Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English Language and Literature

Jan Eichler

Integration of Minorities into the Bachelor‟s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Jeffrey Alan Vanderziel, B.A.

2013

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

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Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor Jeffrey Alan Vanderziel, B.A. for his kind advice and support. I would also like to thank Mr. Jason Blake, Ph.D. for his comments.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 5

Chapter 2 Introduction to the Key Concepts ...... 7

Chapter 3 Integration of Blacks: From Anomaly to Hockey Stars...... 14

Chapter 4 Peoples: The Overlooked Trailblazers of the Game ...... 24

Chapter 5 English Canadian vs. French Canadian Identity: The Problem of 'Two

Solitudes' ...... 31

Chapter 6 Conclusion ...... 40

Works Cited and Consulted ...... 43

Summary ...... 47

Resumé ...... 48

Appendices ...... 49

Chapter 1

Introduction

Minorities are a quintessential part of North American society. Even though attitude towards them and their position in society have improved, there still exist biased perceptions of minority group members and there is a lingering inclination to exploit their presence by the hegemonic white group. One of the best indicators of minorities‟ situation in society is sport as “sport reflects and reinforces the hegemony of societal arrangements” (qtd. in Frey 505).

Therefore, sports might perpetuate discriminatory social constructions which consequently limit minority athletes‟ access to it. On the other hand, sports can challenge these constructions and help to gradually eradicate them. One of the sporting institutions through which minorities try to override racial and discriminatory treatment is the National Hockey

League. The main of the thesis is to explore whether there are recurrent patterns concerning minority players‟ integration into the National Hockey League and to discover and describe aspects influencing the frequency of their representation in ice hockey‟s premier league. Additional goals are to draw attention to the importance of minority athletes to the game of ice hockey1 and to discuss whether their position in the National Hockey

League has improved.

The thesis is divided into several chapters. Apart from Introduction and Conclusion chapters, there is also an introductory chapter which should enable the readers to better understand general reasons of minority athletes to participate in professional sport, disadvantages connected to the concepts of race and ethnicity and how it translates into their representation in the National Hockey League. The main body of the thesis is dedicated to the integration of three most significant National Hockey League minority groups black, First

1 The thesis focuses on the game of ice hockey – to be referred to as the game of hockey from this point on. 5

Nations and French Canadian minority groups, respectively. Chapters three and four both concern groups‟ identity on the basis of race, whereas chapter five operates on the basis of linguistic identification and ethnicity. More specifically, the third chapter introduces the main stereotypes concerning black hockey players, their relationship with the media and what kind of opportunity the media offered to them. The fourth chapter deals mainly with the perception of phenomena connected to the First Nations peoples and the game of hockey and how these phenomena influence their endeavors to make it to the National Hockey League. The fifth chapter is primarily concerned with the underrepresentation of French Canadian hockey players on National Hockey League teams‟ rosters in comparison with Anglo-Canadians and discusses whether the former are underpaid in comparison with the latter.

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Chapter 2

Introduction to the Key Concepts

The role of sports and sporting events in society has become increasingly more impactful even though the world of sports and its social and cultural ramifications are questioned at times. Sports‟ significance and prominence in society have gradually grown and sports nowadays have meanings and forms of behavior attached to them which are part of a broader cultural context (Coakley, Pike 3-7). As Bruce Carrington puts it in his article Social

Mobility, Ethnicity and Sport, this cultural context helps to develop and organize “various forms of collective identity, i.e. social class, „racial‟, ethnic, local, regional and national identities” (Carrington 8). The author will define some key terms in this chapter which will be then used throughout this work, especially focusing on the game of hockey and its role in

Canada where it is a pervasive aspect of culture. The institutionalization of sports and the position of minority members in the game of hockey in North America will be compared and contrasted. In addition, some hockey terminology closely connected to the topic of integration of minorities will be defined. First of all, this will be done in order to introduce the whole topic of integration of minorities into the National Hockey League. Moreover, it will enable the author to discuss the integration in more detail and narrow down the focus of this work on particular examples of integrated minorities. Admittedly, as there is a wide range of minority groups represented in the National Hockey League, it is not possible to include all of them and this work will be drawn only on the most significant examples. Finally, the author will define terms such as minority group, ethnic group and racial group which need to be discussed in order to thoroughly analyze the whole topic of integration of minorities into the

National Hockey League.

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Sports in general have undoubtedly emerged as an important substance of social and cultural context as they represent, reflect and help to create a collective identity. Moreover, they promote socialization and are believed to develop proper values such as self-discipline and hard work while partaking (Frey, Eitzen 504-507). Finally, sports help to understand and interpret society. As Virginia Woolf puts it in her review of Ring Lardner‟s fiction, sports are providing “a centre, a meeting place for divers activities of a people whom a vast continent isolates, whom no tradition controls” (qtd. in Blake 6). On the other hand, there also exist critical comments relativizing the sports‟ magnitude within society. Participation in sports is often conditioned and is often based on financial demands which lead to its exclusiveness.

James H. Frey and D. Stanley Eitzen explain the whole idea of sport as an agent of socialization in one of their articles:

[There is] little evidence to support the idea that sport is necessary for complete and

adequate socialization, or that involvement in sport results in character building, moral

development, […] good citizenship, or valued personal traits. […] [In effect], it is

actually the result of a selection process that attracts and retains children and youth in

sport who already have or are comfortable with the values and behavioral traits that

coaches demand and that lead to success in sport. (emphasis added) (Frey, Eitzen 506)

Notwithstanding the fact, however, the minority athletes aspire to penetrate into the hegemonic and prejudicial realm of sports. The reasons why they want to distort and disrupt the pre-existing hierarchical patterns excluding them from an equal opportunity to achieve an extrinsic and intrinsic reward and their success to accomplish these ambitious goals vary.

First, minority groups members started to participate in sports because sports have served as a means of resistance. To show that their performance and compete level in game can equal or sometimes be even better than those of their white counter-participants has been one of the few ways how to battle against social oppression and to override all the doubts, prejudicial

8 opinions and remarks they have to face. The success of minority athletes on playing fields then leads to increased social status and prestige. Second, there is the material advancement which is naturally connected with the success in sports and that has motivated the minority group members to thrive in sports (Carrington, Frey, Eitzen). However, as Robert E.

Washington and David Karen point out in one of their articles, “[w]hile many individual minority group members have experienced upward social mobility as a result of their achievements in sports, most [sociological] studies agree that actual mobility outcomes for minority group communities have been exaggerated” (Washington, Karen 194). Nevertheless, besides financial reward, there still exists positive outcome related to participation in sports for minority group members in terms of improving their self-esteem and inner-group identity

(Washington, Karen). The positive as well as negative aspects of minority athletes‟ integration will be accentuated later. Also, a thorough dissection of particular instances of minorities and their respective entrances into the National Hockey League, specific conditions and rules minority group members have to deal with during the transformation into the professional ice hockey players and their impact on the game of hockey will be analyzed in following chapters.

The game of hockey reaches beyond social and cultural boundaries in Canada.

Additionally, it can reflect internal political scene when there are political tensions between

English and French-speaking parts of Canada and the representatives of the former are prone not to choose the members of the latter while putting together the team‟s roster (Lavoie 388).

Moreover, it can have external political implications as well. Probably the most famous example is the hockey in 1972, also known as “The Cold War on Ice.” Summit

Series was an eight-game series between Canada‟s best National Hockey League players and the Soviet National team (Blake). The series not only tested on-ice skill and Canada‟s presumed hockey dominance, but it also challenged political paradigm of democracy, because

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“the Soviets openly declared that they played to prove the superiority of their socio-political system” (qtd. in Blake 158). The Summit Series then was not simply the matter of playing the game for Canadians. As Mary Louis Adams puts it in her article The Game of Whose Lives?

