Biostratigraphic and Paleoenvironmental Interpretation of Late Triassic Sediments on the Exmouth Plateau, Northern Carnarvon Basin, NW Australia

Biostratigraphic and paleoenvironmental interpretation of Late Triassic sediments on the Exmouth Plateau, Northern Carnarvon Basin, NW Australia

Liam Gallagher (20182588)

Supervisor: Dr. Daniel Peyrot

Co-Supervisor: Dr. Neil Marshall

This thesis is submitted to fulfil the requirements for Master of Science (Geology) by way of Thesis & Coursework

Faculty of Science

November 2019

Abstract The project addresses the palynological characterization of Upper Triassic sediments of the Mungaroo and Brigadier formations in the Northern Carnarvon Basin, offshore Western Australia. The strata of these formations host hydrocarbon reservoirs of great economic significance, providing the basis for several LNG projects such as Gorgon, Wheatstone, and Pluto. Late Triassic palynological assemblages are documented in numerous individual well studies across the Northern Carnarvon Basin, but detailed studies integrating palynological analyses in a regional context are scarce (Dolby & Balme, 1976; Bint & Helby, 1988; Backhouse & Balme, 2002; Backhouse et al., 2002; Marshall & Lang, 2013).

The objectives of the study are to characterize the depositional settings present in the fluvio-deltaic Mungaroo and Brigadier formations; to reconstruct the paleovegetation changes through time; and to confirm the climatic hypotheses previously established for the considered interval. This research refines the existing biostratigraphy of the upper Minutosaccus crenulatus and Ashmoripollis reducta spore-pollen zones (Norian to Rhaetian age) on the Exmouth Plateau and documents the observed environmental and vegetation changes during this period.

The project involved the analysis of organic-walled microfossils (termed palynomorphs) including, dinoflagellate cysts, acritarchs, freshwater algae and miospores from 51 core samples taken from the Chandon-2 and Geryon-2 wells drilled in the Northern Carnarvon Basin (NCB). The interval of investigation spans the upper M. crenulatus (C. stonei Subzone) and the A. reducta spore-pollen zones across 2 wells to contrast the palynological successions and depositional environments in contemporaneous sections. The analysis revealed highly diverse and well-preserved assemblages including 139 spore-pollen species, 38 dinoflagellate cyst species, 24 prasinophyte algae species and 14 acritarch species. The diverse microfloral assemblages recorded in the study were dominated by an abundance of the terrestrial pollen Falcisporites australis and Dictyophillidites harrisii spores, with marine influence interpreted to decrease with depth. Variation in the observed palynological assemblage content is considered a reflection of change in paleoenvironmental and climatic conditions,

Nine biostratigraphic subzones were identified in the study with additional palynostratigraphic events, including marine microplankton acmes, that are correlatable between the studied wells (spanning ~100km). These events have the potential to be stratigraphically valuable, reflecting paleoecological changes that provide valuable insight into the architecture of depositional systems through time. The application of selected microfossil species as paleoecological and paleoenvironmental proxies was also examined using the Palynomorph EcoGroup (PEG) model to provide further insight into temporal floristic changes related to climate in the study area.

Contents

Abstract Acknowledgements ...... 4 1. Introduction ...... 5 1.1 Aims and Objectives ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2. Geological setting and stratigraphy ...... 8 2.1 The West Australian Super Basin and North West Shelf ...... 8 2.2 Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Northern Carnarvon Basin ...... 9 2.2.1 Pre-rift Phase ...... 10 2.2.2 Syn-rift Phase ...... 13 2.2.3 Post-rift Phase ...... 14 2.3 The Exmouth Plateau ...... 15 2.4 Late Triassic stratigraphy of the Northern Carnarvon Basin ...... 15 2.4.1 The Mungaroo Formation ...... 15 2.4.2 The Brigadier Formation ...... 16 2.5 Northern Carnarvon Basin Petroleum Systems ...... 18 3. Palynology ...... 21 3.1 Introduction ...... 21 3.2 Previous palynological studies on the NWS ...... 21 3.3 Depositional setting ...... 23 3.4 Sequence stratigraphy ...... 24 3.4.1 TR20 Play interval ...... 25 3.4.2 TR30 Play interval ...... 26 4. Materials and methods ...... 27 4.1 Materials ...... 27 4.2 Methods ...... 29 4.2.1 Palynological Sample Processing Procedure ...... 29 4.2.2 Palynological analysis ...... 30 4.2.3 Palaeoecology ...... 30 5. Results ...... 34 5.1 Palynology ...... 34 5.1.1 Chandon-2 ...... 34 5.1.2 Geryon-2 ...... 36 6. Discussion ...... 39 6.1 Biostratigraphy ...... 39 6.1.1 Chandon-2 ...... 39 6.1.2 Geryon-2 ...... 43 2

6.2 Paleoecology...... 47 6.3 Sequence stratigraphy ...... 48 7. Conclusions ...... 54 7.1 Further work ...... 54 8. References ...... 56 Appendix 1: Record of studied samples ...... 64 Appendix 2: Record of identified palynomorphs in the study ...... 66 Appendix 3: Plates ...... 69 Appendix 4: Palynological distribution charts ...... 80

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my main supervisor Dr. Daniel Peyrot for sharing his knowledge, his patience and support throughout this project. Thank you to Prof. Annette George, for taking a chance and for her support. Thank you very much to Louise Heyworth for her guidance, supervision and assistance over the course of the project. Thank you to Neil Marshall for his guidance, support of palynology and interest in this project. Thank you to Simon Lang for his encouragement, support and endless enthusiasm. Thank you to Tobi Payenberg & Bruce Ainsworth for their support of academia, their interest in the project and their friendly faces. Many thanks to Jesse Vitacca and Joe Scibiorski for sharing their knowledge, their support and laughs. Thank you to all the team at MGP for their valuable insight and their friendship.

Lastly, my eternal appreciation and gratitude to my family. Thank you to my parents and siblings for supporting me and my family. Thank you very much to my wonderful boys, for their boundless enthusiasm for life, their love and for keeping me grounded. And finally, thank you to my beautiful wife Susannah, for her love, encouragement and pretty much everything. Thank you.

Liam Gallagher, November 2019

1. Introduction

The Northern Carnarvon Basin, beneath the Indian Ocean on Australia’s northwestern margin, forms part of the southernmost North West Shelf of Australia and contains thick Mesozoic and Cenozoic successions. The four main Phanerozoic basins of the North West Shelf are, from north to south, the Northern Bonaparte, Browse, Offshore Canning (Roebuck), and Northern Carnarvon basins (Figure 1). Together they constitute a major oil and gas province, with production overtaking that of the Gippsland Basin from 1990.

The Late Triassic of the Northern Carnarvon Basin is comprised of the mainly fluvio- deltaic Mungaroo Formation (Barber, 1982; Gorter, 1994; Longley et al., 2002; Seggie et al., 2007; Adamson et al. 2013; Payenberg et al.,2013) and the dominantly delta to coastal plain, to shallow marine Brigadier Formation (Seggie et al., 2007; Adamson et al. 2013; Payenberg et al.,2013; Ainsworth et al. 2016). The retrogradational Brigadier Fm. is part of the TR30 regional play interval of Marshall and Lang (2013) and comprises marginal marine shales and sandstones in the proximal portion of the basin, and marls, calcareous shales and platform reefs in the distal portion (Seggie et al., 2007; Dixon et al., 2012; Adamson et al. 2013; Payenberg et al.,2013; Ainsworth et al. 2016). These sediments host world class hydrocarbon reserves which provide the input for a number of major liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects (e.g., Gorgon LNG, Pluto LNG, Wheatstone LNG)(Ainsworth et al. 2016).

Palynological studies since the 1960’s, concurrent with extensive hydrocarbon exploration in the region, revealed the presence of rich and often well‐preserved assemblages of organic‐walled microplankton, spore‐pollen, acritarchs, and prasinophyte algae. The work of Dolby & Balme (1976) was particularly important in providing insight into the provinciality of vegetation across the Australian continent during the Triassic. This study divided the Australian Triassic microflora into two distinct assemblages based on floral composition and recognised five palynological assemblage zones.

The Australian Mesozoic biozonation of Helby et al., (1987) represented a landmark publication, summarising two decades of palynological studies based on exploration in the petroleum industry and incorporated both dinoflagellate cyst and spore‐pollen zonal schemes. This publication subdivided the Falcisporites Superzone which, spans the entire Triassic, into eight zones with the key defining criteria for each zone outlined. All the zones defined are Oppel zones, which rely on the concurrent ranges of a number of taxa as the

5 principal diagnostic feature but are supported by the first and last appearance datums of specific species interpreted to have time significance.

The last comprehensive work on Late Triassic assemblages from the NCB was published by Backhouse and Balme (2002), and summarised in Backhouse et al., (2002). Backhouse and Balme (2002) published a detailed zonation of the Late Triassic, highlighting additional key palynomorph marker species for correlation of sediments across the North West Shelf. Since that time, no significant work has been published on the biostratigraphy of this time interval in the region.

The Exmouth Plateau region constitutes a major hydrocarbon province along the northwestern margin of Australia, covering approximately 200,000 km² and containing sediments from four main rifting periods. The second of two main Palaeozoic rift phases occurred in the Late Carboniferous, and is arguably the most important rifting event on the North West Shelf, as it gave rise to the WASB or Westasutralian Super-Basin (AGSO, 1994). It relates to the onset of the Sibamasu block separation (Metcalfe, 1999), resulting in a thick, continuous fill of Permian to Mesozoic sediments (Bradshaw et al. 1988), which covered the entire NWS. The Late Carboniferous to Early Permian syn-rift sediment fill is comprised of glacio-fluvial sediments which grade upwards into a thick sag section represented by a lower, marine Permian shelfal carbonate unit, and an upper thick succession of shelfal Triassic shales, developing into deltaic siliciclastics and finally, interbeddded shallow marine silciclastics and carbonates, represented by the Mungaroo and Brigadier formations (Nicoll and Foster, 1994) (Longley et al., 2002).

Legacy studies on the stratigraphy of the Northern Carnarvon Basin have focused on lithostratigraphic classification, leaving a research gap in the integration of biostratigraphic and sequence stratigraphic frameworks (often limited due to time constraints in operating companies). The present study helps to further characterise the palynology and paleonvironment of the Mungaroo and Brigadier formations across the Mungaroo mega paleo-delta system, through integration of palynology, sedimentology and stratigraphy. This aims to improve the understanding of changes in the depositional system through time.

The aim of the research project is to refine the biostratigraphy of the Minutosaccus crenulatus and Ashmoripollis reducta zones (Norian to Rhaetian) and to document the paleoenvironmental changes during this time interval. To achieve this aim, the project is broken down into three key objectives.

The first objective is to conduct detailed microscope-based analysis of samples from the upper M. crenulatus to A. reducta biozones (TR26.5 to J10.0 sequences) to characterise the palynological assemblages in the selected wells and document the changes in composition through time. This analysis will enable the identification of key palynofloral elements to facilitate direct application to the established biostratigraphic zonation scheme (Backhouse et al., 2002).

The second objective is to reconstruct the depositional settings and paleoenvironments. The palynological assemblages will be categorised according to the composition and abundance of their palynofloral elements. This data will be integrated with existing wireline log and core log data. Interpretation of the depositional setting and paleoenvironment of the study area is made using the recorded assemblages in conjunction with a modified PEG (Palynomorph EcoGroup) model.

The third objective is the integration of relationships between palynological assemblages and paleoecological interpretations based on paleofloral relationships to refine the current regional stratigraphic framework. The paleoenvironmental and biostratigraphic data generated in the project will be related to the existing stratigraphic framework as defined by Marshall and Lang (2013) over the study area, to further refine this framework on the Exmouth Plateau.

2. Geological setting and stratigraphy 2.1 The West Australian Super Basin and North West Shelf

The North West Shelf (NWS) of Australia is an extensive, predominately offshore geographic region located along the northwest coast of Australia, extending from the Exmouth Gulf, to Melville Island (Bradshaw et al., 1988, Purcell & Purcell, 1988, Purcell & Purcell, 1994). The NWS includes four primary sedimentary basins: the Bonaparte, Browse, Roebuck and Northern Carnarvon basins (Figure 1.). Collectively these basins are known as the West Australian Super Basin (WASB) and are filled by a thick upper Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary succession related to the fragmentation of the Gondwana supercontinent (Geoscience Australia, 2016). This region is a prolific gas province and includes minor oil plays (Longley et al., 2002).

Figure 1. Location and relationship of the four key sedimentary basins that comprise the WASB. The wells studied are highlighted in yellow.

The Northern Carnarvon Basin (NCB) is the southernmost of the upper Paleozoic to Cenozoic basins forming the northwest continental margin of Australia (Bradshaw et al.,1988). The Roebuck and offshore Canning basins bound the NCB to the northeast, the Gascoyne and Argo abyssal plains in the northwest and north, the Pilbara Craton to the southeast, to the south 8 by the Southern Carnarvon Basin, and the Cuvier Abyssal Plain to the southwest. The main tectonic elements of the NCB include the Barrow, Beagle Dampier, Exmouth and Investigator sub-basins, the Exmouth and Wombat plateaus, Peedamullah and Lambert shelves, Enderby Terrace, and the Rankin Platform. Seismic data suggests the sedimentary succession is up to 15km thick in the deepest parts of the basin, and core data indicating that it is dominated by fluvio-deltaic to marine siliciclastics and shelf carbonates of Mesozoic to Cenozoic age (Longley et al., 2002).

Figure 2. Structural elements of the Northern Carnarvon Basin with major hydrocarbon accumulations. (1: Jansz; 2: Gorgon; 3: North Rankin; 4: Perseus; 5: Goodwyn; 6: Scarborough; 7: Pluto; 8: Wheatstone; 9: Geryon; 10: Clio). (modified from Chongzhi et al., 2013).

2.2 Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Northern Carnarvon Basin Prior to 160 Ma., Gondwanaland was composed of Western (South America and Africa) and Eastern Gondwanaland (Madagascar, India, Antarctica, Australia and New Zealand) (Metcalfe, 2011 and Haig & Bandini, 2013). Western and Eastern Gondwanaland separated at approximately 160 Ma. coinciding with a period of rifting and seafloor spreading on the NWS (Metcalfe, 2011). The evolution of the NWS during the Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic was gradual, beginning with the rifting of a series of continental blocks from the NW margin of the

Australian continent, and the eventual accretion with SE Asia (Longley et al., 2002; Metcalfe, 2011). The rifting phases are related to the break-up of Gondwana (Langhi & Borel, 2005), with the northward drift of these terrains associated with the opening and closing of the paleo-oceanic basins Paleo-Tethys, Meso-Tethys and Ceno-Tethys (Longley et al., 2002; Metcalfe, 2011). The tectonic evolution of the NCB can be divided into pre-rift, syn-rift and post-rift phases.

Figure 3. Stratigraphy of the Northern Carnarvon Basin (modified from Sinclair, 2012).

2.2.1 Pre-rift Phase

Pre-Triassic history

The Gondwana terrain dispersal began during the Devonian, where the first of several continental segments rifted, and separated from northern Gondwanaland (Metcalfe, 2011). The second major rifting phase occurred during the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian resulting in the formation of the Westralian Superbasin (WASB) and opening of the Meso- Tethys Ocean (Metcalfe, 2011; Haig et al., 2017). Relics of continental basement suggest that 10 the WASB was largely epicontinental, straddling the NW margin of Australia and adjacent continents of Gondwanaland.

