Synthesis of Data on Volcanic Evolution, Lithosphere Motion, and Mantle Velocities in the Baikal-Mongolian Region

Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2016) 1e20

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Focus paper The latest geodynamics in Asia: Synthesis of data on volcanic evolution, lithosphere motion, and mantle velocities in the Baikal-Mongolian region

Sergei Rasskazov a,b,*, Irina Chuvashova a,b a Institute of the Earth’s Crust, Siberian Branch of RAS, Irkutsk, Russia b Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk, Russia article info abstract

Article history: From a synthesis of data on volcanic evolution, movement of the lithosphere, and mantle velocities in the Received 20 November 2015 Baikal-Mongolian region, we propose a comprehensive model for deep dynamics of Asia that assumes an Received in revised form important role of the Gobi, Baikal, and North Transbaikal transition-layer melting anomalies. This layer 30 May 2016 was distorted by lower-mantle fluxes at the beginning of the latest geodynamic stage (i.e. in the early late Accepted 13 June 2016 Cretaceous) due to avalanches of slab material that were stagnated beneath the closed fragments of the Available online xxx Solonker, Ural-Mongolian paleoceans and Mongol-Okhotsk Gulf of Paleo-Pacific. At the latest geodynamic stage, Asia was involved in eastesoutheast movement, and the Pacific plate moved in the Keywords: Volcanism opposite direction with subduction under Asia. The weakened upper mantle region of the Gobi melting fl Geodynamics anomaly provided a counter ow connected with rollback in the Japan Sea area. These dynamics resulted Cenozoic in the formation of the Honshu-Korea flexure of the Pacific slab. A similar weakened upper mantle region Asia of the North Transbaikal melting anomaly was associated with the formation of the Hokkaido-Amur Asthenosphere flexure of the Pacific slab, formed due to progressive pull-down of the slab material into the transition Lithosphere layer in the direction of the Pacific plate and Asia convergence. The earlyemiddle Miocene structural reorganization of the mantle processes in Asia resulted in the development of upper mantle low-velocity domains associated with the development of rifts and orogens. We propose that extension at the Baikal Rift was caused by deviator flowing mantle material, initiated under the moving lithosphere in the Baikal melting anomaly. Contraction at the Hangay orogen was created by facilitation of the tectonic stress transfer from the Indo-Asian interaction zone due to the low-viscosity mantle in the Gobi melting anomaly. Ó 2016, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction boundary 660 km, (3) a melting anomaly of a domain that extends above the transition layer at depths of 200e410 km, (4) a melting From a long-lasted discussion on origin of mantle magmatism anomaly of a domain that occurs beneath the lithosphere at depths (Morgan, 1971; Hofmann, 1997; Anderson, 2007; Maruyama et al., of 50e200 km, (5) a melting anomaly of the lower part of the 2007; Foulger, 2010; Karato, 2012), it follows that magmatic sour- lithosphere, activated due to rifting, and (6) a melting anomaly at ces might originate at different levels of the mantle (Fig. 1). Local the crustemantle boundary originated through delamination of an decreasing of seismic velocities may be interpreted in terms of: (1) orogenic root. A melting anomaly in the upper mantle may be a plume, starting from the lower thermal boundary layer of the associated, on the one hand, with rifting or orogenesis in the lith- mantle, (2) a counterflow from the lower mantle after an avalanche osphere, on the other hand, with a plume or a counterflow from the of slab material from the transition layer through its lower lower mantle. The definition of each type of melting anomaly re- quires high-resolution seismic tomography and synthesis of the identified low-velocity anomalies and mantle volcanism evolution. From the geochemical difference between mid-ocean basalts * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Rasskazov). (MORB) and oceanic island basalts (OIB), it was proposed that the Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing). source of the latter occurs in the deep mantle (Morgan, 1971). This http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.06.009 1674-9871/Ó 2016, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC- ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

motions of the lithosphere and structural reorganizations at the boundary between the Paciﬁc plate and Asia.