Gender, Race and Entitlement in Canada’s “National” Game, the game of hockey is a

“central signifier of Canadianness” (Adams 72). Therefore, Canada‟s loss of the series would bring an indescribable disappointment. It would not, on the other hand, completely take away the game of hockey from Canadians, because it is “too deeply entrenched in [their] psyche”

(Blake 159). In reality, Paul Henderson scored a series-winning goal which resulted in almost mythological memory for Canadians (Blake).2 Furthermore, the series brought recognition to other approaches to the game of hockey which possibly helped members of minority groups to succeed in making it to the National Hockey League later on. What remained, though, is the inclination and commitment to keep the game of hockey traditionalist. The discussion about racism and discrimination is very rare in hockey almost as if hockey representatives not only try to convince others, but also deceive themselves, that these two phenomena are not present in the game of hockey. There is a certain sense of nostalgia to keep the game intact and stick to the values and attributes it is historically based on. As Michael A. Robidoux claims in his book Men at Play: A Working Understanding of Professional Hockey in Canada, hockey community is “exclusively male, predominantly white, and […] heterosexual”

(Robidoux, 2001, 12). The intrusion into the institution of hockey is thus very complicated and requires people coming from outside to go through an initiation process and then assume the traditionally accepted rules (Robidoux, 2001). Admittedly, this is more noticeable in the professional framework of hockey. Hockey‟s vernacular form has more of a bonding and unifying power inasmuch as it generates space for communication and interaction and functions as a medium for better assimilation and integration. Hockey in Canada is ordinary

2 For more, see Summit Series Summary available on the official webpage: http://www.hhof.com/htmlNewsPromo/s72sum.shtml 10 to the extent that not wanting to participate can have social consequences and can lead to the social exclusion (Blake 60, 143).

As was already stated, sports are an important domain in the United States as well.

However, the game of hockey does not have a central significance there as it does in Canada.

The position of favorite pastime in the United States is held by baseball. In contrast to

Canadian enthusiasm for the game of hockey, it is not as attractive for Americans as it is for

Canadians mainly because “[h]ockey is full of accidents, random physical possibilities occurring at blinding speed; it lacks the more predictable tensions and premeditations of

American sports like football and baseball” (qtd. in Blake 48). However, there is a hockey tradition in the United States as well. From 1942 to 1967, the National Hockey League consisted of only six teams. Even though the National Hockey League was officially established in 1917 as a successor of the National Hockey Association, these six teams are known as the Original Six teams and are widely viewed as the teams with the longest history and tradition. The following table shows members of the so-called Original Six.

Table 1: Original Six Franchises Team Location Founded Boston, Massachusetts 1924 Chicago, Illinois 1926 Detroit Red Wings Detroit, Michigan 1926 Canadiens Montreal, Quebec 1909 New York, New York 1926 Maple Leafs Toronto, 1917 Source: www.nhl.com Paradoxically, four out of these six teams were American-based. The first American hockey team in the NHL were the Boston Bruins who won their first ever game on home ice when they defeated the Montreal Maroons. There were many other American and Canadian hockey teams, but their number was depleted by the Great Depression and later by World War II which consequently led to the lionization of the Original Six era. If Canadians felt that “their game” was being stolen and exploited by American businesspeople whose only interest is in

11 big revenues, the National Hockey League expansion in 1967 had to make the matters even worse in that regard (Blake). The National Hockey League doubled its number of teams, but all of them were located in the United States (to see the list of the 1967 expansion teams, see

Appendix 1). On the other hand, it provided a greater opportunity to the minority group members to earn their spot on the NHL teams rosters, because the league not only dispersed geographically, but it also diversified in terms of race and ethnicity.

Both Canada and the United States are considered to be multicultural countries.

Minority groups thus constitute more than legitimate part of these respective nations. Among the issues connected to the multicultural coexistence is the specification of race and ethnicity.

The shared experience and issues associated with race and ethnicity also influence access and opportunity to participate in sports where discrimination exists as it does in society (Frey,

Eitzen 513). In general, participation of racial and ethnic minorities in sports challenges or reinforces racial stereotypes and racial discrimination. The inequality in sports is still present not only in terms of participation, but there are also given different rewards for equal performance to minority group athletes (Coakley 311, Frey, Eitzen 513). As this thesis is primarily concerned with the integration of minorities into the National Hockey League, the aforementioned terms race and ethnicity could be regarded as crucial in defining their integration. As sociologists Jay Coakley and Elizabeth Pike explain in their book Sports in

Society: Issues and Controversies, despite the fact there are some differences, it is often complicated to determine a precise category, because many people share characteristic features from both of them (Coakley, Pike 312). On the one hand, race refers to a group of people who “share genetically based physical traits passed from one generation to the next”

(Coakley, Pike 312). On the other hand, ethnicity is closely related to race. However, it is not related to biology and genetics, but it is based on shared traditions and experience as well as a collective sense of identity. In addition, there is a term minority group in sociology. It refers to

12 the group of people who are systematically discriminated and disadvantaged, are evaluated on the basis of their appearance, and their collective sense of togetherness comes from their shared experiences (Coakley, Pike 312).

The position of sports in society has grown and sports have become accessible societal topic. Also, the significance and numerical participation of minority group members have improved. However, there is a prevalent notion of racial and ethnic classification attached to them which leads to a discriminatory treatment and judgment and subsequently also influences a reward for their performance. Overall, involvement of minorities in sports has both positive and negative meaning as it challenges as well as reproduces embedded stereotypical constructions.

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Chapter 3

Integration of Blacks: From Anomaly to Hockey Stars

There is a discrepancy in defining African Americans as a group. According to the above-mentioned explanations of categories, they can either be identified as an ethnic group because they share and are shaped by the same cultural heritage, or they can be identified as a racial minority on the basis of their shared physical traits and the color of skin. Given the fact they were systematically discriminated in the past, they can also be referred to as a minority group (Coakley, Kašparová 5-6). However, they are mostly viewed as a racial group in the

United States. The United States Census Bureau uses standards for classification and presentation of data on race and ethnicity issued by the Office of Management and Budget.

These standards define a black or African American person as “[a] person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa” (United States Census Bureau). There are several factors connected to the concept of race which need to be taken into consideration like “„race‟ as a restraint upon life-chances; blacks‟ unequal success to economic and cultural resources and power; and marginal position of the group in the labour market, education and other social contexts” (Carrington 4). These factors can negatively affect blacks‟ chances to participate in sports.

In this chapter, the author will touch upon several notions connected to the integration of blacks (African Americans and African Canadians) into the National Hockey League. First of all, there is a discussion about physical predispositions and the myths of physical dominance of black athletes which accentuate simplistic views suggesting their appropriateness in only certain types of sports. The growth of media coverage in sports brought a new opportunity to expose black hockey players. The depiction of black hockey players in the media, the role of media and how it might contribute to reproduction or removal

14 of prejudices will be discussed. Also, the participation and acceptance of blacks is often conditional and limited. Even though there have been attempts to eradicate racial discrimination, there still exists controversy about their role and position on the team as they are perhaps intentionally being put in positions which cannot effectively influence the final outcome of the game. The author will try to analyze and illustrate this phenomenon of non- centrality and positioning of blacks in the game of hockey. Furthermore, some demographic characteristics such as geographical distribution of blacks, their socioeconomic disparity and other factors will be highlighted to compare and contrast it with the characteristics of whites and how it affects blacks‟ participation in the game of hockey. In order to better understand the limitations and restrictions black athletes have had to deal with during their efforts to make it into the National Hockey League, individual biographies of at least some of them will be included. Finally, despite the fact that general knowledge and perception of racial discrimination have changed, there still occurred incidents of racial slurs against black players recently which will be mentioned.

In the game of hockey, it is believed, having the physical edge over the opponent gives the team a better chance to succeed. As a matter of fact, the game‟s competitiveness demands physical superiority even among teammates. First of all, it is part of the job for a player to be able to physically perform and the team‟s success often depends on players‟ physical ability.