During the Permian, basin formation occurred in the NCB related to rifting and separation of the Sibumasu terrain leading to the deposition of a thick succession of Permian to Mesozoic sediments covering the entire North West Shelf (Longley et al., 2002; Metcalfe, 2011). The Late Carboniferous to Permian syn-rift succession is composed of glacio-fluvial sediments which grade upwards into marine sandy and silty siliciclastic sediments through the Permian (Hocking et al., 1988; Longley et al., 2002). In the Barrow and Dampier sub- basins, active faulting resulted in alluvial fan and deltaic deposits during in the Late Permian, reflecting the first sediments associated with the Mesozoic sub-basins (Hocking, 1988).

Triassic

A series of NE-SW trending troughs developed in the Northern Carnarvon Basin during the Late Permian and Triassic (offshore from the present-day coastline) as a result of extension and rifting off the NW margin of Gondwana. Uplift and erosion associated with the rifting occurred in the onshore Carnarvon basin, supplying the NCB with terrigenous sediments (Longley et al., 2002). The Northern Carnarvon Basin was a broad down-warped basin with minor faulting in the Late Permian - Triassic (Hocking, 1988), allowing marine transgression to pervade in the Early Triassic. The Chinty Formation was deposited within seaways created within the basin since the Late Permian on a moderate energy, generally sandy marine shelf (Hocking, 1988; Hocking et al., 1987) along with some local sediment supply from alluvial fans and fan deltas in front of active fault scarps (Hocking, 1988). After this marine transgression event, deposition of the Locker Shale occurred in the Olenekian across the basin (Haig et al., 2015), in a low energy marine setting resulting in a sequence comprised of siltstone and shale, with minor limestone and sandstone interbeds (Longley et al., 2002). The upper Triassic (Carnian - Norian) succession was deposited after an extensive period of tectonism which resulted in the rift and subsequent drifting of the Lhasa block from the NW margin of Gondwana, and uplift and erosion along cratonic margins, referred to as the “Fitzroy Movement” (Longley et al., 2002; Gartrell et al., 2016). This regional tectonic event is likely to have occurred in response to rifting off the Gondwanan margin and resulted in significant hinterland uplift (Metcalf, 2011). Subsequent erosion of the hinterland increased terrigenous sediment input sourced from the Pilbara block, onshore Carnarvon Basin and onshore Canning Basin, resulting in rapid progradation of a thick fluvio-deltaic to paralic sedimentary sequence 11 of sandstone, siltstone and claystone known as the Mungaroo Formation (Hocking et al., 1987; Longley et al., 2002; Metcalfe, 2011). Hocking (1988), Bradshaw et al., (1994) and Longley et al., (2002) developed paleogeographic maps of the Triassic succession indicating a northward and westward progradation of the thick fluvio-deltaic Mungaroo Formation sediments.

The fluvio-deltaic complexes extended up to 500km, from the onshore Canning Basin to the Exmouth Plateau, with continual deposition until the Rhaetian-Hettangian in fluvial, deltaic and paralic environments (Hocking, 1988; Longley et al., 2002). The Triassic succession was the first sedimentary fill in the new Mesozoic NE-SW trending basins and is up to 5km thick in the central troughs (Adamson et al., 2013).

Figure 4. Paleogeographic map of the NWS for the Late Triassic, Norian (215 Ma). Study area outlined in red. (Modified from Longley et al., 2002).

Depositional settings of the Mungaroo and Brigadier formations have been interpreted from sedimentological, palynological and seismic facies data. Palynology has enabled improved interpretations of the range of depositional environments which formed the Mungaroo and Brigadier formations (Bint & Helby, 1988; Backhouse et al., 2002; Payenberg et al., 2013). Early ‘palynofacies’ studies interpreted deposition within swamp, swamp margin, channel, floodplain, oxidised floodplain, marginal marine and marine settings (Bint & Helby, 1988). Revised palynological zonations by Backhouse et al., (2002) and Dixon et al., (2012)

12 have allowed the upper Triassic successions to be subdivided into a series of high resolution stratigraphic intervals (presented in section 4), which are used for understanding the evolution of the depositional systems through time and which enable multiscale correlations.

2.2.2 Syn-rift Phase

Late Triassic to Jurassic Deltaic progradation was terminated with the onset of marine transgression, which reached the Exmouth Plateau in the Rhaetian, and Dampier sub-basin in the Hettangian (Adamson et al., 2013). This was associated with continued extension along the northern Gondwana margin which caused subsequent rifting and drifting of the West Burma and Woyla blocks during the Late Jurassic (Metcalfe, 1995; Longley et al., 2002). The northwest-ward migration of these blocks (collectively known as Argoland/ Argo-Burma terrain) during the Jurassic and Cretaceous, initiated opening of the Ceno-Tethys Ocean and subsequent subduction of the Meso-Tethys Ocean beneath the Eurasian plate (Metcalfe, 1995, Metcalfe, 2009; Longley et al., 2002) (figure 2.8).

Figure 5. Paleogeographic map of the NWS for the Late Jurassic, Oxfordian (162 Ma.) (Modified from Longley et al., 2002).

During the Jurassic, the NCB consisted of a series of actively subsiding grabens with associated faulting on the margins of the Exmouth, Barrow and Dampier sub-basins. The 13 active tectonism controlled the distribution of sediment, resulting in thick sedimentary successions on downthrown fault blocks (Heldriech et al., 2017). Prior to the onset of rifting in the late Pliensbachian, the Brigadier and North Rankin formations were deposited in low energy, paralic environments overlain by the Murat Siltstone which was deposited in the adjacent deep basin areas (Gartrell et al., 2016). Sandy deposits of the deltaic to shallow marine Legendre Formation in the Dampier sub-basin, and alluvial-fan and fan-delta succession of the Learmonth Formation in the Exmouth sub-basin were locally deposited adjacent to active faulting/ uplift along the basin margins and sediment was sourced from the uplifted onshore Carnarvon Basin (Hocking, 1988; Hocking et al., 1987). After the rift onset unconformity, widespread deep marine conditions prevailed in response to subsidence and continuing transgression, in which, the Athol Formation was deposited (Hocking, 1988). The Rankin Trend, Peedamullah and Lambert shelves remained emergent and were the site of rapid uplift and erosion during the Callovian, providing the source of sediment for the sub- marine fans of the Biggada Formation in the central Barrow Sub-basin along with continued deposition of the localised Legendre and Learmonth Formations adjacent to active faults in the Northern Carnarvon Basin (Hocking, 1988).

2.2.3 Post-rift Phase

In the Berriasian, Greater India began to rift from Gondwana resulting in the formation of the Gascoyne, Cuvier and Perth Abyssal Plains and marked a regional post-rift sag phase that encompassed the entire NWS (Dore & Stewart, 2002; Longley et al., 2002; Gartrell et al., 2016). In the Albian to Cenomanian, partial subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic ridge occurred, changing the orientation of the spreading direction between India and Australia and triggering the onset of spreading between southern Australia and Antarctica (Longley et al., 2002; Gartrell et al., 2016). Peneplanation of the onshore portion of the Carnarvon Basin had occurred by the Neocomian resulting in the erosion of sediments exposing Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous sequences.

Deposition of the Winning Group succeeded the post-continental breakup phase. This siliciclastic, deltaic succession was deposited on an open marine shelf as a result of a major eustatic sea-level rise during the Neocomian, leading to the development of a broad continental shelf as the NWS evolved into a passive margin (Longley et al., 1987). Tertiary successions of the NWS are dominated by carbonate deposition in a series of cycles (Palaeocene - Early Eocene, Middle – Late Eocene, Late Oligocene – Middle Miocene and Pliocene – Holocene) which are separated by depositional hiatuses rather than erosion (Hocking, 1988). 14

2.3 The Exmouth Plateau The Exmouth Plateau lies outboard from the main Northern Carnarvon Basin paleo- depocentres in water depths ranging from 800 to 4000 m on the continental margin. This area is located on the north-western margin of the Australian continent approximately 800 to 1000 km south of the tectonically active boundary between the Australian and Eurasian tectonic plates. It covers an area of approximately 300,000 km2 and is one of Australia’s largest offshore plateaus (Exon & Willcox, 1980). It forms the northern part of the Carnarvon Basin and is part of the Exmouth-Barrow-Dampier intra-cratonic rift system (Rek et al.,2003). The plateau has an elongated morphology in a N-NE direction and is bordered on three sides by oceanic continental crust domains. These oceanic continental crusts are the Argo Abyssal Plains to the northeast, the Gascoyne Abyssal Plain to the northwest and the Cuvier Abyssal Plain to the southwest (Barber, 1988). The Exmouth Plateau developed in response to thermal sag after the Early Cretaceous continental breakup. The key structural elements of the Exmouth Plateau are the Rankin Platform, Kangaroo Syncline, Investigator Sub-basin and Wombat Plateau (Stagg & Colwell, 1994; Tindale et al.,1998). Since the development of the Dampier, Barrow and Exmouth sub-basins during the Late Triassic to Jurassic rifting phase, the plateau has been predominantly sediment starved (Gartrell et al., 2016).

2.4 Late Triassic stratigraphy of the Northern Carnarvon Basin

2.4.1 The Mungaroo Formation

Originally referred to as the ‘Mungaroo Beds’, it was first referenced in Cope & Playford (1971) and is only known from intersection in offshore wells. This formation generally consists of a thick succession of fluvio-deltaic sandstones, claystones and with minor coal development. Shoreline sandstones, shallow marine claystones and limestones are also found in the upper Mungaroo in several wells, particularly in distal areas of the Exmouth Plateau.

The Mungaroo Formation ranges from Ladinian to Norian in age and is represented by the TR20 sequence in the Marshall & Lang (2013) scheme. The current study is restricted to the uppermost Mungaroo Formation which is interpreted to be Norian age. The unit has been defined palynologically as belonging to the Staurosaccites quadrifidus to Minutosaccus crenulatus spore-pollen zones and the Sahulidinium ottii to Hebecysta balmei microplankton zones (Backhouse et al., 2002). The interval analysed in the present study is restricted to the upper Minutosaccus crenulatus and Ashmoripollis reducta spore-pollen zones.

Marshall and Lang (2013) detailed a third order sequence stratigraphic model that defines key regional stratigraphic surfaces across the NWS that are used in this study. The major regional sequence stratigraphic surfaces across the NCB in the Mungaroo Formation are sequence boundaries which commonly correspond to the bases of isolated to amalgamated channel-belt complexes (e.g. TR27.0_SB) (Adamson et al., 2013). These amalgamated complexes correspond to key reservoir stratigraphic units within the Mungaroo Formation in numerous hydrocarbon fields (Adamson et al., 2013). In the more marine influenced Exmouth Plateau, represented in the current study by the Chadon-2 well, these sequence boundaries can be calibrated with associated transgressive and maximum flooding surfaces as they are often better preserved in distal settings. A key marine flooding cycle within this interval, the TR26.5_MFS, is characterised by the presence of Hebecysta balmei Zone dinoflagellates (H. balmei hereafter). The section covered by the current study is limited to the interval above this key flooding surface but aims to identify further flooding surfaces that may be of regional correlation significance. Across the study area, the Mungaroo Formation is represented by a range of lithologies ranging from quartz arenite sandstones deposited in a fluvial channel setting to thick shales and siltstones deposited in marginal to shelfal marine settings, the diverse range of environments are illustrated in Figure 10 (Payenberg et al., 2013).

Whilst the sandstone bodies represent key reservoir units, the shales and siltstones present the best opportunity to recover diverse palynomorph assemblages from which to derive stratigraphic and environmental information. The results obtained from previous integrated stratigraphic studies to the Mungaroo Formation (Backhouse et al., 2002; Marshall & Lang, 2013; Adamson et al.,2013; Payenberg et al., 2013) will serve as a base for the proposed palynological reappraisal of the formation (Figure 6).

2.4.2 The Brigadier Formation

The Brigadier Formation is a Rhaetian (upper Triassic) sedimentary unit that was deposited in relatively high-energy, shallow marine shelf conditions and is a proven reservoir in more proximal settings (Ainsworth et al., 2016). This unit conformably overlies the fluvio- deltaic claystones, siltstones and sandstones of the Mungaroo Formation and is a marginal marine unit consisting of claystone with thinly interbedded sandstone, separated out as the "Brigadier Beds" by Crostella and Barter (1980) and later formalised as the Brigadier Formation by Hocking (1985) and Hocking et al. (1987). Butcher (1989) pointed to the persistent presence of marine indicators in the Mungaroo Formation as an argument for

16 discarding the name "Brigadier" and incorporating the unit into the Mungaroo (Bint and Helby, 1988). The Brigadier Formation can be readily differentiated based on both its lithology and palynological content (Bint and Helby, 1988).

The Brigadier Formation is Rhaetian in age and is represented by the TR30 sequence in the Marshall & Lang (2013) scheme. The unit has been defined palynologically as belonging to the Ashmoripollis reducta Spore-Pollen zone and ranging from the Rhaetogonyaulax rhaetica to Dapcodinium priscum Microplankton zones (Backhouse et al., 2002). The base of the unit is marked by a change in the well log stacking patterns and a significant upwards increase in marine influence, based on sedimentological and paleontological evidence (Adamson et al. 2013). The lower boundary, named the TR30.1_TS surface, can be recognised across the Northern Carnarvon Basin. Additional transgressive surfaces ranging from TR32.1_TS to TR39.1_TS can be recognised in wells across the NCB where the Brigadier Formation is preserved. The Brigadier Formation extends across most of the study area, sporadically absent in areas subjected to active uplift during Jurassic rifting. In the distal areas of the Exmouth Plateau, the Brigadier Formation is represented by shelfal marine carbonate facies and forms isolated carbonate build-ups and reefs in places (Grain et al., 2013). Recent integrated stratigraphic studies of the Brigadier Formation (Backhouse et al., 2002; Marshall & Lang, 2013; Adamson et al.,2013; Grain et al., 2013; Ainsworth et al., 2016) provide a base for the proposed palynological reappraisal of the unit (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Chronostratigraphic framework for the Late Triassic in the NCB (from Adamson et al., 2013).

2.5 Northern Carnarvon Basin Petroleum Systems The Northern Carnarvon Basin is the most prolific hydrocarbon producing basin in Australia, containing oil and gas reserves in the Barrow, Beagle, Dampier, Exmouth sub- basins, and on the Exmouth Plateau Region (Figure 2). Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is produced from the Rankin Platform and the Exmouth Plateau and is currently being developed in the Gorgon (and Greater Gorgon Area), Wheatstone, Scarborough and Pluto fields across the study area. Two main petroleum systems have been defined in the NCB. The two key systems defined in the NCB are; the Locker/Mungaroo-Mungaroo/Barrow Petroleum System and the Dingo-Mungaroo/Barrow Petroleum System (Magoon & Dow, 1994). The Locker/Mungaroo - Mungaroo/Barrow Petroleum System is a gas-prone system present in the Barrow, Dampier and Exmouth sub-basins and extends to the margins of the Exmouth Plateau (Geoscience Australia, 2016). Many of the recent gas discoveries on the Exmouth Plateau are sourced from deep coals and carbonaceous claystones of the Mungaroo Formation (Edwards & Zumberge, 2005; Edwards et al.,2006). This petroleum system is classified as a part of the Westralian 1 Petroleum System (Bradshaw et al.,1994; Edwards & Zumberge, 2005; Edwards et al.,2007). 18

The fluvio-deltaic to marginal marine siliciclastics of the Bajocian to Callovian Legendre Formation are also an important reservoir in the Beagle and Dampier sub-basins (Longley et al., 2002; Payenberg et al., 2013; Geoscience Australia, 2016). More recently, the Late Triassic Brigadier Formation has been identified as highly prospective with reservoir sequences identified in depositional settings ranging from marginal marine siliciclastics to fully marine isolated carbonate reefs in the outboard Exmouth Plateau (Grain et al.,2013; Ainsworth et al., 2016). Most hydrocarbon accumulations across the NCB are sealed by the Lower Cretaceous Muderong Shale (Baillie & Jacobson, 1997). Additional intraformational seals occur at several stratigraphic levels but are prevalent in the Legendre Formation and the Mungaroo Formation (Longley et al., 2002; Geoscience Australia, 2016). In the case of the Mungaroo Formation, the intraformational seals often form stacked hydrocarbon reservoir sequences across the NCB. The Dingo-Mungaroo/Barrow Petroleum System is an oil-prone hydrocarbon system extending over the Barrow, Dampier and Exmouth sub-basins (Bishop, 1999). The main reservoir units for this petroleum system are the Lower Cretaceous Barrow Group siliciclastics deposited in a fluvio-deltaic to marginal marine setting on the Exmouth Plateau and in the Exmouth and Barrow sub-basins. (Longley et al., 2002; Payenberg et al., 2013; Geoscience Australia, 2016). The lower Cretaceous Muderong Shale provides the main regional seal for this petroleum system (Baillie & Jacobson, 1997). Intraformational seals occur within the Cretaceous Barrow Group and Forrestier Claystones (Longley et al., 2002; Geoscience Australia, 2016).