2. Global and regional expressions of the latest geodynamic stage

The latest geodynamic stage comprises processes of the Earth’s unidirectional evolution. This stage likely began at the last Phan- erozoic (mid-Cretaceous, 118e83 Ma) paleomagnetic superchron. “The Quiet Cretaceous period” corresponded to a high-temperature (“superplume”) state of the mantle, reflected in the maximum rate of oceanic crust formation, extreme greenhouse conditions, sea level rise, and enhanced organic productivity (Larson, 1991a,b; Tatsumi et al., 1998; Larson and Erba, 1999; Condie, 2001; Jenkyns et al., 2004; Courtillot and Olson, 2007; Trabucho et al., 2010). Figure 1. Systematics of mantle melting anomalies in continents. An initial global reference point of the final geodynamic stage is defined through marine 87Sr/86Sr records that exhibit the net effect of continental (crustal) and oceanic (mantle) processes. The pre- hypothesis has been confirmed by high-resolution seismic to- dominated dissolution of crustal material, which is enriched by mography of the mantle beneath Hawaii and other islands 87Sr, was provided in convergent conditions and was displayed by (Montelli et al., 2004; Zhao, 2009). Another kind of geodynamic the upper envelope line of the main evolutionary trend. An episodic regime seems to operate due to the accumulation of subducted increasing dissolution effect of oceanic material, exhibited by oceanic slab material in the transition layer. After some residence relative decreasing 87Sr/86Sr, was due to divergent events that time, the material collapses into the lower mantle, inducing a resulted in the lower envelope line of the main trend. This main reverse flow of hot material (Mitrovica et al., 2000; Yoshioka and trend demonstrates a general decreasing role of convergence in the Sanshadokoro, 2002; Zhao, 2009). In the case of hot material ris- earlyemiddle Phanerozoic and its increasing in the late Phanero- ing from the lower to the upper mantle through the transition layer, zoic (Fig. 2). The contribution of the crustal and oceanic compo- the latter thins from the top and bottom as inferred from the nents was changed drastically at the main trend bend. The opposite Clapeyron slopes (Ito and Takahashi, 1989; Anderson, divergent 87Sr/86Sr minimum of 160 Ma corresponded to the global 2007; Maruyama et al., 2007). Studies of hotspots generally structural reorganization that launched formation of the new (Pa- confirm the anticorrelated transition zone thinning (Shen et al., cific) lithospheric plate from the center of a former ridge triple 1998; Li et al., 2000, 2003; Owens et al., 2000; Hooft et al., 2003), junction between the Kula, Farallon, and Phoenix plates in South- although in some regions (for instance, in the western North ern Paleo-Pacific(Hilde et al., 1977) and closing the Mongol- America), the 410 and 660 km discontinuities show no anti- Okhotsk Gulf in Northwestern Paleo-Pacific(Parfenov et al., correlation (Houser et al., 2008). 