Second, it helps players to keep the spot on the roster over other hopefuls and to maintain one‟s productivity (Robidoux, 2001). Overall, the physical strength is a dominant dimension in the game of hockey and its manifestation produces desired impression of control of the game. The physical superiority is one of the most common stereotypes attached to black athletes‟ activity in sports. The strength is supposed to come from their biological predispositions which provide them with capability to excel in certain sports, mainly applying anaerobic activities (Kašparová 9). Blacks‟ capabilities are thus arbitrarily judged by their

15 physical differences and appearance. This classification is mainly based on the color of their skin and it is linked with their “mental, social, and physical capacities” (Pitter 125). As Robert

Pitter points out in his article Racialization and Hockey in Canada: From Personal Troubles to a Canadian Challenge, this conceptualization of ineligibility to participate in all kinds of sports based on racial characteristics “ultimately reproduces inaccurate and simplistic views

[and] continues to have social connotations and consequences” (Pitter 126). On the other hand, these popular stereotypical representations of black athletes as being “mythologically endowed with a naturally muscular physique and an essential capacity for strength” (Pitter

126) might help them in the game of hockey as it historically celebrates physicality and masculinity. However, if black hockey players managed to get into the National Hockey

League, they used to be predominantly hired to play the role of an enforcer because of this stereotype. An enforcer is a player who is supposed to fight and intimidate the opponent.

Enforcers should also protect the star players on their own team and basically should not assume the role of a goal scorer by themselves (Blake 100, 104). Being hired as an enforcer entails specific problems and demands not only physical, but also mental toughness.

Primarily, the game of hockey is business-oriented and a player is under pressure not only to win the fights for the sake of the team and his teammates, but he also has to defend his masculine identity and tries to prove he is part of the team. If he would repeatedly lose the fights, he would eventually be replaced by someone else (Robidoux, 2001, 136).

The concept of allocating black players into specific positions, however, influences their integration and representation in the National Hockey League profoundly. The stereotypical notion that they are only able to play the game physically because of their biological features questions their intellectual abilities and leadership. Typically, blacks are excluded from positions which are likely to have a big influence on the final result and from which they would be able to control the game. This discriminatory practice is known as

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“stacking.” Black players are supposedly not being able to think about the game‟s strategies and are regarded as not having ability to guide their teammates. Instead, “they are placed into positions that require physical skills while whites are disproportionately found in positions that require intelligence, leadership, and that have greater outcome control” (Frey, Eitzen

513). Arguably, the position which can have the greatest impact on the game of hockey and requires the biggest ability to adjust strategy and come up with new strategic moves during the game is the position of a center. If hockey intangibles such as defensive responsibility or ability to win the faceoff are put aside, the prominence of the center position can be measured by offensive production. Currently, thirty-one out of top fifty all-time point leaders in the

National Hockey League are centers and the remaining nineteen are representatives of other positions (see Appendix 2). Perhaps, it is not surprising that among current black players in the National Hockey League, there are virtually no established centers. Nevertheless, there are other reasons for blacks not playing in center position than systemic discrimination. As James

H. Frey and D. Stanley Eitzen explain in their article Sport and Society, it might be blacks themselves who “choose to play certain positions because they desire to emulate role models”

(Frey, Eitzen 513). As was mentioned, the National Hockey League lacks a black superstar playing center. On the other hand, there are, or there were in the past, many NHL caliber black hockey players playing every other position, including goaltenders. As a matter of fact, former black NHL goaltender Grant Fuhr became part of one of the best NHL dynasties in the

1980s and a role model for other aspiring black hockey players. Grant Fuhr‟s accomplishments will be mentioned later.

Among other problems also connected to “stacking” of black players is an economic factor. As was already explained, the opportunity to become a professional hockey player provides financial means, increase in social status and, especially in Canada, occupational prestige (Carrington 3). Even though a division of classes is more of an issue in the United

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States where blacks are ascribed the status of second-class and have to fight poverty more than whites3, it is present in Canadian society as well. As Robert Pitter notices, understanding of a social class influences one‟s aspirations. In addition, he acknowledges that class is relevant in choosing the sport because the costs of organized hockey hamper non-whites to participate (Pitter 125, 135). If they choose to play hockey, though, their awareness of social class may influence their decision about which position they should play “because blacks occupy lower socioeconomic status in […] society, they will choose to play noncentral positions where the development of required skills is less costly” (Frey, Eitzen 514). In general, these prejudices can be possibly removed by acquiring better education and developing intellectual skills (Frey, Eitzen 514). Nonetheless, the pursuit of a professional career requires enormous time-investment from an early stage of one‟s career in order to hone the possessed raw skills. The stressed importance of improving conventional hockey values such as physical strength may lead to disengagement from student‟s role and distraction from school duties in order to succeed in the realm of professional hockey later on. Admittedly, the full-time engagement is rather complex for everybody interested in becoming National

Hockey League player. However, according to the United States Census Bureau4 data, there are substantially less black people involved in educational process than there are whites.5

Therefore, when blacks devote more time to sporting activities at the expense of education, it might result in “low academic performance and reinforcement of the [existing] racial hierarchy” (Washington, Karen 194).

The portrayal of black hockey players in the media can also play a significant role and influence their participation in the National Hockey League. As the focus of the game of

3 See Table 13 – Poverty Status of the Population on: http://www.census.gov/population/race/data/ppl-ba11.html 4 Unfortunately, Canadian government statistics data does not distinguish visible minorities‟ involvement in education from the rest of population. 5 For more, see Table 3 - Educational Attainment of the Population 25 Years and Over available on: http://www.census.gov/population/race/data/ppl-ba11.html 18 hockey has changed over the years and it has become institutionalized and commercialized, the influence of media has grown. In general, the media representation contributes to the celebration of athletes‟ physical dominance and strength and stresses the culture of winning

(Kašparová 40). Unfortunately, the media disproportionately emphasize blacks‟ financial advancement and improvement of social status which they achieved through their “innate ability, whereas white athletes [seem to be] more often depicted as succeeding because of hard work, intelligence, or leadership skills” (Washington, Karen 195-196). On the other hand, the National Hockey League‟s expansion from the late 1960s brought more media coverage on various American markets and therefore bigger opportunity and exposure of the game in the United States.6 The game of hockey became more economically attractive and it opened the market for black hockey players, because the league was looking for cultural diversity which would sell the game into previously unlikely communities. Black hockey players could be all of a sudden found on TV screens as sporting heroes, becoming the role models for young black children and giving them hope they could achieve the same thing in the future. The National Hockey League continued its strategic growth initiatives in the 1990s when the league reached into the Sun Belt States through expansion and relocation and started to build new hockey traditions (Bellamy, Shultz). The expansion to the American South and building of new hockey rinks and training facilities did not necessarily have to be targeted only on blacks, but the fact is that black minority group is most represented in the South.7

Finally, the expansion might essentially be beneficial for both the league and young minority players and it arguably corresponds with the growing number of black players represented in the National Hockey League. As of now, there have been more than seventy black players who have played in the league and the number is definitely not finite. However, had it not been for black hockey pioneers, the number would hardly be so (relatively) high.

6 The league did not need more promotion in Canada where it seems to find its audience naturally. 7 For more, see Table 16 Regional Distribution of the Population available on: http://www.census.gov/population/race/data/ppl-ba11.html 19

The name that stands out the most and is deservedly recognized as the most important hockey trailblazer for black players is Willie O‟Ree. O‟Ree, who is often dubbed “The Jackie

Robinson of Hockey”, is the first black player to play in the National Hockey League game. It was in the game held in the famous Montreal Forum on January 18 1958 where O‟Ree played for the Boston Bruins (Harris 75). O‟Ree‟s accomplishment is even more unbelievable given the fact that few years before he competed as the first black ever in hockey‟s premier league, a severe injury could have ended his career. While still in the junior league, O‟Ree took the puck in the right eye and became legally blind on that eye. However, O‟Ree persevered and showed his determination and love of the game when he decided to continue and set to make it into the NHL as his goal (Harris 80-81). Playing in the era of deep racial segregation, he faced a lot of racial taunting on the ice as well as from the stands. As he recalls: “I heard [n- word] so much on the ice, I thought it was my name” (qtd. in Harris 82). However, nothing stopped him from playing and loving the game. He kept on playing for several other seasons as a professional hockey player and is still a hockey ambassador at the moment.

It was not until the 1980s that a black player became a bonafide star in the National

Hockey League, albeit a goaltender. The aforementioned Grant Fuhr came into the league in

1981 and made an immediate impact. Fuhr won his first championship in 1984 with the

Edmonton Oilers, being teammates with hockey‟s greatest like Wayne Gretzky, Mark

Messier, and others (see top of Appendix 2). Fuhr thus became the first black hockey player to win the . He then backstopped the Oilers to other four championships (Harris

130). Nevertheless, Fuhr‟s career did not go as smoothly as it might seem as problems which come with being a high-profile professional athlete under constant pressure caught up to him.

