a means of further third strategy is used to set goals for translating the ideas contained in the writing. Goal -setting involves deciding written text. For example, if the student on the best way to approach the task by decides that some of the facts are not thinking about the level of difficulty of well organized, those statements are re-

Herrmann

?el 89 written to better convey the message. exercises, and literature selections are most appropriate for helping students Summary of the Writing Curriculum practice using newly learned reading The middle school writing curriculumstrategies. is similar to the reading curriculum be- In addition to modifying your curricu- cause it includes planned learning expe- lum, you will need to incorporate two riences that help students understand thetypes of instruction into your daily rou- writing process and understand the cog- tine. The first is indirect instruction that nitive reasoning processes associatedemphasizes activities. During indirect with effective writing. Such a curriculum instruction, students interact with the ac- enables teachers to put students in meta- tivities. In contrast, direct instruction re- cognitive control of their writing. Devel- quires teacher explanations and mental opingcognitiveand metacognitive modeling (Duffy, Roehler, & Herrmann, elements of writing aids in developing 1988). During direct instruction, the the same elements of reading. In the next teacher explains what is to be learned, section, specific suggestions are made why what is learned is useful, and how to for how to teach students to be in meta- learn it, and verbalizes cognitive reason- cognitive control of their reading. ing processes. Materials may be used, but the teacher plays a dominant role in Metacognitive Control of Reading giving information and shaping students' Regardless of what kind of middle interpretations of the information. school teacher you are, you have a re- Both direct and indirect instruction are sponsibility to teach your students how to necessary for teaching students how to be in metacognitive control of their read-be in metacognitive control of their read- ing. How much daily instructional time ing. The following sections focus on how you spend on this task depends on your to incorporate both types of instruction content =a. into a regular instructional routine. Helping students learn how to be more metacognitive begins with modifying teaching the Reading Process your curriculum to include planned ex- All middle school teachers can use periences that emphasize cognitive andboth indirect and direct instruction to metacognitive aspects of reading. For ex- help students understand the reading ample, if you are a developmental read- process. First, use direct instruction to ing teacher, decide which skills can be show students how the reading process taught as cognitive reading strategies works and indirect instruction to provide (context clues, structural analysis) and interesting reading experiences that re- which skills should be taught as memo- flect the essential message-sending and rized routines or procedures (letter message-getting concept of reading. For sounds, sight vocabulary). If you are a example, explain that reading is a com- content area teacher employing exposi- plex, problem-solving process that re- tory text, decide which checkup exer- quires effort, enthusiasm, and strategic cises, enrichment activities, grammar reasoning, and show the students how

Cognitive and MetacognitigPoals in Reading and Writing 90 you construct an interpretation of written content area teachers also must help by text. Then provide reading er.:.ounters emphasizing effective reading daily and that highlight the fact that text is pro- by spending a portion of instructional duced by a writer who has a message to time weekly on helping students learn convey and that reading involves con- how to strategically read and understand structing an interpretation of the writer's content area materials. message. Before-reading strategies. Develop- Second, use indirect instruction to mental reading teachers should use a teach students how to evaluate their modified think aloud technique to show worldly knowledge. For example, create students how to prepare to read text ma- a risk-free environment (small group in- terial. First, using a selection from a structional situations) in which students textbook, verbalize what you know about feel comfortable discussing the exten- the topic to show students how to activate siveness of their experiences with and appropriate background knowledge. Sec- prior knowledge about various topics, ond, talk about vocabulary, sentence how well organized their knowledge is, structure, chapter length, subsections, and if (or how) they use their prior graphic aids, sequence, and complex as- knowledge when reading. Help students sociations embedded in the text to show expand their worldly knowledge by pro- students how to set goals for reading and viding a variety of hands-on experiences how to make reasonable predictions with new topics (field trips, sharing ses- about the author's message. Note how sions, guest speakers). the following developmental reading Finally, use both types of instruction to teacher shows her students how to use teach students how to evaluate their abil- before-reading strategies. ity to use general thinking strategies. For Teacher:I'm going to use your civics example, provide small group activities book today to show you how during which students share various as- to prepare to read text mate- pects of their general approach to read- rial. Some of you jump right ing tasks. Then explain the various into reading when you're approaches that expert readers take to given an assignment, and complete reading tasks. Explain verbally there are some things you to students the invisible thinking that oc- should do before you read curs when one looks for strategic ap- that will help you better un- proaches to reading tasks. derstand the author's mes- sage. Watch what I do to get kaching Metacognitive Control ready to read the first part of of Cognitive Reasoning Strategies this chapter called "Eco- Developmental reading teachers and nomics and Economic Sys- English teachers should assume major tems:' The first section title roles in teaching students when and how is What Is Economics? I al- to use the cognitive reasoning processes ready know that economics associated with effective reading. Other has to do with money and

Herrmann 10 0 91 that it's important to our If you are a content area teacher, use a country, so Fm guessing that combination of direct and indirect in- the author is going to givestruction to help students become more me some general informa-proficient at using before-reading strate- tion about economics. Theregies. Use direct instruction to show stu- are five subsections here, dents how to use these strategies before though, and all of them have reading literature selections or textbook to do with an economic sys- materials and use indirect instruction to tem. That makes me thinkprovide ample opportunities for students that the author is going to fo- to practice using these strategies in small cus on specific intbn-nation group instructional situations. about economic systems. During-reading strategies. Develop-

Thachers can work with students to help them develop effective reading strategies.

1 0.1 Cognitive and Metacognitive Goals in Reading and Writing 92 mental reading teachers also shoulduse a fix-it strategies when a comprehension modified think aloud technique to show breakdown occurs (Duffy et al., 1986, students how to use monitoring and fix-it 1987). First, introduce lessons by mak- strategies. Using a selection froma text- ing explicit statements about the strategy book, explain to students howyou moni- to be learned, why it is important, and tor your comprehension when reading. when it is useful. Note how the teacher Note how the English teacher in the in the following passage introducesa following excerpt models the cognitive context clue lesson. reasoning processes asscciated with Teacher:Now rm going to teach you comprehension monitoring. how to use a strategy for fig- Teacher:I have your literature book uring out words you don't here and rm going to use it know how to pronounce. to show you how to keep This strategy is important track of your comprehension because some words are cru- when you read selections cial to understanding the au- from this book. I'll talk to thor's message, and if you show you what is going on in can't figure them out, you my mind as I read part of will have trouble under- this story called "The An- standing. chor Man:' I've already sur- veyed the story and I predict Second, use mental modeling to show that it will be about a swim students how to use the cognitiverea- team or swim meet because soning processes associated with the of the pictures here. rmgo- strategy. Talk to make invisible mental ing to stop after each page processes visible, as shown in the fol- and see if the information lowing excerpt. matches my prediction. (The Teacher:Watch me use our context teacher reads the first page clue strategy. r:n going to aloud and stops.) The author pretend that I don't know this is introducing the main char- word, cannonading. Watch acters on this first page, and what I do to figure it out. both boys are swimmers (Reading) He took the medi- who are trying out for their cine ball from Stan, reared school swim team. So far, back, and sent it can...can that matches my initial pre- ...blank at me. My an, diction so I'll read on tosee went up, the mass of the ball if the author mentions any- smacked into them, and thing about a swim meet. I went over backwards. Hmmm. I can't pronounce Developmentalreadingteachers that word and I'm confused. should use three elements of direct in- There must be some clues struction to show students how touse here to help me. I know what

Herrmann 102 93

a medicine ball is. It's heavy Teacher: Well, I did try to pronounce and some people use one it, but I did something else. to exercise. Stan must have What did I look for in the thrown it at the other boy, story? because he said it hit him in Student:Clues. the arms. Let me think about Teacher: That's right. I was looking that as I reread the sentence. for clues to help me figure (Reading)...sentitcan out that word. I did some- ...cannon. Hmmm. A can- thing else, too. What was it? non ball is heavy and it does lots of damage to things it Student: (no response) hits. That's a good clue. Teacher:Let me help you. After I (Reading)... sent it cannon found some clues in the "add" ...ing, cannon ..."aid" story, I thought about what I ...ing. I don't know which already knew to help me fig- way to pronounce it, but I ure out what the clues had to think I know what it means. do with what was going on The bail was heavy and it in the story. Watch me use was thrown hardlike a can- our strategy again. nonball is shot out of a can- non. Stan was lucky he If you are a content area teacher, your wasn't hurt. Let's check theprimary responsibility is to provide am- glossary now to see if I'mple opportunities for students to practice right. usingfix-it strategies in a variety of read- ing materials. For example, if you are an Finally, shape the information by ask-English teacher, help students use the ing students to explain or show you howcontext clue strategy as they read litera- to use the strategy and, on the basis ofture selections and periodically ask stu- the students' responses, provide reex-dents to explain how they used the planation, remodeling, analogies, orstrategy. A portion of your instructional other elaborations. Note how the teachertime every day should be spent showing in the following lesson excerpt checksstudents how to use strategies when read- students' understanding of the contexting textbook and other types of exposi- clue strategy and provides additional in-tory materials. structional information in the form of After-reading strategies. Develop- reexplanation and remodeling when stu- mental reading teachers should use direct dents have trouble understanding theexplanation to show students how to re- strategy. flect on the author's message after read- Teacher:O.K. Someone tell me whating. Note how the teacher in the I did to figure out that hardfollowing lesson excerpt shows students word. Jerry. how to strategically reason about infor- Student:You tried to sound it out. mation contained in the selection by 103 Cognitive and Metacognitive Goals in Reading and Writing 94

drawing conclusions about the author's First, using real textbooks, show stu- message. dents how to identify and condense rele- Teacher:The author has a message vant information into note form and how for me in this selection. to organize written notes into outline Watch what I do to figure out form. Note how the history teacher in the what it is. On almost every following excerpt shows students how to page the author incorporated organize complex information about the clues into the text about how Civil War. difficult it is being on a swim Teacher: We've been reading about the team. On this page it talks Civil War for a few weeks about how much time it now, and we've found out takes; on this page he talks that this chapter is loaded about how much work it is; with details about the war and on this page he talks (refers to information about about what happens if you the Civil War written on the don't put this kind of time chalkboard). It ill be hard and work into it. That's a lot for you to learn all of this un- like some other sports I less we somehow organize know about. I think what the it. Watch what I do to orga- author is trying to tell me nize this information. Let's here is that being a success- see, what I want to do here is ful, contributing member of categorize all this informa- a swim team takes total com- tion. The chapter subhead- mitment. ings will help me. I'll start withWeapons that'san If you are a content area teacher, set easy word. Guns, knives, aside a portion of your instructional time cannons, and bayonets all fit daily to allow students to reflect on liter- into the weapons category, ature and textbook selections. Provide so I'll list them under weap- assistance as necessary; allow students to ons. Reasons Why the War work in pairs. Was Fought is the next sub- heading, so I'll group all the leaching Metacognitive Control things that have to do with of Study Strategies that topic. Middle school teachers share responsi- bility for teaching students how to study Next, use direct instruction to show and learn from text. Use direct instruc- students how to use various reading rates tion to teach students when and how to to locate information in different types of use the study strategies described earlier, books. Note how the history teacher in and use indirect instruction to provide the following lesson shows students how ample opportunities t1/4,-ply the strate- to scan to find information about dis- gies. eases during the Civil War.

Herrmann 104 95

Teacher:(Reading) What types of dis- Student: Slavery. eases did soldiers suffer Student: Weaponscannons, guns, from during the Civil War? and bayonets. Watch what I do to find the Teacher: OK. Good. Now, watch answer to this question. I al- what I do to put some order ready know that disease to all of this. I already know means sickness and may that cannons, guns, and bay- lead to death, so I'll think onets are weapons, so I'll about that as I look through group them all together and each chapter subsection to draw a line from Civil War find relevant information to Weapons. (Teacher con- about sickness or disease. tinues until several catego- I'm looking at this first sub- ries have been developed.) heading for major concepts Now I want you to think about disease. All of this in- about these categories as you formation seems to be about read to yourselves the first weapons, so I'll skip over the five pages of the chapter. rest of this section. When you finish I'll ask you to list some more concepts Last, use direct instruction to show about the Civil War. (Stu- students how to remember new text in- dents read.) OK. Did you formation. Using a textbook, talk to find more weapons? show students how to integrate new con- Student:Swords. cepts into their existing schemata about Teacher: Good. I'll include swords un- specific topics. Note how the history der our Weapons heading. teacher in the following excerpt uses a semantic mapping technique before andSummary after reading to show students how to Helping students learn how to be in sort complex material and figure out in-metacognitive control of their reading terrelationships between new and oldbegins with modifying curriculum to concepts about the Civil War. make room for cognitive and metacogni- Teacher: Before we read this chapter, tive aspects of reading. The next step is let's see how much we al-to incorporate both direct and indirect in- ready know about the Civilstruction into your teaching routine. War. I'll put Civil War right Developmental reading teachers are here in the center of theprimarily responsible for teaching stu- board. Now, tell me somedents when and how to use cognitive words or concepts that you reading strategies, and content area know have to do with theteachers are responsible for helping stu- Civil War and I'll list them. dents apply these strategies when read- Student: North and South. ing literature and content area materials. .1 0 5 Cognitive and Metacognitive Goals in Reading and Writing 96

All middle school teachers are responsi- Duffy,Gerald,Rochler,Laura,Mcloth, ble for helping students understand how Michael, Vavrus, Linda, Book, Cassandra. the reading process works and when and Putnam, Joyce, & Wesselman, Roy. (1986). The relationship between explicit verbal ex- how to use study strategies. planation during reading skill instruction and student awareness and achievement: A study Conclusion of reading teacher effects. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 237-252. Teaching middle school students how Duffy, Gerald, Roehler, Laura, Sivan, Eva, to be more metacognitive is a difficult Rackliffc, Gary, Book, Cassandra, Mcloth, task. You must be patient. Adapting and Michael, Vavrus, Linda, Wesselman, Roy, Putnam, Joyce, & Bassiri, Dina. (1987). The modifying your curriculum and instruc- effects of explaining reasoning associated tional practices takes time and is a frus- with using reading strategies. Reading Re- trating endeavor. Try not to take on too search Quarterly, 22, 347-367. much at one time, and do not be afraid to Flavell, John. (1981). Cognitive monitoring. In Patrick Dickson (Ed.), Children's oral com- make mistakes. Start small. Make only munication skills. New York: Academic. one or two small changes at a time and Flower, Linda, & Hayes, John. (1981). A cogni- make only those changes you think you tive process theory of writing. College Com- position and Communication, 32, 365-387. can realistically accomplish. Wait until Hayes, John, & Flower, Linda. (1980). Identify- you feel confident with those changes be- ing the organization of writing processes. In fore incorporating more changes. Above Lee Gregg & Erwin Steinberg (Eds.), Cogni- tive processes in writing. Hillsdale, NJ: all, trust your own judgment and intui- Erlbaum. tion as a teacher and try to resist the urge Paris, Scott, Lipson, Marjorie, & Wixson, to start all over. Before long, you'll begin Karen K. (1983). Becoming a strategic reader. Contemporary Educational Psychol- to notice your students trying to imple- ogy, 8. ment strategic thinking. When that hap- Pressley, Michael, Forrest-Pressley, Donna, pens, you will know you are on your way Elliott-Faust, Darlene, & Miller, Gloria. to helping your students become more (1985). Children's use of cognitive strategies, how to teach strategies, and what to do if they metacognitive. can't be taught. In Michael Pressley & Charles Brainerd (Eds.), Cognitive processes in memory development. Berlin and New References York: Springer-Verlag. Baker, Linda, & Brown, Ann. (1984). Meta- Pressley, Michael, Symons, Sonya, Snyder, cognitive skills and reading. In P. David Pear- Barbara, & Cariglia-Bull, Teresa. (1989). son (Ed.), Handbook ofading research. Strategy instruction research is coming of New York: Longman. age. Learning Disability Quarterly. 12(1), Barr, Rebecca, Blachowicz, Camille, Johnson, 16-30. Barbara, Morris, Darrell, Mosenthal, James, Scardamalia, Marlene, & Bereiter,Carl. & Ogle, Donna. (1987). Editorial. Journal of (1986a). Research on written composition. In Reading Behavior, 19, 213-222. Merlin Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research Duffy, Gerald, & Roehler, Laura. (1987). Im- on teaching. New York: Macmillan. proving reading instruction through the use of Scardamalia, Marlene, & Bereiter, Carl. responsive elaboration. The Reading Teacher, (1986b). Writing. In Rona Dillon & Robert 6, 514-521. Sternberg (Eds.), Cognition and instruction. Duffy, Gerald, Roehler, Laura, & Herrmann, Orlando, FL: Academic. Beth Ann. (1988). Modeling mental proc- esses helps poor readers become strategic readers. The Reading Teacher, 42, 24-28.

Herrmann Affective Goals in Reading and Writing

Donna E. Alvermann K. Denise Muth

AS SEEN IN THE PRE- terests, and values of tran- vious chapter, educators ZilL,74, sescent...students is crucial have at their disposal a va- for content teachers if rele- riety of strategies for improving the cog- vant learning is to take place." nitive and metacognitive processes re- Before discussing the affective dimen- lated to reading and writing. By contrast, sions of literacy in detail, a brief discus- relatively little information is available sion of the emotional development of on the affective domain of reading and early adolescents, or transescents, and writing, which is concerned with emo- the differences between learning and tional feeling and activity (Harris & performance goals is necessary. It is dif- Hodges, 1981). Yet affect energizes the ficult for a teacher to plan effective activ- cognitive domain (Athey, 1985) and ities for transescents without considering plays a major role in the development of how students' emotional development middle school readers and writers. might affect the outcome of these activi- How to develop positive feelings to- ties. As noted in Chapter 2 (this vol- ward reading and writing is the focus of ume),theemotional problems of this chapter. Specifically, four affective students in this age group frequently dimensionsmotivation, attitudes, inter- override any interests students might ests, and values will be examined by have in their school work. drawing upon research and the implica- tions of that research for reading and Emotional Development writing. According to Tonjes and Zintz of Triansescents (1987, p. 50), "Promoting the affective Transescence, especially the emo- dimensions of motivation, attitudes, in- tionni development that occurs during 1 0 7 97 98

this early adolescent period, is one of the ized selves and their actual performance, least studied areas of human develop- and a need to channel emotional energies ment. Research into the emotional devel- into creative activities to fulfill self- opment of transescents has found that assertion and self-concept. many of the widely held notions about For example, transescents need to be this age group are untrue (George & accepted by their peers and at thesame Lawrence, 1982). time recognized as individuals with First, the idea that most transescents unique qualities and abilities. This dual go through a period of tremendous emo- need might be satisfied in reading by tional pressure is not quite true. Many providing opportunities for students to transescents are faced with emotional discuss their assignments in smallgroups problems, but severe emotional trauma is of their own choosing before engaging in a reality for only a small percentage of large group discussion. In writing, stu- students (Lipsitz, 1977). dents might be given individual responsi- Second, the belief that peer groupsare bilities within a group project, suchas formed from strong emotional bonds is editing a class newspaper. Various edi- not really true of transescent friendships. tors would have individual responsibili- Peer groups do exert a tremendous ties, but the success of thenewspaper amount of power at this age. but friend- would depend on all students effectively ships within the peer groups are notas doing their jobs. strong as was once believed (Gallatin, It is important for early adolescents to 1975). As a result, membership inpar- work toward realistic goals that are also ticular peer groups changes frequently, challenging. In terms of reading, low often for superficial reasons. ability students should participate in Third, advertising notwithstanding, higher level as well as lower level read- there is no stereotypical transescent. Stu- ing activities. Failure to teach theneces- dents in this cage group are individuals sary higher level reading skills to low with their own interests, problems, and ability students may account for much of ways of coping with their problems. the achievement deficit among less able Fourth, the idea has been refuted that readers (Brown, Palincsar, & Purcell, transescents turn away from adults to 1984). In terms of writing, students need turn toward one another. Elkind (1967) to write for a variety of audiences and explains thatitis more likely that purposes. One example could be writing transescents, being egocentric, turn scripts for plays, a challenging task that away from adults believing that adults is also appropriate for students' interests are aware of and critical of their every and abilities. move. Finally, transescents must be givenop- However, certain notions of the emo- portunities to channel their emotions into tional development of the middle school creative activities and yet feelsecure by student hold true. They include a need doing routine tasks. In reading, this bal- for peer recognition, a need for minimiz ance can be achieve,' if opportunities for ing the gap between transescents' ideal- reading new and challenging information

Alvermann and Muth 108 99 are prefaced by activities that help stu- sertionandself-conceptneeds of dents relate what they are about to learntransescents. For example, creative read- to what they already know. Journal writ- ers develop strongself-concepts as a ing, where writers serve as their own result of being able to challenge ideas for audience, is an example of a creative ac-the purpose of improving them. Simi- tivity couched within a familiar routine. larly, creative writers are capable of de- veloping logical arguments for the Implications for 7baching purpose of persuading others, and feel Reading and Writing empowered as a result. George and Lawrence (1982) summa- rized general criteria for teachers basedLearning Goals versus on the emotional needs of transescents. Performance Goals Three of the criteria are presented here Given the emotional makeup of with specific examples of their implica- transescents, it is important that teachers tions for teaching literacy. strike a balance between two broad cate- gories of goals. One category, Learning 1. Providing opportunities for peer Goals, is concerned with learning for the recognition is essential at the middle sake of learning. Students whose goals school level. Such opportunities should fall into this category want to understrld be provided in cooperative, rather than and increase their competence in master- competitive, learning situations. For ex- ing new information or completing new ample, transescents need opportunities tasks. A second category, Performance to discuss ideas they have learned Goals, is concerned with normative be- through botl. leisure and school related havior. Student activity in this category reading. Building a safe environment for is concerned more with gaining favor- discussing these ideas can lead to posi- able judgments (and avoiding unfavor- tive recognition among peers. A safe en- able judgments) of significant others vironment for sharing also can be than it is with learning for learning's sake provided by having transescents write on (Dweck, 1986). Nolen (1987) favors in- self-selected topics for a peer audience. struction that is learning-oriented be- 2. Setting realistic goals is essentialcause it energizes rather than debilitates. to minimize the chances of gaps occur- It fosters learning as a positive end in it- ring between transescents' idealizedself and deemphasizes the competition selves and their actual per,Ormance. Forand social comparison associated with example, transescents need to under-learning that is performance-goal-ori- stand that full comprehension may re- ented. quire several readings and that good Advocating one type of instruction writingmayrequireseveralre-over another does not dismiss thefact visions. that both learning-goal and performance- 3. Channeling emotional energiesgoal activities can be found in most into creative activities is especially im- schools. Middle school teachers need to portant. Such activities fulfill the self-as- strike a balance between the two types of

109 Affective Goals in Reading and Writing 100

activities. Additionally, helping students that involved a sample of 254 students in attribt- their successes and failuresto grades 5 through 8, drawn froma popu- effort Iher than ability encourages lation with a broadrange of achigvement them to persist in the face of challenging levels, socioeconomic backgrounds, and tasks. Focusing on achievement through geographic locations. Heathingtoncon- effort is especially important, given the cluded that the reading problems of this crucial need transescents have forpeer age group were clearly reflected in their recognition and acceptance and their responses to her questions. Briefly, the sensitivity to criticism from adults. transescents in Heathington's studycom- plained that they did not have enough Affective Dimensions time for reading, they had toomany in- Students' affective responses toward terruptions when they did read, there reading and writingare contingent on were not enough books on topics they their emotional devekpment. Thus, in wanted to read about, and (for some) this section the four affective dimen- they were not able to read well enoughto sionsmotivation, attitudes, interest, enjoy reading. Hence, limitations in and valuesare discussed in relationto time, choices, and reading abilitymay the emotional development oftranses- affect students' motivation to read. cents. Throughout the discussion of Research on writing indicates thatone these affective dimensions, it willbe way to motivate middle school students pointed out how teacherscan maintain a to write is to alloy them to write on top- balance between learning goals andper- ics they select, topics of personal interest formance goals as they teach reading and (Fear et al., 1987). This study involved writing. two upper elementary grade teachers who had different strategies for assign- Motivation ing writing topics to their students. The Research.How do you get students to first teacher assigned topics relatedto the focus more on effort and lesson ability? social studies or science content thestu- How do you influence themto make dents were studying. The second teacher challenging and engaging choices,to de- allowed students to select topics froma velop an oiientation toward learning list that each one had generatedat the be- goals rather than performance goals? ginning of the year. The list contained These questions (Ames, 1987) form the ideas of things students would liketo tell core of the affective dimension generally people about. referred to as motivation. Although"the In interviews conducted by the experi- literature on motivation has expanded menters, students in the first teacher's dramatically during the past decade" class generated significantly fewer ideas (Cohen, 1986, p. 23), little of it focuses to write about than did the students in the specifically on developing positivefeel- second teacher's class. And students in ings toward reading and writing. the first class reported that they relied One exception in the area of readingis mainly on their teacher for writingtop- a survey study by Heathington (1979) ics. When students did havea choice, the

Alvermann and .Muth 11 0 101 topics they selected were school-related. minutes would at least create the expecta- On the other hand, students in the second tion that reading is something to be done teacher's class reported that frequentlyfor enjoyment, relaxation, and a break they relied on their own experiences for from schoolwork. their writing and not on school-related Limiting the number of interruptions topics. Not surprisingly, a positive rela-during free reading at school presents a tionship was found between how topicschallenge. An Uninterrupted Sustained were selected and productivity. Students Silent Reading (ussR) period would be an in the second teacher's class seemedalternative to the 5 minute snippets of more motivated; they generated signifi-free reading. USSR (Hunt, 1970) ensures cantly more ideas on three measures ofthat students can count on a special time productivity than did students in the firstset aside for free reading on a specified teacher's class. number of days each week. Besides be- Implications for reading instruction. ing motivational, free reading has been Based on the Heathington study, moti-shown to correlate with gains in reading vating students to read is associated withachievement (Fielding,Wilson, & one or more of these elements of instruc-Anderson, 1986). tion: (1) providing students with suffic- Gathering reading materials that ap- ient time to read during the school day,peal to transescents takes the cooperation (2) limiting the number of interruptionsof teachers, librarians, and the students during reading, (3) gatherk. a variety ofthemselves. Teachers face the additional reading materials that appeal to transes- task of "organizing a curriculum that will cents, and (4) assessing each student's help students learn necessary skills, con- abilities for the purpose of providing in- cepts, and ideas while they are reading struction to help the student improve as abooks based on their individual needs, reader. interests, and abilities" (Reed, 1985, p. Providing students with sufficient time 196). One simple way of coordinating to read during the school day delivers athese tasks is to use related readings, a strong message to transescents namely, strategy that encourages students to read that reading is important and deserves aa variety of materials (newspapers, biog- place of prominence in their daily lives. raphies, teen magazines, book reviews, A more subtle message is that reading isplays) on the same topic. Comparing the not a subject per se, but a tool to helpinformation learned from these varied students understand and enjoy a widesources can lead to improved concept de- number of subjects. Setting aside as fewvelopment as well as to the growth of as 5 minutes at the beginning or end offundamental reading skills associated each class period for students to readwith content area reading instruction from materials of their own choosing(Wiesendanger, 1986). would amount to approximately 30 min- Finally, assessing students' reading utes of free reading per day. While notabilities with appropriate follow-up in- ideal in terms of allowing students to be- struction can be a motivating factor if come absorbed in their reading, those 5students feel that their expanding skills

1 1 'I Affective Goals in Reading and Writing ..-.1- 1 1 102

enable them to enjoy readingmore. Vocabulary development, rate adjust- ment, and cooperative learning methods are three areas of follow-up instruction that benefit students in middle school (Heathington, 1979; Slavin, 1984). Implications for writing instruction. Four of the easiest and most effective ways to motivate transescents to write are (1) have students write about their own experiences, (2) provide new expe- riences, (3) use literature as a starting point, and (4) use a variety of media (Fisher & Terry, 1982; Hennings, 1982). If properly structured, all of these activi- ties also promote learningover perform- ance. Because transescents have a need for Th.achers can work with students to instill success, what better way for them to be an interest in writing successful writers than to write about what they know best their own experi- ences? Transescents have many experi- ences to write about, and they should be removed from their own lives. Writing encouraged to use their senses in de- activities can revolve around literature scribing their experiences. Revisioncan the students choose themselvesor litera- be incorporated as a positive aspect ofture the teacher reads to the students as a the writing process by having students group. revise their writing as their experiences Teenagers are quite knowledgeable change. about music, movies, and television. Transescents have a need for novel Teachers can capitalize on students' and challenging activities. Teacherscan knowledge in these areas and use a vari- fill this need by providing excitingexpe- ety of media to motivate them to write. riences for students to write about. A For example, students might write about field trip, a science fair, or an interview their favorite rock or movie stars, abouta with a local celebrity can serveas the ba- concert they recently attended, or evea sis for writing. A creative teachercan about their feelings as they listened toa turn an ordinary activity into a novel Mozart recording. They might also de- writing project by providing the right sign a television commercial fora popu- stimulus for writing activities. lar product. Such writing activitiescan Good literature allows readers to iden- be used to develop a sense of the skills tify with others like themselves. It also needed for communicating about what is exposes students to people and places far relevant in young people's lives. 1. 19 Alvermann and Muth 103

Attitudes are related to their satisfaction and inter- Research. A concern over the pres-est in writing and to their feelings about ence or absence of favorable attitudes to- their writing improvement (Jeroski & ward reading and writing is probably theConry, 1981). Research also shows that most written about dimension in the af-students with poor attitudes toward writ- fective domain of the literature on liter- ing have low opinions of their writing acy. Attitude is thought to influenceability (Selfe, 1985). Of primary impor- students' comprehension of reading ma-tance to teachers is a finding from the terials (Mathewson, 1985), as well asNational Assessment of Educational predict their love of reading. Progress (Applebee, Langer, & Mullis, 1986) that indicates that student? atti- Since reading is the basis of most other school subjects, it seems logical to suppose tudes toward writing deteriorate from that when the child finds reading a pleasur- grades 4 through 11. able experience, positive attitudes toward Implications for reading instruction. reading will rapidly become generalized to Teachers can control four factors that most other subjects. The expanding interest have bearing on students' attitudes to- in other subjects should, in turn, lead to a ward reading: (1) curriculum factors, (2) deeper love of reading as a primary source of information and enjoyment (Athey, classroom setting, (3) student percep- 1985, p. 542). tions, and (4) teacher characteristics (Vaughan & Estes, 1986). Although dis- Middle school students' attitudes to- cussed separately, all of these factors are ward reading seem largely unaffected byinterrelated and influence school learn- either low achievement level or low so-ing in general. cioeconomic level. For instance, the According to Vaughan and Estes, how results of administering Estes' (1971)the curriculum is taught is as important Reading Attitude Scale to 4(X) lower so- to positive attitude development as what cioeconomic, low-achieving sixth grad- is taught. For example, transescents need ers showed that these students wereto Lel free to express their thoughts, for highly positive toward reading (Dwyer &only then will they be stimulated to think Joy, 1980). critically and creatively. Because choices Recent research in the area of writing in curriculum materials also influence indicates that students' attitudes towardstudents' attitudes, a variety of texts and writing are influenced by the frequency,other sources of print should be readily amount, and type of writing assignments available in the classroom. Paperbacks used in the classroom (Daly, Vangelisti, are especially effective and are less in- & Witte, 1988). Once formed, thesetimidating than hardbound textbooks or writing attitudes affect students' choices novels. Finally, it is essential that stu- of majors in college (Daly & Miller,dents understand the purpose of their 1975), writing performance (Selfe,reading assignment and receive sug- 1985), and teachers' perceptions of stu-gestions for efficiently completing the dents' writing ability (Daly, 1979). In ad-assignments. dition, students' attitudes toward writing Classroom setting also plays a part in 1.1 3 Affective Goals In Reading and Writing 104 developing positive attitudes. Desks and ward reading. Teacher enthusiasm for other furniture need to be arranged in a the subject matter, fair grading and disci- manner that encourages peer interaction pline practices, realistic expectations, yet provides space for students to work and an appropriate amount of attentionto alone with minimal distraction. Vaughan detail are but a few of the characteristics and Estes (1986, p. 243) humorously that cause students to judge a teacheras note, "Straight rows of desks are good good and reading as enjoyable whatever for two things: listening to lectures and the content area. sweeping between." They also point out Implfcations for writing instruction. that classroom setting is not defined by Because the classroom is a place where physical surroundings alone. Atmo- many students develop their attitudes to- sphere plays a significant role in attitude ward writing, the teacher is an important development. Holding classroom inter- factor. In order to have an effective writ- ruptions to a minimum does more than ing program that helps transescents de- soothe the teacher's nerves; it also sug- velop positive attitudes toward writing, gests to the students that what they are teachers need to (1) create a positiveen- doing is :.nportant. vironment for wilting, (2)ensure that Student perceptions have a direct writing tasks are purposeful, and (3)pro- bearing on the development of positive vide some situations in which writing is attitudes about reading. We all enjoy do- not evaluated. ing the things we know well, as reflected A positive environment for writing in- in the old adage, "Nothing succeeds like volves a free and nonthreatening atmo- success:' Du lin (1978, p. 112), however, sphere in which students have timeto suggests changing that adage to " 'Noth- proceed at their own pace through the ing succeeds like perceived success: that steps of the writing process (Hayes & is, results perceived by the learner as Flower, 1980; Norton, 1985). Positive well as the teacher." What this means to writing environments for transescents the teacher, according to Dulin, is that it are characterized as providing room for is important to provide daily opportuni- individual choices and opportunities for ties in which success in reading is obvi- sharing what is written. Because stu- ous to students. When students perceive dents at this age level are learning to themselves to be successful, they tend to make choices and to assume responsibil- have better attitudes. ity for those choices, the writing envi- Not surprisingly, teacher characteris- ronment must provide a variety of tics have a bearing on the attitudes stu- instructional activities. These activities dents develop toward reading. When might include choices in topics, form, students are asked to name their favorite purpose, and audience. Finally, because subj%:ct and their favorite teacher, the two transescents have a need for recognition are frequently the same. According to and acceptance among their peers, they Vaughan and Estes (1986), the teacher is should have opportunities to share their the most potent force in the classroom in writing with classmates. Thiscan be terms of affecting students' attitudes to- done through school newspapers, bulle-

Alvermann and Muth 1L4 105 tin boards, oral reading, and learningshould make positive comments about logs. some aspect of the writing. By doingthis One of the challenging tasks teachers as often as possible, teachers will assure face when designing writing activities is students that writing can be a method of making certain the activities are purpose- learning and not just a means of demon- ful. Purposeful writing activities are char- strating performance. (See Chapter 9, acterized as having a "normal sense of an this volume, for additional suggestions audience and of communicative intent" on evaluating writing.) (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1986, p. 794). Unfortunately, much of the writing done in Interests classrooms is not purposeful writing, but Research.Much has been written on writing that involves filling in worksheets, the importance of interests as an affective taking tests, and other such activities (Ap- dimension of literacy. Research has es- plebee, 1981). Granted, the number oftablished that reading involves not so purposeful reasons for classroom writing much what we do with our eyes as how tasks is limited. But in onset to help stu- interested we are in what we are reading. dents develop positive attitudes toward It has been shown that low-achieving writing, teachers need to integrate writing seventh grade students are able to com- throughout all content area subjects. By prehend far beyond their frustrational writing purposefully in science, social reading level when the material is inter- studies, mathematics, and language arts, esting to them (Belloni & Jongsma, students come to understand that writing is 1978). It also has been shown that "inter- an important and useful tool, not just a esting" is the single largest categorical skill practiced during writing class. response that middle school students When students feel they are writing in give to books they have read (Carter & a highly evaluative situation (writing a Harris, 1982). Although transescents pass or fail composition as opposed tovary widely in their reading interests, writing in a journal that no one will they tend to be consistently interested in read), their level of anxiety increasespaperbacks rather than hardbacks, in (Daly & Hailey, 1984). Writing anxiety books recommended by their peers affects students' attitudes toward writing rather than by their teachers, and in the and is related to lower writing perform-content on the first page rather than the ance (Daly & Miller, 1975). This is notprint size and number of illustrations to say that teachers should never evaluate (Wendelin & Zinck, 1983). The research their students' writing. But, as discussed is mixed on the importance of gender earlier, transescents need a balance be- preferences, but it is quite clear that mid- tween novel, challenging activities and dle school students prefer stories in safe, comfortable activities. Therefore,which the characters overcome their students should have opportunities to problems rather than succumb to them write material that will not be evaluated (Beyard-Tyler & Sullivan, 1980; John- as well as material that will. In situations son & Greenbaum, 1982). where writing is evaluated, teachers As mentioned previously, students are