2003). At about 90 Ma, relative variations of 87Sr/86Sr were negli- Under Central and East Asia, the transition layer is “cool” and the gible, i.e. the lower and upper limiting lines of the main trend lower mantle has relatively high velocities (Castillo, 1988; Montelli converged. The descending earlyemiddle Phanerozoic portion of et al., 2004; Maruyama et al., 2007) that makes rising plumes here the main trend changed to the late Phanerozoic one at ca. 90 Ma. doubtful. One can assume only deep dynamics governed by slab The unique meaning of this time was matched also by the episode avalanches from the transition layer to the lower mantle. Mean- of komatiite magmatism in Gorgona Island (Arndt et al., 2008). while, these regions reveal upper mantle low-velocity anomalies The global transition from the earlyemiddle to the late Phan- comprised into the shallow (depth less than 200 km) Sayan- erozoic geodynamic stage had regional consequences in Asia. Due Mongolian and deeper (depth up to the transition layer) Trans- to accommodation of interplate convergent processes in Central baikalian upper mantle domains, the origin of which has been Mongolia, high-K latites from crustal sources changed to moderate- explained by processes related to convergent interaction between K mantle-derived basalts. From trace-element and NdeSrePb India and Asia in the south and the Pacific plate subduction in the isotope signatures, it was inferred that the 91e31 Ma basalts were east, respectively (Rasskazov et al., 2003a,b, 2004). derived from sources related to the reactivated Gobi system of The mantle dynamics in Asia was an object for speculations in paleoslab fragments that stagnated in the mantle after closing the terms of (1) interpreting geophysical data on present-day mantle Solonker and Ural-Mongolian paleoceans (Rasskazov et al., 2012; structure without examination of volcanism (Zorin, 1971; Zorin Rasskazov and Chuvashova, 2013). Afterwards, the 32e0 Ma ba- et al., 2003, 2006), (2) ascertaining spatial or spatial-temporal salts were spatially related to the development of the Hangay distribution of late Mesozoic and Cenozoic volcanism without ex- orogen. The alternation of high- and moderate-potassis lava erup- amination of deep mantle structure (Rasskazov, 1994; Yarmolyuk tions demonstrated cycles as long as 20 million years at the et al., 2007), (3) recording low-speed anomalies in the mantle 91e31 Ma time interval, relatively short cycles of 2.5 million years under Quaternary volcanic fields (Lei and Zhao, 2005; Zhao, 2009; between 32 and 2 Ma, and more short ones of 0.7e0.3 Ma in the Wei et al., 2012), and (4) study of relations between low-velocity past 2 Ma (Rasskazov et al., 2010). mantle anomalies and volcanism evolution (Rasskazov et al., A change of magmatism was recorded at ca. 90 Ma in Shandong 2003a,b, 2004, 2012; Rasskazov and Taniguchi, 2006). Peninsula (Xu et al., 2004). There was a magmatic lull here, lasting Unlike the previous studies, we consider the present-day state from 90 to 75 Ma, that separated late Cretaceous and Cenozoic of Asia in this paper first of all as a result of the latest geodynamic basaltic eruptions from the earlyemiddle Phanerozoic granitic and stage, and decipher deep geodynamics using basic models of basic intrusions. The Nd and Sr isotopic signatures of these older seismic tomography of the mantle and evidence on spatial- intrusions indicate their origin from enriched mantle and crustal temporal distribution of volcanic activity in key areas, along with sources. Some 75 Ma basaltic lavas still possess these isotopic