In 1990, Fuhr admitted he had used cocaine for six years and the league suspended him for a year. The punishment was cut down to half and Fuhr was allowed to play after six months

(Harris 132). Notwithstanding the fact, however, he never became an elite goaltender again

20 after he returned to the crease. Despite the incident, Grant Fuhr was inducted into the Hockey

Hall of Fame in 2003 and again became the first black player to be so honored. As Fuhr himself states: “I really feel like I‟m representing all [black guys that came along before me] in the Hall of Fame” (qtd. in Harris 132).

The results of early pioneers‟ work started to be seen in the 1990s. Many black hockey players have appeared in the National Hockey League since the beginning of the 1990s.

Undoubtedly, the most prolific and prominent forward among them is a now veteran forward

Jarome Iginla. Iginla, a former long-time Calgary Flames captain, is probably the first Hall of

Fame candidate amongst black forwards with over 500 goals and 1000 points recorded in the regular season (nhl.com). Cecil Harris claims in his book Breaking the Ice: The Black

Experience in Professional Hockey published in 2003 that finding a black American-born superstar on an American-based team would be the best way to elevate hockey‟s profile in the

United States (Harris 187). The most recent example of black player in the National Hockey

League fits this description perfectly. Defenseman Seth Jones was drafted fourth overall in

2013 NHL Entry Draft. Jones was initially thought to be drafted first overall until Colorado

Avalanche representatives announced that they would use their first pick on a forward

(nhl.com). Even though Jones eventually dropped to the fourth overall position where he was selected by the Nashville Predators, it tied him with Evander Kane for the highest position black player has been picked in the National Hockey League Draft history (see Appendix 3).

Seth Jones who is projected to have a long and successful NHL career already made his debut in the league and is by many considered to be a top-candidate to win the Calder Trophy

(rookie of the year award) in 2014. The impact of black players on the game of hockey has tremendously increased which underscores the fact that P.K. Subban won the Norris Trophy for the best league defenseman in 2013.

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Although the black players nowadays are scarcely subjected to racial slurs, a couple of infamous incidents occurred recently. As Michael Robidoux claims, hockey arena functions as a domain which encourages doing things forbidden outside of it (Robidoux, 2001, 125).

One such incident happened in September 2011. In a pre-season game between the Detroit

Red Wings and the Philadelphia Flyers played in London, Ontario, a spectator threw a banana towards Wayne Simmonds, a black Flyers forward, during his shootout attempt (tsn.ca).

Wayne Simmonds issued a statement later on in which he stated:

It was unfortunate that this incident happened [and it is something] out of my control.

Moving forward, this incident is something I will no longer comment on so I can just

focus on playing hockey. (tsn.ca)

The negative role of social media in connection with anonymity could be seen in another two despicable incidents which occurred in April and May 2012 respectively. Joel Ward, a veteran

National Hockey League forward, scored a series-winning overtime goal in a 2012 Playoffs series between the and the Boston Bruins. Ward‟s goal helped the

Capitals to advance to the second round. However, instead of congratulating the opponent for moving on, many fans targeted Ward with racial remarks on Twitter8 (tsn.ca). In a second- round series against the New York Rangers a couple of weeks later, Ward took a double- minor for high-sticking which eventually led to two goals scored by the Rangers and their win in game five of the series. Again, Ward was racially abused on Twitter (Etzler). However, these racial attacks did not discourage Ward from playing the game and he continues to thrive in the league.

Obviously, race has remained the issue in North American society. The social and structural constructions black hockey players encountered during their integration into the

National Hockey League still exist even though they have been challenged. Black athletes are

8 Some of the racist tweets available on: http://chirpstory.com/li/6781 22 gradually more accepted even in the realm of sport predominantly played by whites and racial stereotypes are rejected from the game. However, as long as racial background will be mentioned in association with player‟s ability to play the game, it will remain an issue.

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Chapter 4

First Nations Peoples: The Overlooked Trailblazers of the Game

Aboriginal peoples are an inherent part of North American society. Their presence has inevitably and undeniably influenced North American cultural heritage and played a considerable role in making of North American history. However, they have also been subjected to similar kinds of discriminatory stereotypes and treatment with a racial overtone as black minority. Frank Cosentino in Afros, Aboriginals, and Amateur Sport in Pre World

War One Canada suggests that Aboriginals were treated “less harshly than African

Canadians” (Cosentino 14). One of the reasons might be that “ethnic relations tend to be more flexible than race relations” (Pitter 127). Aboriginals in Canada are defined as ethnicity rather than race9 and it probably makes it easier for them to be accepted as Canadians. However, they still have to deal with racial and ethnic classification and prejudices attached to them as the terms ethnicity and race often overlap. For example, there are the aforementioned standards of the Office of Management and Budget used by the United States Census Bureau which put American Native or Alaska Native people into race category and define them as

“[people] having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including

Central America) and who maintain tribal affiliation or community attachment” (United States

Census Bureau). The racially biased perception of First Nations peoples then often prevents them from having an equal opportunity to compete and participate in sporting events.

In this chapter, the influence of First Nations peoples on the development of the game of hockey will be discussed. First, their role and contribution to the evolution and establishment of the game of hockey was crucial. It was mainly the transformation from originally Aboriginals‟ sports like lacrosse which helped to develop and popularize the game

9 See Classification of visible minority available on: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm 24 of hockey (Robidoux, 2002). Also, some of the elements which are connected to the First

Nations‟ expressiveness have become essential commodities of the game of hockey. Most of the adopted values and traditions such as masculinity and initiation processes are arguably perceived positively and their origin probably even would not be ascribed to First Nations. On the other hand, the negatively perceived parts of the game of hockey such as violence are presented as remnants of First Nations‟ influence (Robidoux, 2001, 42). This notion of double standard placed on First Nations‟ athletes and their influence on the game of hockey will be discussed in this chapter. In addition, First Nations‟ players who try to make it into the

National Hockey League often have to face stereotyping and discriminatory treatment. They are also subjected to cultural and personal prejudices as well as there exists systemic discrimination which makes their progress to the National Hockey League more difficult

(Pitter 130). Finally, some personal biographies will be included which should help to highlight the reasons why the number of First Nations players in the league is relatively low.

Unlike any other major sport in North America, the game of hockey owns much of its history and traditions to the First Nations peoples. It was already stated that the game of hockey is recognized as the embodiment of Canadian identity. However, even the game of hockey had to go through a series of stages before it became a ready indicator of

Canadianness (Robidoux, 2002). The first rudimentary form of the game of hockey was probably played at the beginning of nineteenth century and its first written instance comes from an 1823 letter written by Sir John Franklin (Blake 37). Nevertheless, hockey originated from the game which was played much earlier. Hockey has its origins in the game called baggataway, later renamed lacrosse by French settlers, which was “played by many First

Nations […] across North America prior to European contact” (Robidoux, 2002, 212).

Lacrosse became popular among Canadians in nineteenth century. The churches and schools started to endorse physical activity and they were looking for institutionalized and controlled

25 sport through which they would attempt to reproduce Victorian social order and its values

(Robidoux, 2002, 212). Canadians, on the other hand, wanted to eliminate British impositions and used First Nations‟ baggataway (or lacrosse) as a means of resistance. French settlers in

Canada celebrated physical aggression, strength and perseverance displayed during lacrosse games and started to emulate First Nations‟ players. After some time, Euro-Canadians claimed lacrosse and tried to standardize it in order to achieve uniformity and consequently make it available to broader audience. They attempted to make lacrosse more gentlemanly and remove undesirable aspects of it. They imposed several restrictions and discriminatory systems which should secure that lacrosse would rise to prominence among dominant white group. One of the main restrictive measures was to keep lacrosse only for amateurs. Players were thus left with any possibility to ask for financial rewards. Neither could they stake bets for any prize (Robidoux, 2002, 212-217). This was important especially for First Nations‟ players, because “gambling in sport (by spectators and participants) was deeply ingrained in their traditions and at times even played a role in their overall economies” (Robidoux, 2002,

217). Consequently, many working-class and First Nations‟ players took up hockey instead of lacrosse. The game of hockey provided similar style of play and opportunity to display masculinity. Last but not least, players were not prohibited from getting financially rewarded

(Robidoux, 2002, 218).

