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The Russian Conquest of the Kazakh Steppe by Janet Marie Kilian BA in History, May 1996, Columbia C Allies & Adversaries: The Russian Conquest of the Kazakh Steppe by Janet Marie Kilian B.A. in History, May 1996, Columbia College, Columbia University M.A. in International Relations & Economics, May 2000, Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University M.Phil. in History, May 2007, The George Washington University Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of the Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in Partial Satisfaction of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 31, 2013 Dissertation Directed by Muriel Atkin Professor of History The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Janet Marie Kilian has passed the Final Examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of August 31, 2013. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. Allies & Adversaries: The Russian Conquest of the Kazakh Steppe Janet Marie Kilian Dissertation Research Committee: Muriel A. Atkin, Professor of History, Dissertation Director Dane K.Kennedy, Professor of History, Committee Member Andrew Zimmerman, Professor of History, Committee Member ii ©Copyright 2013 by Janet Marie Kilian All rights reserved iii Acknowledgements It is a great pleasure to count my blessings and acknowledge the assistance I received from so many people and institutions. I would first like to express my deep gratitude and appreciation to my advisor, Muriel Atkin, for her support and guidance throughout this arduous process, and for her faith that I could actually do it. I would also like to thank the other members of my dissertation committee: Dane Kennedy, Andrew Zimmerman, Allen Frank and James Millward. This work could not have been possible without their insights and advice. While they tried their best to guide me, any mistakes that remain in this dissertation are my own. I would also like to thank the Central State Archives, the National Library, and the Central Library of the Academy of Sciences in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Even as all three of them underwent renovations while I worked there in 2008, the librarians and archivists still found a way to accommodate me. I am forever grateful for their understanding and hospitality. Moreover, I would like to thank the Library of Congress for their wonderful collection of Russian and Central Asian photographs and books which helped inspire me to write this dissertation in the first place. My research in Kazakstan would have been very different without the friends and colleagues I met along the way. I would very much like to thank Sarah Cameron, Matthew Payne, Anna Genina, Jin Noda, Virginia Martin, and Robert Kindler for their company and insights into Kazakh history (and less profound subjects) as we all iv navigated our way through the archives and libraries together. They made my research in Kazakhstan very special. Lastly, I am thankful for my parents’ unwavering support year after year, and for their faith and encouragement of me in general. I am truly blessed. v Abstract Allies & Adversaries: The Russian Conquest of the Kazakh Steppe Russia’s relationship with the Kazakhs in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries evolved from that of a pre-modern Muscovite state with several Inner-Asian nomadic neighbors, to that of a more centralized bureaucratic Russian Empire influenced by the European Enlightenment. The Kazakhs, like many Inner-Asian nomadic populations who organized themselves around controlling and taxing conquered Silk Road cities and trade routes as a means to bolster their own internal cohesion and regional power, attempted (and often failed) to claim the cities along the Syr Darya and sought alliances with Russia and other states to achieve that goal. With the ultimate loss of the Syr Darya cities to the Khanate of Kokand in the early nineteenth century, the Kazakhs’ fractured khanates could no longer benefit from economic control over those cities, and Kazakh society transformed into a different kind of nomadism with different motives to ally with Russia against their common enemies. Russia’s relationship with the Kazakhs transformed from the eighteenth to mid- nineteenth century from one where Russian settlements and traders were frequently raided and enslaved, to one where they instead entertained pretensions of “civilizing” their nomadic neighbors. Just as their alliances changed over time, the “middle ground” that briefly existed between them until the mid-nineteenth century changed as well. Ultimately, these shifting alliances led to the Russian conquest