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View of Ooids in Plane Polarized Light; (B) SEM View of Iron Ooids Broken Into Two Halves, Both with a Nucleus and Cortex 49

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View of Ooids in Plane Polarized Light; (B) SEM View of Iron Ooids Broken Into Two Halves, Both with a Nucleus and Cortex 49 University of Alberta Stratigraphy, Petrography and Geochemistry of the Bad Heart Formation, Northwestern Alberta by Basant Kafle A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences ©Basant Kafle Spring 2011 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. Examining Committee Octavian Catuneanu, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Jack Lerbekmo, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Pamela R Willoughby, Department of Anthropology ABSTRACT Bad Heart Formation oolitic ironstone is the largest resources of iron in western Canada. During this study, 45 new sections from outcrop, trench and drill holes were mapped, and 325 samples were collected for petrographic and geochemical analysis. The objective of the first paper is to refine the previously published stratigraphic model based on the new data. The second paper deals with geochemistry and discuss genesis of ooids and source of iron in oolitic ironstone. The textures of the Bad Heart Formation ironstone suggest the ooids formed in-place in a relatively shallow, wave-agitated, oxygenated marine environment with repetitive growth of the ooids in water column. There are two possible source of iron in the ooids. Some geochemical data indicate it is continental sedimentary, but it is also possible that the iron sourced from sub-sea hydrothermal or meteoric vents, similar to recent iron deposits at Paint Pots in Kootenay National Park. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would express sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Octavian Catuneanu for his support, advice and encouragement throughout my degree. I am indebted to Dr. Reg Olson (formerly from the Alberta Geological Survey) who introduced me to the subject matter and also helped me during the fieldwork and editing the thesis. I would also like to extend my thanks to the Alberta Geological Survey for providing me an employment opportunity in their project during a part of my degree. Special thanks go to Dr. Art Sweet (GSC, Calgary) for the analysis and interpretation of the palynology samples. I would also like to thank Clear Hills Iron Ltd and specially Mr. Tom Sneddon for access to logging and sampling the core from their recent drilling. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Introduction 1 References 7 CHAPTER 2: STRATIGRAPHY AND PETROGRAPHY OF THE BAD HEART FORMATION IN THE CLEAR HILLS AND THE SMOKY RIVER AREAS, ALBERTA Introduction 10 Study area 11 Scope of research 11 Geological Background 12 Methodology 16 Stratigraphy of the Bad Heart Formation 17 Petrography 24 Discussion 28 Conclusions 33 References 55 CHAPTER 3: GEOCHEMISTRY OF OOLITIC IRONSTONE, BAD HEART FORMATION, NORTHWESTERN ALBERTA Introduction 61 Database 63 Previous work 63 Geological setting 64 Methodology 65 Results 66 Discussion 72 Conclusions 78 References 94 CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSIONS 102 APPENDIX Appendix I Stratigraphic sections 106 Appendix II Analytical results for selected rock samples 135 Appendix III Comparative results from duplicate samples 147 Appendix IV Comparative results for Canmet Standard samples 150 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1- Correlation of Bad Heart Formation by previous researcher and in the present study 6 Table 2.1- Summary of facies observed within the Bad Heart Formation as modified by this study 35 Table 2.2 - Summary of formation picks criteria in selected oil and gas wells in the Clear Hills region 36 Table 3.1A – Concentrations of major, trace and rare earth elements and oxides in intensely oolitic ironstones (IOIS) from the selected sections within the Bad Heart Formation 80 . Table 3.1B – Concentrations of major, trace and rare earth elements and oxides in moderately oolitic ironstones (MOIS) from the selected sections within the Bad Heart Formation 81 Table 3.1C - Concentrations of major, trace and rare earth elements and oxides in weakly oolitic ironstones (WOIS) from the selected sections within the Bad Heart Formation 82 Table 3.1D - Summary results of major, trace and rare earth elements and oxides in oolitic ironstones (including all three types) from the selected section within the Bad Heart Formation 83 Table 3.2 - Summary of the elements and their underlying geochemical distribution 84 Table 3.3 - Summary of major oxide and trace element averages and maximum contents in the Bad Heart Ironstones 85 Table 3.4 - Summary of average and maximum Rare