115 Affective Goals in Reading and Writing 106

interested in writing about topics in read and discuss their portions of the which they have a personal interest. But book as they related to the conceptspre- what else are they interested in writing sented in their science textbooks. Some about? What types of writing activities postreading questions might be "Are the do they engage in on their own? The events in the sci-fi book possible?" "Why NAEP (Applebee, Langer, & Mullis, or why not?" "How does the textbook 1986) conducted a survey toanswer support or refute your thinkxag?" these questions. The survey asked the Other ways to increase the appeal of students about the types of writing they textbooks include elaboratingon the do for personal/social reasons and for main themes of the text (Hidi & Baird, functional reasons. The eighth graders 1986)andintroducingspeculative who were surveyed reported that the type thought as in the Options Guide (Bean et of personal/social writing they did most al., 1986). To help reluctant readers de- was writing notes and messages; the per- velop an intelest in leisure reading, it sonal/social writing they did leastwas pays to use peer-endorsed stories with writing stories or poems. The type of action that begins on page 1, havea functional writing they did mostwas small cast of characters, and use dia- making lists; the functional writing they logue to carry the action (Beckman, did least was writing for school newspa- 1984). Also receiving a highrecommen- pers, yearbooks, or magazines. Of par- dation are genres that have positive solu- ticularinterest toteachersisthe tions and endings,such as most additional finding that the amount ofmysteries and adventures (Summers & time students spent in writing stories and Lukasevich, 1983). These genresare fa- poetry for pleasure decreased between miliar to students and canserve as grades 4 and 8. Unfortunately, these bridges to new genres. Bridging from the findings indicate that studentsare not us- old and familiar to thenew and ing writing as a learning tool. unfamiliar provides the balance transes- Implications for reading instruction. cents need in their lives. Science and social studies texts at the Implications for writing instruction. middle school level often containcom- As the research discussed indicates, plex concepts that are difficultto com- many students are not engaged in sub- prehend and of little interest to students. stantive writing tasls on theirown. One One way of dealing with this problem could argue that students do not write and of generating interest in the subject much on thc:; cxvn because they lack in- matter is to incorporate outside reading terest in writing or because they have few using a technique called "Reada Book in opportunities to express their thoughts in an Hour" (Smith, 1979). In using this classroom writing. Middle school teach- technique, a science teacher mightas- ers can increase their students' interest in sign different students different chapters writing by providing opportunities for (or parts of chapters) from a science fic- them to engage in meaningful writing, tion paperback. The students would then such as keeping journals, contributingto have the remainder of the class period to school newspapers, and creating stories

Afrermann and Muth 11C 107 and poems to be bound as books and and satisfaction" (Covington, 1984, p. used at lower grade levels. 16), the potential conflict between teach- The results of the NEAP study cited ers' values and students' values is kept to earlier revealed that transescents were a minimum. However, in classrooms least likely to write stories and poetry or where ability is valued over effort, stu- write for school newspapers, magazines, dents often turn to failure-avoiding strat- and yearbooks. The solution does not lie egies, such as feigning disinterest in with increasing the number of such as-schoolwork, as a means of maintaining signments. Rather, teachers will need to their sense of self-worth (Covington). involve students gradually in thc writing In terms of writing research, a NAEP process, making sure that students are report (Applebee, Langer, & Mullis, exposed to the various types of text 1986) suggests that middle school stu- structures and forms of poetry. In each dents generally understand that writing instance, a balance should be maintained does have value. Students value writing between learninz goals and performance for its role as a study aid, for reminding goals. them about things, and for showing oth- ers what they know. This last finding Values suggests that transescents place value on Research.Literacy research that fo- performance over learning. Rated very cuses specifically on values is limited at low by students were value statements the middle school level. What does exist such as "helps me learn about myself; is tied inextricably to research on "helps me understand my own feelings," achievement motivation. Thus, it might and "helps me think more clearly." An be assumed that because of the highequally distressing finding from the value society traditionally has placed on NAEP report is that students' belief in the reading, students will be motivated to value of writing declines between grades read. This assumption is not without its4 and 8. critics (Nicholls, 1987). As noted ear- Implications for reading instruction. lier, transescents have a strong need to The most important task facing teachers be accepted by their peers, and in some is to model values about reading that will classrooms students who value reading discourage students from being so preoc- might be viewed as deviating from the cupied with performance goals that they norm. This would be an example of a fail to see the value of reading for learn- positive goal with potential for negativeing, relaxation, and escape. Several non- consequences. Another link between thecompetitive approaches to learning can achievement motivation literature andhelp teachers with this task. For exam- the literature on values is the potentialple, mastery learning enables students to conflict of values between teachers andacquire in Formation through multiple students. Teachers value students whotest/study/retest opportunities and to work hard, and they reward those whomake judgments about their progress succeed. In classrooms tv'er. "effort based on self-comparisons, not compari- supplants ability as a source of rewardsons with their peers. Other noncompeti-

11, t.-,i Affective Goals in Reading and Writing 108

tive approaches include: cooperative feelings toward reading and writing learning and contract learning. Coopera- based on the emotional needs of thisage five learning works well incontent area group. classes where students are divided into small groups, and individuals in each group take responsibility for learning about (and then teaching others)some References part of the assignment. Contract learning Ames, Carole. (1987). Social context andstu- dent cognitions. Paper presented at the annual helps students set realistic goalsfor meeting of the American Educational Re- studying their assigned materials and search Association, Washington, DC. strengthens their perceptions of the link Applebee, Arthur N. (1981). Writing in thesec- ondary school. Urbana, IL,: National Council between effort and achievement. of Teachers of English. Implications for writing instruction. Applebee, Arthur N., Langer, Judith A., & Teachers who expect their studentsto Mullis, Int, V, (1986). The writingreport value writing as a tool for learning card: PP iting aa;:evement in American pro- schools. P-inceton, NJ: National Assessment vide opportunities for the types of writ- of Educational Progress, Educational Testing ing that make explicit the link between Service. writing and self-knowledge. Forexam- Athey, Irene. (1985). Reading research in the af- fective domain. in Harry Singer & Robert B. ple, journal writing is an excellent means Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical models andproc- of helping students learn about them- esses of reading (3rd ed.). Newark, DE: In- selves and their feelings. Transescents ternational Reading Association. Bean, Thomas W., Sorter, Jack, Singer, Harry, experience enormous changes, and jour- Sc Frazee, Charles. (1986). Tr _thing students nal writing is one means for themto ex- how to make predictions aboutevents in his- press their reactions to these changes. If tory with a graphic organize' plus options students are to value writing guide. Journal of Reading, 23, 739-745. as a vehicle Beckman, Judith. (1984). Turning reluctant for self-expression, they must haveop- readers into lifetime readers. English Jour- portunities to write about themselves and nal, 73, 84-86. their feelings. Belloni, Loletta F., & Jongsma, EugeneA. (1978). The effects of interest.m reading comprehension of low-achieving students. Summary Journal of Reading, 22, 106-109. Researchers know more about how in- Beyard-Tyler, Karen C., & Sullivan, HowardJ. (1980). Adolescent reading preferences for formation is written and comprehended type of theme and sex of character. Reading than they do about whyan individual Research Quarterly, 16, 104-120. might elect to read and write in the first Brown, Ann L., Palincsar, Annemarie S., & Purcell, L. (1984). Poor readers: Teach don't place. The affective dimensions of moti- label. In Ulric Neisser (Ed.), The academic vation, attitudes, interests, and values performance of minority children: Anew per- provide a focus for the discussion of how spective. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. middle school teachers might help Carter, Betty, & Harris, Karen. (1982). What stu- jtinior high students like in books. Journal of dents choose to be skilled readers and Reading, 26, 42-46. writers. Literacy instruction that bal Cohen, Margaret W. (1986). Researchon moti- ances learning goals with performance vation: New content for the teacherprepara- tioncurriculum.Journalof Teacher goals helps transescents develop positive Edttcation, 37(3), 23-27.

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Covington, Martin V. (1984). The self-worth free reading: The role of tradebooks in read- theory of achievement motivation: Findings ing instruction. In Taffy E. Raphael (Ed.), and implications. Elementary School Jour- The contexts of school-based literacy. New nal, 85, 5-20. York: Random House. Daly, John A. (1979). Writing apprehension in Fisher, Carol J., & Terry, C. Ann. (1982). Chil- the classroom: Teacher role expectancies of dren's language and the language arts (2nd the apprehensive writer. Research in the ea.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Teaching of English, 13, 37-44. Gallatin, Judith. (1975). Adolescence and indi- Daly, John A., a. Hailey, Joy L. (1984). Putting viduality. New York: Harper & Row. the situation into writing research: State and George, Paul, & Lawrence, Gordon. (1982). disposition as parameters of writing appre- Handbook for middle school teaching. Glen- hension. In Richard Beach & Lillian S. view, IL: Scott, Foresman. Bridwell (Eds.), New directions in composi- Harris, Theodore L., & Hodges, Richard E. tion research. New York: Guilford. (Eds.). (1981). A dictionary of reading and Daly, John A., & Miller, Michael D. (1975). related terms. Newark, DE: International Further studies in writing apprehension: SAT Reading Association. scores, success expectations, willingness to Hayes, John R., & Flower, Linda S. (1980). take advanced courses, and sex differences. Identifying the organization of writing proc- Research in the Teaching of English, 9, 250- esses. In Lee W. Gregg & Erwin R. Steinberg 256. (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing. Hills- Daly, John A., Vangelisti, Anita, & Witte, dale, NJ: Erlbaum. Stephen P. (1988). Writing apprehension in Heathington, Betty S. (1979). What to du about the classroom context. In Bennett A. Rafoth reading motivation in the middle school. & Donald L. Rubin (Eds.), The social con- Journal of Reading, 22(8), 719-713. struction of written communication (pp. 147- Hennings, Dorothy G. (1982). Communication 171). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. in action: Teaching the language arts (2nd Dula', Kenneth L. (1978). Reading and :tic af- ed.). Boston. MA: Houghton Mifflin. fective domain. In Susanna Pflaum Connor Hidi, Suzanne, & Baird, William. (1986). The (Ed.), Aspects of reading instruction. Berke- effect of three types of interestingness on re- ley, CA: McCutchan. call from expository text. Paper presented at Dweck, Carol S. (1986). Motivational processes the annual meeting of the American Educa- affecting learning. American Psychologist, tional Research Association, San Francisco, 41, 1040-1048. CA. Dwyer, Edward J., Sc Joy, Flora. (1980). Read- Hunt, Lyman C., Jr. (1970). The effect of self- ing attitudes across a hook age spectrum. selection, interest, and motivation upon inde- Reading Horizons, 21, 39-43. pendent, instructional, and frustrational Elkind, David. (1967). Egocentricism in adoles- levels. The Reading Teacher, 24, 146-151, cents. Childhood Development, 38, 1025- 158. 1034. Jeroski, Sharon F., & Conry, Robert F. (1981). Estes, Thomas H. (1971). A scale to measure at- Development and field application of the Atti- titudes toward reading. Journal of Reading, tude Toward Writing Scale. Paper presented at 15, 135-138. the annual meeting of the American Educa- Fear, Kathleen L., Anderson, Linda M., tional Research Association, Los Angeles, Englert, Carol S., & Raphael, Taffy E. CA. (1987). The relationship between teachers'Johnson, Carol S., & Greenbaum, Gloria R. beliefs and instruction and students' concep- (1982). Girls' and boys' reading interests: A tions about the writing nrocess. In John E. review of the research. In E. Marcia Sheridan Readence & R. Scott Baldwin (Eds.), Re- (Ed.), Sex stereotypes and reading: Research search in literacy: Merging perspectives. and strategies. Newark, DE: Inter ..onal Thirty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Read- Reading Association. ing Conference. Rochester, NY: National Lipsitz, Joan. (1977). Growing up forgotten. Reading Conference. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath. Fielding, Linda G., Wilson, Paul T., & Ander- Mathewson. Grover C. (1985). Toward a com- son, Richard C. (1986). The new focus on prehensive model of affect in the reading 1 9 Affective Goals in Reading and Writing 110

process. In Harry Singer & Robert B. Rud- Slavin, Robert E. (1984). Students motivating dell (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes students to excel: Cooperative incentives, co- of reading (3rd ed.). Newark, DE: Interna- operative tasks, and student achievement. El- tional Reading Association. ementary School Journal, 85, 53-63. Nicholls, John G. (1987). Motivation, values, Smith, Cyrus F. (1979). Read a book in an hour: and education. Paper presented at the annual Variations to develop composition and com- meeting of the American Educational Re- prehension. Journal of Reading, 23, 25-29. search Association, Washington, DC. Summers, Edward G., & Lukasevich, Ann. Nolen, Susan B. (1987). The influence of task in- (1983). Reading preferences of intermediate- volvement on the use of learning strategies. grade children in relation to sex, community, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the and maturation (grade level): A Canadian American Educational Research Association, perspective. Reading Research Quarterly, Washington, DC. 18, 347-360. Norton, Donna E. (1985). Through the eyes of a Tonjes, Marian J., & Zintz, Miles V. (1987). child: An introduction to children's literature. Teaching reading, thinking, study skills in Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. content classrooms (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Reed, Arthea J.S. (1985). Reaching adolescents: William C. Brown. The young adult book and the school. New Vaughan, Joseph L., & Estes, Thomas H. York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. (1986). Reading and reasoning beyond the Scardamalia, Marlene, & Bereiter, Carl. (1986). primary grades. Boston, MA: Allyn & Research on written composition. In Merlin Bacon. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on Wendelin, & Zinck, R. Ann. (1983). teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan. How students make book choices. Reading Selfe, Cynthia. (1985). An apprehensive writer Horizons, 23, 84-88. composes. In Michael Rose (Ed.), When a Wiesendanger, Katherine. (1986). Related read- writer can't write: Studies of writer's block ings motivate students to read. The Reading and other composing process problems. New Teacher, 39, 485-486. York: Guilfc:d.

120 Alvermann and Muth Instructional Planning and Teaching in Reading and Writing

Mark W. Conley

CONFUSION PERSISTS drawn from the elementary about the middle school in- or secondary levels rather struction in reading and than being uniquely de- writing, a situation caused largely by veloped for middle school (Conley, uncertainty about reading and writing 1989). However, an emerging body of goals. Although the trend away from knowledge suggests that early adolescent junior highs and toward middle schools learners have strengths and weaknesses has been going on for years, only re- that can be addressed only through effec- cently have educators articulated the na- tive middle school programs (Lipsitz, ture and function of the middle school 1984; Preisser, Anders, (34 Glider, this curriculum (Conley,1989; Lipsitz, volume). 1984). Middle schools should emphasize The purposes of this chapter are to three types of goals: content, process, clarify the goals of reading and writing at and motivation. Content involve:, subject the middle school level, describe effec- matter, the across-the-curriculum do- tive middle school reading and writing main knowledge described in Chapter 5. instruction, and illustrate planning and Process consists of the thinking/learning teaching decisions consistent with effec- processes that underlie reading and writ- tive instruction. ing, much like those described in Chap- ter 6. Motivation is composed of desire Goals for Reading and Writing to learn as well as ability to see connec- Approaches to middle school reading tions between oneself and the school cur- and writing traditionally have been riculum, and is similar to the description

111--4-- 421 112

Figure 1 Goals of Elementary, Secondary, and Middle Schools

Process Content

Content Motivation Process Motivation

Motivation

in Chapter 7. reading and writing. Just as a writer en- What makes middle school teaching gages in these activities to compose text distinct from elementary and secondary on a page, a reader uses them to com- instruction? The difference lies in the re- pose a model of a writer's meaning (Tier- lationships among the three types of ney & Pearson, 1984). A major goal at goals. Figure 1 depicts the relationships the elementary level is to create strategic among content, process, and motivation readers and writers (Duffy & Roehler, for elementary, secondary, and middle 1987; Hayes & Flower, 1986). To do school reading and writing instruction. this, teachers focus on helping students At the elementary level (E in Figure activate knowledge they will need to 1), the emphasis is on the thinking proc- mike predictions about what they are esses underlying reading and writing, on reading or writing, and they stress repair knowing how to accomplish something strategies that can be used whenever stu- or the means by which it can be accom- dents encounter blocks to meaning plished. Mental processes, such as plan- (Johnston, 1983). Instruction consistent ning, drafting, aligning, revising, and with this emphasis involves explanations self-monitoring, are necessary for both and modeling in a variety of contexts. Conley 122 113

Responsiveness to students' thinking andto link subject matter to the real world a gradual shift in responsibility from(Alvermann & Muth, this volume; teacher to student also are features of this(Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984). type of instruction (Duffy & Roehler, The goals of reading and writing can 1987). be summarized in a single phrase: to The emphasis at the secondary level (Steach students to become lifelong learn- in Figure 1) is almost entirely on content ers with attention to develcning their (Herber, 1978; Singer & Donlan, 1985). knowledge,skills,and motivation Specific areas such as the periodic table (NASSP, 1985). Reading and, writing in- in science, the electoral college in social struction that meets these goals is not studies, algebraic equations in math, andeasy to achieve and, in many schools, literature in English are the focus. High cannot be found. school reading and writing are func- We want middle school students to un- tional; processes are not taught for theirderstand what they read and to commu- own sake but as tools for comprehending nicate what they thinkinwriting and generating ideas about subject mat- (Langer, 1986). However, recent re- ter. Comprehension and writing strate- search-based descriptions of reading and gies are important only insofar as theywriting instruction suggest that we may help students gain access to content. Sec- not be reaching this goal. In a massive ondary programs have been criticizedstudy on schools, Goodlad (1984) found for this nearly exclusive emphasis onthat students spend 80 percent of the content (Good lad, 1984), which all too school day listening passively to teach- easily becomes another excuse for usingers. In English classes, reading-related dittoes and rote learning. While contentactivities include answering questions is important, ignoring process and moti-based on short passages, memorizing vation goals risks turning students off to fro:n textbooks, and listening to teachers' learning. interpretations. Writing often involves In contrast to elementary and second- copying definitions or completing drills. ary programs, instruction in middle If reading and writing are important, school (M in Figure 1) balances content why is it so difficult for Allington (this and process (as Peters suggests in Chap- volume) and others to find good class- ter 5) while relying considerably on mo- room examples? One reason is that the tivation. Middle school students aregoals of the middle school and its teach- faced with the demands placed on them ers can be burdened by many constraints by c,ontent area textbooks while they are (Cuban, 1984). For example, confusion still struggling to become strategic read- may exist over whether a school is func- ers and writers. While the typical con- tioning as a middle school or a junior cept of middle school students is thathigh. Junior highs historically have mod- they get excited only about television eled their programs after high schools. and friends, evidence suggests that theyIn emulating high schools, there can be also can be motivated by challenging an overemphasis on content at the ex- classroom experiences and attempts pense of both process and motivation. 123 Instructional Planning and lbaching in Reading and Writing 114 Effective middle school instruction also aions and the sequence of activities in a can be hampered by problems posed by lesson can stress anything. A teacher's differences in students and by gaps and instructional decisions are responsible changes in the curriculum. for whether students remember isolated Instruction should be a unique blend of bits of information or develop broader developing subject-matter knowledge conceptual understandings. Depending and empowering and motivating students on the instruction, students come to to read and write on their own. Unfor- value memorization or restructure their tunately, middle school reading and understandings and integrate new experi- writing do not always live up to this ences with old. potential. Consider the following lesson excerpt in which a middle school English teacher Effective Reading and reviews students' answers to a reading Writing Instruction guide. The reading guide is based on a Instruction is what classroom teachers short story. intentionally do to achieve desired goals. Teacher:What numbers did your Effective instruction in reading and writ- group get, Michelle? ing depends on a teacher's ability to ac- Michelle:We did I, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, tively engage students in learning within and 12. the context of a literate environment. Teacher:Okay, 1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, To become instructionally effective, and 12. Is that right? Okay, middle schools must replace the passive, does any group have any assignment-driven perspectives that per- more or less of those num- vade reading and writing in many class- bers? What about your rooms with an active, cognitive view. An group, Joe? active view of instruction emphasizes learning in which teachers and students Joe:We have 1, 5, 11, and 12. gradually construct meanings through a Teacher:Okay. Can you tell us why series of interactions with the content. you have those and not the As new information becomes integrated other ones Michelle had? with old information, students develop a Joe:We didn't really notice those conscious awareness of what is being in the story. learned, when it will be useful, and how Teacher:But what about 9? Why to use it effectively (Roehler & Duffy, didn't you choose 9? Re- 1989). member in the story about Active learning is supported by active the dyed hair? instruction. For example, there are many ways for a teacher to define classroom tasks, from asking students to read the In this excerpt, it is virtually impos- text in order to answer questions to en- sible to determine what is being taught. couraging reading centered on why the The teacher's emphasis is on finding an- content is important. Similarly, discus- swers, but not on helping students dis-

Conley 124 115 cover meaning on their own. understanding one of these Compare the above excerpt with the storiesor even events in one below. Again, a middle school En- my own lifeI talk it over glish teacher is working with a reading with someone and usually I guide. In this segment, the teacher is dis- understand it better. cussing a theme from a short story. Notice how, in this excerpt, the teacher Teacher:"Small things cause big problems." What does the not only develops comprehension of the story say about that? content through the questions asked, but also helps students become aware of how Chris:Like in the story, the hen the group process can be used to explore went into Gabriel's yard and meaning in the lesson and beyond. Also, laid her egg there. It was to foster motivation, the teacher encour- just over a stupid little egg. ages students to think about their own They started a feud whichlives and how they are learning. As a led to a fire and result, the instruction is not just an Teacher:That's a good example. empty routine. The teacher's instruction What about in real life? helps students become active participants Jeff:Baseball. Somebody gets in the learning. beaned with the ball and Active instruction in reading and writ- then they go out and argue ing is supported if teachers strive to cre- with the pitcher. ate a literate environment (Atwell, 1987; Teacher:It starts something bigger. Duffy & Roehler, 1987). In a literate en- I'm going to start getting vironment, the classroom is a place every group because I think where real language and real literacy are it's important for you to be valued and promoted. Rather than an "I challenged. What happens talk/you listen" approach to instruction, when you get more than one teachers and students communicate with person or group to contrib- one another in a variety of ways, both ute? oral and written. Rather than relying solely on the textbook, they use news- Dave:You get different ideas. papers, magazines, and pamphlets. Fi- Jim:And if someone thought ofnally, rather than treating writing as a an original idea, it's harder separate subject only for the English to think of more. class, writing like readingis taught Teacher: Right, sometimes if we col- across the curriculum as a tool for un- laborate on thinking about derstanding (Duffy & Roehler, 1986). the stories or ourselves, le While English and social studies can make things harder. B. teachers for years have recognized the we also get more and better importance of making real-world con- ways of looking at the world. nections during instruction, the notion of Whenever I have a problem a literate environment can be applied to

.1s; instructional Planmng and Teaching in Reading and Writing 116

other types of classrooms as well. Con- marized, students noted the difficulty of sider how Mrs. Clark, a science teacher, the article, wondering how anyone could approached the task of teaching her sev- ever understand the technical language enth graders how to read and report on scientists use. Again, Clark was ready original scientific research while includ- with a strategy. She showed students how ing real-world connections to build moti- to seek out any familiar words and create vation, balancing content and process, a single sentence summary. While devel- and shifting from more teacher to more oping a summary with her students, she student responsibility for what is being showed them how to determine whether learned. a summary is complete by looking at Clark decided she needed to model what information is covered and what is how scientists deal with research if her omitted. She also showed them how to students were going to be able to write raise and answer further questions about about it. She chose a fairly complex arti- the topic of the article. As the class con- cle comparing cells among different or- tinued to read, Clark pointed out that gans in the human body. In introducing they were learning to think like scien- the article, Clark asked her students to tists. Not only were they learning how to read the title and predict what it would be unlock difficult concepts, they were de- about. Students immediately faltered on veloping some sophisticated scientific the phrase cell differentiation, which knowledge just like a scientist does dur- Clark used as an opportunity to explain ing actual research. Subsequent lessons how scientists might figure out difficult focused on how scientists organize infor- vocabulary. mation from reading and how they write First, using differentiation, Clark scientific reports. modeled a way to unlock unfamiliar This episode in middle school science words (by thinking about what may be teaching !las a successful conclusion. familiar about them). Next, she devel- Through Clark's attention to creating a oped the meaning of cell differentiation literate environmentemphasizing what by calling attention to the different ap- real scientists dostudents became suc- pearance and functions of organs in the cessful and motivated. Her focus on con- body. As the meaning of the phrase be- tent and processshowing students how came more clear, Clark and her students to learn while they learn science con- asked themselves questions about what tentempowered them to independently scientists might find important about select and investigate their own topics cells being different. "What are the dif- based on original scientific research. ferent functions of cells?" "Are all cells Several weeks after Clark taught the les- similar on some level?" "Are differences son on thinking like a scientist, students in cells the reason behind the difficulty shared and discussed a variety of well- of organ transplants?" written reports based on highly technical The students then read the article, par- topics. agraph by paragraph, to summarize the Active instruction in a literate environ- author's message. As they read and sum- ment is not restricted to the examples of-

Conley 126 117

fered here. Teachers from across the A useful way to begin thinking about a curriculum can design lessons that ac- lesson is to ask two questions: "What tively engage students and provide real- should students learn about the content?" world connections. The next sections and "Is the text poorly structured or well. describe how this task can be accom- structured?" Answers to the first ques- plished. tion will help focus on content goalF. If the text is detailed and the content goal is Planning a Lesson to foster an in-depth understanding of The emphasis in planning an effective facts, concepts, and principles, then lesson in middle school reading and planning should probably emphasize writing depends on the goal. Figure 2 comprehension and descriptive Arriting. presents some examples of the goals that If, on the other hand, facts and concepts guide planning. are self-evident but the goal is to have

Figure 2 Goals Underlying Planning Decisions for Reading and Writing

I Content Understanding Understanding Understanding Understanding Goals important facts, relationships subject-matter key concepts concepts, and among concepts principles and technical principles vocabulary Process Knowing how to Knowing how to Knowing how to Knowing how to i Goals construct construct think about develop word meaning meaning via use subject-matter knowledge of expository content independently and narrative text patterns Motivation Experiencing Experiencing Acquiring topic Gaining Goals success with success with familiarity and enjoyment from extended text using patterns to interest learning new discover and words, success generate with using meaning words to unlock and generate meaning Reading Comprehension Organizational Reasoning, Vocabulary Instruction patterns studying development and reinforcement Writing Descriptive Expository and Speculative or Expository and Instruction writing, records, narrative writing persuasive narrative writing and reports writing

127 instructional Planning and Teaching in Reading and Writing 118 students develop a broad understanding standing the content since it offers in- of principles and generalizations, then sightintoMitty'scharacterand, planning should stress reasoning and ultimately, into why fantasy is an impor- persuasive writing. tant part of everyone's life. A content Having a well structured text helps de- goal, therefore, is to build recognition of termine process goals. If the text is the relationship between fantasy and re- poorly structured, students will require ality in the story so students can make assistance in constructing meaning (An- connections to their own lives. derson & Armbruster, 1984). If the text The text itself is well structured. It contains vocabulary terms or patterns of uses separate episodes to signal the real- organization that are crucial to under- life versus the fantasy sequences, yet the standing the content (cause/effect, com- transitions from episode to episode are pare/contrast, problem/solution, time not always clear. If students are going to order), students may require explicit see the relationship between fantasy and modeling of ways to acquire meaning. reality in the story, they will need to Last, but certainly not least, are con- know how to compare and contrast dif- cerns about motivation. Decisions about ferent episodes. A process goal, then, is content and process directly affect to help students learn how to construct choices about motivation. Motivation is the meaning of the story through com- enhanced when teachers think carefully parisons of one episode with the next. about how instructional activities will Motivation is a little more complex. help students achieve success. For exam- While success with understanding the ple, vocabulary taught for its own sake is story and using narrative patterns is im- not as motivational as vocabulary taught portant, many students may have diffi- to empower students to grasp content and culty sympathizing with middle-aged learn new words on their own. Mitty. Consequently, a motivation goal Research suggests that teacher plan- for the story is to help students become ning is rarely as linear or as simple as the more familiar with and interested in decisions implied by Figure 2. Yinger Mitty's character. (1986) suggests that planning proceeds Given these considerations, planning not as a series of decision points but as a should focus on helping students identify continuous process of problem-solving, with the main character in the story and crafting, improvising, and reflecting. To understand how the story's structure con illustrate, consider the task of planning a tributes to its meaning. A combination of short story lesson on "The Secret Life of instructional activities emphasizing or- Walter Mitty" (Thurber, 1965). ganizational patterns, reasoning, and The story is about Walter Mitty, a man narrative or persuasive writing would who used fantasies to escape from his probably be most appropriate in light of own miserable life. In reading the story, the goals for this story. students often miss the relationship be- This planning process also can be il- tween the man's real life and his fantasy lustrated with an example from mathe- world, a relationship crucial for under- matics. Story problems are a recurring

Conley 1 2 8 119 part of the math curriculum. Students of-that they can become another way to ten are introduced to new concepts andstress answer-giving rather than meaning- formulas, and story problems are used togetting. In effect, the guides can replace, clarify and reinforce their understandingrather than support, the careful thinIchig of new concepts. When story problemsnecessary to balance all the goals under- contain new concepts, attention to vocab- lying middle school reading and writing. ulary is required. When the underlying Avoiding this problem requires careful structure of story problems calls for attention to teachers' verbal strategies dur- comparisons among different numerical ing the classroom discussions that accom- concepts (a base price versus a dis-pany guided reading. One example is counted price), attention to patterns is re- reciprocal teaching, a method that focuses quired. Having students write storyspecifically on process goals: students problems for one another is one way for learn how to summarize, generate their students to apply their understanding ofown questions, clarify meaning, and how story problems are organized andmake predictions (Brown & Palincsar, solved. 1985). Teaching students how to partici- Once decisions are made about what to pate in reciprocal teaching often is re- emphasize during reading and writing in-ferred to as a "scaffolding process" in struction, teachers can provide studentswhich the teacher thinks aloud and with guides to direct them during readingmodels the desired strategies until stu- and writing. Guided reading activities, dents are able to apply them on their own such as the use of three-level and predic- (Palincsar, 1984). However, teachers tion/re-action guides, can be designed formust avoid falling into the trap of teaching comprehension and reasoning (Herber, strategies for their own sake (Brown & 1978; Readence, Bean, & Baldwin,Palincsar, 1985). When this happens, stu- 1985). Guided writing activities, such asdents may learn strategies in a rote way, the use. of process writing guides noted by but they will be unable to apply them Raphael, Kirschner, & Englert (1986), (Chapters 5 & 6, this volume). can be created for expository and narra- Planting lessons for reading and writ- tive writing. Vocabulary activities, suching requires attention not only to goals as semantic mapping, can be employed toand instructica but also to the pitfalls in- guide comprehension as well as exposi-herent in virtually any type of instruction. tory and narrative writing (Min, 1986;Compensating for these problems in- Johnson, Tuis-Bronowski, & Pittleman, volves careful adaptations in planning that 1982). balance content, process, and motivation. Guided reading activities can be an im- portant part of a teacher's thinking about aTeaching a Middle School Lesson lesson. The act of creating a reading Students learn best when teachers ex- guide focuses a teacher's decisions aboutercise control and structure at the begin- content. The completed guide serves as aning of a lesson while offering more record of the content to be emphasized. A opportunity for student responsibility danger with reading guides, however, is as the lesson progresses (Pearson &

InstructionalPI1Z4and Teaching in Reading and Writing 120 Gallagher, 1983). A common way to do are terms that illuminate the meaning of this is to begin instruction with whole- a story (chain reaction) or that are keys class discussion, modeling, and dem- to lessons in a particular content area onstration, and gradually move into (respiration). By focusing attention on guided practice, assessment, and (some- these critical terms, teachers pave the times) reteaching. This section describes way for broader understandings. specific teaching strategies that support Bridging. Bridging involves making this cycle. connections between students and the In many ways, lesson planning repre- content. It can take the form of eliciting sents a teacher's "best guess:' Early in a or providing background knowledge. It lesson, the teacher should gather data also can involve modeling for students about the appropriateness of the plan, the thinking necessary for successfully asking questions that tap into students' completing the lesson. interest in and knowledge about the topic Generalizing beyond the immediate at hand as well as their abilities in using lesson. Like bridging, generalizing re- reading and writing to gain meaning. lies on students' knowledge. Unlike This strategy allows refinement of the bridging, which focuses on background original plan and encourages ongoing at- knowledge, generalizing involves asking tention to achieving lesson goals. students to speculate about hypothetical The following verbal strategies serve situations, to use their knowledge about two purposes early in a lesson: they al- a topic to make predictions, and to think low for data gathering and they facilitate ahead. active meaning-getting during reading Responsive elaboration. Responsive and writing (Conley, 1988). elaboration occurs when teachers recog- Verifying content. Teachers verify stu- nize a problem in students' understand- dents' familiarity with content by asking ing and then provide or encot -age questions about the topic of a lesson. elaborations or explanations to help stu- Followups or probes following a re- dents resolve the problem. Elaborations sponse encourage students to make sev- can focus on any of the strategies men- eral observations before forming a tioned above, but they usually involve conclusion about what they are learning. explanation and modeling directed at re- Verifying process. Teachers verify stu- solving the problem. dents' understanding of process by ask- These verbal strategies are especially ing them to explain how they would go useful when applied in conjunction with about learning or how they learned some guided reading (Conley, 1988). They can aspect of content. Often, this involves help teachers avoid the trap of emphasiz- encouraging students to describe how ing content alone, keep in touch with they learned what they learned. process and motivation goals, and watch Hooks. Hooks are vocabulary words out for and resolve breakdowns in mean- critical for comprehending the content of ing. Using these strategies throughout a a lesson or a series of lessons. More than lesson and listening to feedback from just difficult or technical words, hooks students will help ensure that learning

Conley 130 121

Group discussion is a key component of cooperative learning

results from instruction. modeling of group processes, and moni- Cooperative learning can help teach-toring (Cohen, 1986; Conley, 1987). ers shift control to students during read- Explanation and modeling of group ing and writing lessons. In cooperativeprocesses. Students need to be aware of learning, students work together in smalltheir roles and responsibilities during discussion groups to accomplish shared group work. Explanations should center goals (Johnson et al., 1984). For reading on establishing rules or norms for group instruction, this involves students help- work: everyone should play a role in the ing one another construct meaning from group (leader, recorder), anyone ,..an ask text (Conley, 1987). For writing instruc-anyone else for help, everyone has a duty tion, students work together to composeto help anyone in need, and everybody and refine a common message (Atwell, helps. Modeling takes the form of role- 1987). The key to cooperative learning is playing to illustrate these responsibili- to have students perceive that they canties. reach their learning goals only if the Monitoring. Frequent monitoring of other students in their learning groupstudents' progress promotes discussion reach their goals as well. Students needand helps students become responsible to discuss the goals with others, help onefor their own learning. Monitoring is another understand the tasks required, necessary to stimulate students to think and encourage one another to work hard. on higher levels and help them resolve Strategies used specifically for coopera- conflicts. Monitoring should not take the tive learning include explanation andform of answer-giving or directing stu-

Instrueliablanningand 'Mulling in Reading and Writing 122

dents to an answer that is in the teacher's by both the particular needs of the early head. Careful monitoring consists of adolescent and the role of the middle questions that direct students to consider school as a transition between the em- different types of information or ways ofphasis on process at the elementary level thinking while they have discussions in and the emphasis on content at the sec- their groups. ondaty level. These activities are especially sup- It is hard to find instruction that bal- portive to a literate environment. Coop- ances content, process, and motivation. erative discussions encourage many Educators do not always have a clear types of communication. Teachers can sense of the mission of min'"-schools, see visible signs that students are apply- and the complexity of the classroom can ing the content and processes taught override goal-directed decisions about early in the lesson. Motivation is en- instruction. Effective planning and in- hanced because students' ideas are at the struction at this level are based on active forefront and a premium is placed on us- and responsive teaching as well as on a ing everyone's thoughts to constructconcern for using reading and writing meaning. within a literate environment. This kind Teaching strategies do not work with- of instruction starts with teachers shot. out attention to continual refinement. ing students what and how to learn, Students who are secure in listening to while gradually involving them in taking the teacher and having concepts formed responsibility for their own learning. Im- for them will not be secure with a type of plementing these suggestions can result instruction that places greater responsi- in fundamental changes in middle school bility in their hands. Similarly, teachers reading and writing instruction. These who are accustomed to lecturing and tell- changes stand a greater chance of suc- ing students what they should know will ceeding if they can be incorporated not be comfortable teaching students to thoughtfully over time. learn on their own. Reflection about the goals underlying these strategies, as well as the extent to which the goals and strat- aeferences egies are already in place, is necessary Anderson, Thomas, & Armbruster, Bonnie. (1984). Content area textbooks. In Richard for determining the best ways to incorpo- C. Anderson, Jean Osborn, & Robert Tierney rate them in the classroom. (Eds.), Learning to read in American schools: Basal readers and content texts. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Summary Atwell, Nancie. (1987). In the middle: Writing, Instruction in reading and writing reading, and learning with adolescents. Up- should be guided by goals for content, per Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook. Brown, Ann, & Palincsar, Annemarie. (1985). process, and motivation. The appropri- Reciprocal teaching of comprehension strate- ate emphasis at the middle school level is gies: A natural history of one program for en- on content and process, with attention to hancing learning (Technical Report No. 334). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, Cen- motivation as support for what students ter for the Study of Reading. are learning. This emphasis is dictated Cohen, Elizabeth. (1986). Designing group-