Figure 2. The main sea water trend of 87Sr/86Sr variations in the earlyemiddle and late Phanerozoic (a). Bending the upper envelope line (convergent line) of the trend at ca. 90 Ma corresponds to the initial reference point of the latest global geodynamic stage. Bending of the lower envelope line (divergent line) at ca. 160 Ma means the preceded global structural reorganization. Inserts (b) and (c) illustrate descending and ascending parts of the main trend. The line of marine records is adopted after McArthur et al. (2001, 2012).

signatures, but later on changed to those of the depleted mantle The character of the tectonic deformation is reflected in present- sources. day motions of the crust. The Irkutsk GPS station, which is located at the southeastern margin of the Stable Asia (Siberian Platform), moves southeastwards with a local rate of ca. 3 cm yr 1 (Rothacher 3. Motion of the Asian lithosphere, structural reorganizations et al., 1996). The Stable Asia rotates clockwise around a pole located at the Asian-Pacific boundary to the south of Eurasia (Gatinskii, Rundquist, 2004). Some large relatively rigid blocks of Asia (Amurian, South China, and Sunda) The style of present-day deformations in Asia was modeled in also rotate. The Amurian block moves relative to the Stable Asia experiments on plasticine (Tapponnier et al., 1982). Extrusion tec- with anticlockwise rotation with a rate of 0.03Ma 1 at a pole tonics in front of the Indian indenter was simulated using a plate located in the northern margin of the Okhotsk Sea (58.8N,157.7E). confined on only the left-hand side, leaving the right-hand side free A similar rotation with the faster and better constrained rate of deformed. The resulting extrusion of the material to the right was 0.22Ma 1 is determined for the South China block, with respect to similar to the large-scale deformation in the China and Indochina Eurasia about a pole at North China (47.3N, 126.8E). The Sunda blocks (Fig. 3). block rotates clockwise with a rate of 0.13Ma 1 about a pole at the In recent publications (Halim et al., 1998; Rasskazov et al., 1998; Indian ocean west of Australia (26.0S, 80.4E) (Kreemer et al., Calais et al., 2003, 2006; Kreemer et al., 2003; Rasskazov and 2003). The Ordos block underwent general counterclockwise Taniguchi, 2006; Jin et al., 2007; Sankov et al., 2011), the hypoth- rotation in the late Cenozoic (Xu and Ma, 1992). GPS measurements esis on eastward motions of Asian blocks was supplemented by demonstrate the present-day opening the South Baikal basin with a data on spatial-temporal distribution of Cenozoic volcanism as well rate of 3.4 0.7 mm yr 1 (Sankov et al., 2011). as paleomagnetic and GPS data that showed a general division of It is noteworthy that different parts of Asia underwent compli- Asia into a stable part and tectonically unstable areas e diffused cated deformation with temporal changes of extension and deformational zones of considerable width and length. In terms of compression. Boundaries of relatively stable blocks were occa- dominated Cenozoic extensional or compressional forces, tectoni- sionally affected with strike-slip motions. For instance, an early cally active (mobile) systems were subdivided to rift and orogenic, Holocene change of stress field was found through a study of fissure respectively. The former occur in Inner Asia (Baikal and Circum eruptions in the northeastern Baikal Rift Zone (Rasskazov, 1999). Ordos or Shanxi) and at the continental margin (East China), the Similarly, changes of deformation were registered by long-term latter (Central Asian and Olekma-Stanovoi) in front of the Indo- GPS observations. No clear sign of current extension was recorded Asian and Asia-North American collision zones. In fact, the Baikal across the northeastern Shanxi Rift although the extension rate was Rift Zone is situated between the orogenic systems related to as high as 4 2mmyr 1 in 1992e1996 (He et al., 2003). different collision zones. The Shanxi and East China rift systems At the East Asian continental margin, tectonic conditions change occur between the Indo-Asian collision zone and regions of rifting quickly from the south to the north in the area of the Korean and spreading at the Pacific-Asia convergent zone (Okhotsk-Japan- Peninsula and Sakhalin Island. In the former area and to the south Philippine and South China Sea) (Fig. 4). of it, the Philippine Sea plate has never been closely linked with

Figure 3. Schematic map of Cenozoic extrusion tectonics in East Asia. Brown arrows represent qualitatively major block motions with respect to Siberia (without rotations). Black arrows indicate direction of extrusion-related extension. Numbers refer to assumed extrusion phases: 1 ‒ ca. 50 to 20 Ma; 2 ‒ ca. 20 to 0 Ma; 3 e most recent and future. Arrows on faults in western Malaysia, Gulf of Thailand, and southwestern China Sea (earliest extrusion phase) do not correspond to present-day motions. Red arrows demonstrate counter motions of the Pacific Plate and Stable Asia as inferred from hotspot frame (Pacific Ocean) and GPS data (Irkutsk station). Modified after Tapponnier et al. (1982).

Figure 4. Mercator projection of late Cenozoic mobile systems with predominating compression or extension at the southeastern part of Eurasia and Paciﬁc-Eurasia convergent zone. Collision zones: IACZ e India-Asia, ANACZ e Asia-North America. Orogenic systems: CAOS e Central Asian, OSOS e Olekma-Stanovoi. Rift systems: BRS e Baikal, CORS e Circum Ordos (Shanxi), ECRS e East China. Regions of rifting and spreading at a convergent zone: OJP e Okhotsk-Japan-Philippine, SC e South China, AS e Andaman Sea. Modiﬁed after Rasskazov et al. (1998).