of the Kazakh Steppe and the Syr Darya. This Inner-Asian dynamic problematizes direct comparisons between the Russian Empire and other European empires in the nineteenth century. vi Fig. 1. Kazakh Family, (Turkestanskii Al’bom 1871-1872, Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ppmsca-09951-00101 (digital file from Part 2, vol. 1, pl. 34, no. 101)) vii Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. vi List of Illustrations ............................................................................................................. ix Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1 -- The "Kazakhs" & the Syr Darya: Formation of the Kazakh Khanate in the Syr Darya Basin .................................................................................................22 Chapter 2 -- Control a City, Control a Horde: The Political, Religious, & Economic Significance of the Syr Darya in Alliances ............................................62 Chapter 3 -- Transitional Empire & Khanates: Russia’s Transformation from an Inner-Asian to European Empire & Changing Concepts of Modernity & Backwardness ......................................................................................141 Chapter 4 -- Keep Your Kazakhs Away from My Kazakhs: Competition & Changing Motives for Alliances between States & Kazakhs ................................167 Chapter 5 -- A Toe-Hold on the Syr Darya: Russian-Kazakh Alliance against Khiva & Kokand ............................................................................................211 Chapter 6 -- Friends & Foes on the Siberian Line: Russian-Kazakh-Kyrgyz Alliance against the Qing Empire & Kokand ............................................................241 Chapter 7 -- Connecting the Lines: The "Pincer Maneuver" & the Alliance to Reclaim the Syr Darya ...........................................................................................274 Chapter 8 -- Finding, Keeping & Making Russians on the Steppe: Solidifying Identites as the Middle Ground Closes ...................................................345 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................389 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................398 viii List of Illustrations Figure 1. Kazakh Family, 1860s-1870s…………………………………..……………...vii Figure 2. Kazakh aul near Chimkent, 1860s-1870s…………………………………..….30 Figure 3. Kazakh family in a yurt, 1860s-1870s……………………………………..….33 Figure 4. Facade of Mausoleum of Khoja Akhmet Yasawi…………………………..….46 Figure 5. Inside the Mausoleum to Khoja Ahmet Yasawi, 1860s-1870s……………….48 Figure 6. Kazakh Cemetery near the Syr Darya………………………………………...80 Figure 7. Caravan Cargo on the Steppe………………………….…………………….175 Figure 8. Palace Courtyard of the Khan of Kokand……………………….……………178 Figure 9. Kazakh Travelling Yurt on the Steppe………………………….……………193 Figure 10. Orenburg Governor-General Perovskii……………..…………………..…..197 Figure 11. Caravan……………………………..…………………………………….....199 Figure 12. Preparing to Migrate…………………………………….………………..…213 Figure 13. Kazakh Winter Camp…………………………………….……………..…..215 Figure 14. Steam-powered Boat……..……………………………….………………...222 Figure 15. Russian Flotilla on the Aral Sea……………..…….…………………...…..223 Figure 16. Ruins of Kokandian fort, Aq Masjid, after 1853 Russian campaign……….228 Figure 17. Remains of Kokandian Citadel at Aq Masjid………..…………….……..…230 Figure 18. Kazakh awarded the Cross of St. George for his service in the campaign against the Kokand at Aq Masjid……………………………………………….236 Figure 19. Horse in the Summer………………………………………………………..237 Figure 20. Opium Smoker………………………………………………………………245 Figure 21. Caravan Sleeping on the Steppe……………………………………………246 ix Figure 22. Kazakh Migration…………………………………………………………..251 Figure 23. Kazakh Bii with a Russian Medal…………….……………………………254 Figure 24. Kazakh Bii with Chinese Coat……………………………………………..264 Figure 25. Governor-General “Iron Seat” Gerasim Kolpakovskii……..……….…...…293 Figure 26. Kokandian Fortress at Tokmak…………………………………………….303 Figure 27. Kokandian Fortress at Pishpek………………………...……………………305 Figure 28. Khudoyar Khan of Kokand………………………………………………...330 Figure 29. Kokandian Fortress at Aulie-Ata……………………………………………339 Figure 30. Kokandian Fortress at Chimkent……………………………………………342 Figure 31. Kazakh-Cossack Postal Route………………………………………………358 Figure 32. Mausoleum of Khoja Akhmet Yasawi…………………..………………….371 Figure 33. Russian Orthodox Church in Aulie-Ata, 1860s-1870s………..………….…380 x Introduction Russian history cannot be understood without considering its relationship with its Inner-Asian nomadic neighbors. One even wonders what Russia could have become without them. The very rise of
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