Conley 132 123

work.New York: Teachers College Press. assessment: A cognitive basis.Newark, DE: (1987). International Reading Association. Conley, Mark. (1988). The development of Langer, Judith. (1986).Children reading and teacher explanations during content reading writing.Norwood, NJ: Ablex. lessons. In John Readence & Scott Baldwin Lipsitz, Joan. (1984).Successful schools for (Eds.),Dialogues in literacy research.Chi- young adolescents.New Brunswick, NJ: cago, IL: National Reading Conference. "'ransaction Books. Conley, Mark. (1987). Grouping. In Donna National Association of Secondary School Prin- Alvermann, David Moore, & Mark Conley cipals. (1985).An agenda for excellence at (Eds.),Research within reach: Secondary the middle level.Reston, VA: National Assn- school reading.Newark, DE: International elation of Secondary School Principals. Reading Association. Palincsar, Annemarie. (1984).Reciprocal teach- Conley Mark. 0989). Middle school and junior ing: Working within the zone of proximal de- high reading programs. In Shirley Wepner, velopment.Paper presented at the annual Joan Feeley, & Dorothy Strickland (Eds.), meeting of the American Educational Re- Administration and supervision of reading search Association, New Orleans, I.A. programs.New York: Teachers College Pearson, P. David, & Gallagher, Margaret. Press. (1983). The instruction of reading compre- Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, & Larson, R. (1984). hension.Contemporary Educational Psychol- Being adolescent: Conflict and growth in the ogy,8, 317-344. teenage years. NewYork: Basic Books. Raphael, Taffy, Kirschner, Becky, & Englert, Cuban, Lawrence. (1984). Nowteachers taught. Carol S. (1986).Text structure instruction New York: Longman. within process-writing classrooms: A manual Duffy, Gerald, & Roehler, Laura. (1986).Im- for instruction.(Occasional Paper No. 104). proving classroom reading instruction: A East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University decision-making approach.New York: Ran- Institute for Research on Teaching. dom House. Readence, John, Bean, Thomas, & Baldwin, Duffy, Gerald, & Roehler, Laura. (1987, Janu- Scott. (1985).Content area reading: An inte- ary). Teaching reading skills as strategies. grated approach.Dubuque, IA: Kendall- The Reading Teacher,40, 414-421. Hunt. Duin, Ann. (1986).The effects of intensive vo- Roehler, Laura, & Duffy, Gerald. (1989). The cabulary instruction on expository writing. content area teacher's instructional role: A Paper presented at the annual meeting of the cognitive mediational view. In James Flood & National Reading Conference, Austin, TX. Diane Lapp(Eds.), Instructional theory and Goodlad, John. (1984).A place called school. practice for content area reading and learn- New York: McGraw-Hill. ing.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hayes, John, & Flower, Linda. (1986). Writing Singer, Harry, & Donlan, Daniel. (1985). Read- research and the writer.American PsTcholo- ingand learning from text.Boston, MA: gist, 41,1106-1113. Little, Brown. Herber, Harold. (1978).Teaching reading in Thurber, James. (1965). The secret life of Walter content areas.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pren- Mitty. In Robert Pooley, Andrew Grommon, tice Hall. Virginia Lowers, & Olive Niles (Eds.), Johnson, Dale, Toms-Bronowski, Samuel, & Accent: U.S.A.Glenview, IL: Scott, Fores- Pittelman, S. David. (1982).An investigation man. of the effectiveness of semantic mapping and Tierney, Robert, & Pearson, P, David. (1984). semantic feature analysis with intermediate Toward a composing model of reading. In grade level children.(Program Report No. Julie M. Jenson (Ed.),Composing and com- 83-3). Madison, WI: Wisconsin Center for prehending.Urban , IL: National Confer- Education Research. ence on Research in English and the ERIC Johnson, David, Johnson, Roger, Holubec, Clearinghouse on Reading and Communica- Edythe, & Roy, Patricia. (1984).Circles of tion Skills. learning: Cooperation rn the classroom. Yinger, Robert. (1986). Examining thought in Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision action: A theoretical and methodological cri- and Curriculum Development. tique of research on interactive teaching. Johnston, Peter. (1983).Reading comprehension Teaching and Teacher Education2, 263-282.

instructionalfiatg and Teaching in Reading and Writing Assessing Reading and Writing

Sheila W. Valencia William McGinley P. David Pearson

THIS CHAPTER IS A period of transition in stu- pleafor putting middle dents' view of reading and school literacy assessment writing. While fluent read- back into the hands of those whose lives ing and writing continue to be major are most affected by itstudents and goals of literacy instruction, students teachers. It is organized into five parts. also learn how to use reading and writing We begin with a rhetorical justification as ways of learning and communicating for our position on assessment. Then we in all subject areas and in daily life. introduce the attributes that characterize Anderson et al. (1985, p. 61) aptly de- good classroom assessment and present scribe the role of reading in subject-mat- an overall framework for examining vari- ter learning: ous aspects of the reading and writing As proficiency develops, reading should be processes. The heart of the paper is a ra- thought of not so much as a separate subject tionale for using a portfolio construct for in school but as integral to learning litera- both reading and writing assessment and ture, social studies, and science. a discussion of the types of activities that Researchers describe a similar role for might become part of a portfolio. Fi- writing in literature, social studies, and nally, we illustrate our perspective with a science (Applebee, 1981, 1984; Gage, set of examples of middle school teach- 1986; Langer & Applebee, 1987; Martin ers gathering data for student portfolios. et al., 1975). If the middle school years are to be a Background time when reading and writing become The middle school years represent a the primary means of learning or accom- 13`424 125 piishing other goals, then assessment in directly in classroom instruction. We do the school literacy curriculum must re- not advocate that educators discontinue flect these functions. Teachers and re- using commercially available tests. In- searchers must explore assessment stead, we argue for a more realistic per- procedures that allow them to examine spective on the value of commercially students' ability to use reading and writ- available tests, one that admits that it is ing as tools for learning, insight, under- dangerous to rely on any single test score standing, communication, enjoyment, as a measure of learning, no matter how survival, and participation in their scientific it may appear to be. world. We know from what Shulman. (1975) Historically, both the general public has called the practical wisdom of teach- and professional educators have come to ing, that we can learn much about stu- regard assessment as a series of paperdents by keeping track of their learning and pencil tests imposed on teachers and during classroom interactions. With students by those in positions of author- these strategies, which some call "situ- itythose concerned with accountabil- ated" (Collins, Brown, & Newman, in ity. Too often, assessment is something press) or contextualized assessment we do for the authorities, rather than strategies (Lucas, 1988a, 1988b), infor- something we do for ourselves and our mation is gathered as an integral part of students. However, assessment ought to the teaching/learning process. be what we do to help ourselves and our We must add to our assessment reper- students evaluate progress. Throughtoire assessments of situated perform- daily interactions we gather evidence to anceongoing analyses of students guide decision-making about student completing a variety of literacy tasks that learning, instruction, and curriculum. have been initiated at the prerogative of Assessment should be a natural part ofthe school, the teacher, or the student. the teaching/learning process and notHowever, performance measures alone something added on or imposed as an are not sufficient, even when they are per- afterthought. sonally initiated and functionally moti- Teachers andadministratorsneed to vated. Equally important is information learn to rely on their own expertise to de- we can gather only by observing students velop and use a wide variety of assess- during literacy events or by holding con- ment tools to evaluate student progress. versations with them to determine what At this stage of knowledge about reading they think about their own skills in, strate- and writing processes, we no longer gies for, and dispositions toward literacy. need to rely solely on formal and indirect performance measures, such as thoseClassroom and Individual found on most commercially availableAssessment teststhe norm-referenced standardized BY moving to contextualized assess- tests or criterion-referenced tests so often ments of reading and writing, we expand associated with assessment. Instead, we the pool of assessment opportunities. can return to measures grounded more Daily in every classroom, teachers can,

1. 35 Assessing Reading and Writing 126

do, and should use many different as- ate anxiety and hard feeling between [ev- sessment strategies. These should be eryone). Common sense suggests that guided by the attributes of sound contex- [grades) ought to be reduced to the smallest tualized assessment. These principles possible number necessary to find out how can serve as important criteria for teach- students are getting along toward the four or five main objectives of the program, but ers as they evaluate, design, and charac- teachers keep piling them up like squirrels terize their own assessment strategies to gathering nuts. reflect their students, their classrooms, their curricula, and themselves. 2.Assessment is multidimensional.In 1. Assessment is continuous.Because the interest of efficiency, we tend to look learning is a cnntinuous, dynamic proc- for single indices of effectiveness. We ess, so too, is assessment. Not only does must resist this temptation and insist on learning take place over time, but the multiple measures. The more measures learner and task change with every new we have, the more we can trust any given instructional situation. Although we fre- conclusion about student or groupper- quently acknowledge this idea conceptu- formance. In a sense, repeated measures ally, we rarely apply it to classroom help teachers establish something akin to assessment. Instead, most evaluation is a test developer's criteria of reliability. based on end-of-unit or end-or-year Also, by using different measures,we tests. As such, we have come to regard may get new perspectives and new in- assessment as a static entity, as a test or sights.2,achassessment examine. differ- set of tests, Failing to account for conti- ent learning areas or looks at learning in nuity, we may forget (1) that learners' a new context. Because learning varies growth needs a closer look, (2) that across time and situation, assessments knowledge is cumulative and transfer- must be multidimensional. able, and (3) that the basis for future 3.Assessment should be collabora- learning comes from the growth and in- tive.Many constituencies have a stake in tegration of knowledge over time. school assessmentstudents, teachers, Ongoing measures need not be staged parents, administrators, school board or formal, nor must they result in a members, the community, and the larger grade. In fact, their beauty lies in their society. Each requires somewhat differ- simplicity and ubiquity they allowus to ent information, and each should be take advantage of what nappens daily in involved in shaping the assessment most classrooms without necessarily as- agenda. At the administrative level, for signing grades. The objective is to guide example, school board members are in- instruction and to provide continuous terested in how well children read and feedback and support to students. We write compared with students across the would be wise to heed Diederich (1974, county, state, school, or classroom. p. 2) as he discusses his impressions of Teachers want to know how well their assessment in writing classes: students are progressing to meet the Students are graded on everything they do goals of the school or classroom curricu every time they turn around. Grades gener- lum so they can plan new instructional

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 136 127 steps. Students need to know what is ex-of literacy, assessors should be familiar pected of them, how achieving thosewith both basic and instructional proc- expectations will help them satisfy per-esses in reading, writing, andlanguage. sonal goals, and what progress they areAt times, we enter into an assessment sit- making in meeting those expectations.uation with prespecified criteria and Teachers should take advantage of thesetasks. At other times, we simply observe perspectives and pool available informa-students in their natural learning envi- tion. ronment; look for patterns to enlighten The essense of such collaboration liesunderstanding; and interact with stu- in working with students. We communi-dentsprompting, guiding, questioning, cate our support of students' learningand listening with the skills of a knowl- process when we work with them in de-edgeable educator. If we want to capital- veloping assessments. In traditional as-izeonallavailableassessment sessment situations, we act as passivepossibilities, there is no substitute for examiners and detached observers of theknowledge; and the further away we "truth" rather than as advocates for ourmove from someone else's tests, the students. Collaborative assessmentsgreater our need for knowledge of both strengthen the bond between teachersreading and writing processes and as- and students and allow students to learnsessment strategies. about evaluation processes and criteria. 5. Assessment must be authentic. As- Involving students in assessment helps sessment must be functional and ecologi- them move from relying on others tocally valid. Just as instruction should making independent judgments aboutfocus on genuine objectives, assessment their own literacy abilities. Students ob- should be anchored in genuine tasks and serve the teacher as an evaluator and ex- purposes (Edelsky & Harman, 1988) be- amine the criteria and the processes thecause application changes as purposes "expert" uses in evaluation, a modelingchange. For example, it would be appro- strategy similar to that used in app,en-priate to assess students' ability to read ticeship training (Collins, Brown, &for details when reading directions, but Newman, in press). As students engageless appropriate when reading a novel. in self-evaluation, they reexamine and The mechanics of writing would be of lit- refine their own criteria for reading and tle (if any) concern in inurnal writing but writing. In contrast, students who spendwould be a high priority in writing a let- their entire school careers subjected to ter to a public. official. the evaluation criteria of others are un- Authenticity of assessment supports an likely to blossom suddenly into self-assessment-learning relationship. As- evaluators. sessment tasks should be similar to 4. Assessment must be grounded inlearning tasks so students will not be sur- knowledge. Those who accept the re- prised by them, but they also shoul9 of- sponsibility of being assessors must befer students an opportunity to apply, knowledgeable about the content andrather than simply regurgitate, knowl- processes they are assessing. In the caseedge they have acquired. For example,

137 Assessing Reading and Writing 128 the best index of spelling competence skills in reading could bespecific de- might be a student's ability to spella set coding, vocabulary,or comprehension of words correctly ina daily assignment skills; in writing, they could bespelling, rather than on Friday's test. Whenas- punctuation, grammar,usage, rhetori- sessment tasks reflect learning objec- cal, or organizational skills. Butreading tives, students come to understand that and writing also areprocesses that serve how they use reading and writing is more certain functions in the life ofany indi- important than getting a highscore on an vidual. Individualscan read and write to isolated test. Authenticity requires that learn information, to demonstrateun- teachers assess students onlyon what has derstanding, to gain insight,to commu- been, or could be, a part of a regular nicate with others, to satisfypersonal learning activity; the assessment activity needs, to participate ina culture, or to should have intrinsic value. demonstrate to authorities the trappings The above principles supporta portfo- of literacy. lio approach to assessment (Burnham, The relationships among readingand 1986; Camp, 1985; Carter & Tierney, writing processes, the functionalcon- 1988; Lucas, 1988a, 1988b). Weuse the texts in which these processes exist, and term portfolio in both its physical and its the subskill infrastructure of eachcan be philosophical senses. In its physical represented as a set of concentric circles. sense, it is a container in which we can The outer circle representsfunctional store the artifacts of °lir literacy the contextthe purposes literacyserves in examples, documents, and observations our lives. The middle circle represents that serve as evidence of growth and de- the holistic reading and writingproc- velopmentso that they are available for esses themselves. In the innermost circle visitation and reflection. Asa concept, are all those skills that constitute the in- the idea of a portfolio forces us to expand frastructure, or component subskills,of the range of things we wouldconsider as each process. data for instructional decision making.It also reflects the attitude thatassessment is Infrastructure a dynamic rather than a static process, Our assessment focus in the past 20 captured most accurately in multiple years has been on the inner circle, those snapshots taken over time. Al! who havea skills constituting the infrastructureof stake in contributing to the portfolio (stu- reading and writing. For example,most dents, teachers, parents) havea right to basal reading programsassess between "visit" it whenever they wish to reflect on 15 and 30 specific skills and analyze its contents. per year in the middle school years (Foertsch &Pear- A Framework son, 1987). These skills range from knowing the meanings of specific words for Conceptualizing Literacy in a reading unit to knowingroot words Reading and writing can beconcep- or affixes, from finding main ideas for tualizedasholistic processes that areen- brief passages to determining the literal abled by underlying skills. Enabling meaning of figurative expressions. Stu-

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 1 38 129

Figure 1 Dimensions of Reading and Writing

dents often are asked to take tests in problematic or misleading conclusions which their writing ability is indexed byabout student performance (Valencia & their ability to find and correct errors inPearson, 1988). These enabling skills or spelling, grammar, usage, or punctua-strategies are important only in that they tion. Even students who participate inprovide a way to build a meaning for a process writing approaches are some-text. Even strategies such as notetaking, times evaluated primarily on strict ad-summarizing, self-questioning, predict- herence to the conventions of writing oring, semantic mapping, outlining, and to some very specific notion of theme or- more extended forms of writing are es- sential only because they provide stu- We do not argue that these skills are dents with the means to learn from texts unimportant or that they should not be (Moore & Murphy, 1987; Tierney, taught or assessed. However, we believe 1982). It is a student's ability to orches- there are dangers in making such skills a trate and apply these skills in a meaning- major instructional goal, and that assess- ful context that merits our evaluation. ing them in isolation leads to highlyAssessment of reading and writing

Assessing Reading and Writing 139 130 should focus on "developing the exper- arise (Baker & Brown, 1984;Garner, tise needed to apply and adapt strategies 1987; Tierney & Pearson, 1984;Tierney and knowledge tomany situations" et al., 1989). (Valencia & Pearson, 1988,p. 30). That is, skills are best evaluated whenthey are Functional Context serving the processes or functions de- Holistic assessment perspectives picted in the two outer layers rep- of the cir- resent a concern for the global cles in Figure 1. processes and are an important shiftaway from iso- lated skills. However, they neglect Holistic Processes to view reading and writingas processes in Recent curricular refocusing has moved communicative contexts (Freeman & the assessment focus from subskillsto the Sanders, 1987; Halliday, 1975; Heath, holistic processes of reading and writing, 1983; O'Flahavan & Tierney, inpress). where the emphasis is on comprehending We have yet to devisemany assessment and composing 1p-ger pieces oftext in a techniques that emphasize the different more global way. This shift first became purposes and functions of reading and apparent in 1986, when the National As- writing (Applebee, 1984; Freeman& sessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Sanders, 1987; Martin et al., 1975; implemented holistic scoring of writing McGinley & Tiemey, 1988). Forexam- samples, attempting to concentrate atten- ple, the summaries students writeabout tion on the attributes of the piece as a a novel in school testing situationsare whole communicative packagerather very different from those they create in than on the smaller independent compo- informal conversation with friends;yet nents. The comparable starting point fora we tend to assess summaries perse, holistic perspective in readingprobably is without accounting for audience and the popularization of miscueanalysis of purpose. oral reading errors (Goodman,1969; Goodman & Burke, 1972), whichhas Interrelationships been bolstered by the growinguse of re- among the Circles tellings as a measure of comprehension We have rarely looked at the interac- (Goodman & Burke, 1972; Morrowet tions among the threeconstructs in the al., 1986). More recently, thestatewide concentric circles in Figure 1. Forexam- reading assessment efforts in Illinoisand ple, how might we assessgrammar or Michigan focused on readingcomprehen- usage differently when students writeto sion as a holistic understandingof the ma- satisfy personal needsversus when they jor ideas and concepts ina text (Valencia write to request information from & Pearson, 1987; Wixsonet al., 1987). some- one in a position of authority? This is the Other holistic assessment efforts can ex- essence of what we referred to earlier amine students' ability to monitor as their "situated" assessment. reading and writing as wellas their dispo- Interestingly, some recent approaches sition to revise, envisionan audience for to literacy reconceptualize the enabling their writing, or seek help whenproblems skills depicted in our innermost circleto

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 140 131 include the processes of reading andvaluable pieces in the assessment puzzle. writing themselves (our middle circle). Norm-referenced tests help us under- They view the processes as the means bystand students performance in compari- which one can achieve specific goalsson with other groups ofstudents in dr; both in school and in daily life (Freemannation. As such, they permit schools and & Sanders, 1987; McGinley & Tierney,our society to performimportant gate- 1988; Walters, Daniell, & Trachsel,keeping and monitoring functions. Crite- 1987). Mackie (1981, p.1) points outrion-referenced tests measure students that "to be literate is not to have arrivedagainst some prespecified standard (e.g. at some predetermined destination, but80 percent correct), usually set by the to utilize reading, writing, andspeakingschool, the district, or a publisher. These so that our world is progressively en-forms of assessments offer one type of larged?' This view extends the traditionalsystematic information to add to a port- notion of enabling from the generic proc-folio, but they represent a narrowly de- esses of reading and writing to morefined concept of reading and writing. contextually defined goals of reading and Too often teacher-constructed assess- writing. ments, which have the potential to move If we construe literacy in this way,beyond this narrow concept, seem to be then reading and writing become theshaped by the standards of commercially ir.!ans or skills with which students canproduced tests. Studies that examine achieve such goals as personal expres-textbook and teacher-made tests indicate sion, enjoyment, learning, understand-that many are frighteningly similar to ing, insight, communication, survival,the ubiquitous norm-referenced test and cultural participation. Accepting(Armbruster et al., 1984; Armbruster, reading and writing as enabling skillsStevens, & Rosenshine, 1977; Foertsch suggests that our outermost circle must& Pearson, 1987). Even when students be considered the most important in de-are encouraged to writetheir own an- veloping assessment strategies. In theswers, usually they are asked toprovide best of situations, we would assess the only brief, fill-in-the-blank responses to processes and their infrastructures as lower level questions (Applebee, 1984). they serve these important literacy func-Teacher-initiated assessments that devi- tions. When we learn how to account for ate from the paper-and-penciltradition these functionsin our assessment have been denigrated as unreliable, sub- schemes, we will have achieved authen-jective, and unfair. Unfortunately, this tic, situated assessment, tight definition of assessment under- mines the potential for classroom teach- Building an Assessment Portfolio ers to act as instructionaldecision Most teachers have access to norm-makers (Pearson & Valencia, 1987; Cal- referencedtestscores,criterion- fee & Hiebert, 1988) and leaves no room referenced test results, and assessmentsfor creative approaches or professional based on reading and writing activitiesjudgment. We cannot afford to adopt occurring in the classroom. These, aresuch a narrow approach to assessment.

14 1 Assessing Reading and Writing 132 As Stanley and Hopkins (1972, p. 5) re- their own assessment strategies. We mind us: con- ceptualize these criteriaas a set of five Let us not fall into the trap ofasking continua on which any approachto as- whether we should use teacher judgments sessment can be classified. We have cho- or test scores. Faced by the complex prob- sen the continuum metaphor in the belief lems of measurement and evaluationof pi- that shifts in our criteriaare more a mat- pit growth and influences affecting it,we cannot reject any promising resource. Vari- ter of degree than of kind. Thesecon- ous sorts of information supplement each tinua will encourageus to explore the other. range of possibilities and to strive forva- riety and balance in our approachesto We have arrived ata theoretical cross- literacy assessment. The fivecontinua roads in our attempt to developa viable are focus, structure, mode, locus ofcon- assessment system. Fortunately, the trol, and intrusiveness. choice about which roadto follow is Focus. The first step in theassessment clear; we must align and integrateassess- process is to identify the questionsto be ment with sound instruction in orderto addressedin other words,to determine prevent the kind of split professional life what we hope to learn aboutthe student, teachers are forced to lead whenthey group, or class as a result of engaging in switch back and forth fromopen and the assessment task. It ishelpful to think flexible instructional practicesto closed of a range of questionswe might want to and rigid assessmentsystems (Tierney & ask that spans the layers of theconcentric McGinley, 1987). Wemust admit that circles in Figure 1functionalcontext, teacher judgment isan inevitable and im- holistic processes, andinfrastructure. portant source of evaluative information. These questions help focusassessment However, the road tomore enlightened efforts. assessment practices is neither well paved nor well marked.Some trailblaz- ing is clearly called forto enhance our infrastructure processes context repertoire of assessment strategiesand, in the process, improve students'disposi- We begin with questions relatedto the tion toward learning. functional context, which determinesthe first line of assessment criteriaas well as how far into the processes and Describing Portfolio infrastruc- ture one needs to go. Functional Assessment Strategies context questions place reading and writingtasks A portfolio approach to assessment is in meaningful contexts wherethe focus neither laissez-faire nor structureless. is on how well the intendedpurpose of When teachers leave the security of com- the literacy activity is achieved.While mercially produced assessments that are these questions are posed fromthe per- conceptualized, monitored, and con- spective of the teacher, theyare equally trolled by others, they need criteria for useful to students who wishto become classifying, monitoring, and evaluating skilled in self-evaluation. Forexample: Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 142 133

How do students use readir.g and How well are students able to use writing reading strategies such as prepar- for personal expression? ing, monitoring, adapting, and re- for gaining new insights? sponding? for demonstrating knowledge? for learning new information? Infrastructure questions focus on the for getting along in society? skills that enable reading and writing. for participating in the culture? Although they are not usually a primary they still for demonstrating literacy concern in the middle school, competence? occupy an important place inthe curricu- for thinking critically? lum and in the minds of teachers and ad- ministrators. They continue to form the How well are students able to deter- foundation for the development of more mine and use appropriate forms of sophisticated literacy skills, and as such reading and writing for a variety of merit assessment. The key, however, is to different purposes? ensure that these skills areassessed in meaningful functional contexts, not in Other questions might focus more on isolation. For example: holistic processes of reading and writing. The focus is on overall meaning and How well are students able to use processes rather than on theacquisition the mechanics of writing (punctua- of expertise in any specific skills. For tion, capitalization, usage, spelling) example: to construct meaning? How well do students organize and sequence ideas in their writing? How well are students able to use composing strategies such as plan- How well are students able to use ning, drafting, revising, and editing? word identification, vocabulary, and comprehension skills to gain What strategies do students use for meaning from texts? sharing writing and getting feed- How well are students able to apply back? study skills to understand content How well are students able to com- area material? municate ideas through e.eir writ- ing? We may want to focus on one or sev- What strategies do students use for eral questions during any assessment op- getting help with their reading andportunity. However, this continuum writing? reminds us that it is neither necessary How well are students able to guide nor desirable to holdstudents account- and monitor their own learning? able for all possible skills and strategies How well do students understand every time we assess. In some cases, we the important ideas of a piece ofmight be concerned with evaluatingwrit- writi.z? ing for an appropriate audience rather

Assessing Reading and Writing 140t, 134 than editing for punctuation. In other tinuum are semistructured,or informal, cases, we might want to evaluate how assessments that require more input and well students are able touse context to interpretation from the teacher and/or determine the meanings of several new provide greater latitude in students're- conceptually important words presented sponses. Asking students to retell a pas- in a science chapter. At othertimes, we sage just read or to submit an example of might emphasize the effectiveness of a a persuasive piece of writing areexam- piece of persuasive writingand how well ples of informal assessment strategies. it is organized. Our aim In should be to the former, the passage is specifiedbut provide cross sections of assessment student responses are moreopen, as are focia well-balanced assessment port- the criteria for evaluatingresponse qual- folio. ity. With persuasive writing, theassess- Stnicture. The structure of theassess- ment is imposed, but the topic choice is ment indicates how standardizedand open to the student and the scoring crite- prespecified the assessmentstrategy is. ria can be quite flexible. Assessments run the gamut from highly At the unstructured end of the contin- structured to semistructuredto com- uum are those spontaneous observations, pletely unstructured andspontaneous. interactions, or examples of student work that provide important insightsinto how the student is progressing. Inclusion structured semistructured unstructured in the portfolio is all that distinguishes these assessment activities from the The most structured assessments spec- daily, on-the-spot assessments teachers ify everything: the desiredoutcomes/ continually make during instruction. goals, the correct responses, the method Whether they are orare not included in a of collecting and scoring the data, and portfolio, spontaneousassessments are any special required time limits or direc- important sources of information forin- tions. Standardized tests, uniformwrit- structional decision making. Document- ing sample assessments, basalreader ing them in the portfolio provides tests, and informal reading inventories reminders and allows us to examinepat- are examples of these types ofmeasures. terns of behavior over time. They call for limited input andjudgment Mode. The modes of assessment refer from the classroom teacher andthe stu- to the processes used to collect informa- dent. Essentially, any trainedproctor tion about students'progress. They range could administer, score, and report from the most durable samples of student results on any of these measures. A work to interviews to the lessconcrete, slightly less formalmeasure might be a but no less important, observations. teacher-constructed multiple-choicetest where the teacher designs thecontent but leaves other aspects of the assessment to samples interviews observations external control. Somewhere in the middle of thecon- We typically think ofassessment as

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 144 135 pencil-and-paper tasks or samples of stu- though they possess the lure of objectiv- dents' work through which students dem- ity, they are as prone to subjectivity as onstrate knowledge. These are directmore judgmental forms of assessment. measures of durable products(Cooper, For example, emphasis on outcome- 1981) or artifacts of learning. These in- based learning in the late 1970s led many dices are usually easy to administer or teachers and school districts to develop collect, and they provide us with con-their own criterion-referenced assess- crete evidence to share with others. They ments. Criterion-referenced assessments may be initiated by the teacher orby the usually require a mastery cutoff score, student, and may be planned or sponta- such as 80 percent correct. Teachers neous. They may represent a wide range soon found that as they wrote their own of foci, from literacy functions to sub-tests, they had to adjust both text and skills. Although many perceive samples item difficulty on an ad hoc basis in or- of student work as objective, easily eval- der to keep close to their 80 percent cut- uated measures, this is not necessarilyoff score. Since there is no clear the case. This misconception probably conception of task or text difficulty (the derives from our naive association of as- knowledge base required for meaningful sessment with the term test. Inreality, assessment), objectivity is a misnomer. the range of possibilities is far greaterThe point is not that subjectivity or than we usually imagine. teacher judgment is undesirable, but For example, traditional thinking rather that in paper-and-pencil tests sub- would suggest that this mode of assess-jectivity may simply be moved back one ment is simply some type of teacher-con-level from public inspection so it is not structed written test (multiple-choice,quite so obvious. Evaluations of work short answer, essay). A somewhat differ- samples are not inherently more objec- ent sample might be collected forthe tive than any other assessment; their portfolio by asking students to reviewvalue rests in their durability over time, several pieces in their writing folders and not in their objectivity. to select one they feel is a good example At the other end of the mode contin- of their writing ability. Another sampleuum, observations offer several advan- . might be an audiotape of a student's oraltages. They permit the evaluator to view reading or a videotape of a class debatelearning without intruding on the learn- or dramatization. Eachis a durable rec-ing experience. Because they occur more ord of an actual sample of student worknaturally (Moore, 1983), they can con- that can be examined and reexamined tribute a more valid picture of a student's over time by teachers, students,and par-abilities. At the least, they afford an op- ents. portunity to assess processes and strate- While this mode has some attractivegies while students actually are learning advantages, it is not flawless. By defini-(Clay, 1985; Taylor, Harris, & Pearson, tion, samples of work are products; as 1988). such, they rarely capture the energy and Observations often arise out of continu- process that went into creating them.Al-ous, less structured approaches to assess-

14 5 Assessing Reading and Writing 136 ment. For example, the teacher might school, about reading and writingas per- observe Henry as he asks his neighbor to sonal activities, and about howthey help him answer the questionsat the end solve (or fail to solve) their literacy prob- of the social studies chapter, or Susan as lems. Interviewsbe they formal, witha she struggles at the writing center for 30 preplanned set of questions,or informal, minutes attempting to begin a first draft, such as a conversation abouta book a or Marcus as he talks to a friend about a student has finished oftenare over- book he is reading. looked as a mode of assessment. Observations have been criticized for Locus of control. Responsibilityfor their unreliability, and certainly judg- evaluation usually rests with theteacher, ments based on a single observation but, as we suggested in the discussionof merit such criticism. But this problem collaboration, students can, and should, can be counteracted in several ways. The evaluate their own progress. Thepoints first important deterrent to unreliability on the locus of control continuumrange is knowledge. We evaluatemore consist- from traditional teacher evaluationto ently when we know whatwe are to eval- collaboration between student andteach- uate. This knowledge basecan be er (or between student and peer) to stu- strengthened and supported by provid- dent self-evaluation. ing teachers with guidelines, checklists, and characteristics to look for. Second, reliability improves with repeated obser- teaches collaboration student vations, which have the added advantage of reminding us to look for patterns Intrusiveness. The intrusivenesscon- rather than for single indicators of per- tinuum is not independent of othercon- formance. tinua. Logically, one wouldexpect it to Observations also have been criticized be related to structure, mode, andlocus for being subjective. Inresponse to such of control, although the relationshipis criticism, many professionals advocate not linear. An observation checklist used tightly planned, structured, systematic as pan of the school report cardmay be observations (Cunningham, 1982). But, quite formal and teacher controlled; as argued earlier, subjectivity (in the however, it would be fairly unintrusive sense of teacher judgment) is an inescap- from the student's perspective. A2-page able characteristic of allassessments. book report to be completed anytime Using interviews at the midpoint of during the semester might bemore infor- the mode continuum enables teachers mal and offer more shared controland and students to interact in collaborative yet be quite intrusive. settings, share responsibility in shaping the focus of the assessment, and alter the assessment situation through negoti3- ir,trusive unintrusive tion. Interviews guided by clearpur- poses but open to questions allow The rationale for this continuum isto students to share their own views about illustrate the value of assessing students,

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 146 137 whenever possible, in their natural learn- Scenario I ing environments. As with the other con- The question. How well are students tinua, it serves as a way for teachers toable to guide and monitor their own monitor the techniques used to collect in-learning? formation for the assessment portfolio. The situation. A seventh grade En- glish teacher wants to help his students Illustrative Assessment Scenarios improve their ability to monitor their It is impossible for us to recommendown reading to ensure that it makes an exhaustive set of assessment strategies sense. He has his students use paper for classroom use. We have describedbookmarks (or stick-on notes) to record our principles and criteria (our continua)problem spots (difficult concepts, un- carefully because we believe teachersknown words, questions they would like must tailor assessment practices to theirto discuss) they encounter while reading classroom situations. Guidelines, not an assigned chapter in a novel. After they tests, serve teachers better in this en-discuss the chapter in class, he hokt in- deavor. To illustrate how assessmentsdividual conferences with several stu- can be tailored, we provide five illustra-dents (different students are scheduled tive assessment scenarios. For each sce- for conferences each week). First, he has nario, we depict the specific assessmenteach student retell the chapter to chez!. questions and procedures used by aon comprehension (see Appendix A). If middle school teachertoevaluatethe student reads with good understand- some aspects of reading anu writing per- ing and no problem areas are evident, the formance, classify each according to theteacher decides against assessing self- five continua, and elaborate on ways inmonitoring. If, on the other hand, the which the strategy might be adapted tostudent exhibits some comprehension answer different questions or to fulfilldifficulty or the teacher identifies possi- different assessment needs. ble problems, the two discuss the trouble

Rating the assessment activity (self-monitoring) Focus X infrastructure processes context Structure X structured semistructured unstructured Mode X X samples interviews observations Loess of Control X student collaboration teacher Intrusiveness X intrusive unintrusive

147 Assessing Reading and Writing 138

spots. They examine the notes on the where along each of the five continua. bookmarks, review the chapter for other Furthermore, this assessment activity potential problem spots thatwere not can be repeated using different materials noted, and then discuss strategies for and focusing on many different aspects coping with the difficulties. The teacher of reading or writing. jots down some anecdotal notes and There are many other strategies for sometimes even attaches the student's gathering information about students' bookmark to the notes for later place- ability to monitor their own learning. ment in the student's portfolio. Another way to assess self-monitoring is What can we learn? This task simply to ask students to annotate each amounts to asking students to edit their work sample as they file it in their port- own reading. The bookmark technique is folio. They might rate the quality of each a good onl, since most students do not on a general 1-10 scale, they might rate it have the luxury of writing in their texts on specific criteria, or they might write a while they read. By observing their short statement about difficultiesen- notes, interviewing, or even collecting countered or their degree of satisfaction these bookmarks, teachers may gain in- with the product. sight into each student's ability to process a piece of text. Collaboratively, student Scenario 2 and teacher identify possible problems The question. How do studentsre- and design instructional strategies. spond to a piece of literature? To adapt this technique to writing, The situation. An eighth grade En- teachers might ask students to proofread glish class has just finished reading The or edit their drafts with one or two spe- Diary of Anne Frank, and the teacher has cific purposes in mind. Thesepurposes at,..ed them to write an essay of nomore may be as detailed as proofreading for than 3 pages detailing their reaction and spelling or punctuatirn errors oras response to the book in a way that pro- broad as revising the presentation ofa vides a helpful overview to another line of reasoning or an argument. The group of eighth grade students who are student then may confer with the teacher beginning to read the book. As she fin- (or submit papers), using both first and ishes her directions for the assignment, second drafts to collaboratively evaluate the teacher reminds the students to focus progress. on the content of the responses and not to This particular type of activity can be worry about mechanics and grammar on framed in a variety of ways. The focus this draft. There will be plenty of time may be on specific vocabulary skills, the for that when they complete the version author's craft, prewriting strategies, or they will actually send to students in her organization; the mode can be observa- other eighth grade English class. tion, interview, or sample; the activity What can we learn? For the first may be teacher initiated (intrusive) ordraft, the teacher is clearly interested in student initiated (unintrusive). Thus, it evaluating students' responses to a piece has the potential to fall virtually any-of literature rather than their ability to

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 1.48 139 Rating the assessment activity (informational essay indrafts) Focus X infrastructure processes context Structure X structured semistructured unstructured Mode X samples interviews observations Locus of Control X student collaboration teacher Intrusiveness X intrusive unintrusive

control the mechanical features of theother student is a good index of what writing process. She could use a holistic they attended to when reading the text. scale (see appendix B) for evaluating the As with our other illustrative sce- writing activity. A holistic scale placesnarios, this scenario could be slightly the focus on the quality of the communi- modified to take on many different val- cation to the potential audience. Alterna- ues on most of the five continua. For ex- tively, she could use an analytic scaleample, if the teacher tells students that (see appendix C) in which separate sub-correct mechanics are absolutely essen- scales rate traits such as fidelity to the tial, she can immediately shift the focus themes of the book, sense of audience, of the activity from the context to the in- organization, and style. When the stu-frastructure. If she specifies the exact dents complete the final version, theform of the response (e.g., a 5-paragraph teacher may want to incorporate Alb- theme), the task becomes structured and scales dealing with the conventions ofeven more intrusive. written language or the impact of the message. Notice that the motivationfor Scenario 3 adhering to conventions is inherently The question. How well are students greater when students have a real audi-able to compose an informational text? ence in mind rather than an audience The situation. A sixth grade language consisting of the teacher or some vague,arts teacher requests that students keep a hypothetical group (pretend you are writ-portfolio of all the writing they do ing to ...). throughout the year. As a result, each Although this is primarily a writingstudent's portfolio contains several sam- activity, the teacher also can learn some-ples of narrative, personal, and infor- thingaboutherstudents'readingmational writing. At various points performance. For example, what the stu-throughout the year, she asks her stu- dents consider important to relate to an-dents to select a piece they feel repre-

_1.49 Assessing Reading and Writing 140

sents their best effort at composing ina guage. Most important, by asking stu- particular genre. Prior to submittingdents to write a letter justifying the their papers, students are given theop- quality of their selection, the teacher has portunity to make any final revisions asked that they begin to take steps toward they think necessary. becoming evaluators of their own writ- Before submission, the teacher in- ing. In so doing, she has createda situa- forms students that the piece must beac- tion with equal potential for instruction companied by a letter to her explaining and assessment. In writing about their and justifying its selection. She also tells own work, students evaluate and rethink them that she will evaluate the letterson the standards they associate with good the basis of the three aspects of writing informational writing. By examining they have been studying in thepast similar self-evaluations over time, the monthquality of content, organization, teacher can determine what features of and voice. In addition, she will evaluate writing students are focusing on and how each letter on the basis of how persuasive their focus changes as a result of instruc- it is in convincing her that the piecere- tion over the course of the year. Are they ally izscludes these critical qualitiesof concerned with features related to the in- good informational writing. frastructure of the piece, with the piece Mat can we learn? In this scenario, as a whole, or with the functions or pur- the teacher is interested in learninga poses the piece serves? number of things about her students' This activity may be framed in other ability to compose informational texts. ways. For ex:mple, in asking students to The pieces themselves are a source of in- write about their writing, the teacher formation about students' knowledge of may choose to tighten the structure by the specific content they are reporting,as specifying criteria for evaluationor to well as about their ability to organize and open the structure by asking students to synthesize information in their own Ian- elect their criteria for evaluation.