Asia. Along this plate, there was the boundary of “the free conti- flexure. The direct Hokkaido-Amur slab flexure, which coincides nental margin” that allowed extrusion tectonics from the Indo- with the convergence direction between the Pacific plate and Asia, Asian collision zone as it was proposed by Tapponnier et al. resulted from subsequent subduction of the Pacific plate moving at (1982). In contrast, the Okhotsk Sea plate joined Asia in the mid- a speed of ca. 10 cm yr 1 and Asia, the current rate of which, ac- dle Eocene and became one of the Asian blocks by the Middle cording to the GPS-geodesy, is 3 cm yr 1. The Hokkaido-Amur Miocene (Rasskazov et al., 2005; Rasskazov and Taniguchi, 2006). flexure extends from the junction between Japan and Kuril The Pacific plate subduction, expressed by late Cenozoic island arc trenches under the Southwestern Hokkaido to the southern part of volcanism, was accompanied by back-arc extension of crust along the Middle Amur basin. Another slab flexure starts from the junc- the Philippine, Japan, and Okhotsk seas (Fig. 4). tion of the Izu-Bonin and Japan trenches and extends beneath the In the middle Cenozoic, the Pacific plate moved along the Asian Central Honshu to the south-eastern margin of Korean Peninsula margin. Late Cenozoic structural reorganization of East Asia was (Fig. 6a). accompanied by accretion of the Kula-Izanagi plate fragments to Insert 6b demonstrates a plot of the slab configuration modified the continental margin and transition to the Pacific plate subduc- relative to a common straightened trench taken as the abscissa. The tion. At the MioceneeOligocene boundary, volcanism was limited isoline of 550 km that corresponds to the middle part of the tran- to weakened zones of the lithosphere and in the early Miocene was sition layer was chosen to plot the slab projection at the surface widespread from Japan to the Baikal area. This spatial redistribution relative to the common straightened trench. This parameter in- of volcanism appeared to reflect intraplate consequences of struc- creases, as the slab dipping decreases. The graph is indicative for tural reorganization at the eastern interplate boundary of Asia that relative comparisons of slab dipping. This west-northwest projec- led to the back-arc extension with rollback of Japanese islands to- tion is compiled along the Hokkaido-Amur flexure that directs in wards the ocean (Fig. 5). accordance with the long-term Pacific-Asia convergence. The Initiation of subduction was accompanied by back-arc opening measured distances are 700 km at the northeastern tip of the South of the Sea of Japan at about 15 Ma, with quick clockwise rotation of Okhotsk basin, increase to 1820 km at the Honshu-Korea flexure, Southwest Japan and formation of the oblique Honshu-Korea slab and drastically decrease along the Shikoku basin. The Hokkaido-

Figure 5. Spatial redistribution of volcanism in Asia accompanied the early Miocene launch of the rollback motions in the Japan Sea back-arc region. Compilation of geochronological data that fall at the time interval of 23e17 Ma is from (Zhou et al., 1988; Schärer et al., 1990; Rasskazov, 1993; Pouclet et al., 1995; Xu et al., 1996; Takeuchi, 1997; Okamura et al., 1998; Wu et al., 1998; Rasskazov et al., 2000, 2003, 2005; Zheng et al., 2002; Barley et al., 2003; Kudryashova et al., 2006; Rasskazov and Taniguchi, 2006).

Amur flexure is interpreted as a superimposed structure expressed characteristic of the boundary between the Pacific plate and with a relative high of the projection up to 1760 km (relative Okhotsk Sea-Asia sector that existed just after quick clockwise decrease of dipping). A gentle slope of the 550-km line from the rotation of Southwest Japan at ca. 15 Ma. The descending line to- South Okhotsk basin to the Honshu-Korea flexure is attributed to a wards the Mariana trench shows a transform-like shift of the Pacific slab configuration that existed before northwestern propagation of plate boundary between the Okhotsk Sea-Asia and Philippine Sea the Hokkaido-Amur flexure. Hence, this part of the line is sectors.

Figure 6. Slab flexures in the Pacific-Asia Convergent zone. a ‒ Contours of the depth (km) to the top of seismically active subducting Pacific slab (Gudmundsson and Sambridge, 1998). b ‒ Graph showing geometrical relations between trenches (violate lines on (a) and (b)) and slab flexures (green lines on (a) and (b)) and also between trenches and back sides of the late Cenozoic deep basins (pink line on (b)). Trench junctions: KJ e Kuril-Japan, JI e Japan-Izu Bonin, IM e Izu Bonin-Mariana. Direction of the Pacific plate motion on (a) coincides with direction of the Hokkaido-Amur slab flexure on (b) (shown by an open arrow). Orientation of the Honshu-Korea slab flexure, shown by a blue line on (a), resulted from the Sea of Japan opening. Approximate shift of the Japan-Izu Bonin trench junction is shown on (a) by blue dashed line along an arrow directed from the former location of the eastern tip of SW Honshu at the northwestern part of Sea of Japan (JI0 within a square) to its current position JI. This shift took place in opposite direction relative to the Pacific plate motion. Vertical green arrows on (b) emphasize relative elevation of the Hokkaido-Amur flexure above the main facet of the Pacific slab extending along the Asia-Okhotsk Sea sector of relatively steady subduction. The oppositely directed arrows demonstrate transform-like relation at the Honshu-Korea flexure between the Eurasia-Okhotsk Sea and Philippine Sea sectors of the Pacific slab. Modified after Rasskazov et al. (2004).