Figure 7. Petroleum systems chart of the Northern Carnarvon Basin (from Geoscience Australia, 2016).

3. Palynology 3.1 Introduction Palynology is the study of modern and fossil acid resistant, organic-walled microfossils collectively called “palynomorphs” (Traverse, 2007). They are composed of chemically resistant biopolymers such as sporopollenin, dinosporin, chitin or related compounds, are represented by a wide range of biological affinities and include terrestrial pollen grains and spores, fungal spores, marine or freshwater dinoflagellate cysts (dinocysts), acritarchs, chitinozoans, scolecodonts, and foraminiferal test linings (Jansonius and McGregor, 1996). Palynology has become the dominant biostratigraphic tool in many regions of the world and is routinely used on the NWS for age dating, stratigraphic correlation, and application to sequence stratigraphy. Additional applications of palynology are in paleoenvironmental, palynofacies, thermal history and kerogen analysis studies (Marshall & Lang, 2013).

3.2 Previous palynological studies on the NWS

The first palynological study of the Mungaroo Formation was published by Balme (1969). Dolby & Balme (1976) established the first palynological zonation for the Upper Triassic succession of Western Australia. Helby et al. (1987) integrated Australia-wide spore-pollen and dinoflagellate zonations, incorporating materials from the Northern Carnarvon Basin. Late Triassic zonal marker taxa have been described mainly by Dolby (in Dolby & Balme, 1976), Helby (1987), Stover & Helby (1987) and Backhouse & Balme (2002). A palynological zonation scheme for the Late Triassic was published by Backhouse et al. (2002) which refined the zonation published by Helby et al. (1987). The Backhouse et al. (2002) zonation scheme is presented in Figure 8. The zonation was established using first and last appearance datums (FAD’s and LAD’s) of spore-pollen and dinocyst taxa as well as acme events (intervals of relative abundance peaks of particular species) and the tops and bases of consistent occurrence intervals (Backhouse et al., 2002). The specific palynozones on which the proposed study will focus are the Norian, Minutosaccus crenulatus Zone (C. stonei Subzone upward), and the Rhaetian, Ashmoripollis reducta Zone. The equivalent dinoflagellate cyst zones the study covers are the Norian H. balmei Zone, the Rhaetian R. rhaetica Zone and the Rhaetian lower D. priscum Zone.

Figure 8. Late Triassic palynological zonation scheme of the NCB (modified from Backhouse et al. 2002).

The zonation scheme shows the stratigraphic ranges of index species against palynozones, bioevents (coloured), high resolution palynostratigraphic units and the revised subzone nomenclature of Dixon et al., (2012). Extensive industry-based biostratigraphic work has been conducted over the last 15 years but has seen only minor revisions to the zonation scheme of Backhouse et al. (2002). Adamson et al. (2013) in Figure 6., presented a refined nomenclature for the Late Triassic palynostratigraphic units based on the work of Morgan Goodall Palaeo (2010) which will be adopted in the proposed study. The integrated sequence stratigraphic nomenclature described

22 by Marshall & Lang (2013) (Figure 10) and incorporated by Adamson et al., (2013) has been followed in this study. Paleoenvironmental reconstructions based on palynological analysis were published by Bint & Helby (1988), and Backhouse & Balme (2002). Paleoenvironmental inferences based on the composition of the palynological assemblages and abundance of their main components were made. More recently, paleoenvironmental interpretations of Upper Triassic successions based on palynomorph successions have been published by Kustatscher et al., (2010), Lindstrom et al., (2017), and Patterson et al. (2017, 2018 & 2019), largely in the northern hemisphere, elucidating the ability of inferred parent-plant relationships with observed palynomorphs to determine paleoenvironmental conditions. These studies dealing with successions from the Northern Hemisphere were mainly based on the relationship between terrestrial palynomorphs and parent plant-producers.

3.3 Depositional setting The paleoenvironments of the Mungaroo and Brigadier deltas have been interpreted by the integration of biofacies (terrestrial and marine floral associations) and core- and well-log- based sedimentological interpretation. The range of environments present is most appropriately explained by a paralic depositional setting. Paralic systems encompass a range of depositional environments developed near coastlines and include estuaries, shoreline-shelf systems, and deltas (Hampson et al., 2017). Reservoirs sequences deposited by these systems represent significant hydrocarbon production on a global scale, including in the NCB. A broad range of depositional processes and controls influence the reservoir sediments in such systems. The sediments reflect a multitude of factors such as the character of the depocentre, the source sediment provenance, relative sea-level, the prevailing tectonic conditions, fluvial input, and the internal dynamics of depositional systems. As a result, the stratigraphic architecture and sedimentology can be highly variable, expressed as complex reservoir systems which can be challenging to correlate, predict and manage (Hampson et al., 2017). The broad range of depositional environments represented in this study, over a 10+ Ma time interval are summarised in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Idealised depositional model for the Mungaroo delta showing primary environments of deposition in the NCB. (modified from Payenberg et al., 2013).

3.4 Sequence stratigraphy Marshall and Lang (2013) and Payenberg et al. (2013) developed a regional sequence stratigraphic framework for the NWS. The methodology incorporates the use of biostratigraphy as a correlation tool, with palynology being most successfully applied in the NCB in this depositional setting across the TR20 and TR30 sequences. The results outlined in these papers are utilised for the interpretation of the palynostratigraphic and well log data in this study. The workflow outlined in Marshall and Lang (2013) has been applied to the studied sections to

24 interpret stratigraphic surfaces from well log data based on stacking patterns, constrained by biostratigraphy. The Triassic-Early Jurassic succession of the North West Shelf has been assigned to four large-scale (3rd to 2nd order) cycles, recognised as having a consistent well log character and seismic stratigraphy on a regional scale. This is considered typical of regionally subsiding depocentres prior to major rifting and seafloor spreading episodes. The major rifting episode began in the Jurassic., and the key intervals around this time are referred to as the TR10, TR20, TR30, and J10 regional play intervals (Figure 10). In the study area, the Mungaroo Formation has been attributed to the TR26 to TR29 regional sub-play intervals, and the Brigadier Formation to the TR30 to TR39 regional sub-play intervals (Fig. 3.5) (Marshall and Lang, 2013). To characterise the reservoir for reservoir sequence correlation purposes, using the established regional framework, higher resolution 3rd and 4th order sequences have been interpreted in the studied sections. The sequence definitions of Mitchum and Van Wagoner (1991), where parasequence = 5th order (the lowest rank unit); sequence = 4th order (intermediate rank unit); composite sequence = 3rd order (highest rank unit), have been used.

3.4.1 TR20 Play interval The depositional settings established in the upper part of TR10 persist over much of the Northern Carnarvon Basin during the TR20 interval. Along the inboard margins of the North West Shelf basins, the TR20.0_SB event defines a major unconformity that is linked to the Fitzroy Movement. High resolution biostratigraphy has enabled the development of a detailed sequence stratigraphic model for the TR20 Regional Play Interval, which can be correlated throughout the Northern Carnarvon Basin. Here, the section is characterised by a fluvial dominated delta system deposited in a low accommodation basin sag setting (Adamson et al., 2013). The Gorgon and Rankin platforms and the Exmouth Sub-basin are characterised by an extensive lower to upper delta plain settings that are dominated by amalgamated fluvial channel complexes. There is little evidence of tectonic activity and the area is considered to have been of low relief that was periodically inundated by marine transgressions. The two most pronounced marine flooding cycles are at TR21.1_TS and TR26.5_MFS (Figure. 10). The TR20 interval is considered largely aggradational in the lower to middle part, but transitions into a more marine influenced, retrogradational system above the TR26.5_MFS. The most readily identifiable surfaces and sequence boundaries in this interval are at the bases of amalgamated channel complexes at the TR20.0_SB, TR24.0_SB and TR27.0_SB levels (Figure 10). 25

3.4.2 TR30 Play interval This interval is best developed in the Northern Carnarvon Basin, especially along the trend between the Gorgon and Rankin platforms. The base of the TR30 interval marks a major transgression (TR30.1_TS) that can be identified at a regional scale. The fluvially-dominated deltaic succession of the underlying TR20 interval (Mungaroo Fm.) becomes a mixed deltaic system represented by prodelta, nearshore marine and lower delta plain facies corresponding to the Brigadier Formation. From the proximal to distal setting across the Northern Carnarvon Basin, the section alters from a delta-dominated siliciclastic sequence to one dominated by fine grained carbonates containing carbonate reef build-ups (Grain et al., 2013; Exxon & von Rad, 1994). The end of the Triassic is marked by a major extinction event in the terrestrial palynological record, with few taxa extending across the boundary (Helby et al., 1987). This is interpreted as a climate related event associated with the development of hot and dry conditions in the Early Jurassic in the Northern Carnarvon Basin (Dixon et al. 2012). Lucas (2015), linked the eruption of extensive continental flood basalts, named the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), with the opening of the mid Atlantic rift system and the end- Triassic extinctions.

Figure 10. Stratigraphic scheme applied in this study (modified from Marshall & Lang, 2013). 26

4. Materials and methods

The samples were collected from conventional core over the Triassic reservoir sequences of the Chandon-2 and Geryon-2 wells on the Exmouth Plateau. Only conventional core samples were examined for biostratigraphy to minimise contamination from caved material (cuttings) or wireline-log uncertainties (side wall cores). New palynological slides were prepared for examination to ensure accuracy of zonal subdivision and consistency of paleoecological analysis.

Analyses performed in this study has included identification of spore-pollen and microplankton species through detailed, quantitative analysis of assemblages and total palynomorph content for paleoecological analysis. Identification of key marker species and bioevents of potential biostratigraphic value have been made based on observations. A revised biostratigraphic subdivision of the upper Minutosaccus crenulatus and Ashmoripollis reducta spore-pollen zones for higher resolution correlation has been proposed using some of the identified bioevents, Integration of the biostratigraphic framework with depofacies data for sequence stratigraphic and paleoenvironmental interpretation of the upper Mungaroo and Brigadier formation reservoir sequences.

4.1 Materials The study has been performed on the analysis of 111 samples from two appraisal wells in the NCB. The locations of the wells studied are illustrated in Figure 1. The geographic locations and operators of all the wells from which material was studied are shown in Table 1. All samples are sourced from conventional cores, from Late Triassic mudstones, siltstones, and sandstones, representative of the upper Mungaroo and Brigadier formations.

Well Latitude Longitude Total Depth (m) Core coverage (m) Geryon-2 -19.953455 114.878789 3278 270 Chandon-2 -19.54747 114.129942 3122 218

Table 1: Well data listing location and core coverage of wells in the study.

The lithological characteristics of the infill samples taken are summarised in Appendix 1, with a list of the sample depths documented in Table 2. Analysis of the palynological assemblages Chandon-2 and Geryon-2 was conducted using a Nikon NiE microscope in the palynology laboratory of the School of Earth Science, UWA. Samples from fine-grained lithologies were preferentially collected to ensure better palynological recovery. 30 samples were taken from the Chandon-2 well with 21 samples taken from the Geryon-2 well. 27

A total of 111 samples (of which 51 were new infills) were analysed. 30 legacy samples from the original palynological analyses conducted on Geryon-2 by Hannaford & Goodall (2010), and 30 legacy samples from the original analyses of Chandon-2 by Morgan et al., (2010), were selected for analysis to cover the cored interval.

Sample Well Core Depth Sample Sample Well Core Depth Sample No. (m) type No. (m) type 1 Chandon-2 2777.20 Core 26 Chandon-2 2960.36 Core 2 Chandon-2 2779.15 Core 27 Chandon-2 2960.86 Core 3 Chandon-2 2784.75 Core 28 Chandon-2 2964.40 Core 4 Chandon-2 2789.98 Core 29 Chandon-2 2978.65 Core 5 Chandon-2 2791.30 Core 30 Chandon-2 2986.93 Core 6 Chandon-2 2791.43 Core 31 Geryon-2 3007.53 Core 7 Chandon-2 2798.42 Core 32 Geryon-2 3051.85 Core 8 Chandon-2 2799.23 Core 33 Geryon-2 3062.43 Core 9 Chandon-2 2812.23 Core 34 Geryon-2 3074.13 Core 10 Chandon-2 2812.95 Core 35 Geryon-2 3082.32 Core 11 Chandon-2 2814.93 Core 36 Geryon-2 3084.3 Core 12 Chandon-2 2844.05 Core 37 Geryon-2 3096.9 Core 13 Chandon-2 2845.95 Core 38 Geryon-2 3102.84 Core 14 Chandon-2 2850.40 Core 39 Geryon-2 3105.6 Core 15 Chandon-2 2871.44 Core 40 Geryon-2 3119.85 Core 16 Chandon-2 2878.22 Core 41 Geryon-2 3135.52 Core 17 Chandon-2 2890.92 Core 42 Geryon-2 3149.28 Core 18 Chandon-2 2891.33 Core 43 Geryon-2 3160.78 Core 19 Chandon-2 2915.10 Core 44 Geryon-2 3166.17 Core 20 Chandon-2 2918.68 Core 45 Geryon-2 3166.98 Core 21 Chandon-2 2937.95 Core 46 Geryon-2 3173.18 Core 22 Chandon-2 2949.55 Core 47 Geryon-2 3182.84 Core 23 Chandon-2 2957.20 Core 48 Geryon-2 3193 Core 24 Chandon-2 2958.37 Core 49 Geryon-2 3194.75 Core 25 Chandon-2 2959.25 Core 50 Geryon-2 3201.9 Core 51 Geryon-2 3221.68 Core

Table 2: Record of new samples analysed this study.

Samples in the study were made available at the Perth Core Library administered by the Geological Survey of Western Australia (GSWA). Palynological sample processing was undertaken in the School of Earth Sciences laboratory. The samples were processed using standard UWA palynological processing techniques

Available information including previous palynological reports, sedimentary core logs, and wireline log data for the selected wells for analysis was accessed electronically, online using the NOPIMS (National Offshore Petroleum Information Management System) and 28

WAPIMS (Western Australian Petroleum and Geothermal Information Management System) databases. Sequence stratigraphic interpretation of each well was conducted using the framework outlined in Marshall & Lang (2013) and Adamson et al., (2013). Observations made on the trends were integrated with wireline log data and sedimentological information to generate well correlation panels for selected intervals were drafted using the Stratabugs and Petrel software suites. Geoscience Australia granted access to the legacy palynological slides produced during the initial appraisal of the Chandon-2 and Geryon-2 wells.

4.2 Methods 4.2.1 Palynological Sample Processing Procedure Sample sizes collected for analysis varied across the two wells, depending on lithology, but all were greater than 20g. To begin the sample processing, in order to avoid contamination, the outer edge of the sample was removed where possible, and the sample washed in distilled water. The sample was placed between aluminium dishes and crushed with a hammer. The sample is crushed until all fragments were <3mm and transferred into a labelled vial. Any remaining sample was retained.