Rating the assessment activity (informationalwriting and justificatiln letter) Focus X infrastructure processes context Structure X structured semistructured unstructured Mode X samples interviews observations Locus of Control X student collaboration teacher Intrusiveness X intrusive unintrusive

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 141

Scenario 4 ideas from one category to another. As a The question. How well are students culminating activity, he asks that each able to use their prior knowledge and student develop a written summary of the reading skills to learn new information information included in the class map. from a textbook? What can we learn? This activity is The situation. In his sixth grade so-interesting because other than the sum- cial studies class, a teacher has decidedmary at the end of the activity, there is no to use a prereading mapping activity fol-provision for any artifacts representing lowed by a postreading group semantic individual performance; the map itself is mapping activity as a way of preparing a group effort. During the mapping ac- for and then following up the reading oftivity, the teacher observes the contribu- a chapter on the development of Greek tions of individual students and draws civilization. To do the prereading map-conclusions about their knowledge be- ping activity, he begins with a blank fore reading the chapter and about what chart and writes Ancient Greece in thethey learned while reading it. He also middle, asking students to share ideascan make anecdotal notes to add to the that come to mind when they think ofportfolio. The summary activity pro- Ancient Greece. Once 25 to 30 ideas vides the teacher with a chance to learn a have been added to the chart (within cat-great deal about students' ability to orga- egories), he asks the students to read the nize and present ideas. chapter and look for new ideas to add to With some modification, mapping can the chart or think of ways they may wish provide more insight into individual per- to revise the chart. Once the reading isformance. For example, some teachers finished, he meets with the whole classask students to complete pre- and post- to revise the chart, adding another 30reading maps on their own; in such ideas to it, putting in labels for some ofcases, maps become individual rather the new categories, and switching a fewthan group artifacts. The disadvantage of

Rating the assessment activity (map atid summary) Focus X (summary) X (map) infrastructure processes context Structure X structured semistructured unstructured Mode X (summary) X (map) samples interviews observations Locus of Control X student collaboration teacher Intrusiveness X intrusive unintrusive 15 Assessing Reading and Writing 142

individual mapping is that students do least three sources; and develop a com- not get a chance to learn from one an- plete report to be shared with theirpeers other during the group mappingses- as well as their language arts and science sions. As a more intrusive measure (but teachers. perhaps more informative with respect to Over the past several weeks, the stu- assessing growth for particular concepts dents were introduced to several different presented in the text), maps also can be strategies for selecting and narrowing much more structured. The teachercan topics of study. In addition, the teacher provide all the categories for the associa- introduced the students to many possible tion task, in which case it may look more sources of information in the library (en- like a study guide or an incomplete out- cyclopedia, books, magazines, films) line. and in the community (interviews with experts, museums). Scenario 5 Since the teacher had been usinga Tice question. How well are students process approach to teach writing, stu- able to use reading and writing to create dents composed their reports using the a research report? strategies they had acquired. Addition- The situation. A nirth grade lan- ally, the teacher set aside time oversev- guage arts teacher has just completed a eral weeks to work with studentson two month long instructional unit on report new skills: synth -.izing information writing. Initially, she met with the sci- from several sources and using footnotes ence teacher to discuss which topics the and bibliographic information. Students students would be studying in November. shared their final reports during two Together they outlined possibilities fora combined language arts and science related language arts writing unit. Stu- class periods. Students with common in- dents were required to select a topic of terests formed groups in which they dis- personal interest related to the solar sys- cussed theirreports and provided tem, planets, or space exploration; state feedback. The papers were submitted to a hypothesis; gather information from at both teachers for grading.

Rating the assessment activity (checklist) Focus X infrastructure processes context Structure X structured semistructured unstructured Mode X samples interviews observations Locus of Control X student collaboration teacher Intrusiveness X intrusive unintrusive

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 152 143

Rating the assessment activity (learning logs) Focus student determined infrastructure processes context Structure X structured semistructured unstructured Mode X samples interviews observations Locus of Control X -- student collaboration teacher Intrusiveness X intrusive unintrusive

As students moved through their draftsexperiences as they gathered information and revisions, the teacher observed theirand compose( their reports: their prob- strategies for getting started and for get-lems, need for additional guidance, new ting help with revision. Using a checklistinsights, and feelings about their efforts. several times during the month as aThe logs were shared with the teacher :A guideline (see Appendix D), she keptthe students' discretion. track of each student's progress and used The final report was evaluated using the data to form short term instructionalinformation from four sources: the lan- groups on several of the goals and strate-guage arts teacher, theience teacher, gies explicit in the unit. the student, and the `Jecial interest During the month, the teacher alsogroup with whom the re,. Jrt was shared. suggested that students write in theirEach evaluator consi, :ed the paper learning logs at least twice a weekfrom a different perspective. The lan- (Kirby & Liner, 1981). They were en-guage arts teacher used three main crite- couraged to write about their learningria. the overall quality of the paper

Rating the assessment activity (report) Focus X X X infrastructure processes context Structure X structured semistructured unstructured Mode X X samples interviews observations Locus of Conte.31 X - - X X student collaboration teacher Intrusiveness X intrusive unintrusive

.1.53 Assessing Reading and Writing 144

(measured by a holistic scoring tech- for portfolio assessment for reading and nique), the ability to synthesize several writing during the middle school years. sources of information into a coherent A portfolio is both a physical collection original piece, and use of the appropriate of the artifacts of students' reading and form for footnotes and bibliographic in- writing and a disposition toward assess- formation (a primary instructional goal ment. This disposition is characterized for this unit). Students were provided by the belief that assessment must be with a self-evaluation questionnaire (Ap- continuous, multidimensional, collabo- pendix E) to guide their reflections on rative, knowledge-based, and authentic. the process of writing the report and on Our recommendation for portfolios is the quality of the final product. The sci- based on the conviction that records ence teacher evaluated both the quality of gathered while students are engaged in the information presented and students' functional and contextualized literacy ability to use a scientific report to state a tasks ultimately will prove more useful to hypothesis, present information, and both teachers and students than will any draw appropriate conclusions. The inter- set of numbers derived from tests that est group evaluated each report on how have little relevance to the purposes and well the student presented the informa- needs of either group. tion to the group and on the author's abil- The scenarios and assessment tools we ity to react to questions about the report. have provided are illustrative rather than All titese assessments were used to arrive exhiaystive, descriptive rather than pre- at a final grade for the project. scriptive. The principles and continua What can we learn? This rich in- put forward in this chapter should be re- structional context provides the teacher garded as a conceptual framework to use with unlimited opportunities to assess in developing and evaluating assessment students during the entire monthlong strategies. The array of assessment op- process of reading and writing to create portunities available to us as teachers is their reports. The instructional unit also limited only by our creativity, our resultsina concrete artifactthe knowledge of reading and writing proc- reportand the added experience of pre- esses, and our grasp of sound assessment senting the work to peers and to experts. criteria. It is our responsibility to avail Notice that for many of our continua, we ourselves of these opportunities. have marked several points rather than a single point. This is because in situations such as these, assessment opportunities References tend to be flexible and dynamic.; that is, a Anderson, Richard C., Heibert, Elfrieda H., single strategy can relate to more than Scott, Judith A., & Wilkinson, Ian A. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers. Urbana, IL: one structure, mode, or level of focus, University of Illinois, Center for the Study of and it can change over time. Reading. Applebee, Arthur N. (1984). Contexts for learn- Concluding Statement ing to write. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Applebee, Arthur N. (1981). Writing in the sec- In this chapter, we have build a case ondary school: English and the content areas.

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 1.54 145

Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of Edelsky, Carole, & Harman, Susan. (1988). One English. more critique of reading tests-with two dif- Armbruster, Bonnie B., Anderson, Thomas H., ferences. English Education, 20(3), 157-171. Bruning, Roger H., & Meyer, Linda A. Foertsch, Mary, & Pearson, P. David. (1987). (1984). What did you mean by that question? Reading assessment in basal reading series A taxonomy of American history questions and standardized tests. Paper presented at the (Technical Report No. 308). Urbana, IL: National Reading Conference, St. Peters- University of Illinois, Center for the Study of burg, FL. Reading. Freeman, Evelyn B., & Sanders, Tobie. (1987). Armbruster, Bonnie B., Stevens, Robert J., & The social meaning of literacy: Writing in- Rosenshine, Barak. (1977). Analyzing con- struction and the community. Language Arts, tent coverage and emphasis: A study of three 64.641 -645. curricula and two tests (Technical Report No. Gage, John. (1986). Why write? In David 26). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, Cen- Bartholomea & Anthony Petrosky (Eds.), ter for the Study of Reading. The teaching of writing (pp. 8-29). Chicago, Baker, Linda, & Brown, Ann L. (1984). Meta- IL: National Society for the Study of Educa- cognitive skills and reading. In P. David tion. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of reading re- Garner, Ruth. (1987). Metacognition and read- search. New York: Longman. ing comprehension. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Burnham, C.C. (1986). Portfolio evaluation: Goodman, Kenneth S. (1969). Analysis of oral Room to breathe and grow. In Charles reading miscues: Applied psycholinguistics. Bridges (Ed.), Training the teacher of college Reading Research Quarterly, 5, 9-30. composition. Urbana, IL: National Council Goodman, Yetta M., & Burke, Carolyn L. of Teachers of English. (1972). Reading miscue inventory manual: Calfee, Robert, & Hiebert, Elfrieda. (1988). The Procedures for diagnosis and evaluation. teacher's role in using assessment to improve New York: Macmillan. learning. Unpublished manuscript. Halliday, Michael. (1975). Explorations in the Camp, Roberta. (1985). The writing folder in functions of language. London: Edward postsecondary assessment. In Peter J. Evans Arnold. (Ed.), Directions and misdirection in En- Heath, Shirley B. (1983). Ways with words. glish evaluation. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Council of Teachers of English. Press. Carter, Mark A., & Tierney, Robert J. (1988). Kirby, Dan, & Liner, Tom. (1981). Inside out: Reading and writing growth using portfolios Developmental strategies for teaching writ- in assessment. Paper presented at the Na- ing. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. tional Reading Conference, Tucson, AZ. Langer, Judith A., & Applebee, Arthur N. Clay, Marie M. (1985). The early detection of (1987). Writing and learning in the secondary reading difficulties (3rd ed.). Portsmouth, school (National Institute of Education Grant NH: Heinemann. No. ruE-G-82-0027). Stanford, CA: Stanford Collins, Allan, Brown, John S., & 11,7wman, University School of Education. Susan E. (in press). Cognitive apprentice- Lucas, Catherine K. (1988a). Toward ecological ship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing, evaluation. The Quarterly of the National and mathematics. In Lauren B. R....nick Writing Project and the Center for the Study (Ed.), Cognition and instruction: Issues and of Writing, /OW, 1-17. agendas. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Lucas, Catherine K. (1988b). Toward ecological Cooper, John 0. (1981). Measuring behavior. evaluation, part 2. The Quarterly of the Na- Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. tional Writing Project and the Center for the Cunningham, Patricia M. (1982). Diagnosis by Study of Writing, 10(2), 4-10. observation. In John J. Pikulski & Timothy Mackie, Robert (Ed.). (1981). literacy and rev- Shanahan (Eds.), Approaches to the informal olution. The pedagogy of Paulo Freire. New evaluation of reading. Newark, DE: Interna- York: Continuum Publishing. tional Reading Association. Martin, Nancy, Meday, Peter, Smith, Harold, & Diederich, Paul. (1974). Measuring growth in D'Arcy, Pat. (1975). Why Write? In Nancy English. Urbana, IL. National Council of Martin (Ed.), Writing across the curriculum. Teachers of English. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, 34-59.

155 Assessing Reading and Writing 146

McGinley, William, & Tierney, Robert J. (1988). NJ: Prentice Hall. Reading and writing as ways of knowing and Taylor, Barbara, Harris, Larry A., & Pearson, P. learning (Technical Report No. 423). Ur- David. (1988). Reading difficult,es: Instruc- bana, IL: University of Illinois, Center for tion and assessment. New Yerk: Random the Study of Reading. House. Moore, David W., & Murphy, Ann G. (1987). Timmy, Robert J. (1982). Lear:lung from text. In Reading programs. In Donna E. Alvennann, Aiks -Berger -& H. Man Robinson (Eds.), David W. Moore, & Mark W. Conley (Eds.), Secondary school reading: What research re- Research within reach: Secondary school veals for classroom practice (pp. 97-110). reading. Newark, DE: International Reading Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading Association. and Communication Skills and the National Morrow, Lesley M., Gambrell, Linda, Kapinus, Council on Research in English. Barbara, Marshall, Nancy, & Mitchell, Tierney, Robert J., & McGinley, William. Judith. (1986). Retelling: A strategy for read- (1987). Serious flaws in written literacy as- ing instruction and assessment. In Jerome sessment. Paper presented at the American Niles (Ed.), Solving problems in literacy. Educational Research Association Annual Learners, teachers, and researchers. Thirty- Meeting. Fifth Yearbook of the National Reading Con- Tierney, Robert J., & Pearson, P. David. (1984). ference. Rochester, NY: National Reading Toward a composing model of reading. In Conference. Julie M. Jensen (Ed.), Composing and com- O'Flahavan, John F., & Tierney, Robert J. (in prehending. Urbana, IL: National Council of press). Reading, writing, and critical think- Teachers of English. ing. In Beau F. Jones & Lorna Idol (Eds.), Tierney, Robert J., Soter, Anna, O'Flahavan. Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruc- John F., & McGinley, William. (1989). Th.; tion (vol. 2). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. effects of reading and writing upon thinking Pearson, P. David, & Valencia, Sheila W. critically. Reading Research Quarterly, (1987). Assessment, accountability, and pro- 24(2), 134173. fessional prerogative. In John E. Readence & Valencia, Sheila W., & Pearson, P. David. R. Scott Baldwin (Eds.), Research in liter- (1988). Principles for classroom comprehen- acy: Merging perspectives (pp. 3-16). Thirty- sion assessment. Remedial and Special Edu- Sixth Yearbook of the National Reading cation, 9, 26-35. Conference. Rochester, NY: National Read- Valencia, Sheila W., & Pearson, P. David. ing Conference. (1987). Reading assessment: Time for a Shulman, Lee S. (1975). Teaching as clinical in- change. Reading Teacher, 40, 726-732. formation.processing.inNateiGagelEd.), Walters, ICeith, Daniell;Seth,&-Trachsel, Mary. National conference on studies in teaching. (1987). Formal and functional approaches to Washington, DC: National Institute of Educa- literacy. Language Arts, 64, 855-868. tion. Wixson, Karen K., Peters, Charles W., Weber, Stanley, Julian C., & Hopkins, Kenneth D. Elaine M., & Roeber, Edward. (1987). New (1972). Educational and psychological mea- directions in statewide reading assessment. surement and evaluation. Englewood Cliffs. Reading Teacher, 40, 749-755.

1.56 Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 147 Appendix A A Schema for Scoring Retellings: The Retelling Profile* Directions; Indicate with a checkmark the extent to which the reader's retelling includes or provides-evidence of thelolloWitig ifforiation. low moderate high none degree degree degree

1. Retelling includes information directly stated in text. 2. Retelling includes information inferred directly or indirectly from text. 3. Retelling includes what is important to remember from the text. 4. Retelling provides relevant content and concepts. 5. Retelling indicates reader's attempt to connect background knowledge to text information. 6. Retelling indicates reader's attempt to make summary statements or generalizations based on text that can be applied to the real world. 7. Retelling indicates highly individualistic and creative impressions of or reactions to the text. 8. Retelling indicates the reader's affective involvement-with-the text: 9. Retelling demonstrates appropriate use of language (vocabulary, sentence structure, language conventions). 10. Retelling indicates reader's ability to organize or compose the retelling. 11. Retelling demonstrates the reader's sense of audience or purpose. 12. Retelling indicates the reader's control of the mechanics of speaking or writing. Interpretation. Items 1-4 indicate the reader's comprehension of textual information, items 5-8 indicate metacognitive awareness, strategy use, and involvement with text; items 9-12 indicate facility with language and language development.

Prom J.N. Mitchell & P.A. Irwin (1989). The reading reielhng profile. Using retelhngs to make instruaional decisions Unpublished paper.

1.57 Assessing Reading and Writing 148 Appendix B A Holistic Scoring Scale* Level I. Not competent Either the content is inadequate for the topic selected or deficiencies in the conventions of written expression are so gross that they interfere with communication. Level 2. Not competent The student can express a message which can be readily understood, which contains ade- quate content for the selected topic, and which demonstrates at least marginal command of sentence sense. The writing, however, is grossly deficient in one or more of these skills, judged by stand- ards appropriate for high school: Spelling Usage Punctuation and capitalization Level 3. Marginally competent The student can compose a complete series of ideas about a topic with a minimum of gross deficiencies in spelling, usage, or punctuation, judged by standards appropriate for high school. The writing, however, does not contain at least one competent paragraph or is not compe- tent in one or more of these skills, judged by standards appropriate for high school: Sentence sense Usage Spelling Punctuation and capitalization Level 4. Competent The student can compose a complete series of ideas about a topic with basic skills at a level appropriate for high school and with at least one competent paragraph: The writing, however, does i.ot demonstrate all the characteristics of highly competent writing: Good overall organization Good sentence structure Competent paragraphing Good vocabulary Regular use of transitions Appropriate use of subordination Interpretive meaning (a. opposed to literal writing)

Level 5. Highly competent The student can compose a complete series of ideas about a topic with basic skills at a level appropriate for high school and with these characteristics of highly competent writing. Good overall organization Good sentence structure Competent paragraphing Good vocabulary Regular use of transitions Appropriate use of subordination Interpretive meaning (as opposed to literal writing) The writing however, does not demonstrate thesis development acid does not contain criti- cal or creative thinking.

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 1.523 149

Level 6. Superior The student can compose a complete series of ideas about a topic with excellent basic skills, with the characteristics of highly competent writing, with adequate thesis development, and with_at least one passage demonstrating critical or creative thinking. The passage of superior writing, however, tends to be an isolated example. Level 7. Superior The student can compose a complete series of ideas about a topic with excellent basic skills, with critical or creative thinking, and with a sustained vitality and richness of expression.

*From R.A. McCaig. A districtwide plan for the evaluation of student wnting. In S. Haley-James (Ed.). Perspectites onnang in grades 1-8.Copynght 1981 by the National Council of Teachers of English. Reprinted by permission.

Appendix C An Analytic Scoring Scale Showing Code Number of Ongoing Revisions* A. Quality and Scope of Intent 5 Clear perception of topic, problems, and issues is outlined in the introduction; seriousness may not be explicit, but is implied; use of detail is specific to issues raised 3 Reader can discern point of view of writer, but not as clearly as 5; nodevelopment issues before launching into pros and cons; detail is minimal, glossy I Superficial addressing of the issue; "I think" stance; broad, general statements; little or no detail B. Organization and Presentation of Content 5 Focus of topic is clear, digressions are relevant and usuallysignaled; all or most of essay is clearly elaborative, supports argumentsfully through logical development 3 Lacks clear focus, but remains on topic; some evidence of faultyreasoning, but adequate development of reasoning; sense of beginning, middle, end I Has not given reader sense of which aspect is most important oris incomprehensi- ble; scant or no paragraph development, scant or no elaboration of mainpoints through use of examples C. Style and Tone 5 Language generally consistent with rhetorical task and withinitself; no gaps in information, generally, content links smoothly through logical development;vari- ety of sentence types 3 Appeals more to reader's emotions than to intellect; no slang, nojargon; little or no use of subordination; reader can followflow of thought, but less so than 5 I Language detracts from persuasive task, may be flippant; lack ofconnectivity or less so than 3; some gaps in content; little or no flow between ideas

159 Assessing Reading and Writing 150 D. Mechanics 5 One or no errors in usage; generally very few or no spelling or punctuation errors 3 Errors in usage, but text remains comprehensible; errors in spelling and punctua- tion, but text comprehensibility is not affected 1 Text comprehensibility greatly affected by errors; frequent, flagrant errors where text is difficult to process E. Affective Response of the Raters 5 Essay was interesting; a sense of connection with the writer 3 Moderately interesting; a sense of moderate connection with the writer 1 Not really interesting; no sense of connection with the writer F. Overall Impression Score 7 Off task 5 Exceptional or near exceptional essay; persuasive argument; use of accepted, me- chanical conventions, logically developed, connected prose, rich detail, elabora- tion; generally, good flow of thought 3 An acceptable piece; few mechanical errors; more gaps in information than in 5; development of ideas is there, but must be flushed out by reader; an occasional appeal to reader's emotions rather than intellect 1 A poor effort; many errors in mechanics, consistency of tone, logical development, flow of thought, connectedness; comprehensibility of the piece is adversely affected

*Adapted from A. Purses. (1982).International evaluation of ossessment of written composition.Unpublished paper.

Appendix D A Writing Analysis Checklist* The Writing Process 1. How often does the writer get ideas for writing f- rom the imagination? f- rom discussion with others? by imitating a book, story, poem,TVshow? f- rom the teacher's assignments? f- rom some other source? Which? 2. When the writer means to rehearse what will be written, andnarrow down the topic, does the writer

____talk to classmates? talk to the teacher? draw a picture first? ____ startwriting right away?

Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 1 60 151

3. In drafting a paper, does the writer

____write one draft only? ____invent spellings, use a dictionary, or limit vocabulary to the words he or she can spell? ____scratch out words and lines, and cut and paste? seek comments from others about the way the drafting is going? 4. Does the writer revise a paper before it-is considered finished? Do the drafts

____all look like different papers, new beginnings? ____look like mechanical refinements of earlier drafts? _interact with and build on the ideas of early drafts? The Functions of Writing 5. What forms of writing has the writer produced? stories? ____poems? ____expressive writing (personal experiences and opinions)? ____persuasive writing? ____descriptive writing? _expository writing (that which explains or gives directions)? 6. What kinds of topics has the writer written about? _topics about which the writer was an expert? topics about which the writer had to learn more befqre writing? _topics about things that were present? _topics about things that were past or absent? ____topics about abstract ideas? 7. What audiences has the writer written for?

__,...the teacher? classmates? people known to the child? Whom? _...people unknown to the child? Whom? 8. In trying to stick to the topic, did the writer limit the focus of the topic before starting to write? stick to one thing or ramble? _focus more on the object of the writing or on the writer? 9. In trying to stick with the purpose of writing, does the writer k- eep expressing personal feelings, although the topic and purpose suggestdoing otherwise? declare one purpose but pursue another (such as "The story about..:' whichis expository, not narrative)? _shift from one purpose to another? 10. In trying to meet the audience's need for information _does the writer appear to assume the audience knows and is interested in the author? is he or she careful to tell the audience things they will need to know in order to understand what is talked about? does the writer address the same audience throughout?

16.E Assessing Reading and Writing 152

Qualities of Writing Styles I I._ Doesthe writer use exact, well-chosen words? 12._Does the writer "paint pictures with words" (make the reader see what the writer saw)? Does the writer focus on immediate "here-and-now" images? 13. In regard to the organization of the papers does the writer keep the focus on one aspect of the topic at a time? _do the papers have identifiable openings? _ arethe details arranged in a reasonable order and do they relate reasonably to one another? _is there an identifiable ending to the papers? Fluency of Writing 14. How long are the papers (in words or lines per paper)? 15. What is the average number of words per sentence? 16. What is the average number of words per T-unit? Mechanics of Writing 17. In handwriting, does the writer have problems forming letters? Which ones? have problems spacing between letters? Keeping vertical lines parallel? Keeping the writing even on the baseline? _ write with uniform pressure? In smooth or in jerky lines? 18. In regard to spelling, does the writer misspell words in the first draft? _does the writer correct the spellings of many words between the first and later drafts? _what does the writer do when uncertain of how to spell a word? 19. Does the writer have trouble with standard English usage? _Does the writer write in complete sentences? If not, what are the units of_ writing like? _ Doesthe writer have problems with punctuation and capitalization? With which elements? In what circumstances? _ Are errors made in standard English grammar? If so, describe the errors. Enjoying Writing 20._Does the writer take pleasure in writing? How do you know? From C. Temple & 1. W. Gillet Lanmaige ans. Learning processes and teaching processes. 2nd ed. Copyright 1989. Re. printed by permission of Scott. Forcsman & Company.

162 Valencia, McGinley, and Pearson 153 Appendix E A Self-Evaluation Questionnaire*

1. List the successful things you did in writing this paper. 2. List the things that a reader will think are successful. 3. List the things you were unable to do in this paper that would havemade it more successful. 4. In the process of writing this paper, what aspects were easier thanwhen you have written previous papers? 5. In the process of writing this paper, what aspects were moredifficult than when you have written previous papers? From L. Faigley, R.D. Cherry. D.A. Jaffe. & A.M, Skinner. Assessing writers'Anintledge and pmcesses of composing Copy- right 1985 by Ablex Publishing. Reprinted by permission,

163

Assessing Reading and Writing PART THREE

Implementing Reading Programs

FoR.E LLB IDE

The following chapters are designed to provide a hands-on perspectivefor middle school reading. Each chapter tells a story about one school district's attempt to implement reading programs. Each story resultsin unique insights about how to implement improvements, ranging from the impediments to Lhange reported by Anders and Levine in Chapter 10 to the utility of employing collaborative models as reported by Conley and Tripp-Opple in Chapter 14. Together, the five chapters provide five tangible examples other educators can use as a basis for implementing their own middle school literacy programs.

164 Accomplishing Change in Reading Pro s

Patricia L. Anders Ned S. Levine

THISISA STORY cerning instructional priori- about a large urban district UP ties and a method for orga- where15juniorhigh nizing.Principalswere schools tried to make the transition to the brought in during the first summer of the middle school philosophy and format. transition year to receive theoretical Embedded in thc, story are two mes- training on the philosophy and format of sages. One focuses on what makes middle schools. The charge was for the change difficult; the other on authentic principals to engage a planning team to literacy e4eriences and strategy instruc- implement these changes despite the fact tion as critical features of effective mid- that, due to resource constraints, only dle school reading programs. two days of inservice a year were pro- vided at each site. Background Reading, of course, was a main focus. The initial stages of change in our Conceptually, the emphasis was on read- schools were fairly predictable. A re- ing throughout the content areas This search group took time to learn from au- emphasis required changes in attitudes thorities and "the literature" what the and skills. Reading could no longer be difference was between the middle thought of solely as a class or core sub- school construct and the existing junior ject, but as a process to be applied and high format. Two years later, a report taught in each area (see Chapter 5, this was published that served as a guide for volume). The outcome of the first year's what middle schools should be. Included efforts was predictable. The similarity to in this publication were statements con- the myth about the blind men and the

165 157 158

elephant was striking. People possessing called "sponsorship," i'...ential to create varying perspectives on the elephant all an audience. A person like that, however, tried to build their own. As one English can only "yearn out loud for changes" be- teacher said, "All this middle school cause they usually lack the wherewithal to make those changes. stuff is okay. I still will only have tosee a The third type of specialist is aperson student for one period and then I'll be who can explain anything,no matter how through with him or her for the day:' complicated, to the satisfaction ofmost The second year we began again. We people, no matter how pigheaded or stupid revised our training programs. Summer they may be. This type of person willsay training with school teams of administra- almost anything to gain attentionor to be interesting or exciting. This is the venerable tors and staff focused on planning and talk show host. However, working alone, implementing the intended programas this person may strike his/her constituents well as on the content of the middle as, shall we say, suffering from eternal con- school. This experience with staff devel- stipation. opment programs emphasized the diffi- If you can't get a cast like that together, you can forget about changing anything culty of change. Vonnegut (1987) gives (p. 191). his own assessment of the possibility of achieving a given change in a satirical, Like Vonnegut, we have learned that whimsical novel, Bluebeard. A fictional change is difficult. Consequently,the character offers his views through the first part of this chapter deals specifically publication of a nonfiction tome, The with the process of change in middle Only Way to Have a Successful Revolu- schools; the second part elaborateson tion in Any Field of Human Activity. practices emphasized inour reading Most people, we are told (and I might add, efforts. I heartily agree) cannot open their minds to new ideas unless a mind-opening team with The Dynamics of Change a peculiar membership goes to work on them. Otherwise, life will go on as before, A survey of the literatureon change no matter how painful, unrealistic, ludi- suggests several barriers to change. The crous, or downright dumb that life may be. first is that research-based definitions of The team must consist of three kinds of good teaching (Brophy & Good, 1986) spxialists_ The rarest of these specialists is drive many policymakers to invent lists an authentic geniusa person capable of and inventories of observable classroom having good ideas not in general circula- tion. The trick is to convince people then behavior and adopt themas an evalua- that the ideas are good and should be dis- tion tool for judging the effectivenessof covered and shared. "A genius working teaching. Translated into checklistsfor alone is invariably ignored as a lunatic:' the site administrator, these "research The second sort of specialist is a lot easier implications" become expectationsto be to hind. What you need here is a highly in- observed in classroom instruction. telligent citizen in good standing in hisor The her community, who admires the freshness evaluator focuses on thepresence of a and pertinence of the genius and testifies particular practice; itsuse is rewarded, that the genius is far from mad. The valida- its absence penalized. Whether the ob- tion, in Human Development Training served behavior is appropriateto the Anders and Levine 166 159 content of the lesson or to the needs and skills embedded in complex models re- interests of the students does not enterquire as many as 25 practice episodes to into the evaluation system. master (Good, 1981; Showers, Joyce, A second barrier to change in reading & Bennett, 1987). Further, current re- (closely related to the first) is the percep-views of the effects of staff development tion of administrative commitment. Spe- and inservice programs show varying cifically, Dawson (1984) found theresults with teachers, depending on following variables to interfere with their years of experience (Levine, 1983; teacher change: (1) receiving mixedShowers, Joyce, & Bennett). Findings messages from the administration as to suggest that first year teachers are over- what is important, (2) viewing change aswhelmed, usually lacking the ability to something being implemented in re-do long term planning and considering sponse to "central office pressure," andthemselves successful if they are pre- (3) thc administrator's reputation of M-pared for the short term. They feel par- ing to follow through. ticularly inadequate when it comes to A third barrier to change, for adultsclassroom management atd use of time, and adolescents alike, is requiring publicand have difficulty planning and run- performance of an unmastered skill (Hord fling multiengagement lessons. It is dif- et al., 1987). Teachers and students mustficult for these teachers to master all of receive support during the early, premas- the critical practices necessary for an tery stages of learning. The focus should excellent reading program. Their own be on the conditions for a successful re- learning experiences need to be simple, sponse rather than on the response as a limited in scope, and couched in the measure of personal competence. Conse- most basic behaviors to provide content quently, the instructiunal leader needs to validity yet highly engaging and enter- have skill and tolerance in order to reduce taining. Extensive practice needs to be both negative labeling of individuals and provided in the staff development pro- the potential for resistance, and to encour-gram design. age people to see themselves as resources In contrast, experienced teachers who for changing negative conditions to posi- are relatively sophisticatedparticipants tive ones in practical and specific ways. in staff development programs require Situations must be created in which every higher potency in their training to ensure person's perspective is important so thattransference of the skill to practice. For all ca. become allies working toward mu- this level of expertise, the staff develop- tual gLals, reducing the sense of polarity ment program may be less entertaining in a group or classroom. than with the less: experienced teacher, A fourth barrier is the fact that the act but it must provide more intense and re- of teaching is continually oversimpli- alistic training to ensure transfer. fied. Teachers are asked to assimilate A fifth barrier to change is thc. lack of new behaviors more rapidly thanis pos- a clear expectation forchange to occur. sible. Even teaching skills that appearIn confronting the entrenchment of past simple require much training, while practices, change agents first must pre-

167'Accomplishing Change in Reading Programs 160

pare the environment for change. Devel- know about teachers as adult learners. oping teacher commitment to explore The presentation mustengage teachers in possible changes begins withclear, di- continuous, concrete talk about teaching rect leadership from building and central and effective teaching practices,not the office administrators. It includes training social issues of the schoolor its clients. by a credible person identifiedas both an Teachers should be observed fre- adequate practitioner andan excellent quently and provided with accurate, hon- presenter (Crandall, 1982). est critiques of their teaching (Little, We also found that how changes are 1982). They should plan, design,pre- presented to teachers is important.An pare, and evaluate their own teaching ac- appropriate presentation takes intoac- tivities and materials and should instruct count the context in which the practition- one another in the practice of teaching ers work and provides opportunities for within structured settings, often using teachers to experience the practice, ap- peers from the same institution tocon- ply it, critique it, and modify itfor per- duct training (Glatthorn, 1982; Little, sonal use. The training itself must be 1982). Attention to basic needssuch as followed by continuous support and as- work conditions and safety isa prerequi- sistance from trainers or from others site for the effectiveness of changeand perceived as adequate practitioners of the for a successful staff developmentpro- innovation and must account forwhat we gram (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyder-

Staff development programs are an important part of accomplishingchange.

r-`

Anders and Levine 168 161 man 1959; Maslow, 1954;Sergiovanni, Changes We Made 1967). Trust must be established through Assuming that an environment condu- administrative decisions that treat mis- cive to change is achieved, what change takes as opportunities for learningshould be made? This section describes (Levine, 1983; Showers, Joyce, &two changes we tried to implement.The Bennett, 1987), and training must vary first focused on instructional activities according to the background of the par-that promote authentic literacy experi- ticipating teachers (McLagan, 1983). ences; the second focused onstrategies. We have learned that students of teach- Promotion of Authentic ers who have the opportunity topartici- pate in these sorts of staffdevelopmentLiteracy Experiences programs reap the benefits of openness May Powell was one of our seventh and exploration. Teachers who arewill- grade students. She did little reading or ing to be risk-takers are more likely towriting; she was belligerent, negative, promote risk-taking among their stu-and difficult. The reading specialist dents. Teachers who recognize and valueplaced her in the lowest reading group. learning from mistakes will more likelyOne day May's teacher for the low read- accept mistakes from theirstudents.ing class happened to lay IAlways Teachers who have control over theirWanted to Read by Mary McLeod own behavior and decisions are moreBethune in the middle of her desk. As likely to encourage their students to de- was May's habit, shehandled everything picking things up velop similar types of self-control. on the teacher's desk, Change is never easy and is neverand laying them down at random (abe- without tension. Environments typifiedhavior designed to drive the teacher by change are often relatively chaoticcrazy), until she came to that book. She and unpredictable. Thus, administratorspicked it up and started to walk away. and teachers who are looking for con-The teacher said, "Hey, May! You can't trolled environments with a high degreehave that. It's my book, I'm readingit!" of order and discipline often resistMay's response was "Aw, c'mon. I just change. For example, middle schools in wanna look at it." She satdown and read which administrators evaluate teachersfor the rest of the period. On her way asked for on the amount of controland discipline out of class, the teacher again imposed on the students send a message the book. May pleaded to take it home, to teachers and students alike thatthe un- promising to bring it back the next day. certainty accompanying change is notShe did, too, and thereafter she read welcome. In such a school, the "law and whatever was placed on the teacher's order" tenet prevents many teachers from desk. making changes in their teaching and Siinilarly, Fader (1973), in Naked Chil- signals to students that risk-taking and dren, writes of Wentworth, a young man authentic involvement in ideas or activi- observed in an English class for low read- ties are not the goals of the school's aca- ers. Wentworth wasreading a sophis- demic leaders. ticated automotive magazine during 169 Accomplishing Change in Reading Programs 162 school. Afterwards, Fader asked him why be read aloud should beon students' in- he was in sucha low English class since tellectual and social levels, but it isnot certainly he could read. Wentworth'sre- necessary that they be readable by stu- ply was that he didn't want teachers to dents. Students need only to listento and know what he could dobecause then he engage in ideas, problems, emotions, weuld have to read what they wanted in- and information. Listeningcan be done stead of what he wanted. Estes and with more difficult text than theywould Vaughan (1978, 1985) cited studentslike read independently. The selected materi- Wentworth as evidence of the"Wentworth als should be something the teacher likes Syndrome"kids who can read, but who and can read aloud well. Lists ofsug- choose not to let their teachers know. gested read-aloud materialare available They do not let their teachers know for from local librarians, the NationalCoun- many reasons; one is that theywant con- cil of Teachers of English, Journalof trol over their own activities. Reading, The Reading Teacher,and Such reluctance is not unusualin mid- commercial publications such dle school reading as The program. How can New Read-Aloud Handbook byJim we change reading programsto help Trelease (1989). such students? The reading and writing There are many goodreasons for activities that follow (all of which have reading aloud. First, studentscooperate been well accepted by our teachers) take while flaming the teacher and share advantage of the strengths and character- emotional re.c2onses to thestory. Sec- istics of literacy processes while building ond, such reading providesa common on the energetic, social nature of thestu- experience and a common knowledge dent who is struggling to know,to build, base for a class to share. Third, while and to understand. Together they pro- being read to, students hear the flowof mote authentic literacy experiences, a language that helps themconstruct critical instructional feature. meaning and develop interpretivetech- Reading aloud. We read aloud to our niques. Fourth, reading aloud isan effec- students daily. Reading shouldconsist of tive way to settle a class. Many teachers a rich diet of literature, poetry, and expo- read aloud at the beginning of classperi- sition, and should represent a wide range ods, and their studentsare rarely late to of topics and interests. Reading aloud class. Finally, reading aloudintroduces can have a number of uses. Studentscan students to the teacher's interests and in- respond to it critically either during oral vites them to see a teacher ina different discussions or in personal journals. Stu- light. Atwell (1987) relates thatsome dents can use information from reading students were so convinced of her inter- aloud in projects or can follow up on est in certain relevant topics that they what is shared by silently readingsimilar would write their journals to her because works. The teacher's modelingof oral "only she could understand," something reading also can help students when they that could not have happened if it hadnot read aloud their own writing. been for her compelling and interesting 13( oks and other materials selected to read-aloud sessions.

