UNCLASSIFIED//FOUO Senegal Cultural Field Guide Senegal is a diverse West African nation approximately the size of South Dakota and home to more than 36 ethnic groups and languages.1 Senegal’s national development has been shaped by its location between the edge of the Sahara and the Atlantic. Trans- Saharan trade brought Islam and Arab influences to Senegal through North Africa. Later, Senegal became one of the first African countries to trade with Europe through the Atlantic seaways. Today, Senegal is seen by the Senegalese as a bridge between Black African, Islamic, and European civilizations.2 Graphic “sen_senegal.jpg” Thumbnail “sen_senegal_thumb.jpg” Caption “Senegal” Ethnic Groups Wolof The largest and most influential ethnic group in Senegal is the Wolof. The 5 million Wolof3 comprise 43 percent of the country’s total population of 11.5 million. The Wolof are proud of their long history as a powerful and independent people. They view contemporary Senegal as the successor to a line of Wolof-dominated empires. Historically, the center of Wolof culture has been the savannahs of northern Senegal, although they live throughout the country. Today, the Wolof live in both small rural villages and large, thriving urban centers throughout Senegal.4 In addition, the Wolof make up the third largest cultural group in The Gambia and are also present in southern Mauritania. Other ethnic groups view the Wolof as a group that values appearance and wealth.5 Graphic “sen_wolof_family.jpg” Caption “Wolof Family” Wolof culture has become so widespread that it has come to be identified as an overarching Senegalese culture. Most ethnic groups in Senegal embrace elements of Wolof culture as a means to improve communication across ethnic groups. However, certain groups, such as the Jola, view themselves as very different from the Wolof and resist the encroachment of Wolof culture.6 Many members of other ethnicities, such as the Fulani, identify themselves as Wolof if they are living in an urban area and speaking the Wolof language.7 Ceremonial gift giving (masla) is an integral element of Senegalese Wolof culture, especially for Wolof women. It is one of the many pre-Islamic practices still observed by contemporary Muslim Wolof. A Wolof woman’s good character depends on her honor, restraint, patience, hospitality, and generosity. All of these characteristics are put on display during the Wolof ceremonies that accompany major life events. The amount given as gifts at each ceremonial occasion is recorded by the recipient, who in turn gives gifts of twice the amount received at later gatherings. Some Wolof men and Muslim institutions criticize these female practices as wasteful squandering. They argue that the UNCLASSIFIED//FOUO money exchanged by Wolof women would be better spent as the traditional Muslim zakat, or alms collected by Muslim leaders for the poor.8 Fulani The Fulani are the second largest cultural group in Senegal, comprising roughly 24 percent of the population, or 2.7 million people.9 The Fulani are also known as the Fulbe, Fula, Peul or Peuhle. Their numbers include a cultural subgroup known as the Toucouleur (or Tukuloor) and a linguistic group known as the Haalpulaar’en.10 The Fulani are traditionally considered the most pious Muslims and other ethnic groups strongly associate the Fulani with Islam. However, the Fulani believe their greatest quality is their Pulaar language.11 Fulani groups live across the sub-Saharan region of West Africa, and in all of the countries of West Africa, with significant populations in Burkina Faso, The Gambia, northern Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, and Sierra Leon. The Fulani are also found in Chad, Sudan, the Central African Republic, and Cameroon. While there is a total population of approximately 10 million Fulani in Africa, Fulani groups are the minority in all the nations in which they reside due to the transnational nature of their distribution.12 The Fulani in Senegal maintain a cultural connection to Fulani groups across national borders, especially along the Senegal River, where Toucouleur communities were artificially divided by the border formation between Senegal and Mauritania.13 Graphic “sen_fulani_children.jpg” Caption “Fulani Children” Senegalese Fulani can be divided into two distinct cultural groups based on lifestyle: a large group of semi-nomadic herders known simply as Fulani, and the Toucouleur, who are settled farmers inhabiting the middle valley of the Senegal River Basin. The Fulani and the Toucouleur both speak a dialect of the language Fulfulde known as Pulaar. This dialect, shared between two otherwise dissimilar groups of Fulani, has given rise to a new collective Fulani identity known as Haalpulaar’en, (speakers of Pulaar). Some Fulani identify as Haalpulaar’en in an effort to resist Wolof domination of Senegal. Graphic “sen_fulani_village.jpg” Caption “Fulani Village” The semi-nomadic Fulani’s lives are dominated by raising and maintaining herds of cattle. Historically, the constant search for available water resulted