Carbonates were removed from the sample using hydrochloric acid. Hot 10% HCl was prepared and added to each sample, allowing for the substrate to react. The vials were then filled to the top, as the reaction slowed, and were left overnight. The supernatant was decanted into a neutralising agent and removed. Vials were then filled with de-ionised (DI) water and allowed to settle overnight; this washing procedure was repeated twice.

Silicate minerals were removed by treating samples with hydrofluoric acid. Wearing PPE (Personal Protective Equipment), HF acid was added in small increments until the vials were approximately 80% full. Samples were mixed and left for 48 hours. The supernatant was then removed, and the samples were washed three times using boiled DI water.

To treat fluorides produced during the acid digestion the samples were treated with a 50:50 solution of boiling water and 32% HCl. The HCl solution was added, and the samples were left to settle for 48 hours. The supernatant was removed, and the samples were washed three times using boiled DI water. Samples were then decanted into centrifuge tubes, centrifuged at 3000rpm for 3 minutes and then decanted.

Fine particles were removed from the samples by sieving through a 10µm mesh. After sieving, a wet mount of the sample was made and observed under the microscope. Sieving was repeated as necessary and once complete, samples were centrifuged and decanted. LST

29 solution (lithium and sodium heteropolytungstates) was then added to the centrifuge tubes and mixed with the sample using a vortex mixer. The solution was then centrifuged for 15 minutes at 1500rpm. The floats were harvested and kept in a separate centrifuge tube. The tubes were then filled with Dl water, mixed, and centrifuged at 3000rpm for 3 minutes. The tubes were decanted into 10mm sieves and water washed to remove all the LST solution. PVA solution was then added to the remaining sample in the tubes and mixed.

Slides were then prepared using a glass pipette, taking a portion of the sample solution, and adding to a slide cover slip. The cover slip was dried on a hotplate. Once dry, the cover slip was placed onto the slide using a drop of Ultramount-4 mounting medium. The final slides were then left to dry for 48 hours.

4.2.2 Palynological analysis All palynological analysis in this study was done by transmitted light microscopy conducted on a Zeiss microscope with an Olympus digital camera in the University of Western Australia Palynology Laboratory in the School of Earth Sciences. Each of the samples in the study was examined in detail for preservation, assemblage recovery and composition, and then species determination. A selection of well-preserved specimens was recorded for illustration (Appendix 5.). All photomicrographs were taken using a 100x Plan- Apochromat objective. Photomicrographs of specimens illustrated herein have been adjusted for brightness and contrast, but not digitally modified or altered.

The legacy palynology slides, provided by Geoscience Australia, were also re-logged for quantitative taxonomic analysis. Three hundred palynomorphs were counted from each sample to obtain statistically robust estimations of assemblage compositions. The percentages of the different palynomorph groups (e.g., acritarchs, dinoflagellate cysts, pollen grains, spores, and microforaminiferal test linings) present in each sample were recorded. The remainder of each slide was examined to detect rare species not observed during the actual counting procedures. The assemblage counts facilitated the recognition of compositional fluctuations through the sequences. Fine-scale biostratigraphic events, such as first and last appearance datums (FADs and LADs) and acme events, were identified as guides to aid reservoir-scale correlations. Results of the palynological analysis are discussed in Chapter 5.

4.2.3 Palaeoecology Comparative analysis of fossil plants with the nearest living relatives can provide a general basis for paleoclimate reconstructions (Jansonius and McGregor, 1996). Fossil spores and pollen grains are useful indicators for terrestrial paleovegetation and paleoclimatic 30 reconstructions. Based on the assumption that palynomorph assemblages reflect source vegetation communities, Abbink et al. (2004a) developed a model called the Sporomorph EcoGroup (SEG) model for paleocommunity analysis. In this methodology, sporomorphs are linked to the parent plant, allowing detailed paleoecological interpretation of the quantitative palynological data.

Originally, the Sporomorph EcoGroup model was defined for the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous of the North Sea (Abbink 1998; Abbink et al. 2004a), later successfully applied in detailed interpretations of changes in paleoenvironment (sea-level, climate) of the Mesozoic strata in Europe (Abbink et al. 2004b, 2006; Ruckwied et al. 2008; Kustatscher et al. 2010; Götz et al. 2011). The work of Mudie & McCarthy (2006) proposes a model that incorporates aquatic and terrestrial palynological components to transportation pathways related to depositional setting in the Pleistocene-Holocene. This work is a compilation of numerous previous studies by Mudie in this field (Mudie, 1982; Mudie & Deonarine, 1983; Mudie & McCarthy, 1994), which have been adapted in more recent publications. Olivera et al., (2015) and Patterson et al., (2017) modified this model for the Triassic of Europe to incorporate aquatic palynomorphs and subsequently modified the name to the Palynomorph EcoGroup (PEG) model. In this study, the PEG model has been applied for the first time to the Mesozoic in Australia based on the palynological record from the Late Triassic in the NCB. The PEGs defined for this study are list below in Table 3.

PEG Habitat Description Hinterland (HI) Upland: Vegetation on higher terrain well above groundwater level that is never submerged by water. Lowland – Dry (LD) Dry lowland plain: Vegetation on lowland floodplains that may (episodically) be submerged by freshwater during flooding; there is no influence of (sea) salt, except, perhaps, under extreme circumstances. Lowland – Wet (LW) Wet lowland plain: Vegetation in this community includes vegetation growing in freshwater swamps or wet lowlands (e.g., marshes). River (RI) Riverbank: Vegetation on riverbanks which are (periodically) submerged and subject to erosion. Pioneer (PI) Pioneer: Vegetation at unstable and recently developed eco-space (e.g. vegetation growing at places that had been submerged by the sea for a longer period).

Coastal (CO) Coastal: Vegetation growing immediately along the coast, never submerged by the sea but under a constant influence of salt spray. Freshwater -Brackish (FW) Freshwater – Brackish: Aquatic lagoonal, brackish to freshwater algae (includes prasinophycean algae and colonial green algae) Marine (MA) Marine: Aquatic marine (e.g. acritarchs and dinocysts) Not attributed (NA) Palynomorphs with uncertain botanical affinity

Table 3: Palynomorph EcoGroups (PEGs) used in this study, modified from Kustatscher et al., (2012) and Olivera et al., (2015).

These groups form the basis for paleoecological interpretations made in this study. The distribution of the SEGs spatially is shown schematically in Figure 11. Here the relationship between the ecological groups and their relative positions in the environment can be seen.

Figure 11. Schematic illustration of the spatial distribution of the PEGs used in this study (modified from Abbink, 1998).

Several recent studies in the Northern Hemisphere (Ruckwied et al., 2008; Kustatscher et al., 2014; Lindstrom & Erlström, 2011; Lindstrom et al., 2016; Lindstrom et al., 2017; Mueller et al., 2016, Paterson & Mangerud, 2015; Paterson et al., 2016) have tested the SEG model on Triassic palynological assemblages. Paterson et al., (2017) successfully applied the SEG model to the Kobbe, Snadd and Fruholmen formations in Norway. Table 4. lists relationships between palynomorphs, the inferred parent plants and their ecological preferences used in this study.

PEG Genera Paleoclimate indicators Bisaccate pollen (undiff), Cadargasporites spp., Temperate, relatively dry with Chordasporites spp., Corollina spp., Triadispora elements that can withstand spp. Duplicisporites spp., Enzonalasporites spp., long periods of drought; spp. spp. Hinterland (HI) Lueckisporites , Lunatisporites , seasonal climate Ovalipollis spp., Protohaploxypinus spp., Schizaeoisporites spp., Striatoabieites spp., Nevesisporites spp., Stereisporites spp., Antulsporites spp., Todisporites spp., Aulisporites spp., Chasmatosporites spp., Warm to temperate, can Cycadopites spp., Deltoidospora spp., withstand long periods of Lowland – Dry (LD) Dictyophyllidites spp., Kyrtomisporis spp., drought; seasonal climate Patinasporites spp., Vitreisporites spp. Apiculatisporis spp., Conbaculatisporites spp. Warm to temperate, relatively Concavissimisporites spp., Converrucosisporites wet spp., Granulatisporites spp., Leschikisporis spp., Lowland – Wet (LW) Lophotriletes spp., Osmundacidites spp., Punctatisporites spp., Raistrickia spp., Retusotriletes spp., Verrucosisporites spp., Zebrasporites spp. Annulispora spp., Baculatisporites spp. Warm to temperate, relatively Calamospora spp., Ephedripites spp., wet spp. spp. River (RI) Leptolepidites , Limatulasporites Neoraistrickia spp., Nevesisporites spp., Polycingulatisporites spp., Stereisporites spp. Thymospora spp., Uvaesporites spp. Pioneer (PI) Protohaploxypinus spp. Anapiculatisporis spp., Aratrisporites spp., Warm to temperate, can Densoisporites spp., Kraeuselisporites spp., withstand long periods of Coastal (CO) Platysaccus spp., Podosporites spp., Striatella drought; seasonal climate spp., Reticulatisporites spp., Semiretisporis spp., Ovoidites spp. Temperate to warm; seasonal climate Freshwater - Granodiscus spp., Leiosphaeridia spp., Highly seasonal climate Brackish (FW) Leiospheres spp., Bartenia spp., Plaesiodictyon spp., Botryococcus spp., Fungae spp. Cymatiosphaera spp., Micrhystridium spp., Marine environment with Veryhachium spp., Tasmanites spp., variable salinity ranges Marine (MA) Beaumontella spp., Dapcodinium spp., Heibergella spp., Suessia spp., Wanneria spp., Microforaminiferal test linings Not Attributed (NA) Infernopollenites spp., Rewanispora spp.

Table 4: Palynomorphs identified in this study with inferred botanical affinity and assigned to a PEG, modified from Olivera et al., (2012) and Patterson et al., (2017).

5. Results A brief overview of the results from the palynostratigraphic analysis of the Chandon-2 and Geryon-2 wells are presented below. A complete list of the palynomorph taxa identified in the current study is included as distribution charts in Appendix 4. A selection of diagnostic Triassic palynomorphs are illustrated in the plates as part of Appendix 3.

5.1 Palynology

A brief overview of the results from the palynostratigraphic analysis of the Chandon-2 and Geryon-2 wells are presented below. Palynomorph distribution charts for each well are presented in Appendix 3. A complete list of the palynomorph taxa identified in the current study is included as Appendix 2.

5.1.1 Chandon-2 The complete interval analysed (2777.20m to 2993.68m) shows a strong degree of terrestrial input throughout, with the peltasperm pollen Falcisporites australis dominating assemblages. Preservation across the studied interval was generally good, however in parts, such as in the uppermost samples (2777.20m to 2790.94m), the recovered assemblages were poorly preserved, with abundant AOM (amorphous organic matter) present. The studied section in Chandon-2 is separated below, into assemblages based on changes in microfloral composition, and the relative contribution of marine indicators, namely dinocysts and acritarchs.

The interval 2781.64m– 2790.94m is characterised by lean assemblages with common to abundant AOM. The presence of Ashmoripollis reducta, common to abundant F. australis, and common Dictyophillidites harrisii without younger marker species is indicative of a Late Triassic age. Microplankton, in the form of spiny acritarchs and dinocysts are recorded, as well as microforaminferal test linings, indicative of marine influence. The preservation of the assemblages in this interval is generally poor but improves with depth.

The interval 2791.48m– 2811.83m is characterised by rich, well preserved microfloral assemblages, with common to abundant structured organic material (SOM). F. australis is abundant with common to abundant D. harrisii and frequent Cycadopites follicularis and Thymospora ipsviciensis. Rare floral elements include A. reducta, A. astigmosus, C. torosa, E. vigens, L. mutabilis, P. velata and Samaropollenites speciosus. Microplankton are rare in the interval with the exception of the samples at 2798.80m and 2799.23m, which display a distinct

34 marine influence. Saline taxa include rare Micrhystridium spp., intermittent microforaminferal test linings and Wanneria listeri. Freshwater algae include rare Bartenia communis, Leiosphaeridia spp., and Lecaniella spp.

The interval 2813.53m – 2958.08m is characterised by rich, well preserved microfloral assemblages, with common (SOM). F. australis is again abundant, with D. harrisii frequent to common, but in places abundant. Frequently observed species are C. follicularis, O. wellmanii, P. ipsviciensis. Rare assemblage components include Aratrisporites banksii, A. astigmosus, E. vigens, E. macistriatus, L. mutabilis, P. velata, S. speciosus and Tuberculatosporites aberdarensis. Microplankton are a minor component of the assemblages throughout the interval. Species observed include spiny acritarchs, Micrhystridium spp., (observed consistent above 2822.32m) and rare dinocysts. Points of distinct marine influence are observed at 2814.37 m, 2823.86 m and 2890.43 m with dinocyst species W. listeri, W. misolensis and Heibergella balmei observed. The influx of marine assemblage components can be observed in Figure 12., particularly around 2895m where a peak in the Marine PEG (mid-blue curve) occurs. Freshwater algae form a minor component of the observed assemblages over this interval and include B. communis, Botryococcus spp. and Lecaniella spp.

The interval 2959.04m-2993.68m is characterised by rich, well preserved microfloral assemblages, with common (SOM). F. australis is abundant throughout the interval, with common to abundant D. harrisii. Frequently observed species include A. astigmosus, C. follicularis, C. stonei and P. ipsviciensis. Rare assemblage components include A. banksii, E. vigens, E. macistriatus, L. mutabilis, P. velata and S. speciosus. Microplankton are a rare component of assemblages throughout the interval and decrease in frequency with depth. The consistent presence of microplankton in the form of dinocysts and spiny acritarchs from 2959.04m – 2964.40 m, indicates a narrow interval of marine influence.

Figure 12. Palynomorph Ecogroup (PEG) data for Chandon-2.

5.1.2 Geryon-2 The assemblages analysed from 2965.30m to 3221.68m, show a strong degree of terrestrial input throughout the studied interval but displays a decreasing aquatic influence with depth. The seed-fern pollen F. australis generally dominates assemblages, with algae and dinocysts increasingly prevalent as the section shallows. Preservation of assemblages over the studied interval was generally good, however in places, such as in the lowermost samples (3201.90m to 3221.68m, taken from a fluvial channel depofacies), the recovered assemblages were very lean, dominated by abundant SOM. The studied interval in Geryon-2 is separated

36 below into assemblages based on changes in the microfloral composition and the relative contribution of aquatic indicators, namely acritarchs, algae and dinocysts.

In the interval 2965.30m to 2998.85m, F. australis, Osmundacidites wellmanii and Leschikisporites mutabilis are the most common spore-pollen elements, associated with frequent A. reducta. Dinocysts are a common component of assemblages in this interval, displaying a wide diversity for the period. Common in the interval are foraminiferal test linings, along with acritarchs, especially Micrhystridium spp. Microplankton in the assemblages record frequent dinocyst species W. listeri, Beaumontella langii and Dapcodinium priscum with rare elements that include Suessia sp. A, Heibergella kendelbachia and Rhaetogonyaulax rhaetica.

In the interval 2999.60m to 3102.20m F. australis is abundant, with persistent A. reducta. Assemblages are well preserved with common AOM. O. wellmanii and L. mutabilis are commonly recorded spore species with the proportion of D. harrisii increasing compared to the overlying interval. Consistent with the overlying zone, dinocysts represent a significant assemblage component. Microplankton species recorded in this interval include common W. listeri, occasional Micrhystridium spp., and rare B. langii, D. priscum, and W. misolensis. The microplankton assemblages are more diverse in the upper part of the interval, with a corresponding decrease in diversity and abundance with depth. Relative influxes of specific species observed in this interval are of potential stratigraphic value.