Anders and Levine 1 70 163 Independent reading. Our middle dle school curriculum, stimulate reading schoolers also have time every day forinterests. Third, students often become independent reading. The) select theirinterested in a particular author, and in- own reading material,which may ordependent reading time gives them the may not relate to their content-areastud- opportunity to follow up on those inter- ies or projects. This practice requiresests. Fourth, students can use theirin- only that an abundance of materials bedependent reading for information they available from which students maymay use later in their ownwriting choose. Again, lists for stocking the li-efforts. brary and reading rooms are readily Our teachers make students responsi- available from professional and commer- ble for keeping records of their indepen- cial sources, and students themselves are dent reading activities. Students use a wonderful resource forneeded materi- folders, checklists, and notebooks to als. make a public record of how they spend Various methods can be used to en-their time. Teachers and students confer courage independent reading.For exam-to set goals and assess progress.Prac- ple, an in-school "Young Readers" tices such as independent reading are op- program might be sponsored on ayearly portunities for students to control much basis. Young Readers is a popular eventof their own activity. Successful teachers in many states and regions. The children think about what is involved in the inde- nominate about 20 books as "the bestpendent activity and provide modeling book I ever read:' During the next year, and explanation for students who might students mad a certain number of bookshave difficulty with the responsibility. on the recommended listand at the end Writing groups. This practice has re- of the year vote for their favorite book.cently received much attention from The author of that book is then broughtteachers. The idea is that students write to the region for a YoungReaders Con-what they choose to write and share it ference. A similar program could be runwith their peers for feedback, evalua- just as effectively on a schoolwide basis. tion, recommendations for rewrite, and Another idea is to display a Top Tenpossible publication. Atwell (1987) calls reading list for the school. A librarianthese groups Writing Workshops, and and perhaps a student committee canHarste, Woodward, and Burke (1984) keep track of the titles most oftencall them Authoring Cycles; other labels checked out and maybe even have theprobably exist for basically the same students fill out a reaction form. Stu-process. While each might differslightly dents thus can learn what their peersin format or design, the purpose in all of think are "the best books?' them is to have students write what they Independent reading is important forcare about, know about, and want to several reasons. First, it is a good way toknow about by having them engage in gather assessment information (seereal or authentic writing. Chapter 9, this book). Second, interdis- A program that emphasizes student ciplinary projects, common in the mid-writing and the writing process is com-

.1. ntccomplishing Change in Reading Programs 164

patible with middle schoolyoungsters. It cators might generate. We also need suits their social and psychological needs realize that sometimesour recommended to know and explore. It bridges theproc- strategies get in theway of what some esses of reading and writing because all students do naturally. language processes are employed as stu- A recommended pica. Teacherscan dents read and rewrite their work. make good decisirns when planningfor Students can write in thegenre of the strategy instruction by following guiding content area being studied. Research re- questions suggested by Anders andPear- ported by Langer and Applebee(Apple- son (1984, p. 314): bee, 1981; Langer & Applebee,1987) 1. What? Students need to know suggests that students have littleoppor- what tunity to write in theircontent area it is you want them to do. Theymust, in classrooms and that whenstudents do effect, develop a concept of thestrategy. And to know what something is, write, the quality and quantity ofknowl- they edge acquired and understood improves will have to know what it isnot. For ex- ample, if they are to learn main dramaticaUy. All kinds of writingare ideas, they need an operational definition important because as readers writethey of a main idea and they need to know must construct meaning, andconstruc- how a tion of meaning is the keyto reading main idea differs froma detail or an ir- comprehension. relevant statement. They needto be able to recognize one when it "hits them in Strategy Instruction the face." A second focus of changewas strate- 2. How? What all students needdes- gies. Our middle schoolersbenefit from perately is a set of proceduresto use strategy instruction when readingand when they are asked to applya strategy. wrung. This instructioncan make the Where do I start? What do Itry first? differerce between successfulrisk-takers Second? What do I do when Idon't suc- who make great strides inaccomplishing ceed the first time? the goals of the school curriculum and 3. Why? We wouldargue that if you students who are frustratedbecause they cannot generate a legitimate, understand- lack the strategies to try. In the following able reason for asking studentsto per- sections, we describe the criteria used to form a taska reasonyou can share with select strategies for such instruction,themthen perhaps you shouldnot teach suggest one strategy, and explainthethe task. We believe theanswer to why rationale behind it (see Chapters 5 and 6should relate to thepurposes for the as well as the next two chapters,thisreading. The purposes for the reading volume). should be for certain types of informa- First, a word of caution. We need to tion, for a literary experience,or for recognize that some students will de-pleasure and escape. Thestrategy is velop their own strategies and that thosetaught and practiced because itmay help strategies might bemore effective and the reader accomplish that functional efficient than what reading/literacyedu-goal.

Anders and Levine 172 165

4. When? We assume that not all strat-strategies, you can almost see them move egies were meant to be applied to allup and down, inside and out,and all texts or to all tasks. Part of theeffective around the ideas and their connections. use of a strategy is knowingwhen to ig- Fourth, strategies encourage coopera- nore it. For example, inteaching abouttive learning among students. Students main ideas, we would likely want stu-are asked to justify theirthinking and to dents to reserve it for informational texts compare their thinking with that ofthose and to forget it when they were readingaround them. Students work to achieve a stories. consensus through discussion, datagath- ering and logic. This characteristic is By answering these questions, weparticularly appealing to the social nat- limit strategies to those that are mosture of the middle school student. helpful to students. We believe certain Fifth, strategies promote the setting of strategies are particularly suited to mid-purposes before reading.Reading ex- dle school students because of the char- perts long have known the importance of acteristics these strategies share withpurpose setting for readingcomprehen- characteristics of the middle school stu-sion (Stauffer, 1969), and strategies pro- dent (Bos & Anders, in progress). Eightmote such thinking and planning. characteristics of such strategies follow. Sixth, strategies encourage studentsto The first characteristic is that these read to see if their predictions are borne strategies help students activate prior out by the author in the content area tcxt knowledge. Sometimes students are nctreading assignment. Using a prereading aware that what they knowfrom the real interactive strategy as a during- and world can he related to school learning.after-reading aid helps students read and The strategies themselves do not provide think to confirm the predicted relation- answers for students; rather,studentsships between and among ideas. must rely on what they have experienced Seventh, as students elaborate on their or known in the past. strategies after reading, the processes of Second, such strategies help students prediction, confirmation, and integration see the organized andhierarchical nature are enhanced. Students return tothe text of knowledge. Through the use of inter- (and, in some cases, to other sources) to active strategies, students will organize gather enough information to satisfacto- their prior knowledge to connect it with rily categorize and relate information. new knowledge. Eighth, strategies help students distin- Third, strategies help students predict guish between and among distinctive fea- relationships between and among higher tures of ideas. The details that make one and lower ideas in a hierarchy. Knowl- idea relate to another become apparent. edge is categorical; it relates to other Thus, strategies help students connect ideas; it has cont4ctedness. Strategieswith authenti ideas, ideas that help them should make explicit the interrelatedness make sense of their world. These strate- as well as the hierarchical natureofgies have been demonstrated to be suc- knowledge. As students engage in thecessful with mildly handicapped students 1'73 Accomplishing atange in Reading Programs 166

Figure 1 Relationship Chart Fossils

Trilobites

Crinoids

Giant Ws

Coral

Bryozoans

Guide fossils

Dinosaurs

Fresh water fish

Brachiopods

Small horses

Ferns

Enormous winged bugs

Trees

from ages 9 through 18 (Anders, Bos,& ssFA strategy, we often refer to it as the 198; Bos et al., 1985),as well as relationship chart and sentences. with nonhandicapped eighth graders The original idea for SSFAcame from (Anders, Bos, & Wilde, 1986). the work of Johnson, Toms-Bronowski, A sample strategy. TheSemantic- and Pittelman (1981), who investigated Syntactic Feature Analysis (ssFA) isone the efficacy of the relationship chart for of the strategies %se use. It employs both vocabulary.larning. Students sing the a matrix chart arid modified doze-type relationship chart demonstratedsuccess sentences. Thus, when talking about the in learning meanings and remembering

Anders Levine 174 167 Figure 2 Relationship Sentences Fossils

1. Trilobites were animals that lived in the and that are now 2 and are extinct land animals. 3. A sea animal that is now extinct is a 4. Fern fossils are fossils of that lived on the land and that are

are animals that live on land orin lakes 5 , ,and and are not extinct.

new words. Anders and Bos (1986) sug- words that should be category headings, gested that the relationship chart should add those terms to the vocabulary concept be adapted for vocabulary and compre- list. Notice that these are labeled Impor- hension instruction in the content areas. tant Ideas on the student'srelationship To develop a relationship chart (Figure chart. Finally, we list the words and 1), we first read an assignment to deter- phrases down the side of the chart, where mine the main concepts, as representedthey are identified as Important Words. by a word or a phrase in the text. Second, Before asking students to read the as- we list those concepts. Third, westudy signment, give each one a copy of the re- the list to determine the idea representinglationship chart. Using a model chart at the superordinate concept, or the idea thatthe front of the room, explain its purpose includes all the others and becomes the and how it is to be used to discuss ideas name for the relationship chart.Some- in preparation for a reading assignment. times we have found that the superordi-Explain that we are looking for connec- nate concept is implied but not listed, in tions between ideas. When an important which case we simply add the concept to idea and an important word are con- the list. Fourth, we organize the list by nected, we will put a + in the box; when categorizing ideas that seem to go to-they are not connected, we will put a 0 in gether. In the passage on fossils, we the box; and when we cannot decide, we found three categories of important ideas: will put a ? in the box. type of life, location, and whether the fos- Introduce the superordinate concept sil represents an extinct form of life. and the important ideas. .This is an op- Fifth, we list the headings for each of theportune time to ask students what they categories across the top of the page. already know about these ideas. We have These may be thought of as coordinate- found that some students almost always level concepts, or concepts that tie to- have background knowledge to offer the class. Once meanings for the superordi- gether ideas. If an author does not use17i Accomplishing Change in Reading Programs 168 nate concept and the important ideas about 30 minutes for 20to 25 concepts). have been established, introduce the first Next, ask students touse the informa- important word. Encouragestudents to tion from the chart to predict share their current knowledge. the appro- With priate words to fill in the blanksin the more technical vocabulary, students of- relationship sentences (Figure 2). ten possess less background The knowledge. sentences ask students to further In most instances, connect we provide the con- ideas. We have found themto be particu- ceptual meaning for theword. In other larly effective for enhancinglong-term instances, we ask studentsto read to dis- memory (Anders & Bos, 1988). Insome cover the meaning. For example, in the cases, the class will not agreeon the case of the relationship chart for fossils, word or words to go ina sentence, and none of our students knew the technical students are instructed to readto find out meaning of trilobites, crinoids, bryozo- which word(s) would bemore appropri- ans, or brachiopods. However, they did ate. Sometimes, the text is not adequate predict that thesewere types of fossils to confirm students' predictions, andwe Students filled out the relationshipchart must refer to other sources. with this broad level of understanding Next, students read thepassage to ver- and, when they began reading,they dis- ify or reject their predictions covered the more technical and to definitions. search for information thatmay help to After introducing the first important predict the relationship betweenideas for word, ask students to predict the rela- which no consensus could befound. Af- tionship between the word and each im- ter reading, students compare their portant idea listed along the chart top of the and sentences with the information chart. In determining each from relationship, the text. We try to reacha consensus, ei- it is important to ask students for justifi- ther by using the information cations and explanations provided in for the pre- the text or by finding otherresources that dicted relationship. In thisway, students may address our concerns. analyze the critical featuresof the mean- The relationship chart might ing and contribute their be backgr.s.tind adapted in a couple ofways. One way knowledge to the discussion.Use the would be to change the symbol symbol system to record system their predic- used to signify the predictedrelation- tions on the modelrelationship chart, ships. When relationships and have students record are varied them on their rather than absolute, numberscould be inidividual charts. Through discussion, used, with a 1 signifyinga very low rela- attempt to reach a consensus. When con- tionship, a 2 meaning that ideaswere sensus within the group is not possible, somewhat related, anda 3 meaning that place a question mark inthe appropriate ideas were highly related. box. Later, when the Another students read, en- change in the chart might beto make the courage them to read to resolve thelack chart open ended at both the of consensus. coordinate and detail levels. These blanks Complete this procedure would be for each used if new categoriesor details emerged word (this discussion generally takes during discussionor reading. Stud.ents

Anders and Levine 176 169

Aso could begin to generatetheir ownteachers are more complicated than sentences. Such changes make the strat-seeds, they need considerable nurturing. egy even more interactive andgive stu-It is up to those who are responsible for dcts more responsibility for deter- the organization and maintenance of the mining important ideas, details, and re- middle school to provide the conditions lationships. As students become adept at and environment for such nurturing. creating such relationship charts, they become more independent learners.

Conclusion References Our work suggests that even the least Anders, Patricia L., & Bos, Candace S. (1988). skilled students improve when given the Comparison of semantic features analysis and direct instruction of word meanings for im- opportunity to participate in authentic lit- proving reading comprehension.Paper pre- eracy experiences and when theyknow sented at the American Educational Research how to use certain strategies. Thus, we Association, New Orleans, LA. Anders, Patricia L., & Bos, Candace S. (1986). believe that authentic literacy experi- Semantic feature analysis: An interactive ences and strategy use arecritical fea- strategy for vocabulary development and text tures of the middle school reading comprehension.Journal of Reading, 29,610- 616. program. Anders, Patricia L., & Pearson, P. David. Achieving such change, however, is (1984). Instructional research on literacy and hindered by several realities. Supervi- reading. Parameters, perspectivzs, and pre- qors and administrators oftenhave con- dictions. In Robert J. Tierney, Patricia L. An- ders, & Judy Nichols Mitchell (Eds.), tradictory agendas; change is threat- Understanding readers' understanding: The- ening; many veteran teachers are content ory and practice(pp. 307-321). Hillsdale, with their present methods; and newer NJ: Erlbaum. Anders, Patricia L., Bos, Candace S., & Filip, teachers are not in a position to institute Dorothy. (1984). The effect of semantic fea- new programs. Consequently,leadership ture analysis on the reading comprehensionof and staff development is critical for edu- learning disabled students. In Jerome R Changing perspectives on re- cational change. Niles (Ed.), search in reading, language processing, and When thinking of change and the instruction(pp. 162-166). Thirty-Third Year- growth that accompan:zs any change book of the National Reading Conference. process, we are reminded of a seed. Rochester, NY: National Reading Confer- ence. When a seed is planted in the ground it Anders, Patricia L., Bos, Candace S., & Wilde, changes. If the environment is right and if Sandra. (1986).The effect of semantic feature the seed is nurtured and fed, it destroys its analysis on eighth graders' vocabulary and reading comprehension.Paper presented at "seed selr and becomes a seedling, and the National Reading Conference, Austin, eventually a fruit- bearing plant. The para- TX. dox here is that in order to grow, the seed Applebee, Arthur. (1981).Writing in the second- has to self-destruct. In many ways, this is ary school.Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. analogous to what happens as a child be- Atwell, Nancie. (1987).In the middle. Writing, comes an early adolescent and asteachers reading, and learning with adolescents learn to change. Because children and Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

177 Accomplishing Change in Reading Programs 170

Bos, Candace S., & Anders, Patricia L. (In pro- to work.New York: John Wiley & Sons. gress).Interactive teaching: An instructional Hord, Shirley, Rutherford, William,Huling- methodology for teaching concepts.Univer- Austin, Leslie, & Hall, Gene. (1987). sity of Arizona, Tucson, AZ. Taking charge of change.Alexandria, VA: Bos, Candace S., Anders, Patricia L., Filip, ASCD. Johnson, Dale, Toms-Bronowski, Susan,& Dorothy, & Jaffe, Lynne. (1985). Semantic Pittelman, Susan. (1981). An investigation feature analysis and long term learning. In of the trends in vocabulary research and theef- Jerome Nile & Rosary V. Lalik (Eds.),Issues fects of prior knowledge in literacy: A research perspective. on instructional Thirty- strategies for -vocabulary acquisition (Theo- Fourth Yearbook of the National Reading retical paper No. 95). Madison, WI: Univer- Conference. Rochester, NY: National Read- sity of Wisconsin, Center for Educational ing Conference. Research. Brophy, Jere, & Good, Thomas. (1986). Teacher Langer, Judith, & Applebee, Arthur.(1987). behavior and student achievement. In M.C. How writing shapes thinking. Wittrock (Ed.), Urbana, IL: Handbook of research on National Council of Teachers of English. teaching(3rd ed., pp. 328-375). New York: Levine, Sarah L. (1983). A developmental Macmillan. per- spective on school leadership.Principal,23- Crandall, David P. (1982).Models of the school 28. improvement process: Factors contributing to Little, Judith W. (1982). Norms of success. collegiality Andover, MA: Network of Innova- and experimentation: Workplace conditions tive Schools. of school success. Dawson, Judith. (1984). American Educational Re- The principal's role in search Journal,19(3), 325-340. facilitating teacher participation: Mediating Maslow, Abraham. (1954).Motivation and per- the influence of school context.Philadelphia, sonality.New York: Harper. PA: Research for Better Teaching. McLagan, Patrick. (1983).Models for excel- Estes, Thomas, & Vaughan, Joseph L. (1978, lence.Washington, DC: American Society 1985).Reading and learning in the content for Training and Development. classroom.Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Sergiovanni, Thomas J. (1967). Factorswhich Fader, Daniel. (1973).Naked children.New affect satisfaction and dissatisfaction. York: Macmillan. Journal of School Administration,5, 66-82. Glatthorn, Allen. (1982). Cooperative profes- Showers, Beverly, Joyce, Bruce, &Bennett, sional development: Peer centered options for future growth. Barrie. (1987). Synthesis of researchon staff Educational Leadership, development: A framework for future study 45(3), 77-99. and state of the art analysis. Good, Thomas. (1981). Teacher expectations Educational Leadership, 45(3),77-88. and student perceptions: A decade of re- Stauffer, Russell G. (1969).Directing reading search.Educational Leadership,415-422. maturity as a cognitive process.New York: Harste, Jerome, Woodward, Virginia, & Burke, Harper & Row. Carolyn. (1984). Language stories and liter- Treleasc, Jim. (1989).The new read-aloud hand- ary lessons. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. book.New York: Penguin Books. Herzberg, Frederick, Mausner, Bernard, & Vonnegut, Kurt. (1987).Bluebeard.New York: Snyder:man, Barbra. (1959).The motivation Delacorte.

Anders and Levine 78 Developing a Strategic Reading Prowl

Joy N. Monahan

THIS IS THE STORY OF strategic reading. Middle a program used in grades 6- school students are search- 8 in the Orange County w 4' ing for self. They want in- Public Schools in Orlando, Florida. It is dependence. Physically they need to be illustrative of the recent recon, -ptualiza- active (George, 1983; Irvin, 1990; tion of reading as a strategic process (see Lounsbury. 1984). When middle school- Chapter 6, this velum-, and of the move- ers use strategies that include discussing ment away from teaching discrete skills and accepting others' ideas, social and in a basal reader. In this program stu- emotional needs are being met simulta- dents are involved in practical reading neously. Peer interactions facilitated by and writing activities using the assigned using thinking strategies in cooperative content area texts, with an emphasis on lea -ping groups make powerful incen- strategies good readers use (Paris, Lip- tives to participate in the classroom. Pos- son, & Wixson, 1983). itive self-concept is reinforced through learning strategies that can help students What Should Be in a Strategic improve their grades and develop an un- Reading Program derstanding of the subject area. By build- As our reading curriculum was formu- ing on students' prior knowledge before lated, five areas of focus emerged. stu- lessons and teaching metacognitive strat- dents' needs, teachers' role, move to egies, teachers increase interest and mo- expository text, gradual progression, and tivation, changing students' passive learning environment. reactions into active learning goals.

Students' Needs 7bachers' Role Students' needs provide the basis to.. Middle school teachers provide expla- 171 179 172

nations about how, why, when, and dex, maps, charts, and chapter headings. where to use learning and thinkingstrat- Teachers need to be aware of sections of egies. They provide instruction, model- text that are inconsideratewritten ina ing, and practice in using strategies.For language or style not easy to understand. instance, modeling a think aloudstrategy Armbruster and Anderson (1984) list for understanding a passage oftext as- some questions to help teachers identify sures the student that even teachers must inconsiderateness in a textbook to help interact with the text for comprehension determine when students need extra while reading. This is similar to what help. was recommended by psychologist Are the arrangement of ideas Vygotsky (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, or building blocks of the specific sub- 1985), who saw adults as instructors, ject area and the relationships supporters, and helpers in the learning con- necting those ideas presented ina process. He described a potential zone of way students can grasp? development (or range of success) froma learning, or beginning, level toa much Are the relationships among ideas higher level if the student is encouraged clear enough for logicalconnec- and assisted by a supportive teacher. The tions? Is there ambiguity, obscurity teacher is a mediator between the student of expression, or wordiness? Does and the challenging content, providing one idea flow to the next? the student with scaffolding that is grad- Is one point at a time addressed, ually removed as the learner becomes with no irrelevant or dist.acting in- more successful at the task. formation? Does the text fit the knowledge base Moving to Expository Text of the reader? Teachers must demonstratestrategy instruction using expositoryas well as To help students organize textbook in- narrative text, encouraging studentsto formation so they can link it to prior accumulate a repertoire of strategies that knowledg or show logical relationships, work for them when they are studying by interaction frames modeled after theor- themselves and have trouble withan ex- ganization patterns of the textare help- pository text assignment in,say, geogra- ful. For example, acompare and contrast phy or earth science. Learning to read matrix frame or a problem and solution cont.( nt or information texts takes time frame, recommended by Jones and col- and practice. The middle schoolyears leagues (1987), increases students' moti- provide the time for th:s transition from vation, participation, and learning by narrative stories of elementary instrut.- logically organizing the text informatioit. don to expository texts where the focus is on learning content. Gradual Progression Interest and familiarity witha text is The fourth aspect of a strategic read- fostered by activities that have students ingprogram is the transition from full identify table of contents, glossary, in- support during the initial learning ofa Monahan 180 173 Figure 1 Modeling Teaching Strategies

Stages

1. Modeling T T T T

2. Guided Practice T T S S

3. Guided Practice T S T S

4. Practice/Application T S S S

5. Student Control S S S S T: Teacher S: Student

strategy to student independence in com- released the learning responsibility to the prehending te;,.t (Paris, 1985; Pearson, student, who is an independent learner 1985). Stages for teaching strategies, with that strategy. shown in Figure 1, illustrate this pro- gression. (Information in Figure 1is Learning Environment adapted from an article by Gordon, The final fe -us was the environment, 1985.) particularly the interaction of students Note that in the first stage the teacherwith other students, students with the demonstrates all the steps with detailedteacher, and students with instructional modeling and explanations. As thematerials. Creating a climate for think- stages progress, students learn through ing and trying out new ideas helps satisfy practice steps. Each of the stages :laytransescents need to explore, particu- have La be repeated until students havelarly with their peers. For example, thorough understanding and control ofarranging desks in groups of four fa- the strategy. By Stage 5, the teacher hascilitates interaction during a multimode

18 rcloping, a Strategic Reading Program 174

discussion cycle such as Think-Pair- (given in grades 3, 6, 8, and 11). Sec- Share, in which students listen to a ques- ondary reading programs consisted of tion or presentation, have time to think diagnostic-prescriptive labs, at least one individually, talk with one another in per school (some schools had three). pairs or groups of four, and finally share In the late seventies, the district moved responses wi.h the larger group (Mc- to the University of Florida's P.K. Yonge Tighe & Lyman, 1988). Selectingcon- model, in which a content area teacher tentthatexplores and erwourages brought the entire class to the lab three creative thinking and appreciation for the days a week for nine weeks. A devel- opinions of others increases interaction opn.ental, individualized, diagnostic- between student and teacher. Organizing prescriptive approach was used as the the class for large group or cooperative reading teacher and the content area learning group discussions increases stu- teacher worked together managing pre- dents' opportunities to comprehend what scriptions with kits, workbooks, and they read in content area texts (Alver- reading machines. This team effortpro- mann, Dillon, & O'Brien, 1987). vided content area teachers with inser- Students need to realize that learning vicereadingexperience.Students and remembering requires them touse thought reading lab was a neat place to what is in their heads (backgroundexpe- go because everyone in the class partici- rience) plus what the author has saidto pated and was successful. Although the build a more lasting understanding. reading lab files were full of success sto- Think-aloud demonstrations by teachers, ries, these same students were notcom- describing what is going on in their prehending their reading assignments in heads while reading, give studentsan content area classrooms. idea of how to interact with the text to get meaning (Davey, 1983; Chapter 6, this Deciding the Next Step volume). Activities such as these help In trying to decide how to improve our build a classroom climate in which it is program, we read articles in The Read- all right for students to be creative in ing Teacher and Journal of Reading, at- thinking of solutions as long as they pro- tended presentations at the International duce evidence for their conclusions. Reading Association (IRA) Convention and the National Reading Conference The Change Process (NRC), and held discussions at the Con- Where We Were When We Started ference on Reading Research (coRR). For the 15 years before starting the These experiences guided us in taking change process, the readingprogram in new directions in reading instruction. In Orange County consisted ofa single ba- addition, research at the Institute for Re- sal reader with an accompanyingman- search on Teaching (On), Michigan State agement system.Theresultwas University, pointed out the need for fragmented skill instruction, reinforced much more active, constructive, discus- by the criterion-referenced State Student sion-filled teaching than was permitted in Assessment Tests of Minimal Skills our diagnostic-prescriptive lab setting.

Monahan 182 175

Initiating Change sesses students and instructional materi- In creating change, the Orange County als so teachers can know how wide a gap School District identified key people exists between the two. consultants, principals, teachers, admin- Teachers set classroom goals by com- istratorsto envision a strategic reading paring students' DRP comprehension abil- program for middle schools and to help ity with the DRP readability analysis of convert the program into practice. As instructional materials. Discrepancies in these people spent time together study- DRP measures indicated 'istructional ing and discussing the research, they rec- needs. Additionally, the DRP information ognized that we needed a new definitionhelped teachers establish compatible of reading. More than decoding andclassroom learning groups, analyze in- word-by-word plodding, reading is an structional materials and texts for read- active, constructive thinking process that ability, purchase classroom textbooks, goes on before, during, and after reading and gather data that show student or text. Reading is the interaction of the class achievement growth. reader, the text, and the context (Duffy, Classroom action research also proved Roehler, & Mason, 1984; Palincsar &to be a valuable ally in helping teachers Brown, 1985). We also needed to changeprove to themselves that they were mak- the way we (1) asked questions, (2) prac-ing a difference. For example, by using a ticed and taught vocabulary, (3) providedstrategy such as graphic organizers with comprehension instruction, (4) relatedthe second period class)nly, but giving comprehension and composition, and (5) the same pre- and posttest to all classes, viewed the teacher's role (Cook, 1986; a teacher received solid verification that Pearson, 1985; Wixson & Peters, 1984). using graphic organizers improves learn- Changes in the reading program wereing and remembering (?iahan, 1985). initiated with selection in 1982 of the College Board's Degrees of ReadingDeveloping the Curriculum Power (DRP) program for assessing read- A committee of elementary, middle, ing. The DRP was selected because it and secondary school teachers, princi- seemed to make testing more educational pals, reading resource teachers, and con- (Ha: ley, 1983), and was a pragmatic ef- sultants collaborated for several months fort to move away from discrete skillto design a middle school reading pro- testing toward the measurement of the gram. Their objectives for a middle process of reading. The DRP emphasizes school reading program were to: three components: k I) a comprehension Teach students that reading is an in- test with a doze-type format that mea- teractive process of getting meaning sures the most difficult prose a student from print. can process, (2) a readability measure for the student's textbook, and (3) a staff Help make a transition from learn- development effort to assist the teachers ing-to-read to reading-to-learn. in developing strategic readers (Paris, Provide instruction in the acquisi- Lipson, & Wixson, 1983). The DRP as- tion of basic reading skills through

1 83 Developing a Strategic Reading Program 4 ] WrE11111111.11111111111111111111111111t

176

an integrated reading process. strategies to help students become strate- Help students develop a basic sight gic readers across the curriculum. vocabulary and expand their con- cepts to enable them tc read mate- Raining the kachers rial with comprehension and at a Thee is always resistance to change, rate appropriate to the purpose of so our shift to teaching strategic reading the reading task and the material's in Orange County was gradual, even level of difficulty. with many inservice sessions on the re * Help students internalize the read- conceptualization of reading and what it ing-learning process across the cur- meant for our reading program. Reading riculum so they wouid value and use teachers needed to expand their thinking reading as a process of obtaining to include reading as a process that ca meaning for lifelong learning. be applied across the curriculum. Con- tent teachers needed to recognize that they must help students bridge the gap Districtwide writing teams of teachers between what they already know and the used these objectives in building a read- new subject knowledge being studied. ing curriculum. They produced a hand- Teachers who were experimenting book,MiddleSchoolCurriculum with new methods reported in sharing Planning Guide for Reading (ores, sessions that teaching learning strategies 1986), which was given to every middle with content textbooks created interest school reading teacher. This handbook and motivation for students. These ses- identified key strategies from the re- sions proved helpful to content area search that wouid produce strategic teachers and their classroom teaching teachers and strategic readers. A series (Monahan, 1985) as well as to reading of 32 folders was developed, one for teachers. each of the identified strategies. Each In the sixth grade, reading teachers, strategy folder contained five compo- one for each team of math, science, so- nents: (1) a description of the strategy, cial studies, and language arts, now have (2) the procedure for using the strategy, two full days of staff development during (3) a bibliography of where more infor- the school year. These teachers become mation could be located about the strat- reading resource "specialists," showing egy, (4) some handouts and transparency their team how to use strategies in their blackline masters to use when presenting classes. When students hear about ,21e strategy to the staff, and (5) articles graphic organizers in math, in science, from research about the strategy. in social studies and in language arts Each reading teacher uses the Curricu- class, they begin to recognize the value lub. Plarning Guide as well as the Read- of graphic organizers and use them in all ing Resource Specialist Handbook learning settings. (ores, 1985). Although basal reader In the seventh and eighth grades, a texts are available, the major focus is reading resource specialist (Ras) serves to teach content area reading-learning each middle school. The RRS is not as- 184 Monahan 177 signed student:), but works with the con- teachers can use to obtain a handy tent area teachers in organizing and overview of current research plus managing reading strategies. The RRS summaries of several powerful stra,- also participates in team teaching efforts egies. with classroom teachers, provides inser- A list of research-based articles vice training for the school staff in the from current journals and profes- area of reading, and interprets the read- sional books on rea ?ing, which re- ing program for parents and the commu- flects the new view of rez,:ini, nity. Monthly inservice sessions for all instruction and is used during inser- 18 reading resource specialists in the dis- vice sessions. trict help ensure networking and encour- age them to generate new ideas as they A program consultant and a resource study the research. teacher provide additional support. Two days of districtwide staff development Resources and District Support are provided, one in preplanning and one In addition to the materials available at midterm. Each spring, the middle and for each sixth grade teacher and each secondary reading departments sponsor RRS, each school has the following mate- a two-day statewide invitational reading rials: seminar to provide time for reading DRP tests and MicRA -DRP software teachers and content area teachers to (College :;oard) to measure students' learn, share, and grow. Nationally comprehension ability and textbook known researchers participate at these difficulty. seminars and other special professional Becoming a Nation of Readers (An- days. Teachers themselves present in derson et al., 1985), the Report .)fbreakout sessions. For example, a high the Commission on Reading. school physics teacher might relate that her students rely se much on graphic or- Content Reading Including Study ganizers that they will not begin an as- Systems (Santa et al., 1988), which signment until they have prepared one focuses on teaching students how to with their teacher. Next door might be a !vim through reading, studying, and sixth grade reading teacher describing writing strategies incorporated as the steps of applying reciprocal teaching part of content instruction. to a social studies assignment, while in Guide to Curriculum Planning in yet another session down the hall three Reading (Cook, 1986), developed middle school principals describe and to assist in the implementation of compare strengths of their reading pro- current views about reading, also grams. serves as a valuable resource and These professional growth and devel- reference. opment opportunities focus on how to New Directions in Reading Instruc- teach reading as an interactive, construc- tion (Monahan & Hinson, 1988), an tive, strategic process. Emphasis is attractive flip chart that classroom placed on background knowledge activa-

1 5 Developing a Strategic Reading Program 178

tion, purpose setting, prediction, direct and ask them to jot down in categories as explanation, modeling, self-monitoring, many words as they can think of that are question-answer relationships, guided- related to the concept being explored. to-independent practice with reinforce- Write the selected concept on the chalk- ment, and feedback. Ways are stressed to board with spokes extending outward, promote extensive team planning be- each waiting for a category list to be ai- tween the content area teachers and the tached. Using the groups' results, com- reading teachers. This results in having pile a class semantic map on the both eT.thusiastic reading teachers and chalkboard while conducting a discus- content area teachers dedicated to devel- sion focusing on key categories. The in- oping strategic readers. dividual or group map makes a great At these monthly training sessions, a springboard for a writingactivity teacher might demonstrate 'ow a se- (Johnson & Pearson, 1984). mantic mapping strategy (Johnson & Reciprocal Teaching helps produce ac- Pearson 1984) was used in his or her tive readers. Teacher and students work classroom and then invite anyone to together in small groups with the teacher come visit and see it in action. visitation initially modeling a strategy and then is encouraged both wits in schools and to leading students to become the "teacher" other schools. The reading resource and teach the strategy. Four strategies teacher or curriculum facilitator covers taught in this v.ay to help students moni- the class of the visiting teacher. tor their understanding and learning of textbook selections are (1) devising ques- Research-Based Strategies tions about the text (self-questioning), As Herrmann (Chapter 6) described, (2) summarizing, (3) predicting what is strategic readers can analyze their read- going to happen next in the text, and (4) ing tasks by setting the purpose for read- clarifying or resolving inconsistencies. ing and then selecting the right strategy Research has established that reciprocal or strategies for getting it done. The stra- teaching with seventh and eighth grade tegic reader is described more fully in learning disabled students results in sig- Figure 2. nificant gains across content areas The strategies described in this section (Palincsar & Brown, 1986). are a sample of those we use in our mid- Graphic Organizers assist teachers dle schools. All of them combine read- and student> in identifying and classify- ing and writing. Some become almost ing the major relationships between con- insant favorites with both teachers and cepts, objectives, and key vocabulary of students. the lesson through visual representa- Semantic Mapping actively involves tions. For example, for a prereading ac- students .n a visual method of expanding tivity the teacher analyzes the key and extending vocabulary knowledge by vocabulary words and arranges them dia- displaying in a relationship pattern grammatically in ways that highlight the words related to other words or con- xt meaning. For postreading, students cepts. Assign stu. 'nts to work in groups can arrange key vocabulary terms pro-

Monahan 18G 179

Figure 2 Profile of a Strategic Reader*

The Strategic Reader Understands how different reading goals and 'various kinds of texts require particular strat- egies (analyzes) a Identifies task and sets purpose (discriminates between reading to study for a test and reading for pleasure) Chooses appropriate strategies for the reading situation (plans) Reading, skimming, summarizing Paraphrasing Looking for important ideas Testing understanding Identifying pattern of text Sequencing the events Looking for relationships Reading ahead for clarification Mentally executing the directions Relating new knowledge to prior knowledge Summarizing Questioning Clarifying Predicting Monitors comprehension, which involves Knowing that comprehension is occurring (monitors) Knowing what is being comprehended Knowing how to repair comprehension (regulates) Develops a positive attitude toward reading Adapted Iron Path. Lipson. & Wixson. 1983. & Cook. 1986 viied in a list according to relationships as a word categorization activity. It is es- they understood by creating a graphic or-sential to present concepts in a relational ganizer of their own. Or, working in co-manner because it helps underslanding operative learning groups with theand remembering. Teachers should vocabulary words, students can arrangepresent re:evant and irrelevant informa- various relationship patterns or organiz-tion about the concept, examples and ers on 3" x5" cards. Sharing with thenonexamples of the concept, and subor- large group the rationales for theirdinate a. coordhiate relationships of the listbrings outpcsitiveinteractionconcept. Figure 3 provides an exam- and discussion (Moore, Readence, &ple of the Frayer Model that works as a Rickelman, 1988; Vaughan & Estes, large group effort, in cooperative learn- 1986). ing group activities, or individually The Frayer Model helps analyze and (Frayer, Frederick, & Klausmeier, 1969; test concept attainment and can be usedThe len, 1982).