There are other possible reasons why the restrictions were imposed. Not only did they help to exclude underprivileged classes, but they might also have been targeted against other races, because “[i]n Britain, the restrictions relating to sport seemed to be made according to class; in Canada, race seemed to be the determining factor” (qtd. in Paraschak). Even though

First Nations‟ greatly contributed to the development of the game of hockey, racial discrimination and stereotypes are present even in a modern version of the game. There is a tendency to persist a negative portrayal of their abilities and their society which diminishes

26 their opportunity to participate in the game of hockey and subsequently to get to the National

Hockey League. First Nations‟ style of play is typically described as being too aggressive, wild, unruly and violent. In addition, their behavior is stereotypically characterized as barbaric and savage and First Nations‟ hockey tournaments are being criticized for an excessive consumption of alcohol (Robidoux, 2012, 110-116). Besides individual racism, there is another problem First Nations‟ players encounter and have to deal with. In a documentary about First Nations‟ hockey players who managed to get to the National Hockey

League and First Nations hockey in general They Call Me Chief, former winner of the Jack

Adams Trophy for coach of the year in the National Hockey League Ted Nolan suggests, that there exists institutional racism and it is one of the reasons for the relatively low number of

First Nations‟ players in the league (Ted Nolan‟s story will be mentioned later). Nolan argues that “[t]he way the whole system is set up, […] some of our native kids […], they do not have to be as good – they have to better in order to make teams” (They Call Me Chief). As a result of this, Native people have developed unique programs and have organized their own hockey tournaments to show their young prospects to hockey scouts and to give them better chance to succeed in making it to the National Hockey League (Pitter 130, Robidoux, 2012). But even if

Native players do get a chance to prove themselves in the National Hockey League, they are usually typecast as enforces by the management and coaching staff and are hired to fight and protect their teammates rather than to score goals (see Chapter 2). This is likely the result of a stereotypical depiction of First Nations‟ as savage warriors and general perception that their game is extremely violent and aggressive. Moreover, there are other problems than stereotyping and racism which often prove to be insurmountable in terms of First Nations hockey. There is a cultural barrier and also a different interpretation of sporting events and playing of the game. In the past, participation in sports was not interpreted merely as a physical activity among First Nations, but it was considered to be “a spiritual and religious

27 occasion, often having healing or prophetic significance” (Robidoux, 2002, 215). First

Nations hockey has the ritual meaning attached to it even at these days. As observed by

Michael A. Robidoux in his Stickhandling through the Margins: First Nations Hockey in

Canada, hockey tournaments organized by First Nations peoples express specific meanings.

These tournaments are often celebration of Aboriginal identity and culture, should strengthen a sense of togetherness among Aboriginal communities and they also promote the game itself by collectively sharing the experience (Robidoux, 2012). The ritualistic meaning has, perhaps inadvertently, been adopted by professional hockey as well. In order to achieve the desired level of group unity and cohesion, every new player on a National Hockey League team has to go through an initiation ritual, or as Arnold van Gennep designates it “a rite of passage”

(qtd. in Robidoux, 2001, 111). In essence, a player goes through a rebirth and assumes a new identity in a ceremonial process. After the ceremony, a player as if leaves his old identity behind him and is completely incorporated into his new team (Robidoux, 2001, 111). This presents another potential problem in First Nations peoples‟ integration into the National

Hockey League, because they might feel that with the assumption of a new identity, they betray the identity and ideology of their original community.

The first Aboriginal player in the National Hockey League is an example of a player who had difficulty with a transition to professional hockey world. Fred Sasakamoose became part of the Chicago Blackhawks10 in 1953-54 season. Sasakamoose was a pioneer and he encountered unexpected problems. First of all, there was a culture shock – thousands of people attending the games and expecting a big league performance. Despite the big crowds in attendance, he felt different and isolated. Second, there were racism and stereotyping.

Sasakamoose became target of many racial slurs and stereotypical behavior during the games.

However, the reason why he retired from hockey after eleven games in the National Hockey

10 Ironically, the Blackhawks have one of the most iconic yet controversial team logos in North American professional sport which features a Native. 28

League was loneliness. He did not want to be away from his wife and his community (They

Call Me Chief). As he claims “I reached my goal – the NHL. [But] there were just some things I could not adjust to” (qtd. in Pitter 130). In comparison with black player‟s integration, it did not take as much time for another First Nations player to get to the National Hockey

League. In fact, there were other First Nations players like George Armstrong and Jim

Neilson (both from mixed marriages) who played during the 1950s and 1960s and enjoyed lengthy careers. Armstrong was even inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1975 as the first Aboriginal player (They Call Me Chief). Even though Ted Nolan also played in the

National Hockey League in the 1980s, he is mostly known as a coach. Nolan was hired prior to 1995-96 season as a head coach of the Buffalo Sabres. Despite him winning the coach of the year award, he was fired after the season, in part because of his disputes with the management and players. He waited nine years for another chance to coach in the National

Hockey League. In Nolan‟s interview for Sports Illustrated in 2006, he blamed racism for lack of his coaching opportunities:

People said I didn't show up for work, that I was an alcoholic, [that] I play the race

card - all the stereotypes, all not true. (Cazeneuve)

After two-season tenure as a head coach of the New York Islanders, he was fired in 2008. He did not coach in the National Hockey League for a long time after that once again, but in

November 2013, sixteen years later after he was fired from there, he was named an interim coach of the Buffalo Sabres (nhl.com). Meanwhile, his son Jordan Nolan alongside another

Aboriginal player Dwight King won the Stanley Cup with the in 2012.

First Nations peoples introduced many new elements to the game of hockey and had a big impact on the development of it. Unfortunately, they did not get the deserved recognition.

Moreover, their accessibility to the game remains limited. In comparison with black players,

First Nations players have not had to face as much racial harassment. Perhaps, that might be

29 one of the reasons there were more First Nations star players in the league and they were represented much frequently than black players in the past. As was discussed above, though, there exists a cultural and ideological barrier deepening the sense of otherness. Also, there are still present racial concepts and constructions “ranging from a routine use of the nickname

“Chief” to pointedly demeaning and hostile treatment” (Pitter 130) which make their ambition to play in the National Hockey League tentative.

30

Chapter 5

English Canadian vs. French Canadian Identity: The Problem of ‘Two Solitudes’11

Hockey in Canada is basically an unavoidable, ubiquitous topic and has an extensive cultural as well as societal meaning. This presence is expressed in various forms. Overall, as

Jason Blake, a literature professor, puts it in his book Hockey Literature: A Thematic Study,

“[h]ockey saturates Canadian life to an absurd extent” (Blake 4). It is therefore virtually inevitable to analyze the internal struggles English and French Canadians have experienced, inequality it presents with its unbalanced representation of respective ethnic groups in the

National Hockey League, and significance the game of hockey has for the English Canadian part and its French Canadian counterpart. In this chapter, first of all, the author will deal with the notion of Canadianness and how it relates to hockey and minority identities. Second, discussing hockey history in the province of Quebec might help to understand what the game of hockey signifies for the French Canadian population there as well as acknowledge French

Canadians‟ undeniably impactful role within the National Hockey League framework. Also, the issues French Canadians have to face in comparison with the rest of Canadians and the whole National Hockey League will be discussed. The main focus here will be on two problems of underrepresentation and underpayment of French Canadian players.