In the interval 3106.60m to 3165.50m, the observed assemblages are well preserved with common SOM. The assemblages consist of rich microfloras with a marked reduction in the presence of saline microplankton with depth. This is most likely a reflection of a change in depositional environment and can be observed in Figure 13., where a marked decrease in the influence of the Marine PEG (mid-blue curve) is noted. F. australis is dominant, with common D. harrisii and O. wellmanii. Vitreisporites pallidus, P. ipsviciensis, Cycadopites 'microgranulata', and Cycadopites spp. frequently observed microfloral elements. Freshwater algae, in the form of Schizosporis sp. A, S. laevigata, Lecaniella spp., and Pilasporites crateraformis and algal tubes are a significant component of assemblages throughout this interval, along with more brackish species Leiospheridia spp. and Granodiscus sp. cf. granulatus. At 3134.30m, an increase in the presence of marine microplankton indicates a marine ingression.

This interval 3169.50m to 3221.68m is characterised by rich and diverse microfloral assemblages with a minor but persistent contribution from freshwater algae, especially B. communis and periodic occurrences of dinocysts. The assemblages observed in this interval the are generally well preserved with SOM increasing with depth from common to abundant.

F. australis is dominant through the interval, with common D. harrisii and frequent O. wellmanii, V. pallidus, P. ipsviciensis and L. mutabilis. The abundance of E. macistriatus increases downhole. Rare dinocysts recorded in the interval include Dapcodinium spp., W. listeri and Sverdrupiella spp.

Figure 13. Palynomorph Ecogroup (PEG) data from Geryon-2.

6. Discussion 6.1 Biostratigraphy The interpretation of the palynological analysis of the Geryon-2 and Chandon-2 wells is presented below by well, and then by key biostratigraphic microfossil group, spore-pollen and dinocysts, that define the zones in the scheme used in the study (see Figure 11).

6.1.1 Chandon-2

Ashmoripollis reducta Spore-Pollen Zone: 2781.64m – 2791.20m Spore-pollen zonal assignment is indicated at the top of this interval by youngest occurrence of Ashmoripollis reducta associated with abundant Falcisporites australis. The base of the interval is indicated by a decline in A. reducta, with associated dinocysts, and an increase in the presence of D. harrisii. The assemblages in this interval were moderately well preserved, with common AOM which precluded accurate species level identification in some instances. F. australis and Micrhystridium spp. are abundant throughout the interval, with common microforaminferal test linings and frequent D. harrisii and O. wellmanii. Rare microfloral elements include A. reducta, Aulisporites astigmosus, Calamospora mesozoica, C. torosa and Playfordiaspora velata.

M. crenulatus Zone Spore-Pollen, D. harrisii subzone: 2791.48m – 2811.83m This interval is characterised by an increase in microfloral richness compared to the overlying zone. The diverse microflora assemblages are interpreted to represent a change in depositional environment from a more marine influenced A. reducta zone to a more terrestrially influenced M. crenulatus zone. The top of the interval is defined by the top consistent presence of Enzonalasporites vigens, associated with abundant F. australis, common D. harrisii and frequent Cycadopites follicularis and Thymospora ipsviciensis. Rare assemblage elements include A. reducta, A. astigmosus, C. torosa, E. vigens, L. mutabilis, P. velata and Samaropollenites speciosus. The base of the interval is defined by the absence of older markers, specifically, E. macistriatus. Marine influence is limited in this interval but samples from 2799.23m to 2798.42 show restricted but distinct microplankton assemblages interpreted to be the result of a marine incursion. This flooding event and associated influx of microplankton could be used to subdivide the D. harrisii subzone into ‘Upper’ and ‘Lower’ parts. Freshwater algae are consistently recorded across the zone in low abundance and include Bartenia communis, Leiosphaeridia spp., and Lecaniella spp.

M. crenulatus Zone, E. macistriatus subzone: 2813.53m-2958.08m Spore-pollen zonal assignment is indicated at the top of this interval by youngest occurrence of E. macistriatus associated with abundant F. australis and D. harrisii. The base of the interval is indicated by the first appearance of Cycadopites stonei, Assemblages in this interval are dominated by abundant F. australis with common D. harrisii that is in some samples abundant. The samples with abundant D. harrisii are interpreted to be from samples representative of an upper delta plain setting with increased hinterland vegetational input. Frequent species include C. follicularis, O. wellmanii, P. ipsviciensis with rare Aratrisporites banksii, A. astigmosus, E. vigens, E. macistriatus, L. mutabilis, P. velata, S. speciosus and Tuberculatosporites aberdarensis. Freshwater algae taxa are minor assemblage components and include B. communis, Botryococcus spp. and Lecaniella spp. Within this interval a marine flood is interpreted in assemblages between 2891.33m and 2890.43 m, marked by an influx of the Heibergella balmei dinocyst species. This flooding event and associated influx of microplankton could be used to subdivide the E. macistriatus subzone into ‘Upper’ and ‘Lower’ parts.

M. crenulatus Zone, C. stonei subzone: 2958.75m– 2993.68m Zonal assignment of assemblages in this interval is indicated at the top by youngest occurrence of Cycadopites stonei, and at the base by the absence of older markers. The base of the subzone is not interpreted to have been penetrated due to the marine dinocyst dominated H. balmei subzone which underlies the C. stonei subzone not recorded. Throughout this interval F. australis is abundant, associated with common to occasionally abundant D. harrisii. Frequent assemblage components in this interval include A. astigmosus, C. follicularis, C. stonei and T. ipsviciensis. Rarer assemblage elements include A. banksii, C. stonei (coarse), E. vigens, E. macistriatus, L. mutabilis, P. velata and S. speciosus. Near the top of the subzone, a marine flood is recorded in samples at 2959.25m and 2959.04m. A minor flood is recorded at 2978.65m which could be used to divide the C. stonei subzone into ‘Upper’ and ‘Lower’ parts. Further sampling around this interval would help determine the degree of marine influence present and its stratigraphic potential.

D. priscum Dinocyst Zone, lower subzone: 2781.64m – 2790.94m In this interval, dinocyst zonal assignment is indicated at the top by marine assemblages and the absence of older markers (especially Wanneria listeri). The assemblages in this interval are generally poorly preserved but marine microplankton are recognisable, if not commonly to the species level. Marine elements are dominant, with common spiny

40 acritarchs, microforaminferal tests and rare dinocysts including S. swabiana and D. priscum recorded. In the interval from 2781.64 to 2786.64m, Suessia sp. A is recorded. In the sample at 2788.73 m, top Suessia swabiana occurs. The presence of these dinocyst species enable the following further subdivision of the D. priscum dinocyst zone into subzones according to the zonation outlined in Figure 8. The Suessia sp. A subzone is interpreted from 2781.64m to 2786.64m based on the presence of the eponymous species. The S. swabiana subzone is interpreted from 2788.73m to 2790.73m based on the presence of the eponymous species. The previous study of this interval recorded high numbers of Micrhystridium spp. In the current study, it was found that some of the palynomorphs potentially normally attributed to Micrhystridium spp. are more representative of the Beaumontella taxa (particularly B. camunispinum). This is consistent with the interpretation of the dinocyst zone in relation to Riding et al., 2010, which restricts the base range of Beaumontella spp. to the D. priscum zone.

R. rhaetica Dinocyst Zone: 2791.20m In this restricted assemblage, assignment is indicated at the top by youngest occurrence of W. listeri and at the base by oldest strongly marine facies (oldest common Micrhystridium spp.). The microplankton are dominated by common Micrhystridium spp. with frequent microforaminferal tests, with rare D. priscum, W. listeri and a single rare Suessia cf. misolensis.

Correlative Events:

Palynological events, or bioevents, of potential of potential stratigraphic value identified in Chandon-2 are listed below in Table 5. and refer to the numbers in Figure 14. Event No. Depth (m) Bioevent 1 2781.64 - 2786.64 Suessia sp. A interval 2 2788.73 - 2790.73 S. swabiana interval 3 2798.80 middle “D. harrisii Subzone” marine flood 4 2890.43 H. balmei acme associated with a marine flood in the middle “E. macistriatus Subzone” 5 2949.55 E. macistriatus acme near base “E. macistriatus Subzone” 6 2959.04 W. listeri acme associated with marine flood near top “C. stonei Subzone”.

Table 5: Bioevents identified in Chandon-2. 41

Figure 14. Summary palynological interpretation of Chandon-2 with identified bioevents.

6.1.2 Geryon-2 Minutosaccus crenulatus Spore-Pollen Zone, Ephedripites macistriatus subzone: 3221.68m to 3167.50m

Zonal assignment is indicated at the top by the top by the last appearance datum (LAD) of E. macistriatus associated with rich microflora assemblages. The presence of E. macistriatus supports assignment of this interval to the E. macistriatus subzone of the M. crenulatus Oppel Zone. In this interval is dominated by diverse spore-pollen species with rare but persistent algae and acritarch taxa occurring. The dominance of terrestrial floras indicates that this interval is likely to represent a non-marine to marginal marine depositional setting. This base of the subzone in the studied interval is considered to not have been penetrated due to the absence of older markers, specifically Cycadopites stonei, the presence of which defines the underlying subzone. Throughout this interval, F. australis is abundant and dominates most of the assemblages, with D. harrisii common and O. wellmanii, V. pallidus, T. ipsviciensis and L. mutabilis commonly recorded. A general trend of an increasing abundance of E. macistriatus with depth is observed in the interval. The freshwater algae tend to be less abundant and diverse when compared with the overlying D. harrisii subzone, but the algae B. communis is consistently recorded. Dinocyst taxa are rare and only recorded sporadically in the interval, with occasional specimens of D. priscum, W. listeri and Sverdrupiella spp. observed.

Minutosaccus crenulatus Spore-Pollen Zone, D. harrisii subzone: 3106.60m to 3165.50m In this interval, zonal assignment is indicated at the top of the interval by rich terrestrial microfloras that increase in diversity with depth indicating a more marginal marine to non-marine depositional setting. F. australis is abundant and dominates the observed assemblages with D. harrisii common to abundant and O. wellmanii, V. pallidus, T. ipsviciensis, Cycadopites 'microgranulata', Cycadopites spp. frequently recorded throughout this interval. Of significance in this interval is the abundance of freshwater algae, which includes Schizosporis sp. A, S. laevigata, P. mosellanum, Algal cysts, Lecaniella spp. and Pilasporites crateraformis. Brackish water indicators such as Leiospheres and Granodiscus ‘granulatus’ are also frequently recorded in this interval, interpreted to indicate a change in the environment of deposition from the underlying interval. The abundance of D. harrisii and the absence of E. macistriatus supports assignment to the D. harrisii subzone of the M. crenulatus Oppel Zone. An increase in the presence marine microplankton at 3135.52m and 3134.30m is considered to mark a marine incursion and represent a correlatable event across

43 the study area. This is event could be used to further subdivide the D. harrisii subzone into upper & lower units.

Ashmoripollis reducta Spore-Pollen Zone: 2965.30m to 3101.10m The spore-pollen zonal assignment is indicated at the top by youngest occurrence of Ashmoripollis reducta associated with abundant Falcisporites australis, and at the base by the absence of older markers. Associated dinocyst zone assignment is possible through analysis of the marine microplankton assemblages. F. australis is abundant throughout this interval, with O. wellmanii, Leschikisporites mutabilis and Leschikisporites sp. A, common assemblage elements. A. reducta is recorded frequently throughout this interval supporting assignment to the A. reducta Oppel Zone. Accessory palynomorphs recorded include common foraminiferal test linings, the acritarch taxa, Micrhystridium spp. with frequent dinocysts W. listeri, B. langii and D. priscum. A marine environment of depositional is suggested by the dominant to co- dominant marine elements with the subordinate terrestrial spores and pollen.

Rhaetogonyaulax rhaetica Dinocyst Zone: 2999.60m to 3101.10m: Zonal assignment of this interval is indicated at the top boundary by the absence of Suessia sp. A and the persistent presence of W. listeri and R. rhaetica throughout. This interval is characterised by assemblages that consist of common and diverse dinocyst species, which are more diverse at the top of the interval and decline in abundance and diversity with depth. W. listeri is common throughout the interval, along with sporadically common Micrhystridium spp. Other dinocyst species recorded included rare B. langii, D. priscum, Sverdrupiella spp. and W. misolensis. Several bioevents are observed in this interval which potentially enable further subdivision, particularly with reference to events identified by Backhouse and Balme (2002) and Backhouse et al. 2002. Shelf to nearshore marine environments are inferred by the dominant to co-dominant marine elements over the interval, with terrestrial spores and pollen being subordinate.

Dapcodinium priscum Dinocyst Zone, Lower subzone: 2965.30m to 2978.50m: In this interval, dinocysts are commonly recorded and are represented by diverse assemblages. At 2965.30m, the dinocyst species Suessia sp. A occurs, suggesting the top of the lower Dapcodinium priscum Oppel Zone. S. swabiana is recorded from 2965. 95m which supports the zonal assignment but is suggestive of assignment to the lower part of the Oppel Zone. In this interval, several dinocyst species are observed that are not currently assignable to recorded taxa, which suggests that further taxonomic work on identifying and classifying 44 these specimens is required. Notably, W. listeri and R. rhaetica are recorded in this interval, which is above what is considered their normal range (Backhouse et al., 2002; Riding et al. 2010). This could indicate reworking of the sediments at this location. Foraminiferal test linings are commonly observed in this interval, as is Micrhystridium spp., with W. listeri, B. camunispinum, B. langii and D. priscum recorded frequently. Rarer microplankton elements observed include Suessia sp. A and Heibergella? kendelbachia. The dominant to co-dominant marine microplankton element, with subordinate terrestrial spores and pollen is indicative of a shelfal marine depositional environment.

Correlative Events:

Palynological events, or bioevents, of potential stratigraphic value identified in this study are listed below in Table 6. and refer to the numbers in Figure 15.

Event No. Depth (m) Bioevent 1 2999.6 - 3000.85 Common W. listeri, with Sverdrupiella spp. 2 3017.4 Common R. rhaetica 3 3046.5 - 3060.55 Common D. priscum 4 3070.2 base R. rhaetica 5 3100.4 base frequent W. listeri 6 3134.30 marine microplankton peak 7 3134.30 Schizosporis sp. A acme associated with top E. macistriatus

Table 6: Bioevents identified in Geryon-2.

Figure 15. Summary palynological interpretation of Geryon-2 with identified bioevents.

6.2 Paleoecology The interpretation of applied paleoecological groupings (PEGs) to the observed palynological assemblages reveals a dominance of marine, river and the ‘dry’ and ‘wet’ lowland PEGs, with gradual variations between the groups observed. The most significant change across the assemblages in both wells is the increase in the prevalence of the Marine PEG from the Norian to the Rhaetian (from the M. crenulatus Zone to the A. reducta Zone). The interval analysed across both wells supports an interpretation of an increasingly monsoonal climate, with some alternation between wet and dry seasons. The increase in marine and aquatic influence towards the end of the Triassic is indicative of a warming trend (Preto et al., 2010). A monsoonal climate could be considered a result of this warming trend, as the climate evolves from a greenhouse to hot-house climatic state. Heat stress during climatic change is one possible mechanism for the end Triassic extinction event, which saw a massive change in the paleovegetation record (Helby et al., 1987). The interpretation of the paleoecological groupings applied to recorded palynological assemblages in Geryon-2 reveals a general trend towards an increasingly aquatic and marine influence as the section transitions from the Norian to Rhaetian. Aside from the increase in the Marine PEG, particularly from 2970-3080m, these assemblages display minor variations. A peak in the Lowland Dry PEG was recorded at 3150-3160m and is associated with distributary channel and crevasse splay deposits. Peaks in the Freshwater PEG at 3000- 3015m and 3045-3055m are associated with lower shoreface deposits. The interpretation of the paleoecological groupings applied to recorded palynological assemblages in Chandon-2 also reveals a general trend towards an increasingly aquatic and marine influence as the section transitions from the Norian to Rhaetian. The River PEG shows a consistent contribution to the recorded assemblages throughout the studied section but appears to show peaks at 2840-2900m and 2940-2980m. These peaks are associated with an increase in the prevalence of fluvial and distributary channels interpreted over the intervals. A peak in the Marine PEG is observed at 2880-2990m which is coincident with the marine flooding episode in the E. macistriatus subzone and associated with the TR28.5 MFS. Peaks in the Hinterland PEG were recorded at 2880-2900m & 2960-2990m and are associated with upper delta plain sedimentological interpretations.