18 ?Developinga Strategic Reading Program 180

Figure 3 Frayer Model*

Essential Characteristics Nonessential Characteristics Closed Number of sides (must be higher Plane figure than 2, though) More than 2 sides Number of angles 2-dimensional Equilateral (all sides same length) Made of line segments Scalene (all sides different length) Dioceles (at least 2 congruent sides) Isosceles Polygon Examples Nonexamples Pentagon Circle Hexagon Cube Quadrilateral Cylinder Rectangle Sphere Square Trapezoid Cone Parallelogram Square Ray Triangle Heptagon Octogon Rhombus

*Adapted from Frayer, Frederick, & Klausmeir, 1969

Informed Strategies for Learning ex- Semantic Feature Analysisshows how plicitlyinstruct students in strategic be- words differ. It requires minimal teacher havior tasks and motivate then-. to preparation time because it capitalizes on become independent learners. Teachers a student's prior knowledge. List on the inform students about the strategy they left border of a matrix some words are going to learn by discussing the strat- within a chosen category. List across the egy, how it works, when and why it top border some features shared by some should be used, and when it is not effec- of the words. Students decide which tive. Then they model effective use of the words share which features. Class dis- strategy by demonstrating how it works cussion provides further reinforcement in all parts of the curriculum. Students and clarification (Johnson & PeaT.son, then practice on relevant materials, with 1984). teachers providingfeedback and praise Think Aloudsfeature teachers verbal- during discussions and afterpractices. izing their thoughts while reading The students gradually build their reper- aloudmodeling the kinds of strategies toire of strategies as teachers withdraw skilled readers use during reading and explicit support (Paris, 1985). pointing out specifically what they are

Monahan I SS 181 doing to cope with a particular compre- cooperative grouping, or mapping tech hension problem. Points to make during nique. Marshall (1989) suggests first think alouds (Davey, 1983) include: (1) creating a semantic map, turning it into a make predictions; (2) describe the pic- formal outline, and then using the major ture you're forming in your head; (3)headings of the outline to write a share an analogy that links new knowl- summary. edge with prior knowledge; (4) verbalize A One-Sentence Summary provides an a confusing point to show how you moni- overview of the main idea by having stu- tor your continuing comprehension; and dents state the idea or text being summa- (5) demonstrate fix-up strategies by re- rized, telling how it begins, what is in reading, reading ahead, changing the the middle, and how it ends. picture in your head, and checking the Story or Chapter Mapping uses the context to figure out a word. concept of semantic mapping to visually K-W-L Plus Variation helps students represent main ideas and supporting de- activate prior knowledge and experiencetails from stories or the key concepts in through a prediction chart. Completingcontent area assignments. Using lesson the chart helps set purposes for reading objectives provided by the teacher, stu- and connects students' backgrounds todents map to organize ideas, receive in- the concept at hand. Students read a fewformation, and think critically. Students paragraphs to confirm, reject, or add toare creating a product of their own, and prior knowledge on the chart of predic- since it is a student's personal interpreta- tions. This process continues until the tion of the rdationships of the major and assignment is completed. Students de-supporting ideas presented, there is no velop their abii:ty to use their own expe-right or wrong way (Anderson, 1978; riences as they attempt to reconstruct anHanf, 1971). author's ideas during content area learn- Question Answer Relationships ing. The chart so provides a quick as-(Raphael, 1984) teaches students that sessment of what students know aboutthere is a three-way relationship between the topic to be studied. K-W-L Plus im-the T.:estion, the text to which it refers, proves comprehension and summarizing and the knowledge the reader already has. abilities and enhances middle school stu- This strategy helps students find informa- dents' self concepts (Ogle & Carr, 1987). tion in the text. Summarizing is a difficult strategy to The ReQuest Procedure, an acronym learn. Teachers can make it easier byfor reciprocal questioning, helps readers providing direct explanation of how tocope with text material. Teacher and stu- write summaries, modeling the process, dents take turns asking one another ques- giving guided practice in group sum-tions about common portions of an mary work, and allowing students toassignment they have read together. This write individually (Brown, Campione, &helps students think and develop ques- Day, 1981). Taylor (1986) discusse howtioning techniques and fosters an active to teach this strategy with a vo iety of in- search for meaning (Manzo, 1969, novations, such as using a hierarchy, 1985).

18 Developing a Strategic Reading Program 182

Summary George, Paul S. (1983).The theory z school. Strategic reading can be taught and Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association. learned in school. To match the philoso- Gordon, Christine. (1985). Modeling inference phy of the middle school, there could be awaxness across the curriculum. Journalof no better goal for the reading program. Reading,28, 444-447. Haney, Walt. (1983). Making testing more edu- However, development of such a pro- cational.Educational Leadership,43(2), gram requires much planning and careful 4-13. implementation. Hanf, Marilyn B. (1971). Mapping: A technique for translating reading into thinking. Journal of Reading,14, 225-230, 270. References Irvin, Judith. (1990).Reading and the middle school student: Strategies to enhance literacy. Alvermann, Donna E., Dillon, Deborah R., & Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacun. O'Brien, David G. (1987). Using discussion Johnson, Dale D., & Pearson, P. David. (1984). to promote reading comprehension. Newark, Teaching reading vocabulary(2nd ed.). New DE: International Reading Association. York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Anderson, Richard C., Hiebert, Elfrieda H., Jones, Bcau F., Palincsar, Annemarie, Ogle, Scott, Judith A., & Wilkinson, Ian. (1985). Donna S., & Carr. EileenG. Strategic teach- Becoming a nation of readers: The report of ing and learning,Alexandria, VA: Associa- the commission on reading.Washington, DC: tionfr,rSupervisionand Curriculum National Institute of Education. Development. Anderson, Thomas H. (1978).Study skills and Lounsbury, John H. (Ed.). (1984).Perspectives: learning strategies(Technical Report No. Middleschooleducation,1964-1984. I 104). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, Cen- Columbus, OH: National Middic School ter for the Study of Reading. Association. Armbruster, Bonnie B., & Anderson, Thomas Manzo, Anthony V. (1985). Expansion modules H. (1984)Content area textbooks. In Richard for the ReQuest, CAT, GRP, and REAP reading/ C. Anderson, Jcan Osborn, & Robert J. Tier- study procedures. Journal ney (Eds.), of Reading, 28, Learning to read in American 498-502. schools: Basal readers and context teris(pp. Manzo, Anthony V. (1969). The ReQuest proce- 193-226). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. dure. Journalof Reading,13, 123-126. Brown, Ann L, Campione, Joseph C., & Day Marshall, Nancy. (1989). The students: Who arc John D. (1981) Learning to learn: On train- they and how do I teach them? In James Flood ing students to learn from texts. Educational and Diane Lapp (Eds.),Instructional strate- Researcher, 10,14-21. gies for content area reading and learning. College Board. (1982). Understanding theDRP: Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Charts and tables.New York: College En- McTighe, Jay, & Lyman, Frank, Jr. (1988). trance Examination Board. Cueing thinking in the classroom: The prom- Cook, Doris M. (Ed.). (1986). Aguide to curric- ise of theory-embedded tools. ulum planning in reading. Educational Madison, WI: Leadership, 45(7),18-24. Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. Monahan, Joy N. (1985). Action research: Davey, Beth. (1983). Think aloud: Modeling the Teachers working together.Greater Washing- cognitive processes of reading comprehen- ton Reading Journal,10, 15-16, 22. sion.Journal of Reading, 26,44-47. Monahan, Joy N., & Hinson, Bess. (1988).New Duffy, Gerald G., Roehler, Laura R., & Mason, directions in reading instruction. Jana. (1984). Newark, Comprehension instruction: DE: International Reading Association. Perspectives and suggestions.New York: Moore, David W., Readence, John E., & Longman. Rickelman, Robert J. (1988).Prereadfng Fraycr, Dorothy A., Frederick, William G., & activities for content area reading and Klausmeicr, Herbert J. (1969). Ascheme for learning(2nd cd.). Newark, DE: Interna- testing the level of concept mastery(Working tional Reading Association. Paper No. 16). Madison, WI: Wisconsin Ogle, Donna, & Carr, Eileen. (1987). ic-w-t. R&D Center for Cognitive Learning. Plus: A strategy for comprehension and sum- 190 Monahan 183

marization. Journal of Reading, 30, 626-631. comprehension questions. Journal of Read- Orange County Public Schools. (1986). Middle ing, 27(4), 303-311. school curriculum planning guide for read- Santa, Carol M., Danner, Maureen, Nelson, ing. Orlando, FL: Orange County Public Marylin, Havens, Lynn, Scalf, Jim, & Scalf, Schools. Lynn. (1988). Content reading Ir:hiding Orange County Public Schools. (1985). Reading study systems. Reading, writing, and studying resource specialist handbook. Orlando, FL: across the curriculum. Dubuque, IA. Ken- Orange County Public Schools. dall/Hunt. Palincsar, Annemarie S., & Brown, Ann L. Taylor, Barbara M. (1986). Teaching middle (1986). Interactive teaching to promote inde- grade students to summarize content textbook pendent learning from text. The Reading material. In James F. Bauman (Ed.), Teach- Teacher, 39,771-777 . ing main idea comprehension. Newark, DE: Palincsar, Annemarie S., & Brown, Ann L. Internatk rml Reading Association. (1985). Reciprocal teaching: Activities to Thelen, Judith. (1982). Preparing students for promote "reading with your mine In Theo- content reading assignments. Journal of dore L. Harris & Eric J. Cooper (Eds.), Reading, 25, 544-549. Reading, thinking, and concept development. Vaughan, Joseph L., & Estes, Thomas H. New York: College Board Publications. (1986). Reading and reasoning beyond the Paris, Scott G. (1985). Using classroom dia- primary grades. Boston, MA: Allyn & Ba- logues and guided practice to teach compre- con. hension strategies. In Theodore L. Harris & Vygotsky, Lev S. (1978). Mind in society. The Eric T. Cooper (Eds.), Reading, thinking, and development of higher psychological proc- concept development. New York: College esses. (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, Board Publications. & E. Sauberman, Eds. and Trans.) Cam- Paris, Scott G., Lipson, Marge Y., & Wixson, bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Karen K. (1983). Becoming a strategic Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social reader. Comtemporary Ed.:cational Psychol- formation of mind. Cambridge, MA. Harvard ogy, 8, 293-316. University Press. Pearson, P. David. (1985). Changing the face of Wixson, Karen K., & Peters, Charles W. (1984). reading comprehension instruction. The Reading redefined (Michigan Reading Asso- Reading Teacher, 38, 724-738. ciation position paper). Grand Rapids, MI: Raphael, Taffy E. (1984). Teaching learners Michigan Reading Association. about sources of information for answering

Developing a Strategic Reading Program Developing Integrated Programs

Laura R. Roehier Kathryn U. Foley Mara T. Lud Carol A. Power

THE FOLLOWING COM- Integration means combin- ments were made by mid- eit, 2 ing concepts and strategies die school teachers as they from different areas. For began a longitudinal staff development instance, classification strategies can be project designed to improve literacy in- developed in mathematics, in science, struction. They reflect teachers' continu- and in reading; cause and effect, se- ing concerns about limited firm, content quencing, and compare-contrast strate- coverage, and student motivation. Inte- gies can be developed in social studies; gration of subject matter can help allevi- and oral language can be developed in ate these concerns. literature class and in the fine arts. In "If you want to really help, help me find short, reading and language can be inte- more time grated with content areas. This chapter is "I can't get through all the curriculum I the story of what one group of middle have to teach now, yet every school year brings new curriculum for me to teach, school teachers accomplished in this and now you're adding literacy." regard. "I feel like I'm going in a dozen directions at once. Nothing makes sense anymore. If Background I'm confused, think how the kids must A group of middle schoo' teachers and feel:" teacher educators in Michigan met to "We never have time to get into anything in depth:" create and implement a program to im- "Now they want me to teach reading, and prove students' reading and language I'm a science teacher." usage across all sutject areas. As we "Where does motivation fit int9 all of grappled with the issues of time, content this?" coverage, and student motivation, an in-

1 -9-2-184 185 service goal emerged. We decided toresearch about subject matter integra- create, share, and implement units thattion. successfully integrated reading and lan- guage usage with content areas throughCurrent Views of Integration the use of concrete, meaningful experi- Today's educators promote subject ences that made usefulness explicit. matter integration. Examination of most As we created integrated units, welanguage arts textbooks reveals support confronted two prevalent problems. Thefor subject matter integration, and re- first was time. Teack.s are bombardedview of national conferences shows that regularly with demands to add to theirintegration is being emphasized. In already bulging daily teaching sched- 1983, the National Council of Teachers ules. The second problem was publicof English (NcrE) published Integrating concern about accountability. Arousedthe Language Arts in the Elementary citizens are demanding greater evidenceSchool (Busching & Schwartz, 1983), of developing literacy. In short, teacherswhich summarizes current knowledge are being asked to do more with existingabout subject matter integration. The time and to do it better. book emphasizes the integration of read- Students face similar problems. Theiring, writing, speaking, and listening into school experience continues to consist ofall subject areas. Its use in classrooms is largely isolated bits of content knowl-advocated, particularly in terms of inte- edge separated from realities that existgrz lag language usage into all curricular beyond classroom walls. Languageareas. learning continues to be disconnected Subject matter integration assumes fragments that have no apparent useful-that language must be learned and used ness. in the context of some content. Students We decided that one way to solve thesedo not learn to read or write without problems was to consciously buildreading or writing about something. In bridges betwe,...1 language and subject ar-short, language strategies are used in the eas so that students could experience andcontext of subject areas (see Chapter 5, understand the interconnectedness ofthis volume). various school experiences. Integration Many students are not aware that lan- of subject matter, in which usefulness ofguage is being used in social studies or language is highlighted, became thescience or ..,nth. Likewise, many stu- bridge. dents are unaware that content is being used in language arts. English, or read- Information Shared ing class when language strategies and about Integration skills are being learned and used. Be- In order to develop understandingscause many teachers talk only about their about subject matter integration, wesubject areas, students come to believe shared current views of integration, ele-that math class is only for math and sci- ments that constitute integration, interre-ence class is only for science. Students lationships Liportant to integration, and have been heard to say, "This is English

193 Developing Integrated Programs 186

class. We don't do science in here."or, the means for communicating thoughts "This is social studies class. Why are you and feelings. asking me to use complete sentences?" Simply making students are of the nat- Interrelationships Important ural integration of language with content to Integration is the first step in successfully integrating Various types of interrelationships are subject matter. important to integration. First, for sub- ject matter integration to occur, teachers Elements of Integration need to understand interrelationships Two elements can be used when inte- among the various kinds of language grating: (1) the knowledge base ofour strategies, such as predicting, decoding, culture, and (2) the language .strategies and composing. Second, the interrela- used when giving and receiving informa- tionships among language strategies and tion in that knowledge base. The knowl- content areas such as science, social edge baseincorporatestheideas, studies, and mathematics need to be un- thoughts, and feelings that our culture derstood. Finally, the interrelationships has deemed useful and worthy to pass between subject matter and initial learn- f-om one generation to the next. It is ing or subsequent use need to be under- called world knowledge. The bulk ofstood. Each interrelationship is dis- world knowledge is divided into various cussed in the following sections. content areas or subjects taught in Interrelationships among language schools and is contained in printed mate- strategies. Language strategies are rials such as textbooks. In middle rarely used alone. Multiple strategies are schools, world knowledge is generally used as a story is written, as a story is found in the content areas of social stud- read, and when someone speaks and an- ies, science, literature, music, art, and other person listens. Understanding this mathematics. interrelatedness is necessary if teach- Language stn tegies associated with ers are to integrate effectively and speaking, listening, reading, writing, do- efficiently. ing, and observing are the fundamental Language strategies are found within tools for sharing the knowledge base. the language modes of listening, reading, Language strategies provide ways for speaking, and writing (Roehler, 1979). world knowledge to be communicated Rtading and listening, including observ- (Herrmann, this volume). Instruction of ing, are broad modes of language strate- language strategy knowledge generally gies concerned withreceivingor occurs in the areas of reading, English, obtaining meaning; writing and speak- or language arts, but language strategy ing, including doing, are broad modes usage is applied in all subject areas. concerned with expressing or providing In summary, the subject matter of mid- meaning. To put it another my, language dle schools consists of world knowledge is a two-way classification of language drawn from the knowledge base and lan- modes. Listening is oral receptive mode, guage strategy knowledge that provides and reading is written receptive mode;

Roehler; Foley, Lud, and Power 194 187

Figure 1 Relationships among Language Modesand Various Language Strategies

Receptive Modes Expressive Modes Listening Speaking

Thinking Thinking Linguistic Linguistic Strategies Strategies Strategies Strategies

I I C C 0 Oral 0 m Modes m P P r a e s h i e n n g s Printed i Modes 0 n

I I Thinking Thinking Linguistic Linguistic Strategies Strategies Strategies Strategies

Writing Reading

speaking ic oral expressive mode, and Linguistic strategies, however, are writing is written expressive mode. Each only half the necessary language strate- mode is subdivided into two types of lan- gies. It is not enough to spell or use guage strategies that studentsmust un- grammar rules or say allthe words. Stu- derstana and use: linguistic strategies dents also need to know how to think or comprehend. and thinking strategies. reason as they compose or Linguistic strategies convey the mean- Thinking strategies provide the means ing of the communication. For receptive for developing and interpreting thoughts. modes, it is decoding; for expressive For the receptive mode, the goal is com- modes, it is mechanics. These strate- prehension; for the expressive mode, it gies provide the means forreceiving is composing. Comprehension occurs thoughts, feelings, and ideas (linguistic when thinking strategies are used to un- conventions, word recognition) and the derstand messages; composing occurs when thinking strategies are used to cre- means to express thoughts,feelings, and the re- ideas (punctuation, spelling, intonation). ate messages. Figure 1 illustrates

195 Developing Integrated Programs 188

lationships among the modes of language initially learned knowledge is of little and the relationships of linguisticand value unless it is used. Consequently, thinking strategies. there is an interrelationship betweenini- Interrelationships among language tially learned knowledge and subsequent strategies and content areas.By them- use of knowledge. selves, strategies haveno useful func- While language strategies and world tion. They exist only as a means of knowledge are naturally integrated,ini- understanding, creating, and communi- tial learning of knowledge and ultimate cating information, ideas, and feelings use of that knowledge are not naturally from the knowledge base. Thisnatural integrated. They are not easily learned combination of the knowledge baseand together. Most studentscannot learn language strategies must be captitalized something new and apply it immediately. on in a conscious way in all middle They cannot simultaneously remember school classrooms to help studentsbe- and maneuver large amounts ofnew in- come aware of the interrelatedness of formation because of shortterm memory language and world knowledge.Pur- limitations. Combining initial learning poseful integration cannotoccur unless with its application is not always effec- teachers understand the relationships tive or efficient. among content and strategies. All teach- While the two levels of learningcan- ers need to understand that language not be integrated easily, theycan be strategies support and assist in under- integrated with world knowledge and standing a given subject area's knowl- language strategies. Natural integration edge base. In turn, knowledge base can occur when teachers consciously concepts are communicated through lan- combine initially learned languagestrat- guage strategies. A knowledge base is egies or concepts from world knowledge useless unless it can be communicated with previously learned strategiesor from one individual to another;likewise, concepts, and help students become strategies are useless unless thereis a aware of that integration. Such combina- knowledge base to be communicated. tions result in several types ofsubject Consequently, the integration of world matter integration. Initial learning of lan- knowledge and language strategies bene- guage strategies can be integrated with fits all content areas. either previously learned strategiesor Interrelationships among subject previously learned concepts; the initial matter and types of learning.Once learning of concepts from world knowl- teachers understand how languagestrate- edge can be integrated with either previ- gies are developed and how theyare nat- ously learned conceptsor previously urally integrated into subjectareas, learned language strategies. understandings need to be developed Teachers who understand how lan- about the relationship between initial guage strategies relate to one another, learning and subsequent use. Students how they relate to subjectareas, and how cannot be expected to use knowledge language strategies and world lcnowledgc, without first learning about it.Similarly, relate to levels of learning have the basic

Rockier Riley, Lud, and Power 196 189 information needed to successfully de-lack of integration occurred even though velop and implement integrated units.the teachers' knowledge was adequate, However, before we could begin ourtheir attitudes were positive, and their unit development, we felt we needed toplanning of integrated lessons was com- explore the research on subject matterplete. Apparently, while teachers knew integration. about subject matter integration and sup- ported it, they did not use it in classroom Research on Subject Matter instruction. Teachers' interviews showed Integration that constraints within classrooms and Once we understood the componentsschools kept them from using subject of integratico and the interrelationshipsmatter integration in their ongoing in- among language strategies, content ar-structional activities. These constraints eas, and level of learning, we turnedlog-included use of teaching materials that ically to what the research had to saydiscouraged integration, basic skills about integration. Rigorous research onmandates that discouraged integration, subject matter integration was sparse. and lack of time and support for develop- While many studies are reported, few ing integrated units. reflect high standards of research and After sharing knowledge and develop- almost none include classroom observa-ing understandings about subject matter tion of teaching. Consequently, few re-integration, we agreed that it is a worth- search data are available for use whenwhile goal and that students need to be making decisions about integration. made aware of the naturally occurring One study, however, did include class-integration of language and content room observation as well assubject mat-knowledge. When we examined our own ter integration across thecurriculuminstruction, however, we found that we (Schmidt et al., 1985). The study foundfaced the same constrains as the teach- and that teachers generally favored integrat-ers in the study. These constraints ing language into all subject matter ar-what we did to neutralize them are dis- eas. However, only minimal amountsofcussed in the next section. integration could be documented in the teachers' classrooms. Constraints on Integration In fact, less than 10 percent of instruc- As we began to consider our own use tional time in the classrooms was spentof subject matter integration, we found in integrated subject matter activities.that we all supported integration in the- While some teachers integrated one lan-ory but were using very little ofit in our guage strategy with another,rarely werelessons. initially learned language strategies inte- As we discussed why we were not us- grated with learned world knowledge oring integration, five constraints began to vice versa. Similarly, initially learnedemerge. Over the course of theschool world knowledge from one subject areayear, as each constraint wasdiscussed, was not integrated with previousknowl-decisions were made and implemented edge from another subject area. Thisabout how to neutralize it.

1 97 Developing Integrated Programs 190 First, we felt that integration was not studies class, the English teachercould occurring because our classroom in- review the strategy with the studentsand structional materials discouraged it. If spend most of the instractional timeon the materials were about worldknowl- understanding the literature selections. edge, language strategieswere virtually Once one of us had taught students ignored; if the instructional materials how to organize material fora written re- were for English or reading class, the port, all of us could eliminate the initial content of the other subject areas was learning of those strategies andspend virtually ignored. We decidedthat one our time on subsequent use or applica- solution was to draw students' attention tion. We could all benefit by keepingone to the interrelatedness of language strate- another informed about thecontent of gies and world knowledge withinthe in- lessons, which increased the usefulness structional materials. We found that this of language strategies and theeffective- solution worked when the materialsem- ness of instruction. phasized language strategy and world Our solution seemed reasonableex- knowledge but not when they didn't. cept in situations wherenone of the The second constraint was the iso- teachers had taught the strategy. Thisled lated, fragmented content thatstudents to the third type of constraint, determin- are exposed to in middle schools. This ing which teacherswere responsible for constraint was caused primarily bythe which language strategies. We decided division of subject matter intoseparate that selected language strategies used classes taught by different teacherswith frequently in content areas would be little time or encouragement to discuss taught by all teachers, butmost of the with one another how to effectivelyinte- language strategies should be taught ini- grate their subject matter. We partially tially by English or reading teachers. solved this problem by developing inte- These teachers reciprocally agreedthat, grated units that explicitly illustratedhow whenever possible, they would include subject matter could be integrated during world knowledge Ciat already hadbeen ongoing lessons. Rather than takein- taught in other subjectareas as the con- structional time to reteach inone subject tent for assigned reading and writing. area what had already been taught inan- As we discussed subject matter inte- other, we decided to use one another's gration across the curriculum,a fourth prior instruction as the base for upcom- constraint emergedinadequatesupport ing units. For instance, if thelanguage from colleagues and administrators. This strategy of classifying had been taught in support affects the degree of subject mat- reading class, the science teacher could ter integration that one teachercan ac- quickly activate the students'background complish. Subject matter integration is knowledge about classifying andmove most effective when it occurs in all the directly into the science content where students' classes. However, ifsome the students would use their classifying teachers are unwilling to incorporateit strategies. Likewise, if a cause and effect into their classes, the usefulness ofinte- strategy already had been taught in social gration is curtailed and instructional time 192 Rockier; Foley, Lud, and Power 191

'and effort increases. The more collegial develop interest in the topic; fix using ac- support there is, the broader the students' tivities provide students with information understanding of integration. about the topic or the language strategies The role of the administrator also is needed for the lesson; and expressing ac- crucial. The most effective type of sub- tivities provide opportunities for the stu- ject matter integration occurs when ad- dents to use the information about the ministrative support allows for flexible topic or language strategies as the curricula that lead to deeper understand- teacher monitors, responds, and inter- ings for students. The required content acts. Within each unit, it is noted where can be placed in subject areas whereit is language strategies either should be most appropriate, content and strategies taught initially or reviewed briefly if they can be developed simultaneously, and have been taught previously. duplication can be eliminated. These units represent a beginning for We solved the constraint of inadequate subject matter integration. They must be support from colleagues and administra- adapted to fit the needs of the students in tors by creating ways for all participants any given classroom. to develop ownership for subject matter First Sample Unit integration across the curriculum. Those feelings of ownership helped teachers Developing Problem Solving generate the energy needed to implement While Integrating Mathematics integration. and Language Strategies The last problem we discussed was the Overview This unit develops con- time needed to create integrated units. ceptual understandings about problem We understood that integration saves solving, money usage, and calculations, time for student learning, but the time which are all critical components of needed to develop the units was over- mathematics. Relevant language strate- whelming. To solve this problem, we de- gies are noted and should be consciously cided to create "unit banks" that could be used throughout the unit. The unit high- exchanged and used by other teachers. lights usefulness because middle school students enjoy the types of activities in- integrated Units Created volved (honoring a victorious team, by the Teachers planning and implementing celebra- The following units are examples of tions). subject matter integration developed by Overall Goal To develop useful un- the teachers in this project. Each unit in- derstandings of the problem-solving corporates language strategies and world model by planning a celebration for a knowledge within lessons that highlight victorious school team. usefulness. Objective One To learn the prob- All units contain warm-up, focusing, lem-solving model. and expressingactivities. Warm-up activities are designed to help students liarmup activity.Generate enthusi- activate their background knowledge and asm about the idea that the classis going

1 99 Developing Integrated Programs 192 to sponsor a celebration for a victorious activity. Using all the ideas,have stu- football (basketball, baseball,track) sea- dents go through the problem-solving son, although the class currently hasa steps in pairs. One students thinks small amount of money ($20) available through the problem; theother student and needs more for thecelebration. This monitors the coherence of the thinking. situation becomes the basis for a unit on Pairs alternate roles with differentsolu- problem solving. Have students brain- tions for gaining money. Havestudents storm about how to solve the problem of use previously learned languagestrate- not having enough money for the cele- gies of thinking aloud and lookingback bration. As students offer suggestions, for evaluat;en, or teach thesestrategies list them on the board.Group the prior to this activity. suggestions according to categories of 2. Using a class discussion format, solutions such as in-schoolsources, have students decide how bestto get community sources, or classsources. money. (A guiding factor for the discus- thcusing activity. Using theresults of sion is the feasibility of the proposedso- the categorized suggestions,introduce and explain the problem-solving lutions.) The choiof the best solution model. determines the total amount of Use one solution, suchas having local money merchants contribute available, which, in turn, regulatesthe money, as the type of celebration. model is explained. Adjustthe lesson to the students' current understandings.If Objective Two To apply problem- the students already knowthe problem- solving abilities. solving model, quicklymove through Warm-up activity. Have students this activity. If they don't,take time to brainstorm ways to celebrate the victori- help them develop initialunderstanding. ous season (assembly, after-schoolre- Step One, understand the problem.The ception, party during class time) and class wants to honor the victoriousteam what to include in the celebration(food, but doesn't have enoughmoney. Step speakers, mementos for team members). Two, devise a plan. Howcan we get Focusing activity. Using the brain- more money? (Solution: Have localmer- storming ideas, have students categorize chants who support the teamcontribute them under possible way s to havea cele- money or use money from game admis- bration. sions.) Step Three, solve theproblem. Expressing activity. Each of five sponsoring merchantsdo- 1. Recalling the amount ofmoney nates $20. $20 x 5 = $100: $100+ $20 available for the celebration, thestu- (from class) = $120. StepFour, lookdents, in pairs, apply the problem-solv- back and evaluate. $120 willbe adequate ing model to the categorized ideas. for sponsoring a victory celebration. Students take turns thinking aloudor Expressing activity. monitoring. The goals is to have feasible 1. Have students brainstormaddi- ways to celebrate. tional ways to (min neededmoney that 2. Using a class discussion format, might have em eged during thefocusing students decide the best way to celebrate /In X./ tl Roehier, fbley, Lud, and Power 193 the victorious season of the honored motivated because of their interest in vic- team. torious teams and celebrations. Objective Three To apply the prob- Second Sample Unit lem-solving model to the team's statis- tics. Developing Understandings of the Warm-up activity. Students brain- Economic/Social Structures storm the places to find the team's statis- of Societies While Integrating tics (school newspaper, coach, local Social Studies and Language newspaper). Knowledge Focusing activity. After brainstorm- Overview This unit develops con- ing the various types of statistics to ceptual understandings about the eco- gather, students collect t'arn statistics. nomic and social structures of societies. Expressing activity. Using the prob- It contains lessons that build on knowl- lem-solving model as a guide, students edge of past societies, compares that create team statistics for a celebration. knowledge to current societies, and con- Students work individually, in pairs, or cludes with knowledge about future soci- in small groups. eties. Use of language strategies is noted Objective Four To apply the prob- so that students can be made aware of lem-solving model to the celebration their presence. Usefulness is stressed by plans. highlighting students' current under- Warm-up activity.Have students standings of their economic and social brainstorm various components of thelives. This usefulness should help stu- celebration. dents generate and sustain interest. Focusing activity. Have students re- Overall Goal To help students un- view plans to date in order to assign derstand through the study of the Middle responsibilities. In groups, students as- Ages that all societies have economic/ sume responsibility for thecelebration social structures and that these structures by obtaining the principal's approval, can be used to predict outcomes offuture sending out invitations, choosing a loca- events. tion, ordering supplies, and organizing Objective One To develop under- the program. standings of the economic/social struc- Expressing activity. Students conduct ture of the Middle Ages. their celebrat'on for the victorious team. Warm-up activity. Have students brainstorm about the economic and so- Summary of First Sample Unit cial structures of their society, using their This unit provides opportunities for own backgrc.ind experiences. Ask ques- students to develop conceptual under-tions about how we get money, food, standings about problem solving, moneyclothing, education, entertainment, and usage, and planning while using lan-housing. Ask questions about the struc- guage strategies that have been previ-tures we use in order tc live together ously learned.Students should be (schools, communities). Create a seman-

Ui Developing Integrated Programs 194 tic map of the students' responses. If stu- 4. Have students couvert theclass se- dents have not previously learned about mantic map to an outline thatexplains semantic maps, teach them how to make the economic structure of theMiddle one. Ages. Have studentsuse outlining skills Fbcusing activity. Students readchap- learned either in Englishor reading class ters of the textbook, supplementary (or teach the needed skills priorto this texts, or trade books that contain infor- activity). mation about the economic/socialstruc- 5. In groups of four, havestudents ture of the Middle Ages. Thepoem write their own text aboutthe economic/ Beowulf can be used to helpstudents social structures of the MiddleAges us- gain a sense of what medievallife was ing the class outline, individualmaps, like if Beowulf has been taughtin litera- and dictionaries. Students ture class. Other literature about the may use illus- trations from dictionaries. Texts Middle Ages that has been taught become in part of the class library. other subject areas alsocan be used. Expressing activity. Objective Two To develop 1. Have students compile under- a Middle standings of the similaritiesand differ- Ages dictionary in which theydefine vo- ences of the Middle Ages and current cabulary and supply illustrations for society's economic/socialstructures. each term. Have them use dictionary Warm -up activity. Reexaminethe in- skills learned in English class or teach formation that was brainstormedfrom them dictionary skills before compiling the warm-up activity of ObjectiveOne. the dictionary. Have students use illustra- Focusing activity. Studentscreate a tion skills learned in art class or teach class chart of the similaritiesand differ- them how to do simple drawings before ences of the Middle Ages and theirown compiling the dictionary. (Drawingscan society in terms of economic/social be eliminated from the dictionaryif not structure. previously taught.) Expressing activity. 2. Using a time line previously taught 1. Have students verifyor alter the in social studies, have studentsidentify time line created in ObjectiveOne. Stu- the major events of this historicalperiod dents then create a time line ofthe major (500 AD-150U 1) that affectedor were events of their lifetimes. affected by econumic/social structures. 2. Have students compilea who's 3. Have each student makea seman- who of their society. Entrieswill de- tic map that portrays topics suchas feu- scribe the person and hisor her contribu- dalism (e.g., class of people, socialrank, tion(s)tosociety.Use composing job responsibilities, class privileges, strategies taught in English classor teach tools of various trades, family life, fash- students how to create a who's whoentry. ion). As a class, have students compile 3. Have students createposter and one big map from individual semantic brochur files thatcompare the Middle maps. Ages with their society (this activitymay

Roehlei; Foley, Lud, and Power 202 195 be done individually or in groups). Stu-pies of food, fashions, government, en- dents may create posters that emphasizetertainment, and education. Scenery and the code of conduct in the Middle Ages plays can be created. When possible, use (i.e., knighthood, the age of chivalry). strategies, skills, and concepts di "eloped Have students use skills of poster creat- in other content classes. ing from art class. For brochures, areas 2. Have students design an invitation of comparison might include food, cloth- to the other class. Invite administrators ing, government, or entertainment. Have and representatives of the local news- students use comparisonstrategies paper. taught in English or reading class. 3. Through an exposition, studelts 4. Poster and brochure files are present their future society to the invited shared in pairs. Students provide feed- guests. back to one another about at least one feature they liked and why, and at leastSummary of Second Sample Unit one that could be improved if it were to The unit provides opportunities for be done again and how. students to develop their conceptual un- Objective Three To predict the eco- derstanding about past, present, and fu- nomic/social structure of a future soci- ture societies. Starting with students' ety. understandings about their own society, Warmup activity. Using background develop interest in past and future ones. experiences, students brainstorm how a Use of language strategies helps students future society might be. A science fic- understand the interrelationships of lan- tion story (taught previously in literature guage and world knowledge. class) could be used as part of the stimu- lus. Ideas should be categorized as social Third Sample Unit or economic; ideas that fit neither cate- Developing Understandings about gory should be grouped separately. Endangered Species through Focusing activity. Students discuss the Subject Matter Integration similarities and differences of the Middle Ages and their society and use those pat- Overview This unit develops con- terns to begin making predictions of fu-ceptual understandings about endan- ture society. Students use their created gered species, using previously learned texts and the poster and brochure files knowledge from English, reading, math, for the discussion. social studies, and art classes. Useful- in- Expressing activity. ness is stressed in that students try to 1. Have students create a future soci-fluence politicians and government ety to present to another class. Informa- officials. Selected activities should help tion includes government structure, to create and sustain student interest. religion, education, monetary system, Overall Goal To understand the bal- language, and entertainment. Using an ance of nature and those factors that up- exposition theme, students create sam- set it; to become familiar with plants and

203 Developing Integrated Programs 196

animals on the endangered list andpre- 2. Have students brainstorma list of ventive measures being taken tosave endangered species. Have each student them; to instill an appreciation of our en- dr'Sw a visually sequenced flowchart ofa vironment and ways to ensure its future. pyramid for the food chain for theen- Objective One To increase aware- dangered species of their choice, using ness of the balance of nature and the graphing skills learned in mathor social problem of endangered species. studies class. Warm-up activity. Using visuals (film- 3. Have students createa poster, strips, photographs), assess students' bumper sticker, or drama relating toan knowledge and understanding of endan- endangered species (class notes of earlier gered animals and plants and the balance discussions are available), using the of nature. Each student should createa reading strategies of selecting relevant semantic map of brainstormed ideason information, and the English andart these topics, using semantic map skills strategies of composing. Displaystu- learned previously in readingor English dents' work throughout the unit. class. Fbcusing activity. Have students gain Objective Two To extend knowl- knowledge of the balance of nature and edge of endangered species and increase endangered species by reading textbooks awareness of preventive measures being or trade books. Students should take taken to save them. notes on the information they find, using Warm-up activity. Have studentsgen- notetaking skills learned in Englishor erate information currently known about reading class. Alert students to the im- endangered species in terms of numbers, portance of cause and effect while read- habitat, food, reproduction, andcauses ing about endangered species and the of extinction. Have students createques- balance of nature,using strategies tions where knowledge is lacking about learned in English or reading class. specific endangered species. Expressing activity. focusing activity. Have teams of four 1. Have students discuss their notes students collect information onan en- in groups of four. One student is the fa- dangered species of their choice, using cilitator r.nd keeps everyone involved in as a guide questions generated in the the discussion, a second student keepsa warm-up. Have students use library written record of the discussion, a third skills learned in English or reading class. student keeps the group on task, anda Students may use class notes generated fourth student checks accuracy of infor- during Objecti e One activities in addi- mation. Have students use cooperative tion to classroom or school librarymate- learning techniques previously learned, rials. or teach them the techniques. Each stu- Expressing activity. dent orally provides information for the 1. Students share collected informa- group. The notes are then grouped bytion in their small groups, using the categories and filed for future use during guiding questions as a way to share in- the unit. formation.