in annual migration. Today, the Fulani no longer migrate to dry season camps along the Senegal River; instead, they have developed shorter movement patterns based on shared access to watering holes and the search for usable pasture land.14 Cattle are a symbol of the Fulani identity, even among Fulani who have given up the nomadic life in favor of a settled life on farms. Cattle herding is considered the only pure Fulani occupation. In herding communities, cattle ownership is directly linked to a male’s prosperity.15 Graphic “sen_fulani_mother_child.jpg” Caption “Fulani Mother and Child” UNCLASSIFIED//FOUO The Fulani follow a code of behavior known as the Pulaar Way. The specific practices of the Pulaar Way vary from region to region; however, it is an expression of Fulani cultural pride in every community. Rather than a uniform code of rules, the Pulaar Way is a group of behavioral traits considered acceptable by the Fulani. Smoking, drinking, and committing adultery, for example, are not part of the Pulaar Way. The Pulaar Way emphasizes the centrality of cattle and glorifies the occupation of cattle herding, as well as the preeminence of the Fulani over all other ethnic groups. When Fulani are brought before the community for having committed a crime, their guilt or innocence is determined by the degree to which their actions violated the Pulaar Way.16 While the Pulaar Way forbids unprovoked aggression, it compels men to aggressively defend themselves against insults. The Fulani are proud of their reputation as an aggressive people. They believe this characteristic sets them apart from other, weaker peoples.17 Toucouleur Senegal’s one million Toucouleur make up approximately nine percent of the Senegalese population.18 Many Fulani and Toucouleur disagree about whether the Toucouleur are true or pure Fulani: many Fulani believe the Toucouleur are actually descended from ethnic groups that moved to the fertile river valley and adopted the Pulaar dialect. The Toucouleur are distinguishable from herding Fulani by their location along the southern bank of the Senegal River, their agricultural lifestyle, and their reputation as Muslim clerics. They are less likely to raise cattle and instead focus on farming the fertile river basin. Their agricultural lifestyle and permanent villages have increased their sustained contact with other ethnic groups, such as the Wolof.19 This distinction is becoming less significant as increasing numbers of Fulani throughout Senegal take up farming in response to droughts and pressure from the government. Serer The third largest ethnic group in Senegal, the Serer, has had a significant impact on Senegal’s history because of their legacy of independence and their receptiveness to Catholicism during French colonization. The Serer comprise approximately 15 percent of the population, or about 1.7 million people.20 The Serer believe that they are the oldest ethnic group in Senegal. The Serer claim that they migrated from areas north of Senegal in the year 1,000 A.D., when Berber incursions drove them out of their homeland.21 The Serer are a diverse group, and Serer in different villages speak mutually unintelligible dialects. Small numbers of Serer also live in The Gambia. The Serer define themselves by their attachment to traditional Serer culture, which they believe is very mystical.22 Although some Serer are now Muslim, in the past they were renowned for their resistance to Islam, which they associated with Wolof patriarchy, oppression, and slavery.23 Many contemporary Serer are highly influenced by the Wolof culture and language and belong to the Wolof-dominated Mouride Sufi brotherhood.24 The power and influence of the Catholic Serer population far exceeds their actual numbers. The famous Senegalese president and poet Leopold Sedar Senghor was the Catholic son of a Serer father and a Fulani Muslim mother.25 The Serer, even those who are nominally Catholic or Muslim, retain much of their traditional mystic beliefs. UNCLASSIFIED//FOUO Traditionally Serer believe in sprits, known as pangols, who live the sacred forests and to whom they offer libations.26 Jola The Jola, also known as the Diola or Joola, inhabit the Casamance region of southern Senegal. They are the largest ethnic group in the Lower Casamance27 and make up approximately five percent of the total Senegalese population, or about 600,000 people.28 The Jola also make up the second largest cultural group in The Gambia and are present in small numbers in Guinea-Bissau. The Jola are a diverse people divided by language, geography, and religion. The Jola speak a number of mutually unintelligible dialects. Though most contemporary Jola are Muslim, a significant proportion of the population practices the traditional Jola animist religion of Awasena, and others have converted to Christianity. Many Muslim and Christian converts incorporate animist traditions into their religious practices. Graphic “sen_jola_wedding.jpg” Caption “Jola Wedding Party” Contemporary Jola share a strong connection to the land, mainly as rice farmers.