6.3 Sequence stratigraphy A well-based sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the study area is made using the scheme outlined in Marshall & Lang, 2013. The studied wells produce a stratigraphic section through the upper TR20 and TR30 play intervals, represented by 465m of combined sediment. Several third to fourth order sequences are identified in both wells using the available well log, core and palynological interpretations.

In Geryon-2, the cored section of the Mungaroo Formation is bounded by the TR28.0SB surface (log-based interpretation) at the base, and the TR30.1 TS surface at the top. The interval is well constrained palynologically by the E. macistriatus and D. harrisii spore-pollen subzones (Figure 16). Marshall & Lang (2013) suggest that the TR27.0, TR28.0 and TR29.0 sub-plays represent an approximation of third order cycles defined by a distinct sequence boundary at the base of each cycle. The key sequence boundaries have been interpreted through the well across the truncated TR20 interval as well as the corresponding transgressive and maximum flooding surfaces. The main drivers considered to control the basin-scale architecture of the TR20 regional play intervals are accommodation space and sediment supply (Adamson et al., 2013). Accommodation rates are interpreted to be modest in this interval and sediment supply was sufficient to maintain consistent deltaic to shallow marine shelf conditions over much of the NCB. Regionally, during specific intervals within the TR20 interval, the rate of accommodation creation was interpreted to be faster than sediment supply, resulting in brief marine incursions over (typically) broad, lower delta plain environments. Regionally significant flooding surfaces, associated with marine microplankton, include the TR26.5 MFS at the base of the C. stonei Subzone, and the TR30.1 TS, at the top of the D. harrisii Subzone. Correlation of these events at a regional scale aid identification of spatial and temporal variations in sediment supply. The TR26.5 MFS surface is below the studied section, the TR30.1 TS surface is identified in both wells. Additional flooding surfaces, supported by palynological assemblages, are identified in Geryon-2, and include the TR28.5 MFS at 3195.0m, the TR29.5 MFS (mid D. harrisii Subzone) at 3137.5m. The TR30.1 TS is interpreted at 3102.5m. In Geryon-2, the cored section of the Brigadier Formation is bounded by the TR30.1 TS surface at the base, and the J40.0 SB (Oxfordian Unconformity) surface at the top. The interval is well constrained palynologically by the W. listeri and lower D. priscum dinocyst subzones (Figure 15). Within the TR30 section, Marshall & Lang (2013) recognise six regional flooding

48 surfaces across the NCB (TR30.1 TS, TR32.1 TS, TR34.1 TS, TR36.1 TS, TR38.1 TS and TR39.1 TS), based on well log character calibrated against conventional core sedimentology and biostratigraphy. Transgressive surfaces bound are broadly fining upwards cycles within the TR30 interval (Grain et al., 2013). The fourth order cycles that subdivide the TR30 interval, are interpreted to contain an array of facies associated with mixed delta front to lower delta plain settings. Regionally across this interval, most palynological assemblages record some degree of marine influence (Marshall and Lang, 2013). This interval in Geryon-2 records diverse microplankton assemblages throughout, signalling a distinct marine influence. Cyclicity in the observed palynological assemblages has been integrated with the sequence stratigraphic model to produce the stratigraphic interpretation in Figure 15. Geryon-2 represents a well preserved TR30 section where commonly the interval is condensed or truncated, such as in Chandon-2, or absent due to erosion. The TR30.1 TS surface is identified in Geryon-2 and Chandon-2. Additional stratigraphic surfaces, supported by recorded palynological assemblages, are identified in the studied sections, and include the Tr38.1 TS at 2982.5m (top W. listeri Subzone), the Tr36.1 TS at 3035.7m (top W. listeri Acme Subzone), the Tr34.1 TS at 3069.8m (top W. misolensis Subzone), the Tr32.1 TS at 3096.0m (top W. listeri ‘B’ Subzone) and the Tr30.1 at 3102.5m (base R. rhaetica Zone/ W. listeri Subzone). A correlation chart, between Geryon-2 and Chandon-2, and flattened on the TR30.1 TS surface, with a geological interpretation of the observed stratigraphic relationships, is provided in Figure 18.

Figure 16. Summary of sequence stratigraphic interpretation of Geryon-2.

In Chandon-2, the cored section of the Mungaroo Formation is bounded by the TR27.5 MFS surface (log & palynology-based interpretation) at the base, and the TR30.1 TS surface at the top. The interval is well constrained palynologically by the C. stonei and D. harrisii spore- pollen subzones (Figure 17). The TR27.0, TR28.0 and TR29.0 sub-plays, consistent with Geryon-2, are interpreted in Chandon-2 as an approximation of third order cycles, defined by sequence boundaries at the base of each cycle. Sequence boundaries have been interpreted across the (incomplete) TR20 interval, as well as corresponding transgressive and maximum flooding surfaces. Deltaic to shallow marine shelf conditions were interpreted over this interval from previous core-based interpretation (Chevron, 2010). At Chandon-2, marine incursions are interpreted in this interval as maximum flooding surfaces. The TR27.5 MFS is picked at 2984.0m, supported by a minor microplankton influx. The Tr28.5 MFS surface is picked at 2901.0m and is supported by a strong microplankton influx. This flooding event in the middle of the E. macistriatus subzone is considered stratigraphically valuable. A minor acme of the distinctive dinocyst H. balmei is observed at 2890.43m which can be potentially traced in other wells regionally. The TR29.5 MFS is picked at 2807.0m in the middle of the D. harrisii subzone. This surface is correlatable between the two studied wells and is also of potential stratigraphic value at a regional scale. In Chandon-2, the cored section of the Brigadier Formation is bounded by the TR30.1 TS surface at the base, and the J40.0 SB surface at the top. The interval is interpreted to be truncated or condensed as it is constrained palynologically by the W. listeri and lower D. priscum dinocyst subzones (Figure 17). The six regional flooding surfaces recognised by Marshall & Lang (2013), across the NCB, can be difficult to discern in condensed or truncated sections, such as the cored interval represented by Chandon-2. The TR38.1 TS and TR39.1 TS surfaces are interpreted in the Chandon-2 well at 2795,8m and 2789,9m respectively, based on the presence of D. priscum, B. camunispinum, B. langii. and well log character calibrated against conventional core sedimentology and biostratigraphy. The TR32.1 TS surface could be interpreted at 2791.20m on the basis of the palynology, but it is very close to the TR30.1 TS pick in what is considered a condensed interval, making precise placement difficult. An interpreted correlation chart, between Geryon-2 and Chandon-2 (flattened on the TR30.1 TS surface) with a geological interpretation of the observed stratigraphic relationships, is provided in Figure 18.

Figure 17. Summary of sequence stratigraphic interpretation of Chandon-2.

GERYON-2

TR39.1 TS

TR38.1 TS CHANDON-2 TR36.1 TS

TR34.1 TS

TR32.1 TS

TR30.1 TS TR29.5 MFS

TR29.0 SB

TR28.3 SB

TR28.2 MFS

TR28.0 SB

TR27.5 MFS

W 90km E

Figure 18. Stratigraphic correlation between Chandon-2 and Geryon-2 (flattened on the TR30.1 TS surface, the boundary between the Mungaroo and Brigadier formations). Red surfaces are interpreted sequence boundaries (SB), and the Blue surfaces are flooding surfaces, representing either transgressive surfaces (TS) or maximum flooding surfaces (MFS).

53 7. Conclusions The following conclusions can be made from the present integrated palynological and paleoecological investigation of latest Triassic successions of the uppermost Mungaroo and Brigadier formations, on the Exmouth Plateau, Carnarvon Basin.

1. Detailed study of 111 samples from the two Exmouth Plateau wells has revealed the presence of diverse and abundant palynofloral assemblages, comprised of spore and pollen, dinoflagellate cyst, acritarch and algae species, dominated by the Falcisporites australis pollen.

2. Eight palynological subzones are recognised, collectively encompassing parts of the M. crenulatus and A. reducta Oppel Zones on the Exmouth Plateau. Within three of these subzones (C. stonei, E. macistriatus, and D. harrisii) further subdivision is considered possible by using marine microplankton acme events to mark division into “Upper” and “Lower” subzones. These acme events correlate with regional flooding episodes and are identifiable across the NCB.

3. Recorded palynomorph assemblages vary in composition and diversity in relation to their depositional environment, particularly with respect to proximity to the inferred axis of the Mungaroo Delta. Changes in relative sea level and degree of marine influence are signalled by variations in the palynological assemblage composition through third order sequences observed in the Mungaroo and Brigadier formations.

4. Palynomorph EcoGroup (PEG) analysis shows distinctive compositional changes in the palynofloral assemblages through time, such as a gradual but distinct increase in marine influence in the NCB through the Norian to the Rhaetian. The observed changes in paleovegetation and ecology are interpreted linked to change in climate at the end of the Triassic. The climate at this time is considered to have represented a warming trend, transitioning from a greenhouse to hot-house, monsoonal climate. The application of PEG analysis in this study potentially enables a similar process and interpretation to be made to non-cored intervals in other wells, based on palynological content alone.

7.1 Further work This research has highlighted the diversity of palynomorphs preserved in the Late Triassic sequences of the NCB. Further work in constraining the taxonomy of numerous species of spores and pollen, dinocysts, algae and acritarchs is required to improve the accuracy of interpreted biozones and subsequent stratigraphic interpretations. Undescribed species

54 observed in this study need formal identification and taxonomic review to maximise their potential stratigraphic value. In the absence of cored well sections, it is hoped that the PEG model can be applied to recorded palynological assemblages in more wells, to gain insight into prevailing paleoecology and paleoenvironmental conditions at a regional scale. Further work in defining the PEG groups throughout the Triassic in detail is required to make these insights possible and to determine the accuracy away from cored wells. Interpreted paleoecological assemblages from a set of wells through contemporaneous sections could enable mapping of ecological changes through time on a regional scale.

8. References

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Appendix 1: Record of studied samples

The 51 samples taken in this study are from wells on the Exmouth Plateau, in the Northern Carnarvon Basin, the geographic locations of the wells are listed in Table 3., and sample distributions are presented in Figures 14 and 15. Abbreviations for lithogocially descirptive terms are as follows: abundant (abt.), argillaceous (arg.), black (blk), brown (br.), calcareous (calc.), carbonaceous (carb.), dark (dk), fine (fn.), fragments (frags), grained (gr.), green (grn.), grey (gy), interbedded (i-b.), laminated (lam.), light (lt), medium (med.), minor (mnr.), mottled (mot.), mudstone (mdst), quartz (qtz), sandstone (sst), sandy (sndy.), shale (shl.), siltstone (slst), very (v.), with (w.) and white (wht).

Sample Core Depth Sample Well Formation Lithology No. (m) type

1 Chandon-2 2777.20 Core Brigadier Med gy sltst 2 Chandon-2 2779.15 Core Brigadier Med-dk gy sltst w mnr sst lam 3 Chandon-2 2784.75 Core Brigadier Med gy massive sltst 4 Chandon-2 2789.98 Core Brigadier Lt gy lam sltst 5 Chandon-2 2791.30 Core Brigadier Lt-med grn gy sltst w calc lams 6 Chandon-2 2791.43 Core Brigadier Med-dk grn gy sltst w calc lams 7 Chandon-2 2798.42 Core Brigadier/Mungaroo Med-dk gy sltst 8 Chandon-2 2799.23 Core Mungaroo Med gy sltst w sst lams 9 Chandon-2 2812.23 Core Mungaroo Med-dk gy sltst 10 Chandon-2 2812.95 Core Mungaroo Dk gy sltst w sst lams 11 Chandon-2 2814.93 Core Mungaroo Dk gy sltst/shl 12 Chandon-2 2844.05 Core Mungaroo Dk gy sltst/shl w mnr sst lams 13 Chandon-2 2845.95 Core Mungaroo Dk gy sltst w mnr sst lams 14 Chandon-2 2850.40 Core Mungaroo Dk gy sltst 15 Chandon-2 2871.44 Core Mungaroo Dk gy-blk sltst w arg lams 16 Chandon-2 2878.22 Core Mungaroo Dk gy-blk sltst w sst lams 17 Chandon-2 2890.92 Core Mungaroo Dk gy-blk sltst 18 Chandon-2 2891.33 Core Mungaroo Dk gy-blk sltst carb mat 19 Chandon-2 2915.10 Core Mungaroo Dk gy-blk sltst carb mat 20 Chandon-2 2918.68 Core Mungaroo Dk gy sltst 21 Chandon-2 2937.95 Core Mungaroo Wht sst w dk gy-bwn sltst lams 22 Chandon-2 2949.55 Core Mungaroo Wht sst w dk gy-blk sltst lams 23 Chandon-2 2957.20 Core Mungaroo Dk gy mdst 24 Chandon-2 2958.37 Core Mungaroo Dk gy mdst 25 Chandon-2 2959.25 Core Mungaroo Dk gy-blk mdst 26 Chandon-2 2960.36 Core Mungaroo Dk gy arg sltst 27 Chandon-2 2960.86 Core Mungaroo Dk gy arg sltst 28 Chandon-2 2964.40 Core Mungaroo Dk gy sltst 29 Chandon-2 2978.65 Core Mungaroo Wht sst w abt arg clsts 30 Chandon-2 2986.93 Core Mungaroo Wht sst w abt arg clsts

31 Geryon-2 3007.53 Core Brigadier Med gy sdy sltst w fn sst lams 32 Geryon-2 3051.85 Core Brigadier Med dk gy calc sltst w mnr wht sst lams 33 Geryon-2 3062.43 Core Brigadier Dk gy sltst w ly gy-wht sst lams 34 Geryon-2 3074.13 Core Brigadier Med-lt gy sltslt 35 Geryon-2 3082.32 Core Brigadier Med gy sndy sltst 36 Geryon-2 3084.3 Core Brigadier Dk gy-blk sltst w fn sst lams 37 Geryon-2 3096.9 Core Brigadier Lt gy-wht fn sst w dk gy sltst lams 38 Geryon-2 3102.84 Core Brigadier/Mungaroo Dk gy sltst w ly gy-wht sst lams 39 Geryon-2 3105.6 Core Mungaroo Med gy-brn arg sst w dk gy-blk sltst lams 40 Geryon-2 3119.85 Core Mungaroo Med dk gy sltst w grn mot 41 Geryon-2 3135.52 Core Mungaroo Med-dk gy fn lam sltst 42 Geryon-2 3149.28 Core Mungaroo Med gy-dk gy sltst 43 Geryon-2 3160.78 Core Mungaroo Ly gy-wht fn gr sst w mnr dk gy sltst lams 44 Geryon-2 3166.17 Core Mungaroo Ly gy-wht fn gr sst i-b w dk gy-blk sltst lams 45 Geryon-2 3166.98 Core Mungaroo Dk gy sltst w ly gy-wht sst lams 46 Geryon-2 3173.18 Core Mungaroo Med-dk gy sltst 47 Geryon-2 3182.84 Core Mungaroo Lt gy-wht fn sst w dk gy-blk sltst lams 48 Geryon-2 3193 Core Mungaroo Lt gy-wht fn sst w dk gy sltst lams 49 Geryon-2 3194.75 Core Mungaroo Dk gy-blk sltst w carb frags 50 Geryon-2 3201.9 Core Mungaroo Wht fn-med grn sst w dk gy-blk sltst clsts 51 Geryon-2 3221.68 Core Mungaroo Wht fn-med grn sst w mnr gy arg clsts

Appendix 2: Record of identified palynomorphs in the study

An alphabetical list of palynomorphs identified in the studied sections of the Chandon-2 and Geryon-2 wells, grouped by microfossil type is given below. Names in quotation marks are informal. Acritarchs Dinoflagellate cysts Brazilea spp. Beaumontella camunispinum Caddasphaera halosa Beaumontella langii Cymatiosphaera spp. ?Bosedinia infragranulata Granodiscus "granulata" ?Bosedinia spp. Granodiscus spp. Dapcodinioid cyst indet. Leiofusa spp. Dapcodinium "cavate" Micrhystridium spp. Dapcodinium "prolongatum" Multiplicisphaeridium dendroidium Dapcodinium "proto-priscum" Pterospermopsis spp. Dapcodinium cf. priscum Tasmanites spp. Dapcodinium priscum Veryhachium spp. Dapcodinium spp. Algae Dinocysts indet. Botryococcus spp. Hebecysta spp. Algal cyst indet. Heibergella balmei Algal cysts (smooth) Heibergella cf. balmei Bartenia communis Heibergella kendelbachia Bartenia helbyi Heibergella spp. cf. Peltacystia spp. ‘Minutodinium sp. A’ Chlorococcalean algal tubes Noricysta spp. Circulisporites spp. Rhaetogonyaulax rhaetica Lecaniella spp. Rhaetogonyaulax sp. A Leiosphaeridia spp. Rhaetogonyaulax spp. Paleoraphidia akestra Shublikodinium spp. Peltacystia spp. Shublikodinium wigginsii Pilasporites crateraformis Suessia "disintegrata" Plaesiodictyon mosellanum Suessia sp. A Quadrisporites horridus Suessia spp. Schizocystia laevigata Suessia swabiana Schizocystia rara Sverdrupiella spp. Schizocystia sp. A Wanneria "hispidus" Schizosporis laevigata Wanneria "subspinosus" Schizosporis spp. Wanneria cf. misolensis Sigmopollis spp. Wanneria listeri Tetraporina protrusia Wanneria misolensis Tetraporina spp. Wanneria sp. A Wanneria spp.