Roe lifer, Riley, Lad, and Power 204 197

2. All groups then share information serving that species. Information can be as a class ::lart is developed showing the presented on television or radio or pub- endangered species across the top and lished in newspapers or brochures. the guiding questions on the side. Summary of Third Sample Unit Objective Three To develop an ap- This unit provides opportunities for preciation of the needed balance in nat-students to develop conceptual under- ure regarding endangered species and anstandings about endangered species. understanding of ways to ensure that theLanguage strategies and knowledge balance of nature is retained. learned in other subject area classes are Warm-up activity. Using the classused throughout the unit. Influencing chart from Objective Two, have students government decision making helps to generate questions about empty sections create an understanding of the anit's use- that could be answered by a speaker fulness and should promote and sustain from the U.S. Department of Natural interest. Resources. Focusing activity. Invite an environ- Fourth Sample Unit mentalist to speak in class or take a field Developing Understand gs about trip to a nature center. Have the speaker Mystery Stories through respond to the questions generated by the Language Knowledge Integration class. Each student should be responsi- ble for verifying that a question is an- Overview The unit develops concep- swered. If the question is not answered, tual understandings about mysteries that student is responsible for asking awhile providing for opportunities to inte- question at the end of the talk. grate literature knowledge, writing strat- Expressing activity. egies, and creative drama. Because 1. Have students fill in the emptystudents are generally interested in mys- spaces on the class chart from Objectiveteries, the unit emphasizes usefulness. Two activities. Using the completedConscious use of language strategies chart, have groups of students write per-helps students understand how language suasive letters to state and national poli- strategies aid learning. ticalleaders encouraging them to Overall Goal To understand the ele- enforce and extend laws that protect thements of mystery writing, create mystery balance of nature in our environment.stories, and de% ::up oral presentation Ask the political leaders to respond instrategies. writing or orally. Objective One To develop under- 2. In a class discussion, share infor- -tandings of the role of problem solving mation collected from political leaders. in mystery stories. Based on the class discussion, select an Warm-up activity. Start with a minute endangered species wad createmystery such as the baseball puzzle informationdesignedtopersuadewhere students are told: "A man was citizens to support legislation for pre-running for home. P.c.. met a masked

-ri4,v 0 Developing Integrated Programs 198

man. He turned and ran back the way he within the group (facilitator,monitor, re- came. What is gong on here?" Have stu- searcher, recorder) and have thegroup dents apply a problem-solving modelto decide the story elements. figure out the puzzle. It can be the model learned in math class (see the firstsam- Objective Three To write mystery ple unit of this chapter), a model learned stories using the story elements ofmys- from another class, or a model taught in teries as a guide. reading class prior to this unit. Warm-up activity. Have studentsre- Acusing activity. Read aloud to stu- call the elements of mystery stories. Cre- dents a short mystery story, stopping ate questions about those elements for a occasionally for students to make predic- published mystery author who will dis- tions. If students do not know howto cuss how to write mysteries. make predictions, they should be taught Mcusing activity. Have a mysteryau- prior to this unit. Explain how problem- thor present information about howto solving models work in literature and write mysteries, highlighting the ele- how authors deliberately put in cluesto ments. help readers solve the mystery. Expressing activity. Expressing activity. 1. Have students ask the guest author 1. Read aloud a second shortmystery questions that were not answered in the story and have students make predic- presentation. Have studentsuse inter- tions, using the problem-solving model. view skills that were taught priorto the 2. Have the students, in pairs, read author's presentation. (Interview skills and predict outcomes, using a problem- can be taught in subject areas such as solving model with ,additional shortmys- language arts and reading.) teries. 2. Have students (individually, in Objective Two To develop under- pairs, or in small groups) writemystery standings about mysteriesas a form of stories incorporating the elements of literature. mysteries. Have students use theprocess Warm-up activity. Have studentsre- writing format of brainstorming, writ- call mystery stories previously read. ing, revising, and editing. Teach this for- Have them brainstorm how mysteries mat prior to the written activityor are similar/different from other types of review the format if it has been taught in stories. another subject area. Focusing activity. Present the ele- 3. Have students orallypresent stu- ments of mystery stories to the class, dent-created mysteries to their classor highlighting how mysteries are similarto other classes. Have students choose and different from other types of stories. background music from music classto Use stories familiar to the students. be used during oral presentations. Have Expressing activity. Have students students create props to accompany the read mystery stories in cooperative presentation, using skills from creative groups. Assign each member a role drama.

Roehleg Foley, Lud, and Power 199 Summary of Fourth Sample Unit tional information, commitment, energy, This unit provides opportunities forand knowledge of how to integrate. This stuuents to develop their conceptual un-chapter documents o "r story and pro- derstandings and their abilities in writingvides examples of the units we devel- mystery stories. Mysteries generally ac-oped. We hope that middle school tivate curiosity, which helps to developteachers who read this chapter can use and sustain interest. our experience when integrating knowl- Note If several teachers who shareedge across the curriculum. the same students work together, strate- gies, skills, and concepts taught in other References subject areas can be integrated into these Busching, Beverly, & Schwartz, Judith. (1983). units, thereby reducing the amount of Integrating the language arts in the elemen- initial learning for students. If a teacher tary school. Urbana, IL: National Council of does not have colleagues who are inter- Teachers of English. Roehler, Laura. (1979). Questions and answers ested in integrated units, the teacher about language arts. The ituegratIon of lan- must teach these strategies, skills, and guage arts, multicultural education, and cre- concepts before the students are expected ative drama. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, College of Education. to use them. Schmidt, William, Roehier, Laura, Caul, Jacqueline, Buchmann, Margret, Diamond, Conclusion Barbara, Solomon, David, & Cianciolo, Pa- tricia. (1985). The uses of curriculum inte- Language strategies can be integrated gration in language arts instruction: A study across the curriculum. We were able to of six classrooms. Journal of Curriculum achieve this goal, but it took time, addi- Studies, 17(3), 305-320.

207

Developing Integrated Programs Implementing Content Area Reading with Limited Finances

Donna E. Alvermann Victoria G. Ridgeway

THIS CHAPTER DE- on the reading portion of scribes how to incorporate Utv 4 that test. This fact, coupled a content area reading pro- 3 with Victoria Ridgeway's gram into an existing curriculum when move to Greenwood, South Carolina, finances for implementing initial staff provided the impetus for the Southside development are limited. Learning in Content program. The reading program described in this Prior to moving to South Carolina, chapter was modeled after one de-eloped Vicki had been a resource teacher io the in the Orange County, Florida, Public Reading in Content Areas (RtcA)pro- Schools (see Monahan, this volume). gram in Orange County, Florida. Her ex- Both programs have strategic readingas perience as a science teacher in the their theme. However, the Southside Orange County program made her aware Learning in Content program in Green- of the need for content area teachers to wood, South Carolina (described in this take an active role in helping students chapter), differed from the parent pro- learn from text. She also was aware of gram in several important ways. These the program's effectiveness. Within a 5- differences are the focus of this chapter. year period, students scores on Florida's basic skills test had risen 30 percent,a Background fact partially attributed to their having During the 1981 -i982 school year, learned strategic reading skills through only 38.4 percent of the Southside stu- RICA. dents who took the Basic Skills Assess- Although the Southside faculty and ment Test met South Carolina's standards staff were committed to improving stu-

20C 200 201 dents' performance on the South Caro-direct responsibility for funding deci- lina basic skills test, they had no workingsions and the timetable on which these knowledge of what Vicki had experi-decisions are made are important to the enced in Florida. A few had talked infor-success of your request. When you write mally with her about .rte possibility ofthe letter of intent, be certain that you re- implementing a similar program atquest any guidelines available from the Southside, but no money was availablefunding source. A note of caution: The from the district to fund a staff develop-approval and support of your local ment program. school administration are absolutely es- sential. Getting Outside Support 3. A proposal is an appropriate way to Funding for the Southside Learning incommunicate your ideas to the identified Content program initially came from thesource. The proposal should answer Self Foundation. Vicki had read aboutsome basic questions. Why do you want this foundation and its interest in sup-the funding? Identify your needs. How porting worthwhile projects inthewill your proposed project address those Greenwood community. To pursue theneeds? Include the rationale and assump- idea, Vicki wrote a 6-page proposal thattions underlying your project. Is there described the need for a content areaevidence that a similar project has reading staff development program,worked in other locations? What are which was eventually funded in theyour objectives and the proposed dura- amount of ,r3,746. tion of your project? What student out- Some insights that resulted from thecomes will indicate the success of your search for outside funding are shown inproject? Be specific and realistic. In- the form of suggestions to prospectiveclude changes in teacher behavior, if ap- proposal writers. propriate. Suggestions for 4. Describe your evaluation process. Prospective Proposal Writers How will you know if you have accom- 1. Locating private funding ;or a proj-plished your objectives? How often will ect is easier than you might imagine.you report to the funding source and in Someone, somewhere, has money to in-what form? Will you use pre- and post- vest in your ideas. Read your local news-tests, student surveys, teacher evaluation paper. Sources for funding includeforms, or a combination of these? private foundations, local banks, indus- 5. Detail your proposed budget. How tries, and businesses. Look for a fundingmuch money will you need? A brain- source with an interest in education. storming session with colleagues will 2. Once you have located a possiblegenerate a list of needs. If the design of source, find out the process involved inyour project includes a workshop, submitting a proposal. A letter statingbudget items to consider would include your intent to apply for funding is thecons..ltant fees, stipends for participants, first step. The identity of the person withtraining materials, testing materials,

Implemail Content, Area Reading with Limited Finances 202 funds for photocopying, and professional ipation in the initial 5-day workshop to resources. It's a good idea to present be held during the summer. Each teacher your costs in three forms: per student, was to receive three resource books to be per teacher, and total costs. used in the preparation of instructional 6. Consider proposing a project that materials during the workshop. is continuous over several years. Rarely Specific competencies targeted for de- do you accomplish what you want in one velopment included: indentifying key academic year. A project for a 2- or 3- concepts in a lesson or unit; evaluating year period that is contingent on evalua- the match between students' abilities and tions is preferable to a one-shot deal. textbook demands; selecting, teaching, and reinforcing key vocabulary; develop- The Southside Proposal ing appropriate learning strategies for The rationale underlying the proposal students' use; and increasing students' in- to fund the Southside Learning in Con- terest in reading both as a tool for learn- tent program was based on what Herber ing and as a source of enrichment and (1978) called a "functional" approach to pleasure. teaching reading. That is, essential The syllabusfortheproposed skills (such as developing meaning for Southside Learning in Content program technical vocabulary and reasoning was divided by topics: overview of con- about the author's message) are intro- tent reading; assessment (students, mate- duced by the content area teacher as rials, doze procedure, informal reading they are needed by students to under- inventories); preteaching activities (con- stand their assignments. The assump- tent analysis, key concepts); vocabulary tion is that when students learn reading (graphic organizers, Frayer model, se- skills in conjunction with course con- mantic mapping); comprehension (three- tent, they are more likely to apply those level guides, organizational pattern skills independently in new contexts guides, guide-o-ramas, questioning); than if they had learned the skills in iso- and study strategies (5Q3R, PQRST, note- lation in a reading laboratory or in a taking, reference skills). general reading improvement program. The proposed budget, based on 15 par- The proposal objectives were to im- ticipants, came to $3,746. Teachers made prove students' reading scores on two up $2,250 of the total budget ($30/day for standardized tests (the California Test of the 5-day workshop). Each teacher re- Basic Skills and the South Carolina Basic ceived a copy of the following resource Skills Assessment Program test), to im- books: Teaching Reading in Content Areas prove students' attitudes toward reading, (Herber, 1978), Reading in the Content and to obtain teachers' ratings of the ef- Areas: Improving Classroom Instruction fectiveness of the content area reading (Dishner, Bean, & Readence, 1981), and program. Content Area Reading: An Integrated Ap- The participa.ing teachers were to be proach (Readence, Bean, & Baldwin, selected from a pool of volunteers. They 1981). In addition, each teacher received were to be paid a stipend for their pattic- selected content area monographs pub-

Alvermann and Ridgeway .cf3.1 0 203 lished by the International Reading Associ- In conducting the workshop, Vicki fol- ation. The total amount budgeted forlowed this pattern of training: first she individual teacher materials was $771. An gave the background and rationale for additional $100 was budgeted for refer- the strategy she was introducing, then ence books. Consultant fees for Vickishe modeled the strategy, and finally she ($125/day for the 5-day workshop) came provided time for the participants to de- to $625. velop their own materials under her The proposal stipulated that two writ-guidance. Content for the modeled strat- ten reports would be filed during the egies came from one or more of the three year. The first, an interim report, would resource books and included the range of include an evaluation of the summer topics listed in the syllabus. workshop, a budget update, and a de- At the end of the 5-day workshop, scription of the workshop follow-up and each of the participants completed a 12- staff reinforcement activities. The exit item rating sheet. A summary of the report would include an evaluation of the evaluation results follows. (Note that a Southside Learning in Content program, rating of 5 is high and 1 is low.) a final budget report, dissemination ac- tivities, and future plans. Results of Implementing the Program Summer Workshop Evaluation The Southside Learning in Content 1. How valuable to you were the ideas program had two main components: the and concepts presented in this initial summer workshop and the contin- workshop?

ued inservice component, in which the 5 4 3 2 1 entire faculty participated. Implementing 13 0 0 0 0 the program included monitoring the 2. How effective was the presentation proposal to make certain that progress of the material? was being made toward meeting the 5 4 3 2 1 objectives. 13 0 0 0 0 3. Were the goals and/or objectives of Summer Workshop this workshop clearly explained? The workshop was held over 5 consec- Yes No utive days in August. A total of 13 teach- 13 0 ers participated. Although math was the best represented content area, the group 4. Was the content of the workshop also included teachers from social stud- clearly and logically organized? ies, English, science, home economics, Yes No physical education, and health. There 13 0 were 3 teachers from special services, 5. Did you have the opportunity to which included teachers of the emotion- provide input and ask questions? ally handicapped and the learning Yes No disabled. 13 0 211 Implementing,Content, Arca Reading with Limited Finances 204

6. Were the physical arrangements summer (N=1) and atmosphere conducive to the Have all teachers attend (N=1) workshop activities? 11. Overall, how would you rate this Yes No workshop? 13 0 5 4 3 2 1 7. Was the time adequate to cover the 13 0 0 0 0 workshop goals and objectives? 12. List other workshops in our district Yes No in which you wouldliketo 13 0 participate. 8. What did you find most helpful No responses about the workshop? (Write out an- swers.) Inservice Component Ideas and variety of activities The teachers who participated in the presented (N = 5) summer workshop met once a month Everything covered usable in the after school to discuss the strategies they classroom (N = 3) had used and to share their successes. Positive attitude about the All teachers reported positive responses workshop and its value on the from the students toward the new part of the instructor and class strategies. (N=1) In addition to organizing the follow -up Knowledge of what regular class- meetings for the original 13 participants room teacherswill do within the program, Vicki edited a monthly resource students (N=1) newsletter that was distributed to the en- Organization of material (N=1) tire faculty. The content of the newsletter Handouts (N=1) varied. Sometimes faculty shared strate- Having time to work on andgies that worked for them; other times, complete a unit of study (N=1) Vicki included ideas from IRA'S newspa- Ability of instructor to adapt andper, Reading Today, or from Orange meet needs of everyone (N=1) County's program. During the first year Emphasis placed on vocabularyof publication, each issue of the newslet- (N=1) ter had a theme: vocabulary, graphic or- Strategies to use in our own class-ganizers, library skills, mapping/feature rooms (N=1) analysis, and review strategies. In the 9. What was the least useful to you? second year, each issue was devoted to everything was useful (N =13) one strategy, with several suggested vari- 10.if this workshop were offered ations on that strategy. again, what changes would you :liggest? (Write out answers.) Monitoring the Progress rol,;de more time for workshop Progress was being made toward the (N =4) objectives of improving students' ability ..:onduct workshop earlier in to read and obtaining teachers' ratings of

Alvermann and qidgeway 1r 205 the effectiveness of the content area read- the effectiveness of the content area read- ing program. However, no progress had ing program. The third part describes the been made in improving students' atti- dissemination of the ideas behind the tudes toward reading. Consequently, the program. decision was made to administer the BJP Middle/Secondary Reading AttitudesStudent Indicators Survey (Baldwin, Johnson, & Peer, Two standardized tests are adminis- 1980). This survey consisted of 20 items tered during Southside's academic year on a 5-point Likert scale. Sample items the California Test of Basic Skills (crBs) included statements such as: and the South Carolina Basic Skills As- Library books are dull. sessment Program (BSAP) test. All stu- Reading is a waste of time. dents take Form U of the CTBS test. In addition, seventh and eighth graders take Reading is one of my hobbies. Level H, while ninth graders take Level I believe that I am a better readerJ. Because of the difference in the level than most other students in my of difficulty between Levels H and J, it is grade. invalid to compare the scores of all three Reading is almost always boring. grades. This difference in difficulty is evidenced by the observation that the Following the summer workshop, thepercentage of correct answers decreased budget was reviewed and changes were in all areas from one test to the next. made based on the fact that only 13However, the percentage above the 50th teachers actually participated in thepercentile actually increased in 7 of the workshop (as opposed to the 15 pro- 10 subtests. jected participants). The revised budget The 1983-1984 eighth grade students that was sent to the Self Foundation con- took the same form and level of the CTBS tained two proposals regarding the dis- in Fall 1983 and in Spring 1984. A com- position of the remaining funds in theparison of the scores from both years material and stipend categories. One wasshows an increase in all areas tested, to purchase additional materials from ranging from a low of 7 percent in refer- IRA, and the other was-to pay the regis-ence skills to a high of 11 percent is tration fees of the teachers who elected to reading comprehension, math computa- attend IRA'S annual convention. tion, and math concepts and application. An average increase of 9.6 percent was Results of the Program realized overall. The results of the program are reported The South Carolina BSAP test is admin- in three parts. The first part addresses the i: tered in alternate years; therefore, in first two objectives improving students'glades 7-9 only eighth grade students reading scores on standardized tests and take this test. In the 1981-1982 school improving their attitudes toward reading. year(thereferencepointforthe The second part addresses the :e4- Southside Learning in Content pro- tive obtaining teachers' eval.4 la ofgram), 38.4 percent of the students 0 intpl&tnelting Content Area Reading with Limited Finances 206 tested met the standard on the reading dents' attitudes toward all reading. Per- portion of the test. In comparison, 41.6 haps Uninterrupted Sustained Silent percent met the standard on the 1983- Reading, or similar components as sug- 1984 BSAP, an increase of 3.2percent. gested by Alvermann and Muth (this vol- During 1981-1982, 29.3 percent of the ume), would have promoted improved students met the standard in mathemat- attitudes toward reading. Second, the ics; in 1983-1984, 37.1 percent met the particular survey used to measure stu- standard, an increase of 7.8 percent. dents' attitudes toward reading may have Using these test results as criteria for been insensitive to the intervention. In evaluating the effectiveness of the retrospect, a survey to determine atti- Southside Learning in Contentprogram, tudes toward content reading or toward it is evident that the first objectivewas academic work would have been more met. Students' reading scores were un- appropriate. Third, the second admin- proved on the two standardizedtests. Be- istration of the survey occurred in late cause factors other than the Southside May, a time when students' attitudes tend Learning in Content program undoubt- to be negative toward many aspects of edly contributed to the gains in students' school. test scores, it is impossible to determine how large a role the program played. Re- Fkulty Indicators gardless, the results are encouraging. Participating teachers were asked to Another student indicator of the effec- evaluate the Southside Learning in Con- tiveness of the program was theBM Mid- tent program at th.. end of the academic dle/Secondary Reading Attitude Survey year. The evaluation form consisted of administered in the fall and spring of the 17 statements that dealt with the effec- 1982-1983 school year. The results of tiveness of selected strategies and the this measure of the program's effective- program in general. The highest rating ness were not encouraging. was 5, the lowest, 1. A perfect score of As evidenced by this erosion in stu- 85 points represented 100 percent effec- dents' attitudes toward reading, thesec- tiveness in all areas. The average rating ond objective was not met. Several was 93 percent. However, this figure factors may have contributed to the iis- must be qualified. Only 50 percent of the appointing decline in attitudes. First, the teachers returned their evaluation forms, design of the project did not address stu- possibly because the evaluation took

Summary of Attitude Survey by Grade

Seventh Grade Eighth Grade Ninth Grade Fall Spring Fall Spring Fall Spring Good Attitude 46% 35% 34% 24% 35% 21% Fair Attitude 52% Cl % 60% 69% 59% 75% Poor Attitude 2% 4% 6% 7% 6% 4% Total Responses 188 173 192 117 173 118 214 Alvermann and Ridgeway 207 place during the final weeks of theAdaptations school year. Had the forms been com- In 1984, Vicki joined the staff at Cam- pleted earlier, before the rush of final ex- bridge Academy in Greenwood, South ams and postplanning, the return rateCarolina. While academic dean at Cam- might have been better. bridge, she instituted the Cambridge Ap- Nonetheless, the results of the finalplied Thinking Skills (CATS) program, evaluation, coupled with the extremelywhich is an adaptation of the Southside positive evaluation of the summer work-Learning in Content program. shop, suggested that the third objective Twice a week, students in grades 6, 7, was met. Teachers felt that the Southsideand 8 participated in seminars designed Learning in Content program had had ato improve their ability to process infor- positive effect on their students. Thismation encountered in their classes. The positive feeling toward the program also program focus of CATS included higher was manifested in the topics of conversa-order thinking skills, such as compre- tions among teachers in the lunch roomhending analogies and problem solving. and the lounge. General complainingBefore semester exams, the seminars was replaced by discussions of teachingfocused on developing effective study strategies and their positive impact. strategies. During the 1987-1988 academic year, Dissemination the study skills component of CATS was Another indicator of tyre success of theextended to the third, fourth, and fifth Southside Learning in Content programgrade levels. Concept mapping and other was the unplanned dissemination that oc-methods of independent study were curred. The program received regionaltaught to students at these levels on an and national attention. For example, inelective, after school basis. Vicki served 1984, presentations were made at theas resource teacher for the faculty. On meetings of the Association for Supervi-request, she went into classrooms and sion and Curriculum Development inmodeled study strategies for students and New York City, the International Read-teachers. ing Association in Atlanta, the Univer- Southside'sprincipal,Raymond sity of Georgia Reading Conference, thePerkins, collaborated with Vicki to pro- Georgia Association of Educationalvide inservice support for content area Leaders on Jekyll Island, Georgia, andreading. One idea that was popular with the College Reading Association inteachers at Southside was the "commer- Washington, DC. cial," a 10- to 15-minute time slot set As a result of their presentations at twoaside by the principal during faculty of the meetings, participating teachersmeetings for modeling some of the strat- were invited to conduct content readingegies that appeared ;- :..e newsletter. The workshops in Georgia. Letters of appre-success of the commercial was attributed ciation that were received further attestto the ease with which the strategies to the effectiveness of the Southsidecould be implemented. Strategies that Learning in Content program. took minimal teacher preparation time

4+rj.l. r".0 Implementing Content Area Reading with Limited Finances 208 but were particularly successful include reading might be assigned a limited the Great American One Sentence Sum- teaching load so they can be available for mary, semantic mapping, and semantic modeling strategies in the classroom. feature analysis. Without special funding, interested Conclusion teachers can exchange ideas through In this chapter we have blended the their own commercials. Inservice train- what, why, and how to of staff develop- ing during the year might focus on a ment in content area reading. To the ex- theme (content reading) or on a narrower tent we were successful, middle schoe: topic (vocabulary development). Schools personnel and support staff may be chal- that do not have the resources to publish lenged to create their own variations of a content area newsletter can take advan- the Southside Learning in Content pro- tage of The Exchange, which is pub- gram. Although we recognize the limita- lished by the Secondary Reading Special tions of the program, we are hopeful that Interest Group of the International Read- other teachers will see its value and ing Association. Information about carry forward its theme. The funding for membership in this special interest group the Southside program was invested in may be obtained by consulting the IRA teachers, who in turn invested in their Desktop Reference or writing to Interna- students. Such investments invariably tional Reading Association, PO Box bring good returns. 8139, Newark, DE 19714-8139. If special funding is not available, ad- aptations of the Southside program also References may come from reading resource spe- Baldwin, Scott, Jonnson, Dale, & Peer, G.G. cialists. States or school districts that (1980). Bookmatch. ThIsa, OK: Educational Development Corporation. provide funding for these specialists Dishner, Ernest, Bean, Thomas, & Readence, have opportunities to provide ongoing John. (1981). Reading in the content areas. inservice training. Reading resource spe- Improving classroom instruction. Dubuque, cialists also are available to model strate- IA: Kendall/Hunt. Herber, Harold. (1978). Teaching reading in gies in content classrooms and to act as content areas (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, resource ,ersonnel for teachers who NJ: Prentice Hall. wish to develop new teaching strategies. Readence, John, Bean, Thomas, & Baldwin, Scott. (1981). Content area reading: An inte- In the absence of a resource specialist, grated approach. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/ teachers with a background in content Hunt.

216

Alvermann and Ridgeway Improving Staff Development through Cooperation

Mark W Conley Karen Tripp-Opple

AT LEAST THREE PROB- year cycle in these terms: lems interfere with meaning- A. "In the first year, we get ex- ful participation in middle 44)cited; in the second year, school professional staff development we make things; in the third year, we opportunities. First, teachers can be throw things out and start again." Teachers made to feel less valuable or less effec- are hesitant to participate in staff develop- tive because they are not using the most ment programs because of the energy recent program. Not knowing the mean- they must expend during these cycles for ing behind "anticipatory set" or the what they see as limited benefits. "jigsaw technique," such teachers con- A third problem is the perception that centrate on building their owq self-es- few threads or themes unite different teem. The effects of their participation in staff development efforts. In many mid- a development program may not last. dle school buildings, five or six staff Teachers may develop a new vocabulary development programsoperatesi- but never learn how to combine their multaneously. Teachers and administra- own strengths and thinking with the fea- tors may hold allegiance to one or tures of the staff development program. several programs. Attempts at sharing A second problem concerns the fre- across programs can be met with: "I quent cry, "Why are you always trying don't have time for that. I'm into my own something different'?" Staff development projects:' Or: "My program gives the kids programs are often associated with fads everything they need:' These attitudes that come and go in short cycles. One make it virtually impossible to integrate middle school teacher described a three- different staff development programs so 209 --2-17 210

that they mutually contributeto students' schools in the district were asked to de- success in middle school. sign and implement a school improve- What do these problems have incom- ment plan. Schools were encouraged to mon? They are nurtured by staff de- come up with a plan that recognized the velopmentpracticestliz,promote missions of the district and of individual competition instead of cooperation. An schools. In our school, the staff already environment frequently exists in which had been involved in a study of curricu- programs compete with one another lum. The need for helping students rather than dovetail in a way thatpro- become more independent learners (par- motes synthesis and growth. ticularly in outside school as,;ignments, This chapter addresses the struggleto had been identified. One teacher had encourage cooperation among middle completed an action reseal ch project in- school reading and writingprograms by: vestigating the possibility of integrating (1) describing one successful example of study skills instruction into the social staff development based on cooperation; studies curriculum for one of the grades, (2) describing various types of staff de- with results shared at an after school velopment efforts; (3) examining what staff meeting. ccntributes to competition in staff devel- To create our improvement plan, opment efforts; and (4) detailing the teachers decided to expand their focuson elements necessary for cooperative in- study skills into all four middle school volvement in growth and change. grades (6-9) and into all curriculumar- eas, thereby broadening the study of the Staff Development curriculum and of ways students become through Cooperation more responsible learners. We grouped Effective staff development relieson ourselves according to grade levelor common needs and shared goals. When curriculum area to conduct our analysis. school staffs adopt a focused plan of From this study, each grade level and action based on their needs, professional curriculum i.rea adopted certain study development takes root. In schools skills appropriate to the curriculum and where cooperative staff developmat has to the needs of learners of various ages. occurred, there is a progression from In addition, some buildingwide goals year to year in staff choices. Some were established, including teaching schools develop comprehensive plans for time management skills andawareness school impr "vement that are tied toa of due dates for assignments and for building's mission statement. Acoopera- progress and grade reports. Every five tive approach to school improvement is weeks, the school conducteda locker consistent with research findings about cleanout and provided assistance in help- how schools change (Little,1982; ing students learn to manage theirspace Nemser, 1983). and materials. To illustrate this process, considerour In spring of the school year, we re- efforts in a suburban school district. At viewed the progress of the study skills the request of the superintendent, all project and established new goals. We

Conley and klpfrOpple 218, 211 voted in favor of continuing what hadpated in a series of workshops dealing been accomplished and made sugges- with content reading instruction. tions for further improvements. At this By the third year, some of our teachers point, some teachers wanted to think had been transferred to high school and about other types of programs that could new teachers were added.The need be- enrich the study skills emphasis we had came evident to reexamine thestaff devel- already adopted. Other teachers were opment plan. Teacizius who had been in still getting comfortable with the goals the building all along thought about ways and activities established for the currentto include study strategies in their classes year. We decided not to abandon study strate- At the start of the second year of the gies, time management, or content lead- program, we planned two different ap- ing but to examine underlying therros proaches in light of the different comfort shared by each program. We identified levels and interests of teachers in the thinking skills and skills necessary for re- building. For teachers who were just get- sponsibility as the common threads. It ting comfortable with the existing pro- was decided that the year wouldinvolve gram, some of the approaches to study mutual sharing of the various areas of ex- skills used in the previous year were re- pertise teachers had acquired. fined. Each curriculum area and grade Sharing sessions revolved around level continued to reinforce study skillsthinking and skills, getting students or- learned at the previous grade level and ganized, and showing them how to read taught strategies specifically designated different types of text. Peer coaching was for the current grade. To help students suggested as a way to help colleagues with time management, evaluation cal-observe one another and provide feed- endars were pos' 1 in every classroom. back, and was made possible by funds Each month, teachers received a calen- that paid for substitute teachers. We dar from the principal with special dates could see clearly how our improvement marked. Every Monday, a calendar dis- plan, our collegial sharing, and our playing events for the week was printed instruction contributedtostudents' for each classroom. success. Teachers who were already comfort- One reason our program worked was able with the program and were ready the integration among ztaff development for something new investigated the pos efforts. Like many school districts, ours sibility of combining content readinginitially had snaripcd to attention as a strategies with the study skills strategies result of fads that had swept the nation. we were already using. We werepleas- Now, our improvement plan resembles antly surprised to discover that content interlocking pieces of a puzzle. The plan area reading strategies oftenpromoted allows for careful joining of chosen student independence, thereby further- pieces at appropriate times so that the ing the goals of the established improve- results help everyone see the "big pic- ment plan. In the second year, a handful ture; which, in turn, reflects the mission of teachers from the building partici- of the school (see Figure 1). 219 Improving Staff Development through Cooperation 212

Figure 1 Staff Development As Interlocking Piecesof a Puzzle

INSTRUCTIONAL THINKING SKILLS SKILLS

COOPERATIVE CLASSROOM LEARNING MANAGEMENT

trypes of Middle School ing students how to use their thinking. Staff Development Programs Marzano and Arredondo (1986),for Sets of staff development programs instance, collected 22 tactics thatteach commonly are found in middle schools students to analyze various problemsitu- across the nation. We review some of ations. these programs before describing how Other staff developmentprograms em- competition can develop among them. phasize effective schooling. Twomajor Literacy staff development often takes components of the effective schooling the form of content reading instruction, movement are effective classroom man- writing across the curriculum,or in- agement and teacher decision making. struction in study skills. Programs in Early concepts of classroommanagement content reading stress reading-to-learn were narrowly focused on discipline. skills, or ways to learn subjectmattei More recently the emphasis ison how through a better understanding of read- teachers "produce high levels of student ing and reasoning (Herber & Nelson, involvement in classroom activities, mini- 1983). Programs for writingacross the mal amounts of student behaviors that in- curriculum emphasize how students terfere with the teacher'sor other students' learn to use writing as a vehicle forun- work, and efficient use of instructional derstanding their subject matter texts and time" (Emmer & Evertson, 1982,p. their surrounding world (Tchudi et al., 342). Programs that ascribeto this 1986). Programs emphasizing study broader view can be found undermany ti- skills often focus on the issue of teach- tles, but they all share ways to teachstu-

Conley and TrlpfrOpp le 22n 213 dents what is expected of them. A key tive learning. Cooperative learning deals feature of these programs is that they are with the social needs of students by proactive; that is, teachers actively teach teaching them to interact productively in students appropriate ways to learn and be- small groups (Johnson, Johnson, & have without waiting for a discipline Maruyama, 1983). A goal of cooperative problem to emerge (Cummings, 1983). learning is to increase student motivation Two different types of programs re- and achievement by involving students in flect the broader perspective on class- collaborative efforts The first type of room management. Oneincorporates program helps teachers raisequestions concerns for activeparticipation and about ways they offer opportunities for equitable response patterns (Cummings, learning; the second opens possibilities 1981). Programs with this emphasis for increasing involvement in the class- make teachers mindful of who responds room. in class and how often. Raising sensitivi- Some programs emphasize instruc- ties to sex, race, ethnic background, and tional theory and the essential skills of perceived learning abilities causes teach- instruction to help teachers with decision ers to actively reflect onthe participation making. Hunter (1985) stresses frame- patterns found in their classrooms.A works for teacher decision making. In- second type of program stresses coopera- herent in these programs are strategies

Figure 2 Staff Development As Scattered Piecesof a Puzzle

CLASSItOOM MANAGEMENT

4'1 2'" Improving Staff Development, through Cooperation 214

for identifying and selecting goals for in- and implementation. struction, teaching according to speci- In the less successfulprogram, only fied objectives, diagnosing problems, the teachers were askedto participate. and monitoring students' progress. The content focus of bothprograms was Within these frameworks, teachers often a combination of principles frommas- are given clearly prescribed ways to or- tery learning and interactive teachingand chestrate the classroom for motivation, classroom management. After 3years, instruction, active participation, and ef- the more successfulprogram could point fective management. to widespread implementation and adap- These are just a few of the staff devel- tation of new practices, renewedprofes- opment options open to teachers. Be- sional commitment, andfundamental cause of the needs addressed by thesechanges in school routine. In the other programs, one would expect to find school, teachers continuedto praise the teachers delighted with the help theycan program but rarely incorporated it into receive. Instead, teachers lament, "But I their daily instruction. can't do one more thing:' Some impor- The successful program encouraged tant questions are: Why are each of these collective participation in training and im- programs viewed as one more thing? plementation. Less successfulprograms Why can't reading in a contentarea be often neglect the need for collegial inter- viewed as an integral skill, supported by action and cooperation as part of their de- specific instructional techniques and by livery system and, consequently, develop ways for managing and making deci- a problem with competition. sions about the classroom? Why, in the Competition is fostered by usingmar- same school, are reading and writing keting rather than a reflective viewed as mutually exclusive, approach as if they to staff development. Schlechty and were separate and noninterlocking pieces .,oslin (1986) use the factoryas a meta- of a puzzle (see Figure 2). Thenext sec- phor for how some schools tion tries to answer these questions function by within a marketing environment.In the discussing how competition develops school-as-factory, a hierarchy exists, among programs. with administrators viewedas managers, teachers as workers, and students Competition in Staff as products. These relationshipsare charac- Development Programs terized by dominance at the top of the hi- By definition, a staff developmentpro-erarchy and submission at the bottom. gram is an attempt to change existing Taken to an extreme, this viewsuggests practice in a particular way. Considerthat the most efficient school takes in this recent comparison of staff develop- students (raw material) of the highest ment programs in two schools, one suc- quality and gets its direction for instruc- cessful and the other less than successful tion from a predetermined,known (Little, 1986). In the more successfulsource. program, teachers and principals were Any innovation introduced into this asked to participate as a group in training environment must contributeto the effi-

Conley and TripfrOpple 229 215 ciency of the school-as-factory. In most and compared through use of quality cases, schools have limited resources, control measures designed to reduce ad- and not all teachers (workers) can partic- aptation and ensure faithfulness to both ipate. Principals have two options in de- innovation and the school's mission. termining participation in the program: This description of staff development (1) solicit volunteers, or (2) choose the is one of the main reasons that, in spite of best qualified teachers. Soliciting volun- hundreds of innovations over the years, in in- teers usually means drawingfrom the the net result is little if any change small group of teachers who seem to par- structional practice (Cuban, 1984). Mid- ticipate in every school program. Andle schools that function like afactory advantage of calling on these 'staff de- place a premium on maintaining the sta- velopment junkies," as they are some-tus quo. Ironically, staffdevelopment is times called, is that they oftenbecome not used as a way to createinnovation useful salespeople for marketing the pro- and change but rather as a way toinstill gram. Choosing the bestqualified teach- competitiveness and increase productiv- The ers means identifyingindividuals who ity according to existing practice. demonstrate that they are most in touch most unfortunate byproductof this type teacher with the school mission. An advantageof competition is that it pits of using this group is that they are most against teacher, or teachersagainst likely to use the innovation in ways that administrators, for the sake of limited preserve the mission of theschool. change. Reform efforts in the school-as-factory Competition can emerge another way take place with assembly line rigor and when many different staff development procedures for quality control. Under programs grow independentlywithin the these conditions, competition emerges, same school. In oneschool system, a along with the problems that interfere content reading program beganoutside with meaningful change. Tight supervi- the district's existing (and officially sup- sion to maintain performance andincen- ported) staff development programs in tives to boost productivity (merit pay) diagnostic reading and effective school- are often features ofstaff development in ing (Whitford, 1987). The content read- these settings. As some teachers are rec- ing program started in response to an ognized and rewarded for their participa- expressed need of some middle school tion, sometimes a gap emerges between teachers in the district. Through assist- those who can do IT (the latest program, ance from the readingcurriculum coor- a dazzling technique, or atrendy strat- dinator in the school, teachers began egy) and those who cannot. Programs participatinginregular workshops begun on a purely voluntary basis sud- throughout the school year. These in- denly may become mandatory as the per- volved expenditures for substitutes, ma- ception grows that the innovation is an terials, and an outside consultant to "official" part of the school's mission. cmduct the workshops. The workshops Teachers who began as volunteers may became popular and requests grew for begin to drop out as they are analyzed participation. As participation increased, '2_Improving Staff Development throughCooperation 216 both building and central office adminis- best, rather than engagingin a discussion trators noticed a surge in the staff devel- about the bestways to provide instruc- opment budget for a program theyknew tion for students. nothing about. The content reading pro- Staff development efforts gram gradually faded because it must avoid was competition and focusmore on coopera- competing forresources devoted to pro- tion. Instead of makingteachers feel less grams that already had been approved on valuable because they donot have the the basis of recognizedneeds. latest innovation,programs must build A variation on thesame theme is the support for individual andpersonal multiple programs startedin the same change. Staff members building with teachers who are always volunteering for involved in innovation need one or more of the programs. Competi- as much sup- port in this process as do thosewho ask, tion appears in the formof scrambling "Why are you always trying for resources and soliciting something the princi- different?" The perceptionof staff devel- pal's support forsome programs and not opment as "always trying somethingdif- others. This type of competitionis harm- ferent" points to ful since teachers confront a critical concern. one another Teachers and administrators to prove that a particular are not see- program is the ing the plethora ofprograms as universal

Effective staff development translates into effective classroompractice.