To define the spatial relation between the Pacific plate shape The amount of presuming counterclockwise rotation of 60 and more and subduction-related extension, we plotted also distances from is much larger than expected from reconstructions based on geolog- trenches to back-side boundaries of deep basins (Fig. 6b). The dis- ical data (40e30). This difference was interpreted as an indication of tances gradually increase along the profile, as slab dipping de- differential rotation of the blocks (Hoshi and Takahashi, 1999). creases. The largest distance is defined between the Izu Bonin Paleomagnetic studies in the Sikhote Alin volcanic belt revealed trench and the western boundaries of the Sea of Japan and Shikoku counterclockwise rotation of the late Cretaceous e early Paleogene basins. This correlation may reflect growing rollback effect from the stratigraphic units. This phenomenon was explained firstly in terms middle part of the Kuril trench through the Japanese trench to the of left-lateral motion along northesouth trending strike-slip faults. Izu Bonin trench. Further analyses of data showed, however, contradiction of this The Honshu-Korea flexure appears to originate due to retreat of interpretation to paleomagnetic results on the eastern margin of the Japan-Izu Bonin junction during opening of the Sea of Japan. The the North China Block. The Bogopolye Formation was deposited at timing of these processes was constrained by paleomagnetic data. the southeastern margin of the ridged Mongolian block without Northeast Honshu was subjected to counterclockwise rotation as long sufficient rotation relative to Eurasia since 53e51 Ma. The strati- as back-arc opening proceeded, and Southwest Honshu underwent graphically lower volcanic rocks of the Sijanov Formation and Kisin quick clockwise rotation at about 15 Ma (Otofuji, 1996). More recent Grope, the earliest ignimbrites of the late Cretaceous Mon- paleomagnetic data on the forearc side of Northeast Japan show a astyrskaya and Primorskaya Series of the East Sikhote Alin volcanic pronounced change in declination from 300 at 21 Ma to 0 at 18 Ma. belt, were emplaced when this block rotated counterclockwise up

Figure 7. Model of S-wave tomography for the upper mantle of Asia after Yanovskaya and Kozhevnikov (2003).

Figure 8. Model of S-wave tomography of the upper mantle and transition zone after (Kozhevnikov et al., 2014). Shear-wave velocity variations are shown by isolines in percent. The depth and average velocity (Vs av) is indicated above each map.