Earth Element contents in the Bad Heart Ironstones 86 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Location map of the study area 7 Figure 2.1 - Location of the Clear Hills and Smoky River study areas 37 Figure 2.2 - Location of mapped outcrops, diamond drill hole core and excavated trench sections; (a) Clear Hills region (b) Smoky River region 38 Figure 2.3 - Simplified stratigraphy of Late Cretaceous formations in the northwest Alberta Plains (modified from Alberta Energy and Utilities Board, 2002) 39 Figure 2.4 - Major structural features in the Clear Hills to Smoky River region 40 Figure 2.5 - Available well logs in the Clear Hills region and the two cross sections (A-A‟ & B-B‟) that were constructed from 23 selected wells 41 Figure 2.6 - Complete Bad Heart Formation sequence near the original type section of McLearn (1919) along the Smoky River just south of the intersection with the Bad Heart River 42 Figure 2.7 - Northwest to southeast cross section of measured sections in the Smoky River region 43 Figure 2.8 - Two east- west Bad Heart Formation cross sections in the Clear Hills Rambling Creek area 44 Figure 2.9 - Bad Heart Formation Erosional surfaces ES2 and ES1 seen at section ASR9A in the cliff along central Smoky River 45 Figure 2.10 - Well-log cross-section along line A-A‟ in the Clear Hills region. The Base of Fish Scales (BFSC) marker is used as a datum 46 Figure 2.11 - Well-log cross-section along line B-B‟. The Base of Fish Scales (BFSC) is used as datum 47 Figure 2.12 - Measured stratigraphic section with selected palynology samples at (a) diamond drill core DDH0203, and (b) section ASR3 48 Figure 2.13 - Pisoids from Bad Heart Formation at section ARR3 along Rambling Creek 49 Figure 2.14 (A)- Thin section view of ooids in plane polarized light; (B) SEM view of Iron ooids broken into two halves, both with a nucleus and cortex 49 Figure 2.15 - Internal morphology of ooids under SEM 50 Figure 2.16 - Post-depositional cracks in the ooids (Under SEM) 50 Figure 2.17 - SEM photographs of Bad Heart Type 1 iron ooids 51 Figure 2.18 - SEM photographs of Type 2 ooids 52 Figure 2.19 - The extent of Bad Heart Formation defined from the work of Donaldson (1999), Collom (2001) and the present study 53 Figure 2.20 - Schematic correlation diagram of Bad Heart Formation between the sections from the Smoky River and Clear Hills regions 54 Figure 3.1 - Location map of the study area 87 Figure 3.2 - Variation in oxides and selected trace element along a Bad Heart section ASR9A in the Smoky River region 88 Figure 3.3 - Variation in oxides and selected trace element along a Bad Heart section ARR3 near Rambling Creek in the Clear Hills region 89 Figure 3.4 - Correlation diagram of various oxides from Bad Heart oolitic Ironstone 90 Figure 3.5 - Comparison of chondrite normalized pattern of REE for Bad heart ooids with other oolitic ironstones from around the world 91 Figure 3.6 - Comparison of NASC normalized pattern of REE for Bad heart ooids with other oolitic ironstones from around the world 91 Figure 3.7 - Comparison of chondrite normalized REE pattern for Bad Heart ooids with Cretaceous bentonite from northern Alberta 92 Figure 3.8 - Ratio of TiO2-Al2O3 for iron ooids from different parts of the world 93 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION The Upper Cretaceous (Coniacian) Bad Heart Formation is a unique unit within the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) due to the extensive, potentially important oolitic ironstones that exist within it, plus its ubiquitous shallow marine macro- and ichno- fossil assemblages whereas it is underlain and overlain by deeper water shale assemblages. It is exposed in northwestern Alberta in the southern and southeastern parts of the Clear Hills, and to the south along the Smoky River and in the Blueberry Mountains to the Birch Hills areas (Figure 1.1). The term Bad Heart Formation is used in this thesis because of its traditional use of the term, even though the studied unit does not confirm sensu stricto to the definition of a lithostratigraphic unit because it includes the upper thick sandstone and lower thick mudstone (Table 1.1) Plint et al. (1990) redefined the original stratigraphic definition of the Bad Heart Formation along with Muskiki and Marshybank Formation. In the presents study the Bad Heart Formation includes the lower mudstone, middle sandstone and oolitic ironstone and also the upper sandstone and oolitic ironstone. Although Plint et al (1990) did not include the latter in the Bad Heart Formation, but Collom (2001) included the upper sandstone and oolitic ironstone within the Bad Heart. The boundaries of Bad Heart Formation as defined by previous workers and in the present study are presented in Table 1.1.
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