Conley and kippOpple 224 217 and equitable in improving teachingand knowledge, beliefs, and experiences learning. More common is the percep-teachers bring with them. particu- tion that teachers have to pick one, andif Growth for the adult learner, it works, why try anything else? larly in staff development contexts, re- quires risk taking; that is,giving up what Encouraging Cooperation older, more concrete notions of Eneviraging cooperation both withinworks and going through thesometimes key in- awkward process of change(Putnam, and across programs requires two & gredients: (1) an understanding ofteach-Roehler, & Duffy, 1987; Sprinthall and (2) a deliberateSprinthall, 1983). This assumption cre- ers as adult learners, staff de- plan to reduce competition andfoster co- ates yet another demandthat velopment begin withateacher's operation. However, As adult learners, teachers need to experience and comfort level. what they cur- have choices. In offering new programs, to move teachers beyond exposed administrators must provide alternatives rently knot% they also must be to experiences that takethem outside so staff members canchoose what they role(Sprinthall & think will be most helpful intheir situa- theircurrent in tions. Volunteerism is fundamental toSprinthall). The perennial struggle staff development is to balanceexperi- choice, but staff development also must assumptions be designed around those whodo not ences that challenge current levels i wish to volunteer. Otherwise, a gapthatwith those that recognize current much 1 produces competition and negative per-of understanding or growth. Too while ceptions will emerge between volunteers challenge gives rise to frustration, too much affirmation can createfurther and nonvolunteers. behaviors Studies on staff development in con-entrenchment in thinking and tent reading have foundthat teachers that need to be changed. who volunteer enter withvarious kinds A staff development plan that encour- ages cooperation is one wayto manage of knowledge about contentreading that working together may or may not beconsistent with thethis dilemma. Teachers goals are better able principles of the program (Conley,1986, to identify needs and because co- 1987). Teachers who do notvolunteer to tackle difficult problems operation provides collegial support,both may resist because ofphilosophical dif- ferences (Sparks & Sparks, 1984) orbe- intellectually and affectively (Lortie, research cause they failto see connections 1975). A considerable body of of co- between the program and what theydo in exists to document the effectiveness (Slavin, their classrooms (Ratekin et al.,1985). operative learning for children understand- Philosophically, they may object tothe 1980; Webb, 1982), yet our for principles of the new program, see tech- ing of the benefits of cooperation niques as too difficult, or just not want to teachers is just emerging. In one recent collaborative deal with change. Within both groups, study, it was found that planning allowed preservice teachers to staff development must bedesigned to take into account the different typesofcomfortably focus on problems and gen-

Improving Staff Developmentthrough Cooperation 22 C-t.) 218 erate many creative solutions as part of solution-oriented problem solving their planning for reading de- instruction voted to improving everyone'seffective- (Niles & Lalik, 1987). Whilea similar ness. It is during these sessions that study is yet to be conducted with practic- cooperation amongprograms becomes ing teachers at the middle school level, possible. Listening tocolleagues de- several researchers suggest that coopera- scribe what and how theyare teaching tive learning could be used during staff and how studentsare achieving moti- development as a way to help teachersex- vates teachers to try similar activities. pand their knowledge base about teaching Hearing how Sueuses active participa- (Little, 1982; Nemser, 1983). tion methods to promoteprediction skills What principles would a cooperative will give Tom an idea forusing predic- staff development program follow? First, tion and reaction in preparingstudents the program should be sensitive to the for a biology lab. As he mulls itover and needs and goals of all participants. To do does some thinking aloud,Judy de- this, cooperative relationships among scribes a problem with students'response participants need to be established before to a similar activity and offersa sugges- there is any talk about school change. In tion to help avoid thesame error. instruction about cooperative learning, Several important insightscan be es- students are taught that successfulgroup tablished from this cooperative work relies on the recognition reflec- that indi- tion. One is that whilethe needs and vidual success comes about only through goals of a schoolappear to be fixed and the success of the group. The same prin- finite at the time theyare written, they ciple could apply ina staff development actually continue to evolve.Changes in setting. While teachers may differ in per- the school contextwhetherin students, spective on variousprograms, they textbooks, instruction, should strive to agree or staffmake it on what needs and necessary to think about tintprocess of goals are unique to their building or dis- school improvementas being continu- trict. Sometimes, opportunities for this ous. A second insight is that thereare type of discussion arise in devising many ways to address identified needs school or district mission statements. At and goals. A teacheremphasizing one other times, opportunities emerge from approach to the curriculummay be ad- self-study, including action research and dressing school goalsas effectively as curriculum review. another teacher withan entirely different Cooperation about common problems approach. Cooperation needsto focus on and goals tends to increase participants' respect for and integration ofvarious commitment. Early sessions devotedto ways to improve instruction withina needs assessment should developinto a school. plan of action, including long and short Another principlenecessary for estab- term goals. At regularly scheduled staff lishing a cooperative approachis that development sessions, participants can participants need to collaboratein dis- start to genuinely discuss instruction, not cussing and implementingnew pro- gripe about it. The tone should beone of grams. Once cooperation has been

Conley and klpp-Opple 4,....602 219 in previous established about basic issues like shared aped among participants needs and goals, teachers may be more sessions, this strategy allows for noneva- colleagues. willing to involve themselves in new pro- luative observations among followup, which grams. With cooperationbuilt into the Peer coaching provides change. format, participants are allowedsuffic- is imperative in promoting comfort- ient opportunity to discuss the nutsandWhen a teacher feels safe and and bolts of making specific changesin theirable having the colleague observe gains can classrooms and to share how the changes provide feedback, significant do not are working for them.When this hap- be realized. When new techniques practi- pens, teachers may be morereceptive to work on the first or second try, that of experimenting tioners often give up, complaining many different ways ei- and learning (Sparks & Sparks,1984). "this new brainstorm doesn't work the While trying something new, teachers ther:' When a colleague observes, experi- must perceive theiradministrators as practitioner is able to evaluate the later time. The supportive and encouraging.Adminis- ence objectively at a observer trators demonstrate supportwhen they practitioner also may ask the allowing the encourage faculty toparticipate, publicly for some verbal feedback, interaction, re- express enthusiasm andpraise for the two to begin a supportive both the participants, and arrange for meeting flecting on the experience from students' rooms, materials andequipment, and re- teacher's point of view and the leased time for participation. perspective. It is rare for teachers to when given A powerful way foradministrators to watch one another teach, but they feel show support for teachers is byteaching the opportunity, teachers say challenged. alongside them. In one contentreading professional, satisfied, and program where this ishappening, teach- New skills must be consciously prac- ticed and monitored if long termchange ers are pairing with oneanother and ad- develop- ministrators are pairing with teachers to is to occur. Research on staff basic ingredients for to try out and reflect on newstrategies ment indicates two environ- (Conley et al., 1987). The risk isfor ad- success: a supportive context or ministrators to go back into the class- ment and a well thought outset of activi- application of room after performing asupervisory role ties that ensure classroom in the in- for many years. Because of thecollabo- the skills or knowledge taught Sparks, rative nature of the project, however,ad- service program (Sparks & in- ministrators learn to accept the riskfor 1984). The chances of success may if the focus of these the benefits they receive inacquiring a crease dramatically goal setting more balanced perspectiveof the school activities is on cooperative and greater credibility insupporting and implementation of new programs. change. Peer observation and coachingalso Conclusion competi- can be strong vehiclesfor learning and Staff development based on adapting new skills (Joyce &Showers, tion often reflects a "quickfix" approach 1982). Assuming trust has beendevel- to school change.Competition arises

227. Improving Staff Development through Cooperation 220 from buying into anyone of a number of Conley, Mark, Mester, Fran, Mester,William, & programs available for middle schools, Rappaport, Shirley (1987). The Bay/Aronac/ committing oneself to thatprogram to Tosco demonstration center forcontent read- ing. Bay City, MI: Bay/Aronac/Josco the exclusion of all others, andfailing to ISD. Cuban, Lawrence. (1934). Howteachers taught. see how an individual program fits into New York: Longman. the overall school mission. Inan envi- Cummings, Carol. (1983). Managingto teach. ronment of competition, teachers and ad- Edmonds, WA: Teaching, Inc. Cummings, Carol. (1981). Teaching makesa dif- ministrators quickly become polarized, ference. Edmonds, WA: Teaching,Inc. either as they dedicate themselvesto in- Emmer, Edmund, & Evertson, Carolyn.(1982). dividual programsor as they attack the Synthesis of research on classroommanage- self-esteem of those who do not (or ment. Educational Leadership, 39, 342-347. can- Herber, Harold, & Nelson, Joan.(1983). Final not) participate. There isa "Here we go report for the network of secondary school again!" attitude that defeats bothmean- demonstration centers for teachingreading in ingful and long term change. content areas. Syracuse, NY: Networkof Secondary School Demonstration Centersfor Our experience in our staff develop- Teaching Reading in Content Areas. ment program suggests that teachersand Hunter, Madeline. (1985). Whet'swrong with Madeline Hunter? EducationalLeadership, administrators can be empoweredto 42, 57-60. grow from wherever they are. Schools Johnson, David, Johnson, Roger, &Maruyama, can come to grips with the idea that staff Geoffrey. (1983). Interdependence andinter- development is not about a singlepro- personal attraction among heterogeneousand gram in the middle school but about link- homogeneous individuals. A theoreticalfor- mulation and meta-analysis of theresearch. ing programs to identifiable needsand Review of Educational Research, 53, 5-54. goals and helping adult learnersgrow Joyce, Bruce, & Showers, Beverly.(1982). The coaching of teaching. EducationalLeader- and learn so their studentsgrow and ship, 40, 4-10. learn. Middle school reading standsa Little, Judith. (1982). Norms of collegialityand better chance for long termsuccess if experimentation: Workplace conditionsfor programs are developed in an environ- school success. American EducationalRe- search Journal, 19, 325-340. ment that emphasizes cooperation based Little, Judith. (1986,`. Seductiveimages and or- on these principles. ganizational realities in professional develop- ment. In Ann Lieberman (Ed.), Rethinking school improvement: Research, craft,and References concept (pp. 26-44). New York: Teachers College Press. Conley, Mark. (1987). The role of staff develop- Lortie, Daniel. (1975). Schoolteacher: ment in the growth of expertise in content A socio- logical study. Chicago, IL: Universityof reading instruction. Paper presentedat the Chicago Press. annual meeting of the National Reading Con- Manzano, Robert, & Arredondo, Daisy. ference, St. Petersburg, FL. (1986). A framework for teaching thinking.Educa- Conley, Mark. (1986). Teacher'sconceptions, tional Leadership, 43, 20-27. decisions, and changes during initial class- Nemser, Sharon. (1983). Learningto teach. In room lessons containing content reading Lee Shulman & Gary Sykes (Eds.), strategies. In Jerome Niles & Rosary Lalik Hand- book of teaching and policy(pp. 150-170). (Eds.), Solving problems in literacy: Learn- New York: Longman. ers, teachers, and researchers (pp. 120-126). Niles, Jerome, & Lalik, Rosary.(1987). Learn- Rochester, NY: National Reading Confer- ing to teach comprehension: A ence. collaborative approach. In John Readence & R.Scott

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Baldwin (Eds.),Resew ch in lite,acy: Merg- Sparks, Dennis, & Sparks, Georgia. (1984). Ef- fective teaching for higher achievement.Al- ing perspectives(pp. 153-160). Rochester, NY: National Reading Conference. exandria, VA: Association for Supervision Putnam, Joyce, Roehler, Laura, & Duffy, and Curriculum Development. Sprinthall, Norman, & Sc;inthall, Lois. (1983). Gerald. (1987).The staff development model of the Teacher Explanation Project(Occa- The teacher as an adult learner: A cognitive- sional Paper No. 108). East Lansine'41: dzvelopmental view. In Gary Griffin (Ed.), Michigan State University, Institute for Re- Staff development(pp. 13-35). Chicago, IL: search on Teaching. University of Chicago Press. Ratekin, Ned, Simpson, Michele, Alvermann, Tchudi, Stephen, Ichudi, Susan, Huerta, Donna, & Dishner, Ernest. (1985). Why con- Margie, & Yates, Joanne. (1986).Teaching tent teachers resist reading instruction.Jour- writing in the conten: areas.Washington, nal of Reading, 28,432-437. DC: National Education Association. Schlechty, Phillip, & Joslin, Anne. (1986). Im- Webb, Noreen. (1982). Student interaction and Review of Educa- ages of schools. In Ann Lieberman(Ed.),Re- learning in small groups. thinking school improvement: Research craft, tional Research, 52,421-445. Whitford, Betty. (1987). Effects of organiza- and concept(pp.147-161). New York: Teachers College Press. tional context on program implementation. In Slavin, Robert, (1980). Cooperative learning. Walter Pink & George Noblit (Eds.),School- (pp. Review of Educational Research, 50, 315- ing in social context: Qualitative studies 120-152). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. 342.

229

Improving Staff Development through Cooperation PART FOUR

Reading in theNew' Decade

PCZELILJIDE

The following is a "crystal ball" chapter.On the basic of the cumulative information provided in Chapters 1-14, it attempts toforecast where middle school literacy programs are headed. Indoing so, it serves the dual purpose of summarizing thebook and predicting the future.

4,tjur/Qn Where to fromHere?

Patricia L. Anders Gerald G. Duffy

ALTHOUGH WRITTEN reading viewed as a compo- by a variety of individuals nent within that holistic possessing avariety of 54' view rather than as a sepa- views, the foregoing chapters communi- rate entity; (21 research on thecurricu- cate a unified theme about middleschool lum, instruction, and assessment of read- reading. In a general sense, this theme ing within a broad literacy perspective emphasizes the simultaneous challenge that influences how we think about what and joy associated with developing liter- to teach, how to teach, and how to as- acy at this crucial educationallevel. sess; and (3) research on therealities of Clearly, middle school reading demands classroom life, constraints on instruc- the best we have. tional practice, and ways in which re- In a more specific sense, however, the searchers, teacher educators, and school book reflects the impact of research on practitioners can work collaboratively to middle school reading. In the first edi- improve literacy instruction. tion of this book (1974), there was This research perspective does rot scarcely a mention of research, largely mean that the problems ofreading and because in those days educational re- literacy development are at an end. As search had not progressed to the point Moore and Stefanich (Chapter 1) and where findings could be directly applied Allington (Chapter 3) point out, our in practice. In contrast, this edition in- problems in achieving the envisioned po- corporates three specific lines of re- tential for middle schools are far from search: (1) research on the integrated solved. Overall, however, the outlook is nature of language and literacy,with optimistic. Fifteen years ago middle 225 - 226 school reading and literacy instruction forces behind key decisions.These were viewed primarily as craft; guided forces will continue to influence the by untested suggestions evo- made by well- lution of the middle schoolconcept, but intentioned teacher educators. Current they will be less influential becausethey thinking about developingliteracy is are balanced by the power of research guided by theory and research tested in evidence. The chapters in this bookpoint school settings. A:a result, the middle to three types of rational evidence,or re- school movement generally, and literacy search and theory, that will affect thefu- programs specifically, possessa more ture of the middle school. coherent and substantive direction. First are psychological theories ofde- This chapter buildson the foregoing velopment, specifically earlyadolescent chapters, assessing whatneeds to be development. These theories inform ed- done in the future to meet the middle ucators about the educational climate school potential for readingand literacy most conducive to the growth and devel- development. Five areasare developed: opment of 10- to 13-year-olds. The work the future of the middle schoolconcept, of researchers discussed in the needs of students and Chapter 2 how to meet recGrizes the social and interactive those needs, the evolution na- of middle ture of development and provides educa- school reading in the years ahead, in- tors with knowledge that can be usedto structional issues practitioners need to provide a nurturing environment for the resolve in the future, andour expecta- early adolescent. tions for changes in assessment. Parallel with the constructionof models of early adolescent development Major Itends and Issues is the notion of interactivetheories of reading and writing, whichhave re- The Middle School Concept ceived wide support fromthe authors of The middle school is a unique educa- this volume (see the chapters inPart 2). tional institution designed to meet unique Viewing reading and writingas recipro- needs, as discussed in the firstfour chap- cal processes involvingan author and a ters of this book. However, fera variety reader who are creating and interpreting of reasons, we havenot yet achieved the meaning for genuine communication potential originally envisionedfor these purposes has significant implications for schools. So wl..t does the futurehold for early adolescent development. Likewise, the development of literacy and reading the notions of metacognition (seeChap- at the middil school level? ter 6) complement and enhanceour un- The recent movement toward making derstanding of reading and writing.As curricular, instructional, andprogram- these models gain acceptance, educators matic decisions on the basis ofresearch increasingly will recognize thepower of codes well for the future ofthe middle reading and writing for understanding school. Historically, demographics, and controlling both oneself andone's budgets, and inappropriately trained world. The result will bea middle school teachers and administrators were driving designed to provide students witha wide

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Computer use is likely to continue to grow in importance as anintegral part of the school curriculum. selection of reading and writing opportu-tion. Such methods share assumptions nities. Thus, reading and writing will beput forth by both child development ex- viewed as processes used to help stu-perts and reading and writing research- dents learn content and to help adoles-ers. Efforts reported in Parts 2and 3 cents cope with this complex andsupport inatruction that helps students difficult stage of development. become strategic monitors of their com- Concurrently, interactive models of in- prehension, composition, and learning in struction have implications for teaching content area materials while alsohelping (see Chapter 8). Instruction is particu-students become independent in negoti- larly important when it puts a premiumating the meaning of text (what Conley. on activating prior knowledge, asks stu-Chapter 8, calls "active instruction"). dents to share that knowledge, helps stu- Thus,interactionis likely to be the dents set purposes for reading, andcornerstone word of middle school liter- encourages the processes of selection,acy development in the newdecade. prediction, confirmation, and integr4-Models of development, of processes of

233 Where to from Here? 228

literacy, and of instructionare comple-quirements. mentary and mutually supportive. The While changes in preservice training theoretically based research findingsare imminent, staff development also is from each will strengthen the middle needed. For instance, teachers needhelp school concept and help middleschoolsdeveloping up-to-date interdisciplinary achieve their potential. curricula and age-appropriateprojects and activities (see Part 3). Meeting Middle School Needs As more attention is givento the mid- Fundamental to meeting middle school dle school concept, increasedresources needs is recognizing that changeunder-will be provided. A schoolthat closely girds the nature of both the studentand adheres to what is known aboutearly ad- the school. Adults who understand andolescents is a busy and potentiallyexpen- accept change are more likely to generatesive place. Flexibility andaccessible and maintain an environment suitedtoresources are needed. middle school students. A final need is the developmentof There are several barriers to educators'multidisciplinary, integrated curriculum understanding and acceptance of changemodels that use reading and writingas as a necessary condition of adolescentvehicles for engaging the curriculum. development (see Chapters 10 and14).One appropriate example isAtwell's Critical to establishing an environment(1987) notion of inviting studentsto sit that encourages such acceptance is thearound her dining room tableto discover administrator's attitude toward change.Ifthe world through literature. Thespecific teachers are to encourage andsupportcontent to be learned is not as important student change, they must be comfort-as the process of engaging that content. able in risking change themselves.This risk-taking orientation willoccur only inThe Reading Curriculum an environment fostered by an adminis- Since the first edition of this book, trator who is not afraid of change. Thus,views about what to teach in middle there is a clear and immediate need forschool reading have undergonevast appropriately mined administrators. change. In the language of Valencia, A closely related need is training forMcGinley, and Pearson (Chapter 9),we teachers. Although certification doesnothave moved from a focuson the infra- guarantee good teaching, a middlestructure of skills to holistic processes school certificate makes a public state-and functions. What changescan we ex- ment that being a middle school teacherpect in the future? requires special knowledge, skills,and We can expect to see the continuation attitudes. As of this writing, several cer-of three movements (all of whichare tification agencies in the UnitedStates foreshadowed in various chapters in this are developing middle school certifica-book): (1) emphasis on integration, (2) tion requirements. Asa result, collegesemphasis on building conceptual under- of education are adjusting their curricula standings about the utility of literateac- .o respond to the new certification re-tivity, and (3) emphasison cognitive and

Anders and Duffy 234 229 metacognitive dimensions. content, students have a compelling rea- Integration. An emphasis on the inte- son to learn to be literate (see Chapter gration of language pervades this book. 9). The second reason for content area This trend will continue. Specifically, integration has to do with application. two kinds of integration will influence Reading is not a static skill applied uni- how we think about teaching reading in formly to all situations. To the contrary, the middle school. expert readers do different things when First, we can expect more integration faced with different textual situations. across the language arts. Rather than For students to learn the flexibility re- viewing reading as a subject to be taught quired for expert reading, they must be by itself, reading increasingly will be in- given opportunities to apply reading in a tegrated with the other language modes variety of contexts. The best way to do of listening, speaking, and writing (see this is to integrate reading with the vari- Chapter 12). The emphasis will not be ous disciplines in the curriculum. on reading as a receptive activity but on Conceptual understandings. In the reading as one of several communication past, the utility of reading and literacy modes. In this regard, a particularly has been taken for granted. It was as- heavy emphasis will be placed on inte- sumed that everyone could see how im- grating reading and writing. For in- portant reading is and would exert effort stance, teachers will not teach reading asto learn to read. much as they will teach written commun- It is now clear that this assumption is ication, they will not teach reading strat- not necessarily correct. It is more accu- egies as much as they will teach how rate to say that many students build un- strategies have reciprocal functions in derstandings about the utility of reading reading and writing, and they will noton the basis of the reading they do in teach comprehension in isolation from school. If that reading is boring and triv- composition. ial, they tend to conclude that all reading Second, there will be more integration is boring and trivial; if that reading is ex- across subjects. As pointed out by Peters citing and useful, they tend to conclude (Chapter 5) and by Roehler and col-that all reading is exciting and useful. leagues (Chapter 12), the emphasis will Consequently, students' lifelong concepts be on integration within and across the of the function of reading are shaped by various content areas in the curriculum. the reading they do in school. Such integration will become more im- The implication for teachers is clear. portant for two reasons. Th, first has to They must teach students not only how to do with motivation. Literacy and reading read in the traditional sense of teaching make little sense when taught in isolation them skills and strategies, they must also from meaningful content. As a decontex- teach students why to read. Teachers tualized set of activities, they offer littlecannot simply tell students why reading to motivate students. In contrast, when is important. They must show them, pri- reading is presented within the context ofmarily by engaging them in meaningful the pursuit of stimulating and inspiring reading. Students learn the function of

235 Where to from Here? 230

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reading by being involved in literateac- Hence, curricular emphasis in the past tivities that emphasize the utility and joy was on drill-and-practice of skill frag- of reading. A major curricular emphasis ments. in the future must be the development of However, as Herrmann (Chapter 6) accurate concepts about the functions of notes, recent research has caused us to reading (see Chapters 7 and 9). move away from that emphasis. Lan- Cognitive and metacognitive goals. guage is now viewed as a cognitive proc- Skills were a major curricular emphasis ess, and language users are seen to be in the past. A skills emphasiswas char- thoughtful and strategic. Consequently, acterized by both automaticity and isola- the emphasis is not on proceduralized tion. It was assumed that if students rules but on flexible cognition; noton memorized skills in isolation fromcon- memory but on understanding; and not tent they would become expert readers. on drill-and-practice but on adaptive ap- 236 Anders and Duffy 231 plication. This is a major change. Ratherto learn the processes by which expert than approaching reading as a finite setreaders read because these processes are of skills to be taught in isolation, educa-the means of comprehension. Advocates tors view reading as an indefinite num-of content have argued that domain-spe- ber of strategic processes, applied incific knowledge is the only important as- diverse ways according to the demandspect of reading since comprehension of of the text when beginning to read, dur-the content message is the essence of lan- ing reading, and after reading. Not onlyguage communication. Research on cog- will this trend continue but, as Petersnition and metacognition, however, (Chapter 5) suggests, it will become theillustrates that such either/or positions framework for middle school literacyare shortsighted, and that a balanced programs. viewis more realistic. Duffy and We can expect to see two importantRoehler (1989) have labeled this bal- developments in the area of cognitive and anced view "process-into-content" in or- metacognitive dimensions of the readingder to highlight that cognitive processes and literacy curriculum. First, greaterare useful only to the extent that they are emphasis will be placed on readers' me-applied to content. This move away from tacognitive awareness of what they areextreme positions and toward a balanced doing when they are reading. The strate- curricular emphasis on teaching cogni- gic flexibility required to be an experttive processes in the context of their reader, particularly when faced with dif-application to specific content will con- ficult text, cannot be achieved without antinue in the future. awareness of when to be strategic, how Summary. There seems to be little to initiate strategic processing, and howdoubt about the future of the middle to adapt what is known about strategiesschool reading curriculum. The trends to the specific demands of the text. Con-toward integration, conceptual under- sequently, curricular emphasis in readingstandings, and cognition reported in this will help students develop awareness ofvolume will continue to gain momentum what they are doing when they success- in the ye..rs ahead. Reading in the middle fully comprehend text. When studentsschool will continue to assume dimen- encounter new and difficult text, theysions that are holistic, meaningful, and can access what they know and apply itcognitive. in the new situation. This is not to suggest that this future Second, the cognitive and metacogni- will be achieved easily. The clarity of the five. dimensions of the middle schoolresearch that supports such movement reading curriculum will increasingly em-and the intuitive sensibleness of these phasize a balance between process anddirections notwithstanding, traditional content. As Peters (Chapter 5) notes,practices and the constraints posed by much of the reading debate in past yearssuch realities as existing policy, public has placed process and content in dia-expectations, and difficult working con- metrically opposed positions. Advocatesditions indicate that curricular change of process have argued that students needwill be gradual. Despite this, we can ex-

237 Where to from Here? 232

pest the changes noted to find their way mation about curricular content, teachers into the middle school Leading curricu- must determine how students restructure lum. Staff development efforts based on that information and in recursive, spon- cooperation (Conley & Tripp-Opple, taneous ways provide additional infor- Chapter 14) will be particularly helpful mation students can use to continue in this regard. restructuringtheirunderstandings. Hence, teachers must be in metacogni- Instruction in Reading tive control of their own professional Until recently, instruction has been kr,cwledge. Rather than following the viewed as a matter of engaging students dictates of a teacher's guide or prescrip- in tasks and ensuring that they remain on tions in a kit, they must be decision task. A premium has been placed on ef- makers who continualt- assess what stu- fective classroom management, and in- dents are coming to understand and structionalactivitieshavefocused adaptively construct appropriate instruc- heavily on student recitation in either tional experiences to move students oral or written situations. However, two closer to the desired curricular under- developments indicate that instruction standing. will change considerably: the role of stu- Appropriate teacher actions. Within dents in the instructional process and the the framework of the student as a media- kinds of teacher actions that make a dif- tor, teacher actions take on new mean- ference in student achievement. ing. For instance, while planning always The student's role in instruction. Tra- has been considered an important ditionally, students have been viewed as teacher action, the student's mediational recipients of instruction. Teachers pro- role means that the plan is a blueprint, vided information; students absorbed in- not a script. As soon as students begin formation. Cognitive psychology and restructuring their understandings, the instructional research has shattered this lesson takes unanticipated turns and the view. Rather than being passive recipi- plan must be adapted. ents of instruction, students now are seen Similarly, explanation long has been to be mediators of instruction. When stu- considered an important part of instruc- dents participate in instructional activi- tion, but it has been viewed as a static ac- ties, they restructure the meaning of the tivity that occurs at the beginning of experience in terms of their own back- lessons. This is a limited view. While ground knowledge. Consequently, what teachers frequently explain at the begin- students understand during instruction ning of lessons, the student's role as a often is considerably different from what mediator means that teachers also must teachers intend. be prepared to explain throughout the Student mediation of instruction puts a lesson. That is, when students restruc- new and more difficult light on the teach- ture the teacher's first explanation in er's instructional role (Roehler & Duffy, ways that result in misconceptions, the 1989). Rather than being responsible teacher must spontaneously generate merely for disseminating accurate infor- elaborations and reexplanations designed 4#00f) Anders and Duffy 233 to move students closer to the desired teachers perceive their role. In the next outcome. Once again, the emphasis is on decade, we can expect changes in both the teacher's creativity in the midst of in- kinds of assessment. struction. Changes in student reading assess- Summary. Research on the student's ment. Student assessment in the past mediational role in instruction makes rightly reflected the theories driving in- teacher decision making mandatory. struction. It was a tight package: both in- Given the idiosyncratic ways students re- struction and assessment were based on structure, no program, kit, or textbook available learning theories. It is clear can be prepared ahead of time to antici- that current assessment practices do not pate the infinite number of directions in reflect what we now know about reading, which instructional dialogues will go. writing, or learning processes. As dis- The only way instruction can be keptcussed by Valencia, McGinley, and moving toward desired curricular ends is Pearson (Chapter 9), several agencies by putting teachers in a position whereand institutions are responding to the they can make necessary decisions. need for new and better ways of assess- Hence, middle school instruction in thement. These new tests are not the final future will place more emphasis on answer to the assessment question, but teacher independence and self-regulated they are steps in the right direction. control of instruction. There will be less Ultimately, the best assessment is as- emphasis on simply engaging students in sessment that informs the user; thus, tasks by using management procedures "running records" of students' work and prescriptive or semiprescriptive kept over time and reviewed with the scripts in teacher's manuals. teacher, student, and parentare likely As was the case with curricular to be used more often in middle schools. trends, the shift in instructional emphasis The recent popularity of holistic scoring will not occur overnight. The movement and writing folders also is consistent will be evolutionary, involving gradual with an interactive model of learning and changes in policy, staff development, instruction. and teacher evaluation. However, over Overall, it seems clear that assessment this new decade, we can expect a steady in the middle school will move away and gradual movement toward more from traditional testing and toward eval- teacher autonomy regarding instruction. uation that informs teachers, parents, and students of development as it pro- Assessment and Accountability gresses. Issues of assessment and accountability Changes in teacher assessment. heavily influence middle school reading Teacher assessment in the recent past has instruction. Student assessment in reading been based primarily on a competency- (as noted by Valencia, McGinley, & Pear- based model. In this model, specific son, Chapter 9) influences what is taught teacher behaviors are identified and i:reading; teacher assessment for pur- placed on a form that principals and other poses of accountability influences how supervisory personnel use to rate teacher

239 Where to from Here? 234

performance during classroom observa- Summary. Assessment, then, is mov- tions. This model proved restrictive be- ing away from rigid, inflexible models cause teachers who demonstrated each of and toward models that account for the the specified behaviors tended to receive more qualitative aspects of teaching and high ratings regardless of their effect on learning. This trend will be reflected in student growth. Teachers' responsiveness our evaluations of student literacy prog- to students' emerging understandings, ress and in our evaluations of teacher their ability to spontaneously create ap- performance. propriate instructional interactions, and their skill in making defensible decisions Conclusion in the midst of instruction were mini- The message of this book is one of op- mized or not measured at all. timism and excitement. Significant prog- This situation is likely to change in the ress has been made in the 16 years since future. Rather than being based on rigid, the first edition of Reading in the Middle noncontextual competencies to be ob- School was published. This progress is served by supervisors, teacherassess- particularly noticeable in the increased ment (and tea..her accountability) is rigor of the research being applied both more likely to be based on evidence to broad literacy issues and to the prob- teachers provide as a part of their own lems of developing literacy in the middle professional work. The Teacher Assess- school. This rigor is resulting in greater ment Project at Stanford University knowledge. And from knowledge comes (Shulman, 1987) is a case in point. In improvement in quality. this project, prototypes for new ap- Yet the battle is not over. The middle proaches to teacher assessment are being school concept itself is still far from developed and field tested. Primary achieving its potential, and the role and among these methods are teacher- function of literacy instruction is still be- developed portfolios with which teachers ing developed. Consequently, while the document their professionalism in terms message is basically an optimistic one, of student growth and pedagogical inde- much hard work remains. Hopefully, this pendence. This new technique differs book will stimulate and guide that work. from current techniques in many ways, but the most important difference is the References priority given to teachers' control of the Atwell, Nancie. (1987).In the middle: Writing, evaluation process and articulation of reading, and learning with adolescents. their own professionalism. It is evidence Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. Duffy, Gerald, & Roehler, Laura. (1989). Why once again of teachers being placed in strategy instruction is so difficult and what we positions where they regulate their own need to do about it. In Christine McCormick, destiny. This movement can be expected Gloria Miller, & Michael Pressley (Eds.), to continue, resulting in teachers becom- Cognitive strategy research: From basic re- search to educational applications.New ing more professionally independent. York: Springer-Verlag.

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Roehler, Laura, & Duffy, Gerald. (1989). The Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. content area teacher's instructional role: A Shulman, Lee S. (1987). Assessment for teall- cognitive mediational view. In Diane Lapp, ing: An initiative for the profession.Phi James Flood, & Nancy Farnan (Eds.),Con- Delta Kappan, 68,38-44. tent area reading and learning.Englewood

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