There has been instability and controversy between the English and French part of

Canada for a long time. Even though some, such as Pierre Elliott Trudeau, the former

Canadian Prime Minister, tried to endorse equality and made an effort to reconcile these two different identities, there still remain Quebec nationalists like Parti Québécois who believe that the two parts are irreconcilable and that “separation is the only way, ultimately, to protect

Quebec‟s French culture and character, and to assert Québécois control over the province‟s economic development” (Harvey 43). This visceral battle between Canadian identities might

11 The term is borrowed from a book called Two Solitudes written by Hugh MacLennan. 31 thus imperil a sense of Canadianness and its unity. Hugh MacLennan, a Canadian writer, even made his “novelistic claim that Canada is made of „two solitudes‟, of parallel yet discrete […] existences” (Blake 137). However, there is one thing that developed through collective sensibility and articulates collective existence almost every Canadians takes pride in. That thing is the game of ice hockey. As Michael A. Robidoux puts it in his article called

Imagining Canadian Identity through Sport: A Historical Interpretation of Lacrosse and

Hockey, “hockey is more than a mythological construct, it does speak to issues of gender, race, ethnicity and region, albeit not in an entirely positive manner. For this reason, hockey moves beyond symbol and becomes a metaphoric representation of Canadian identity”

(Robidoux, 2000, 218-219). Here Robidoux suggests that Canadians accept and embrace hockey with all its negative aspects, including those that are so antithetical to the notion of being Canadian. It is interesting, to begin, that a country whose “well-nurtured myths include pacifism, peacekeeping, and tolerance” (Blake 81) is so intensely intrigued by a phenomenon of the game in which violence and toughness play crucial roles. Nevertheless, the history of hockey in the province of Quebec, and especially in the city of Montreal, shows that hockey has not been only the game for Canadians. It represents their uniqueness and serves as a means through which they search for their recognition. Admittedly, though, it was not as dominant a sport in Canada at first, in particular among French Canadians. As Jean Harvey claims in his article Whose Sweater Is This? The Changing Meanings of Hockey in Quebec, it was the Catholic Church that dictated means of expressing oneself and Anglo-Canadian cultural products were condemned (Harvey 32). In addition, the Church was afraid of any outer influences that could deceive and distract one‟s soul and sport was considered to be one of these undesirable agents. As Harvey explains, “conservative elements in the Catholic

Church were dubious about any leisurely physical activity, […] thus to cultivate the body through sport […] was seen by the Church as socially dangerous” (Harvey 32). Harvey sees

32 this “clerical opposition” as one of the main reasons “why French Canadians became involved in hockey later than did the English and Irish” (Harvey 32). Finally, the concept of ownership has to be taken into consideration as there was provided only a limited opportunity for French

Canadians to participate in organized sports. As Harvey points out, “Montreal‟s main sports organizations and clubs were run by the English, for the English” (Harvey 32).

Consequently, French Canadians were originally more attracted by the game of lacrosse which is closely connected to the First Nations culture and is being considered a predecessor of the game of hockey. History of the game and the role of First Nations in the game of hockey were already discussed. It was only at the turn of the twentieth century that

French Canadian entrepreneurs encouraged their fellow-countrymen to take up more competitive sports. They established the Association Athlétique d‟Amateurs le National through which they promoted and sponsored sports, including ice hockey (Harvey 33). One of the reasons they did it was to get rid of indifference towards sporting activities, especially among young people, and also to show “that [their] race, in the world of sport like in other spheres of life, is not inferior to the other races” (qtd. in Harvey 33). However, this involvement in the realm of sport might have been as well forced by a dominant ethnic group

(Harvey 34). In essence, sports were part of the unifying process of the whole country.

The establishment of the Montreal Canadiens in 1909 then started the whole new era.

Gradually, the game of ice hockey developed its positions, partly because it reminded people of the game of lacrosse. The main reason, though, was probably an appeal on an ethnic identity. Its representative role and sense of uniqueness perpetuated the importance of hockey among French Canadians who believed that a success of their team on a sheet of ice would help them fight against political and ideological oppression. Hockey gained popularity and support, including well-needed support from the French Canadian media which promoted the game. Subsequently, more fans were brought to the stands which entailed better financial

33 competitiveness for the team (Harvey 34-36). Perhaps the best way to demonstrate how

French Canadians felt about the Canadiens and what it symbolized for them is an infamous incident that occurred in March 1955. It was the “Richard Riot” which broke out after

Montreal‟s best player, Maurice “The Rocket” Richard, was suspended for the remainder of the season. The suspension came after a game in which a linesman jumped into an altercation between Richard and Hal Laycoe from the Boston Bruins in order to prevent the two of them fighting. However, while Richard was held by the referee, Laycoe threw punches at him.

Richard wanted to defend himself and punched the linesman. As a result of that, he was given an unprecedented suspension by the league‟s commissioner, Clarence Campbell. That was seen as yet another discriminatory act by the Canadiens‟ fans and when Campbell went to watch the next Montreal‟s home game “fan hostility was manifest [and] after the first period a fan threw a tear-gas bomb in Campbell‟s direction. […] Moreover, hostilities broke out in the streets. Anti-English sentiment was rampant; English-owned businesses were attacked and looted, and order was restored only through the use of riot police” (Harvey 38). As Harvey concludes, “French Canadians […] resented very keenly their status as a subordinate group, dominated and discriminated against by a wealthy and powerful English minority” (Harvey

38).

A paradoxical twist then occurred when structural changes came to the professional hockey. The National Hockey League expansion in 1967 and introduction of an amateur draft changed the minor and junior farm systems which previously guaranteed the best players from respective provinces to the strongest local teams. These were the Quebeckers in case of the Montreal Canadiens, because it was “the province of Quebec‟s only NHL team at that time [and that gave the Canadiens] a distinct advantage over other NHL teams in being able to sign the best French Canadian prospects” (Longley 367). Even though the expansion brought greater opportunity for minority players to make it to the NHL, it had an opposite impact on

34

Montreal‟s monopoly on French Canadian players. The Canadiens‟ stranglehold diminished and forced French Canadians to fight for their roster spots on different teams, mostly based in the United States. Many French Canadian players, who cheered for the Canadiens and its heroes as kids, and eventually became star players in the NHL, wound up in American-based teams. What used to be “a lifelong dream [with a bonus of] much easier transition than playing for one of the five other [NHL] teams” (Longley 367-368) came to an end. Thus, among others, star players like Mario Lemieux, arguably the best hockey player ever had he not been plagued by injuries throughout his career, Raymond Bourque who has been league‟s most prolific points scorer among defensemen, and Martin Brodeur who sits atop among goaltenders in every important statistical category including games played, most wins and shutouts (i.e., games where he did not allow any goal) ended up on different teams (nhl.com).

Instead of being celebrated by the French crowd and help the local Canadiens to add more

Stanley Cup wins to the leagues‟ best 24 titles, the star players have donned the sweaters of

American franchises, have won the Stanley Cup rings for themselves and their respective cities and have often become beloved ones among the fans. Mario “Le Magnifique” Lemieux, for instance, eventually became the owner of his former team and has a statue situated in front of the arena in Pittsburgh. This act of arguably the utmost recognition is not rare in Canada.

As Blake claims, “Canada has no qualms about erecting public statues of New World

[hockey] heroes [and] these statues concretely show how hockey players have been given a nation-building role” (Blake 231). It is interesting, however, that Lemieux managed to impress and conquer an American city with the game of hockey. On the other hand, there are not many spots on rosters neither on Canadian teams nor teams outside Canada for marginal

French Canadian hockey players who are considered to be journeymen. These are mainly the third and fourth line players whose skill set is not required to be the top-notch and it might be

“the cultural preferences of coaches [which are] decisive” (Harvey 40). However, as Michael

35

Krashinsky argues, these so-called role-players are usually not omitted by Anglophone general managers, coaches and scouts because of any discriminatory reasons. It is rather a materialistic approach taken from managerial positions that slows the incorporation of French

Canadian because the integration might take more time and players require additional training. In part, this is because of a language barrier among the players. French-speaking players simply would not manage the role they were hired for, at least not immediately

(Krashinsky 96-97). This is an important fact given that the hockey world becomes gradually more revenue-driven. The employer-employee dynamics should lead to production which is essentially a main goal in a competitive nature of the sport.

The fact that French Canadian players have been underrepresented is illustrated on rosters of the four American-based teams. Rosters of American co-founding teams from the

Original Six at the beginning of the 2013 NHL training camps have been chosen as a sample.

Table 2: Numerical representation of Canadian players on American-based teams Team Quebec-born Rest of Canada Boston Bruins 2 22 Chicago Blackhawks 4 18 Detroit Red Wings 3 14 New York Rangers 5 30 Source: www.nhl.com The above table compares and contrasts disproportionate number of French Canadians present on National Hockey League teams in comparison with their Anglophone fellow-countrymen.