Miscellaneous palynomorphs Microforaminferal test lining Scolecodont indet.

Spores and Pollen Spores and Pollen Acanthotriletes bradiensis Converrucosisporites spp. Acanthotriletes spp. Convolutispora spp. Anapiculatisporites dawsonensis Corollina spp. Anapiculatisporites pristidentatus Corollina torosa Annulispora folliculosa Craterisporites rotundus Annulispora microannulata Cyathidites spp. Apiculatisporis "filiformis" Cycadopites "microgranulatus" Apiculatisporis carnarvonensis Cycadopites "microreticulatus" Apiculatisporis globosus Cycadopites follicularis Apiculatisporis spp. Cycadopites spp. Aratrisporites banksii Cycadopites stonei " coarse" Aratrisporites coryliseminis Cycadopites stonei " fine" Aratrisporites flexibilis Cycadopites stonei " medium" Aratrisporites granulata Cycadopites tivoliensis Aratrisporites minimus Cyclogranisporites spp. Aratrisporites parvispinosus Densoisporites nejburgii Aratrisporites spp. Densoisporites playfordii Aratrisporites tenuispinosus Densoisporites sp. Ashmoripollis "proto-reducta" Densoisporites spp. Ashmoripollis cf. reducta Dictyophyllidites harrisii Ashmoripollis reducta Dictyotriletes spp. Aulisporites astigmosus Duplicisporites granulatus Baculatisporites spp. Elongatosaccites triassicus Cadargasporites baculatus Enzonalasporites densus Cadargasporites granulatus Enzonalasporites spp. Cadargasporites reticulatus Enzonalasporites vigens Calamospora mesozoica Ephedripites macistriatus Calamospora tenera Ephedripites "ministriatus" Camarozonosporites rudis Ephedripites "transversistriatus" Camerosporites pseudoverrucatus Ephedripites spp. Camerosporites secatus Falcisporites australis Camerosporites spp. Falcisporites sp. "giant" Camptotriletes spp. Falcisporites sp. "waxy" Chasmatosporites spp. Foveosporites moretonensis Chordasporites spp. Granulatisporites ‘sp. A’ Clavatisporites conspicuus Granulatisporites spp. Concavissimisporites spp. Hamiapollenites insculptus Conipollenites arabicus Inaperturopollenites spp. Converrucosisporites cameronii

Spores and Pollen Spores and Pollen Infernopollenites claustratus Polycingulatisporites crenulatus Kraeuselisporites cuspidus Polycingulatisporites dejerseyi Kraeuselisporites differens Polycingulatisporites limatulus Kraeuselisporites cuspidus Polycingulatisporites mooniensis Kraeuselisporites differens Protohaploxypinus spp. Kraeuselisporites spp. Punctatisporites spp. Laevigatosporites ‘granulate’ Punctatosporites walkomii Laevigatosporites spp. Reticulatisporites spp. Leiotriletes spp. Retisulcites spp. Leptolepidites argentaeformis Retusotriletes spp. Leschikisporis crassus Rewanispora antiquus Leschikisporis mutabilis REWORKING - PERMIAN Leschikisporis mutabilis sp. A Rimaesporites aequilonalis Limatulasporites limatulus Rogalskaisporites canicularis Limbosporites denmeadii Rugulatisporites spp. Lophotriletes bauhinae Rugulatisporites trisinus Lophotriletes novicus Samaropollenites cf. speciosus Lophotriletes spp. Samaropollenites speciosus Lueckisporites spp. Secarisporites spp. Lunatisporites spp. Semiretisporis denmeadii Lundbladispora brevicula Staurosaccites quadrifidus Lundbladispora spp. Stereisporites antiquasporites Lycopodium spp. Stereisporites perforatus Megaspore fragments Stereisporites spp. Minutosaccus crenulatus Striatella seebergensis Minutosaccus spp. Thymospora ipsviciensis Neoraistrickia taylorii Thymospora sp. Q Neoraistrickia truncata Triadispora obscura Osmundacidites wellmanii Triadispora spp. Ovalipollis ovalis Tuberculatosporites aberdarensis Ovalipollis spp. Uvaesporites argenteaeformis Patinasporites densus Uvaesporites verrucosus Platysaccus queenslandii Vallatisporites ciliaris Playfordiaspora crenulata Verrucosisporites spp. Playfordiaspora velata Vitreisporites pallidus Podocarpidites spp. Vitreisporites signatus Zebrasporites spp.

Appendix 3: Plates

Plate I Scale bar = 10um

1. Ashmoripollis reducta Helby 1987

2. Falcisporites australis (de Jersey) Stevens 1981

3. Cycadopites stonei ‘coarse’ Helby 1987a

4. Playfordiaspora velata (Leschik) Stevens 1981

5. Leschikisporis crassus Dolby in Dolby and Balme 1976 comb. nov

6. Cycadopites stonei ‘microgranulatus’ sp. nov.

Plate II Scale bar = 10um

1. Brevitriletes bulliensis (Helby 1973 ex de Jersey 1979) de Jersey & Raine 1990

2. Striatella seebergensis

3. Ephedripites macistriatusMädler Dolby 19761964

4. Aratrisporites flexibilis Playford & Dettmann 1965

5. Rogalskaisporites cicatricosus Rogalska 1954 ex Danze-Corsin & Laveine 1963

6. Polycingulatisporites mooniensis de Jersey & Paten 1964

7. Ephedripites ‘transverscistriatus’

8. Camerosporites secatus Leschik 1955

9. Rugulatisporites trisinus de Jersey and Hamilton 1967

Plate III Scale bar = 10um

1. Neoraistrickia taylorii Playford & Dettmann, 1965

2. Annulispora folliculosa (Rogalska) de Jersey 1959

3. Apiculatisporis globosus (Leschik) Playford & Dettmann 1965

4. Enzonalasporites vigens Leschik 1955

5. Uvaesporites verrucosus (de Jersey) Helby in de Jersey 1971b

6. Osmundacidites wellmanii Couper 1953

7. Limbosporites denmeadii (de Jersey) & Jersey & Raine 1990

8. Stereisporites antiquasporites (Wilson & Webster) Dettmann 1963

9. Dictyophyllidites harrisii Couper 1958

Plate IV Scale bar = 10um

1. Wanneria misolensis Below 1987

2. Wanneria listeri (Stover and Helby) Below 1987

3. Hebecysta balmei (Stover and Helby) Below 1987

4. Dapcodinium sp. cf. priscum Evitt 1961

5. Suessia swabiana Morbey 1975

6. Rhaetogonyaulax rhaetica Sargeant 1963

7. Beaumontella langii (Wall, 1965) Below, 1987

8. Rhaetogonyaulax sp.

9. Rhaetogonyaulax wigginsii (Stover and Helby 1987) Fensome et al. 1996

Plate V Scale bar = 10um

1. Lecaniella sp. A

2. Quadrisporites horridus

3. Aulisporites astigmosus Hennelly(Leschik) 1959 Klaus ex 1960 Potonié and Lele 1961

4. Bartenia communis Helby 1987a

5. Granodiscus sp. cf. granulatus Madler 1963

6. Botryococcus sp.

7. ?Beaumontella sp.

8. Micrhystridium spp.

9. ?Bosedinia infragranulata He 1984

Appendix 4: Palynological distribution charts

CHANDON-2-UWA

Scale CHANDON-2-UWA Wireline Logs AL AC A- FT DC SP Palynology Palaeoenvironments : Gross AL by LG/1 AC by LG/1 L- FT by LG/1 DC by LG/1 SP by LG/1 by LG/1 Depo Env-LG BO Default Version Biozones: MGA Biozones: MGA Miospores quant/semi-quant abundance (scale tick = 10 counts) quant/semi-quant abundance (scale tick = 10 counts) * * quant/semi-quant abundance (scale tick = 10 counts) quant/semi-quant abundance (scale tick = 10 counts) * species richness Dinozones Default Version Default Version

Bulk Density 1.7 (g/cc) 2.9

Sonic Log 140 (uS) 40

Neutron Porosity 0.45 (c/s) -0.15 AC AC AL AL Gamma Log Bulk Density ALBO ALBO 0 (API) 240 1.9 (g/cc) 2.9 DC DC

Measured depth (m) Studied Sample Depth (m) Zone Zone Sub Zone FT FT 1 Offshore 2 Shelfal Marine 3 Delta Front 4 Lower Delta Plain 5 Upper Delta Plain * Displaying core-corrected depths for CO AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC ALBO FT DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP 2750 100 100

2760

2782.53 2770 2784.50 2787.02 2790.17 2 7 23 1 ? 1 5 2 44 23 2 2 6 1 2 6 2 2 2 2791.69 1 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 3 2 1 2 2794.19 9 27 16 2 3 4 1 2 8 23 8 2780 2795.46 3 19 36 7 12 2 1 1 6 1 3 9 12 2 2 27 9 8 4 3 1 1 1 2 6 4 2796.43 5 27 11 5 22 7 2796.69 4 31 33 3 1 ? 2 1 8 21 52 5 1 1 1 1 2 2 2796.79 1 2 23 1 2 96 39 6 1 2 1 ? 1 1 ? 1 3 ? 7 2 28 16 91 1 3 3 5 5 3 6 10 6 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 9 2787.02 2787.02 Upper (Tr8Ai=Suessia spA) 2790 2796.92 34 57 25 13 5 3 1 ? 3 1 ? 6 6 8 44 5 2 4 2 3 2 1 5 2796.97 D.priscum 2801.50 A.reducta 6 32 36 23 16 2 7 2 11 4 17 121 4 5 7 5 5 4 9 1 13 3 3 5 2 2796.43 2796.69 * 5 39 2 31 26 11 4 5 5 2 2 2 7 5 7 17 115 3 4 1 + 9 6 1 3 1 + 5 6 + 11 3 3 3 1 ? 1 + 2803.99 Lower (Tr8B-C=R.rhaetica) 2804.38 R.rhaetica 2796.97 2796.97 5 + + ? 2 + 2 10 3 2 4 4 3 2 3 1 1 2 6 4 2 42 133 17 18 3 3 2 5 3 2 17 3 5 3 + 1 1 1 3 + 17 4 4 + 1 2 6 5 2800 2804.81 3 5 2 2 4 2 27 191 5 18 3 1 4 1 1 13 1 1 5 2 1 1 6 3 3 2 5 2 2806.84 9 5 25 163 5 3 10 22 2 3 2 28 9 2 8 5 2 2 1 4 7 1 2808.27 4 2 8 1 2 17 1 2 3 3 1 4 1 + 1 1 10 15 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 + 1 2 2 1 1 2808.99 Upper(Tr8Di-ii = D. harrisii) 4 5 16 1 7 39 7 6 5 22 161 4 3 1 9 1 5 3 3 5 1 1 4 5 1 2812.01 2810 2 2 9 1 4 15 7 3 2 16 105 4 3 1 7 1 3 3 5 2 1 1 4 5 1 2813.18 2 6 4 32 176 7 18 1 3 2 1 2 16 3 4 5 3 3 1 2 4 2 2 1 1 2814.44 2817.55 2 5 3 1 3 33 191 8 9 2 1 2 4 23 3 7 2 5 2 2 3 6 1 2 1 1 ? 2817.96 2817.55 2 11 2 1 1 27 177 14 7 9 3 3 2 4 1 22 12 2 2 4 3 2 5 3 3 1 1 ? 1 2 2818.69 8 3 3 4 3 3 38 191 8 1 1 2 11 2 5 1 19 5 1 1 5 2 4 5 1 1 2820 2819.27 2819.27 6 4 1 7 3 2 45 173 7 3 2 11 2 3 4 1 12 4 4 2 1 4 4 7 2 1 1 2820.12 3 3 2 6 1 2 1 1 3 2 37 147 6 1 2 2 7 1 11 4 1 17 1 4 4 4 3 5 2 3 2 7 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 4 2820.69 12 5 1 19 5 5 16 2 ? 1 ? 2 3 39 131 6 5 14 2 28 5 23 9 2 5 1 3 4 1 1 1 15 2821.26 12 3 + + 20 2 3 5 7 2 + 3 11 3 3 2 1 ? 2 4 54 125 4 3 18 2 21 + 3 1 1 19 9 3 21 5 2 2 1 4 3 1 7 3 3 5 + + 3 + + 4 2 1 2 3 2822.77 2830 2826.20 5 22 2 9 1 3 4 19 166 14 2 1 14 2 1 9 1 3 19 2 6 2 2 5 2 1 4 1 3 2828.16 2 11 3 5 3 22 167 15 1 3 13 1 12 2 28 2 9 4 2 3 2 2 3 1 5 1 ? 1 2829.15 4 2 1 3 1 1 ? 1 1 1 1 ? 1 2 1 22 77 15 2 9 1 1 3 2 4 10 5 5 2 2 2 2 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 2829.72 4 1 10 4 1 ? 7 2 6 2 24 152 12 2 6 5 4 1 3 5 4 3 11 2 6 2 3 3 1 4 3 1 2 1 ? 12 1 1 2840 2830.95 2832.43 2835.29 2837.60 2838.54 1 3 6 18 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2850 2840.73 5 20 4 2841.67 2848.97 7 2 2 2 2 6 1 3 7 4 34 119 9 3 6 2 2 3 11 5 3 36 2 2 3 7 2 7 15 3 2 1 1 1 1 2849.31 2850.86 2860 2852.67 2855.27 2 2 1 2 8 53 7 5 2 4 9 2 4 2 2856.38 2862.54 2870 2864.33 2866.59 2 5 3 23 35 7 1 5 5 3 8 19 2870.72 2871.72 2872.52 4 2 2 3 1 21 192 16 4 3 13 1 6 2 1 21 4 3 3 2 6 2 2 2 4 2 3 3 1 ? 2880 2876.15 2878.70 5 + 1 3 1 6 1 37 183 5 + 11 2 3 1 6 43 5 3 4 4 2 4 4 1 1 5 1 3 1 2880.04 2882.87 2890 2895.28 5 1 1 10 2 1 4 15 7 2 13 3 36 3 1 ? 1 1 19 138 3 2 9 1 3 22 2 6 3 6 1 3 2 6 1 ? 2895.77 7 + 1 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 29 6 7 2 15 1 2 1 1 5 39 143 5 1 3 2 15 2 3 2 15 1 6 1 2 3 2 3 2 1 2 6 1 1 1 + 2 1 + 2896.18 3 1 1 1 5 1 2 2 1 21 2 6 2 17 1 1 1 1 3 26 103 3 1 3 1 11 + 1 9 1 6 1 2 3 2 2 1 2 6 1 1 + 2 + 1 1 2900 2898.96 2 114 89 8 6 13 34 3 4 11 2 2 1 23 2900.34 2904.78 2906.59 2908.23 M.crenulatus 2 4 5 3 25 179 11 2 5 11 3 6 1 5 21 3 8 3 2 5 4 1 ? 15 2910 2911.41 7 1 6 47 182 6 2 1 15 7 4 1 5 13 3 2 1 2 2 1 ? 9 1 1 2918.98 2919.74 2920.67 2920 2922.39 Middle (Tr8Diii-Tr7Ai=E. macistriatus) 3 1 1 ? 6 3 54 156 5 4 3 6 7 1 2 4 2 1 11 7 2 1 1 2 2 1 16 1 2923.29 5 1 15 218 5 5 8 4 1 4 19 1 7 1 2 2 2 1 4 1 2924.76 5 2 2 6 2 2 1 1 1 2 11 5 3 3 4 2 3 2 2 ? 11 2 62 135 5 3 3 2 12 7 4 6 1 1 2 1 21 1 2 8 1 1 1 2 1 3 3 2 16 3 2 1 2 1 2 ? 4 2925.82 7 2 5 3 5 31 181 4 13 4 1 17 1 5 3 3 4 8 3 1 1 1 5 4 + 1 1 2930 2926.14 2927.14 2927.65