There is clear evidence that French Canadians are dramatically underrepresented on team‟s rosters and they thus must cope with cultural assimilation. Given the fact they are forced to move to a new home, most of the time in a different country, they might naturally have same problems to adapt to a new culture and adopt a different on and off ice behavior and lifestyle as a result of that. Furthermore, this is more evident on Anglo-Canadian teams‟ rosters where possible political tensions have bigger impact. Whereas the hiring of French Canadian players is more dependent on current political situation in Canada, American-based teams are less perceptive of Canadian restlessness while putting their teams together (Lavoie 388). The

36 following table compares and contrasts the representation of French Canadian and English

Canadian players on teams located in English Canada12. For the sake of comparison, I am including the figures for the Montreal Canadiens.

Table 3: Representation of French Canadian and English Canadian players on English Canadian teams‟ rosters Team Province Quebec-born Rest of Canada Calgary Flames Alberta 0 18 Edmonton Oilers Alberta 1 14 Montreal Canadiens Quebec 3 8 Ottawa Senators Ontario 0 14 Ontario 1 17 Canucks British Columbia 2 10 Manitoba 0 12 Source: www.nhl.com The above table shows that there is even less Quebec-born players on English Canadian teams‟ rosters in comparison with American-based teams (for figures of American-based

Original Six teams‟ opening night rosters for 2013-14 season, see appendix 4). Moreover, there can be observed that English-born Canadians are preferred to any other ethnic group and that players‟ representation is in an absolute imbalance. The selection of English-born

Canadian players might be partly influenced by the fans who want to identify with their

“home town” players. This should potentially generate more money from the fans (Lavoie).

Whereas the figures for the Montreal Canadiens are admittedly not overwhelmingly decisive in favor of the Québécois, they do not include Canadiens‟ prospects pool where larger participation can be anticipated. As a matter of fact, French Canadian players “have never been the majority of players on the Canadiens‟ rosters [since 1936-37]” (Harvey 51). Still, the likelihood that French Canadian players would appear on Montreal‟s roster is the greatest of any Canadian-based team.

There also been an ongoing debate whether French Canadian players, in addition to the fact that they are being underrepresented, are also being underpaid. This again applies not only on American-based teams, but also on teams located in English part of Canada. These

12 Listed figures are taken from teams‟ rosters at the beginning of 2013-14 season. 37 teams are most of the time governed by English Canadians and they might therefore be biased towards French Canadian players “due to their upbringing in the Canadian climate of French-

English tensions” (Longley 371). This was already mentioned as being one of the reasons

French Canadians did not participate or were not allowed to participate in the sporting events in the past. However, as Michael and Harry A. Krashinsky point out, “the problem [of solving salary discrimination] is not easily overcome, given the relatively small number of French

Canadian [skaters, i.e., forwards and defensemen] playing for English Canadian teams”

(Krashinsky and Krashinsky 213). There is hardly any evidence that French Canadian players‟ salaries might be discrimination-related. However, there is a pattern in salaries indicating that there exists a possible position-based discrimination in the National Hockey

League (Jones and Walsh 592-593). There is a list of top ten players with the highest cap hit for the 2013-14 season.

Table 4: Players with the highest cap hit 2013-14 season Player Country of Position Team Amount origin Alex Ovechkin Russia Forward Washington $9,538,462 Capitals Evgeni Malkin Russia Forward Pittsburgh Penguins $8,700,000 Sidney Crosby Canada Forward Pittsburgh Penguins $8,700,000 Corey Perry Canada Forward Anaheim Ducks $8,625,000 Eric Staal Canada Forward Carolina Hurricanes $8,250,000 Ryan Getzlaf Canada Forward Anaheim Ducks $8,250,000 Shea Weber Canada Defenseman Nashville Predators $7,857,143 Canada Forward New York Rangers $7,800,000 Zach Parise United States Forward Minnesota Wild $7,538,462 Ryan Suter United States Defenseman Minnesota Wild $7,538,462 Source: www.capgeek.com The list shows that there are only two defensemen among top ten paid players in the 2013-14 season. As can be seen, forwards are clearly given an edge over defensemen with general managers cherishing forwards‟ scoring prowess. However, there is no satisfactory measurement for defensive skills and hockey intangibles required to the perfection of the game. Even though there are no players born in the province of Quebec on the list, no

38 definitive conclusion can be drawn as the sample is too small to argue that French Canadians are being underpaid.

The consequence of all the structural and ideological changes has been a notion of detachment from the local team by some of the French Canadian fans. The standardization of a game brought uniformity and it does not manifest “localized forms of individual and community-based expressions” (qtd. in Robidoux, 2002, 211) anymore. The game has been less imbued with politically-related issues. Also, it has reduced its political context and therefore lost the urgency with which the Québécois used to stand up for the team which represented their ethnic group and manifested their identity.

39

Chapter 6

Conclusion

Even though the game of hockey epitomizes Canadian identity, it is getting more visible and it experienced an increased interest over the last couple of decades in the United

States as well. A significant effort has been made to expose the game to communities previously unfamiliar with the game. The minority group members have become more interested in the game and start to participate in it. As a result, their representation in the

National Hockey League has considerably grown. However, the game of hockey and its culture (i.e., the management, players and fans) are fundamentally traditionalist and it sometimes suffers from unwillingness to adjust and to welcome new perspectives. Therefore, the acceptance of minority hockey players is often limited and the problems connected to their integration like racism and discriminatory treatment are certainly still present and have to be constantly dealt with.

Admittedly, the variety of reasons why minority hockey players are underrepresented in the National Hockey League is rather complex. The thesis tries to summarize the main issues, concepts and characteristics connected to their integration into the National Hockey

League. On the one hand, as was shown, the differences between Canada and the United

States need to be taken into consideration. The issues concerning the integration of minorities in the United States seem to be more connected with class and socioeconomic disparity in the country. Conversely, it is more a matter of ethnicity and cultural barrier in Canada. On the other hand, there were also found and highlighted recurrent patterns. First of all, both countries deal with racial discrimination. As it is mentioned in Pitter, “[d]espite the historical differences between race relations in Canada and race relations in the United States,

Canadians and Americans are roughly similar in their attitudes and behaviours toward racial minorities” (qtd. in Pitter 125). As was explained, the term race is complicated and its

40 definitions and interpretations often vary. Nonetheless, it was apparent that it is one of the main factors disqualifying minority hockey players from having an equal opportunity to play in the National Hockey League. It can also be argued that racial barrier is harder to overcome for minority players than cultural barrier. First of all, this argument draws on the comparison of early stages of integration of black and First Nations players. It was stated that First

Nations‟ players started to be regularly represented on National Hockey League teams‟ rosters much earlier than black players. Second, given the history of enslavement both countries have, slavery and racial discrimination were issues in the United States for much longer due to the imposition of the “Jim Crow Laws” (which denied equal rights to African Americans).

This illustrates a huge difference in number of African Americans and African Canadians represented in the National Hockey League (for the overall representation of individual minority groups discussed in the thesis, see Appendix 5). Finally, even though there is still present cultural barrier between French Canadians and English Canadians, the former are represented on the latter teams‟ rosters frequently and vice versa. The thesis additionally provides other information about stereotypical behavior and practices towards minority players. Among the most discussed stereotypes is the physical dominance of black athletes which is closely connected to their alleged intellectual inferiority. These phenomena are often perpetuated by blacks‟ depiction in the media. Moreover, there were presented arguments that the focus on professional hockey career can lead to an underperformance and underachievement in education and thus reinforce pre-existing social hierarchy.

The integration of minority players into the National Hockey League has been a gradual and complex process, but their impact on the game of hockey has been growing which demonstrate several of their recent achievements. However, as long as player‟s origin, color of skin or physical appearance will be mentioned alongside playing abilities, racism and

41 discriminatory practices would be viewed as parts of the game of hockey and it would affect its image.

42

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Summary

This bachelor thesis deals with the integration of minorities into the ice hockey‟s premier league, the National Hockey League. The main aim of the thesis is to analyze reasons why minority hockey players are underrepresented in the National

Hockey League. The thesis also explores whether there exist recurrent stereotypes attached to minority athletes‟ integration into the National Hockey League and points out racist and discriminatory practices minority ice hockey players are subjected to.