2940 2942.39 1 3 2 2 1 1 5 4 5 2 11 11 131 5 2 2 1 4 1 12 2 2 4 1 7 3 2 1 4 15 2 1 22 1 2 5 2 3

2953.25 2950 2961.10 2962.01 2 6 4 3 1 1 5 1 8 8 15 156 2 2 2 2 1 19 2 2 6 1 6 3 4 5 4 1 29 3 10 2 3 2962.30 2962.69 2 5 8 + 1 2 2 + ? 3 ? 2 4 1 6 + ? 1 1 ? 1 1 4 2 31 119 6 5 6 12 12 2 3 4 1 2 2 1 1 5 1 1 24 2 6 2 4 1 1 2 6 4 5 7 5 + 2 + 1 4 1 5 14 5 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 2 1 1 1 4 2960 2962.99 2962.01 16 2 1 3 ? 17 1 1 1 4 31 111 5 18 1 ? 10 3 9 6 2 8 3 6 5 3 36 2 26 16 4 2 3 2 8 1 2 1 1 5 3 87 63 5 3 9 10 11 4 6 5 1 5 2 2 2 3 3 1 18 1 23 16 1 1 1 20 16 2963.21 2962.69 2964.35 1 23 1 2 5 4 4 1 1 7 3 2 ? 3 2 + 1 ? 4 2 10 4 63 92 7 5 6 4 18 7 6 13 + 2 1 11 11 22 1 2 + 1 1 5 3 1 5 + 5 1 3 1 2 2 + ? + 8 1 1 2964.86 28 1 1 3 8 2 2 4 5 5 3 3 2 2 5 3 40 87 4 2 12 8 12 6 2 2 19 22 6 3 2 3 3 1 5 7 2 4 2 1 1 3 2 2970 2964.98 4 3 15 117 3 1 2 11 2 2 3 5 1 16 4 1 4 1 5 2 2 2 1 4 1 2 2967.45 6 3 24 177 6 2 2 20 2 5 5 5 3 28 7 3 4 5 2 2 2 1 4 1 2 2968.49 2970.36 2980 2971.83 2983.12 3 4 3 2 4 2 2 3 2 2 7 1 ? 1 ? 2 1 ? 2 7 22 156 1 2 ? 2 + 12 1 2 5 2 1 2 1 2 9 19 2 2 1 ? 22 2 2 1 1 2 5 1 + 2 20 2 1 2 4 2 1

2990 2991.62 1 ? 1 13 7 21 3 3 1 1 2994.31 2998.55 6 2 22 197 7 3 6 2 3 3 1 27 6 1 2 2 4 2 1 3 7 2 1 1 4 1 3 3000 3001.17

3010 Middle (Tr7Aiia=C. stonei)

3122 3122 3020 Geryon-2-UWA

Scale Geryon-2-UWA Wireline Logs AL AC ALBO FT DC SP Palynology Palaeoenvironments : Gross AL by LG/1 AC by LG/1 ALBO by FT by LG/1 DC by LG/1 SP by LG/1 by LG/1 Depo Env-LG LG/1 Default Version

Biozones: MGA Dinozones Biozones: MGA Miospores quant/semi-quant abundance (scale tick = 10 counts) quant/semi-quant abundance (scale tick = 10 counts) * * quant/semi-quant abundance (scale tick = 10 counts) quant/semi-quant abundance (scale tick = 10 counts) * species richness Default Version Default Version

Bulk Density 1.7 (g/cc) 2.9

Sonic Log 140 (uS) 40 AC AC AL AL Neutron Porosity 0.45 (c/s) -0.15 ALBO ALBO DC DC Gamma Log Bulk Density FT FT 0 (API) 240 1.9 (g/cc) 2.9 MM MM

Measured depth (m) Studied Sample Depth (m) Zone Sub Zone Zone Sub Zone MP MP 1 Offshore 2 Shelfal Marine 3 Delta Front 4 Lower Delta Plain 5 Upper Delta Plain * AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC ALBO FT DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP 2950 100 100 2958.75 2961.40 2961.95 2960 2962.45 2963.45 2963.95 1 1 + 1 1 2 8 2 1 3 7 1 + + 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 + 4 7 2 1 1 12 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 5 4 4 2 1 1 1 8 128 1 2964.10 2965.30 2965.95 2965.30 1 1 2 29 1 1 23 1 2 1 4 5 9 2 2 3 2 1 53 2 1 1 7 6 13 1 2 1 6 115 12 11 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 2964.95 2970 2965.30 1 1 1 1 1 23 4 6 1 37 1 21 2 2 1 1 3 4 3 + 25 2 1 2 1 1 2 4 3 10 9 3 1 3 7 112 12 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2965.95 D.priscum S. swabiana A. reducta, upper 2970.40 2978.50 2978.50 2978.50 2978.50 1 1 2 1 3 33 2 4 1 31 1 6 + 4 1 3 7 10 7 + 1 1 + 4 1 45 3 3 1 2 7 7 13 1 1 1 3 8 102 3 1 1 1 7 1 3 3 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2980

2986.40 1 1 2 1 22 4 8 1 78 1 4 1 4 10 3 3 + + + 21 2 2 1 2 1 1 5 4 1 2 12 35 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2986.40 2986.40 2986.40 2990 2991.50 Top W. listeri 2994.55 2994.55 1 1 32 3 14 1 1 15 3 31 4 2 9 1 2 1 17 6 1 1 5 1 8 1 6 7 12 1 3 113 3 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 7 1 1 3 2998.85 3000 2999.60 1 1 1 1 2 28 1 4 1 23 1 3 4 37 6 + 7 11 2 1 7 1 2 2 1 2 2 7 5 3 1 1 3 1 16 86 3 1 7 2 1 3 1 2 3 + 1 1 1 3000.85 2999.60

3007.53 W. listeri Acme 1 1 1 1 2 15 13 + 5 1 1 4 3 7 + 2 2 2 3 4 3 2 2 ? 4 6 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 6 3 1 2 36 54 3 2 1 4 1 2 1 1 + 4 1 1 1 1 9 2 3010 3010.30 3011.65 3011.65 2 1 2 5 8 + 9 17 1 4 24 1 25 1 20 3 1 1 4 25 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 5 3 1 4 1 38 113 1 2 1 1 3 1 4 1 3 1 9 1 2 1 8 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 3013.70 3017.45 1 2 3 2 21 1 29 ? 1 3 3 33 3 9 2 1 1 ? 2 7 1 2 1 4 3 2 12 2 2 2 6 1 19 107 6 1 2 2 11 4 1 1 6 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 ? 1 1 1 3020 3017.45 W. misolensis 3026.30 3030.60 3030 3030.60 1 1 14 1 4 1 2 19 2 1 1 14 6 1 1 2 1 5 2 11 2 1 1 5 1 44 109 7 1 2 2 1 1 4 2 1 2 2 1 3 7 1 4 1 2 3 1 1 3 1 1 3038.60 3044.50 1 1 1 16 2 4 5 1 7 7 1 1 5 5 1 1 3 3 5 2 10 8 1 1 5 56 133 1 2 2 1 7 3 1 3 4 4 1 2 3 2 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 + 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3040 3046.55 W. listeri C ? 3047.50 3049.60 R.rhaetica A. reducta, lower 3051.85 1 1 65 62 2 3 3 6 15 4 46 5 3 2 2 1 3 3 2 2 1 3 3 2 10 42 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 1 3053.50 3047.50 3050 3057.86 2 2 3 24 2 2 1 5 19 1 4 1 12 1 1 4 12 2 8 4 3 1 5 20 120 3 1 1 2 1 1 4 3 1 5 7 2 8 1 5 2 2 1 2 5 1 15 2 2 3060.55 1 1 1 2 27 1 1 3 13 2 3 3 3 1 1 4 4 3 2 10 4 2 3 2 3 52 115 9 2 1 ? 2 2 2 3 3 1 1 4 1 1 3 1 4 1 7 2 1 2 3 1 20 3 1 2 3 1 3062.43 3063.60 3060 3065.60 W. listeri B 2 1 17 10 3 16 1 2 14 24 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 19 7 7 3 1 16 123 2 1 2 11 2 1 4 3 3 2 2 2 3067.95 3069.70 3070.20 3071.20 3070.20 3070 3074.13 3 2 8 10 1 1 2 5 7 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 10 5 5 2 7 9 187 3 1 3 1 1 1 3 2 3 5 7 5 2 1 2 1 3077.30 3082.32 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3084.30 3074.13 3084.90 3080 3089.40 3091.80 1 3094.35 1 1 1 3095.45 3096.90 W. listeri A 3090 3098.55 3099.40 4 2 1 11 1 1 13 2 9 7 1 2 1 3 3 3 3 2 10 5 3 3 2 9 47 112 9 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 3 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 3100.40 2 1 2 2 4 2 1 5 2 8 1 1 8 7 2 3 1 2 1 7 4 3 5 3 6 9 3 2 3 7 28 125 6 4 4 1 3 3 2 2 3 1 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 3101.10 1 1 1 1 1 1 3102.20 3101.10 3101.10 3101.10 2 5 1 2 3 1 2 7 4 2 10 4 1 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 1 2 9 5 3 4 1 11 15 178 4 1 1 5 3 1 2 3 3 9 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 3100 3102.84 2 2 2 3 1 9 9 3 3 5 3 1 2 1 4 2 7 5 2 1 2 7 13 175 5 1 13 3 1 1 5 3 3 1 3 2 1 3105.60 3106.60 1 1 1 3108.40 1 + 7 1 1 10 1 6 2 1 2 2 4 1 2 5 9 5 3 1 7 13 209 9 3 2 2 2 6 3 1 1 1 5 1 1 3108.90 3106.60 3106.60 2 + 3 1 4 23 1 1 3 1 1 2 7 1 2 3 9 15 212 2 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 8 3 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 3110 3113.15 3113.90 3115.60 1 2 1 1 5 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 4 3 6 5 2 4 4 10 15 178 5 1 2 2 3 4 1 4 2 7 1 7 2 1 1 4 1 1 1 2 3116.35 3119.85 3120.60 1 ? 1 2 3120 3121.60 3123.20 3 1 3 3 1 2 2 8 2 8 1 3 2 2 7 7 6 2 2 7 2 31 144 14 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 9 3 2 2 1 1 3 6 1 1 3124.70 3127.10 3129.85 3130 3131.55 2 8 2 3 1 3 1 1 1 5 1 2 2 2 1 3 9 15 4 9 21 183 2 1 ? 3 4 1 1 1 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 3132.90 3134.30 3135.52 2 2 5 1 3 5 1 3 13 5 3 1 15 1 1 2 3 1 1 26 7 2 2 7 1 57 92 2 1 3 1 3 1 2 2 1 3 4 9 7 1 1 2 1 9 2 3136.10 3140 3137.80 2 5 1 8 3 3 1 6 2 5 1 1 3 1 3 4 7 12 7 2 5 3 2 59 108 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 3 1 4 3 5 1 2 10 1 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 3139.30 3142.20 3 2 2 11 1 1 1 2 1 6 1 3 2 1 1 3 3 3 15 9 1 2 3 9 12 181 2 2 3 2 7 2 3 6 2 14 1 8 6 1 1 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 3142.90 3144.35 3144.65 5 2 4 9 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 2 3 3 1 12 8 1 3 5 5 2 13 178 1 3 2 2 7 3 3 1 9 2 1 5 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 1 3150 3148.40 3149.28 3152.80 6 5 6 2 1 11 5 6 1 1 1 1 2 7 4 2 1 5 1 181 40 1 1 9 3 2 2 1 1 5 ? 1 2 ? 3154.80 Middle (Tr8Di-ii=D. harrisii) 3155.90 3160 3160.78 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 ? 2 6 1 1 1 1 5 2 2 2 13 9 3 2 5 65 118 1 1 2 9 2 4 1 1 7 5 2 8 ? 1 1 1 1 19 1 2 1 3161.30 3165.40 3162.60 1 1 1 3164.65 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 3165.40 3167.50 3170 3166.17 5 2 11 1 2 2 3 4 2 2 5 19 5 1 2 3 2 15 113 1 3 1 2 13 2 9 2 2 2 3 1 1 6 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3166.98 1 1 1 1 1 3167.50 3167.80 7 4 21 4 3 4 4 2 2 1 1 3 1 3 3 2 5 4 2 6 2 5 5 6 7 4 2 53 103 4 1 2 1 1 1 2 5 3 2 4 9 1 2 7 6 3 1 2 3 2 5 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 5 2 1 1 3168.30 3180 3169.10 3171.63 1 1 2 3173.18 3176.70 2 1 4 4 2 1 4 1 7 6 2 2 112 121 1 13 2 3 1 5 7 2 5 ? 1 4 1 1 2 2 3 3190 3179.20 3182.84 M.crenulatus 7 2 2 1 3 7 1 3 2 2 14 11 8 + 33 94 8 1 8 2 5 2 4 71 3 3 9 5 2 3 1 3184.80 1 5 2 1 1 1 3 4 124 7 116 16 2 1 4 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 3188.55 3192.30 3200 3193.00 3 3 3 2 2 2 10 1 3 2 1 3194.40 3194.75 3195.00 3210 3201.90

3218.40 4 1 1 5 9 23 2 2 2 3 3220 3219.00 3221.68 1 ? 1 3 5 1 2 1

3230

3240

3250 Middle (Tr8Diii-Tr7Ai=E. macistriatus)

3260

3270

3278 3278 3280

3290