Finally, the thesis examines the development of minority ice hockey players‟ position and role in the National Hockey League.

Firstly, the social concepts related to the topic of integration such as race, ethnicity, minority group and discrimination are introduced. The thesis then discusses how these social concepts contribute to the general perception of minority athletes‟ in the realm of sports.

The main body of the thesis is concerned with the most significant minorities represented in the National Hockey League – respective chapters deal with black, First

Nations and French Canadian players. Whereas the chapters concerned with the integration of black and First Nations players are based on racial identity and problems connected with it, the chapter concerned with the integration of French Canadians provides an analysis of ethnic struggles and how a relationship between English and

French Canadians influences the representation of the latter in the National Hockey

League, especially on rosters of the teams located in English Canada.

The differences and similarities between the integration of individual minority groups discussed in the thesis are then compared and contrasted.

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Resumé

Tato bakalářská práce se zabývá integrací minorit do nejslavnější hokejové ligy světa, severoamerické NHL. Hlavním cílem této práce je zanalyzovat důvody, proč mají zástupci minorit v NHL nižší zastoupení, než je jejich skutečný potenciál. Dále tato práce zkoumá, zda se stereotypy spojené s integrací minoritních sportovců opakují a poukazuje na rasistické a diskriminační praktiky, kterým jsou zástupci minorit vystaveni. Práce také zkoumá, jestli se role a pozice minoritních hokejistů v NHL zlepšila.

V práci jsou nejprve uvedeny a definovány sociální koncepty spojené s integrací jako rasa, etnicita, minoritní skupina či diskriminace. Práce dále rozebírá, jak tyto koncepty ovlivňují vnímání minoritních sportovců v oblasti sportu.

Hlavní část práce se zabývá nejvýznamněji zastoupenými minoritami v NHL – jednotlivé kapitoly pojednávají o hráčích tmavé pleti, původních obyvatelích Severní

Ameriky a frankofonních Kanaďanech. Zatímco kapitoly o hokejistech tmavé pleti a původních obyvatelích Severní Ameriky pojednávají o rasové identitě a problémech s tím spojených, kapitola o frankofonních Kanaďanech analyzuje vnitřní rozbroje mezi anglofonní a frankofonní Kanadou. Práce zkoumá, jak se etnické rozdíly mezi těmito dvěma skupinami odráží na zastoupení frankofonní, menšinové, skupiny na soupiskách týmů hrajících NHL, obzvláště pak týmů sídlících v anglofonní části Kanady.

Práce se závěrem snaží najít podobnosti a rozdíly mezi integracemi jednotlivých minoritních skupin.

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Appendices

Appendix 1 National Hockey League Expansion Teams 1967

Appendix 2 Top 50 All-Time National Hockey League Point Leaders

Appendix 3 Top 10 All-Time Highest Drafted Black Players in the NHL Entry Draft

Appendix 4 Representation of Canadians on American-based Original Six Teams‟ Opening

Night Rosters – 2013-14 Season

Appendix 5 Minority Players‟ Representation on Current National Hockey League Teams‟

Rosters

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Appendix 1

National Hockey League Expansion Teams 1967

National Hockey League Expansion Teams 1967

Team Location

California Seals Oakland, California

Los Angeles Kings Los Angeles, California

Minnesota North Stars Minneapolis, Minnesota

Philadelphia Flyers Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Pittsburgh Penguins Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

St. Louis Blues St. Louis, Missouri

Source: www.nhl.com

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Appendix 2

Top 50 All-Time National Hockey League Point Leaders

Top 50 All-Time National Hockey League Point Leaders

Rank Player Position 1 Wayne Gretzky Center 2 Mark Messier Center 3 Right Wing 4 Ron Francis Center 5 Center 6 Steve Yzerman Center 7 Mario Lemieux Center 8 Jaromír Jágr Right Wing 9 Joe Sakic Center 10 Center 11 Ray Bourque Defenseman 12 Mark Recchi Right Wing 13 Paul Coffey Defenseman 14 Stan Mikita Center 15 Teemu Selanne Right Wing 16 Bryan Trottier Center 17 Adam Oates Center 18 Doug Gilmour Center 19 Dale Hawerchuk Center 20 Jari Kurri Center 21 Luc Robitaille Left Wing 22 Brett Hull Right Wing 23 Mike Modano Center 24 John Bucyk Left Wing 25 Brendan Shanahan Left Wing 26 Guy Lafleur Right Wing

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27 Mats Sundin Center 28 Dave Andreychuk Left Wing 29 Denis Savard Center 30 Mike Gartner Right Wing 31 Pierre Turgeon Center 32 Center 33 Alex Delvecchio Center 34 Al Macinnis Defenseman 35 Jean Ratelle Center 36 Peter Šťastný Center 37 Phil Housley Defenseman 38 Norm Ullman Center 39 Jean Béliveau Center 40 Jeremy Roenick Center 41 Larry Murphy Defenseman 42 Center 43 Bernie Nicholls Center 44 Vincent Damphousse Center 45 Dino Ciccarelli Right Wing 46 Rod Brind‟Amour Center 47 Sergei Fedorov Center 48 Bobby Hull Left Wing 49 Michel Goulet Left Wing 50 Joe Thornton Center Source: www.nhl.com

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Appendix 3

Top 10 All-Time Highest Drafted Black Players in the NHL Entry Draft

Top 10 All-Time Highest Drafted Black Players in the NHL Entry Draft

Name Team Draft Year #

Seth Jones Nashville Predators 2013 4

Evander Kane Atlanta Thrashers 2009 4

Darnell Nurse Edmonton Oilers 2013 7

Kyle Okposo New York Islanders 2006 7

Grant Fuhr Edmonton Oilers 1981 8

Jarome Iginla Dallas Stars 1995 11

Reggie Savage Washington Capitals 1988 15

Chris Stewart Colorado Avalanche 2006 18

Mike Marson Washington Capitals 1974 19

Kenndal McArdle 2005 20

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Appendix 4

Representation of Canadians on American-based Original Six Teams‟ Opening Night Rosters

– 2013-14 Season

Representation of Canadians on American-based Original Six Teams‟ Opening Night Rosters

– 2013-14 season

Team Quebec-born Rest of Canada

Boston Bruins 2 13

Chicago Blackhawks 1 8

Detroit Red Wings 0 9

New York Rangers 2 11

Source: www.nhl.com

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Appendix 5

Minority Players‟ Representation on Current National Hockey League Teams‟ Rosters13

Minority Players‟ Representation on Current National Hockey League Teams‟ Rosters

Team African African Aboriginal Québec-born Rest of Canada Canadian American Anaheim Ducks 1 1 1 2 11 Boston Bruins 1 - - 2 13 Buffalo Sabres - - 1 - 10 Calgary Flames - - - - 17 Carolina Hurricanes - - - - 11 Chicago Blackhawks 1 - - 1 10 Colorado Avalanche - - - 7 12 Columbus Blue Jackets - - - 2 11 Dallas Stars 1 - 1 2 15 Detroit Red Wings - - 1 - 6 Edmonton Oilers - - - 1 12 Florida Panthers - - - 1 9 Los Angeles Kings - - 2 - 15 Minnesota Wild 1 - - 3 8 Montreal Canadiens 1 1 2 3 7 Nashville Predators - 1 - 1 8 New Jersey Devils 1 - - 2 6 New York Islanders - 1 - 1 10 New York Rangers - - 1 1 11 Ottawa Senators - - - - 15 Philadelphia Flyers 2 - - 1 14 Phoenix Coyotes - - 1 2 9 Pittsburgh Penguins - - - 4 8 San Jose Sharks - - - 2 13 St. Louis Blues 2 - 1 1 12 Tampa Bay Lightning - 1 - 3 6 Toronto Maple Leafs 1 - - 1 19 Vancouver Canucks - - - 2 11 Washington Capitals 1 - - - 14 Winnipeg Jets 1 1 - - 13 Source: www.nhl.com

13 As the NHL rosters change on a daily basis, listed figures are provided mainly for the sake of comparison.

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