Please cite this article in press as: Rasskazov, S., Chuvashova, I., The latest geodynamics in Asia: Synthesis of data on volcanic evolution, lithosphere motion, and mantle velocities in the Baikal-Mongolian region, Geoscience Frontiers (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.06.009 10 S. Rasskazov, I. Chuvashova / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2016) 1e20 meridian 105E, consistent with the similar region in the previous relative to a mantle low-velocity anomaly due to motion of the high-resolution model of Bijwaard et al. (1998). From the analysis of lithosphere. Comprising such a volcanic field with any low-velocity relations between local low-velocity anomalies of the Yanovskaya & mantle inhomogeneity into a single melting anomaly will depend Kozhevnikov model and distribution of Cenozoic volcanism, large on a direction and speed of the lithosphere motion. low-velocity Sayan-Mongolian and Transbaikalian upper mantle At the transition layer of the Baikal-Mongolian region, we domains were defined (Rasskazov et al., 2003a). examine three low-velocity anomalies (Gobi, Baikal, and North The model by Kozhevnikov et al. (2014), which involves the Transbaikal) that have key significance for decryption of the latest transition layer (Fig. 8), was compiled from a representative set of geodynamics of Asia in connection with distribution of late Creta- the group-velocity dispersion curves of the basic mode of Rayleigh ceous volcanic fields. waves with the oscillation periods in the range of 10e250 s. On a Beneath Southwest Gobi, S-wave velocities are locally reduced background of increasing speed of shear waves with depth, an in the lower part of the mantle transition layer (at depth of 600 km) alternation of low- and high-speed layers with significant lateral up to 4.5%. In the middle portion of the transition layer (at depth of variations was recorded. Generalized anomalies at the shallow 500 km), the image is smoothed. At a higher level, the velocity is mantle in this model differ from the more detailed image in the reduced locally just above the transition layer (at depth of 400 km). model by Yanovskaya and Kozhevnikov (2003). In this sense, the A center of the two minima, associated with the transition layer, is model of Fig. 7 is used here for the registration of low-velocity located at coordinates 44N, 95E. No late Cretaceous and Cenozoic anomalies in the shallow mantle and Fig. 8 for detecting transi- volcanic rocks are known in this area. The late Cretaceous tion layer anomalies. 91e71 Ma rocks of the Durveldzhin-Borzogiyn group of volcanic fields are offset east of this anomaly over 600 km (Fig. 9). 5. Discussion A similar transition layer anomaly is identified by local decreasing velocities at depths of 600 and 400 km beneath the Lake 5.1. Identifying melting anomalies at the transition layer Baikal area with the center at the coordinates 52 N, 108 E. No late Cretaceous and Cenozoic volcanic rocks are known here. The The presence of low-velocity columns that might extend from 100e90 Ma rocks of the Khushinda volcanic field are shifted to the the different levels of the mantle to the Quaternary volcanic field is east of the Baikal low-velocity anomaly over 350 km. The North examined as a relevant criterion for definition of the melting Transbaikal transition layer anomaly is exhibited by locally reduced anomaly including the patterns started from the coreemantle waive-speed at 600 km (55 N, 116 E) and 400 km (55 N, 123 E). boundary (Montelli et al., 2004; Zhao, 2009; Foulger, 2010). Late Cretaceous volcanic rocks associated with this low-velocity Meanwhile, a Neogene or older volcanic field may be shifted anomaly are not identified. Only the late Cenozoic Udokan

Figure 9. Relations between the key melting anomalies of the transition layer and late Cretaceous volcanic ﬁelds. Shear-wave velocity variations are shown by isolines in percent. (a) and (b) are the slices (f) and (h) in Fig. 8.

Please cite this article in press as: Rasskazov, S., Chuvashova, I., The latest geodynamics in Asia: Synthesis of data on volcanic evolution, lithosphere motion, and mantle velocities in the Baikal-Mongolian region, Geoscience Frontiers (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.06.009 S. Rasskazov, I. Chuvashova / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2016) 1e20 11 volcanic field occurs in the area between the 600-km and 400-km The Ural-Mongolian suture divides the territory of Mongolia to inhomogeneities. the North and South megablocks. The stable structural ensemble of Precambrian and Caledonian terranes in the North megablock, which formed by the end of the Ordovician, includes the Tuva- 5.2. Relations between the transition layer low-velocity anomalies, Mongolian microcontinent. The megablock includes the Mongol- late Cretaceous volcanism, and sutures of the closed Phanerozoic Okhotsk suture that marks the Gulf of Paleo-Pacific, which closed paleoceans sequentially from west to east during the late Paleozoic and Meso- zoic, with quick mutual approaching of shores at the end of the From paleomagnetic data, geological terranes of Mongolia, Jurassic e beginning of the early Cretaceous (Sengör and Natal’in, occurred far to the north of the North China block during the late 1996; Kravchinsky et al., 2002). The Hercynian (SillurianeCarbonif- Paleozoic and early Mesozoic. Mongolia, as well as Siberia, moved erous) island arcs of the South megablock (as part of the South from south to north in the Paleozoic, from north to south from Mongolian-Hinggan or Tianshan-South Hingganling zone) are the late Triassic to the end of the Jurassic, and did not move separated from the North China craton and accreted terranes by the northesouth in the Cretaceous and Cenozoic. Paleolatitudes of Solonker suture (Yanshin, 1974; Belichenko and Boos, 1990; Tseden bimodal rift-related magmatic units of Mongolia are not statistically et al., 1992; Kovalenko et al., 1996; Parphenov et al., 2003; Kozakov different from paleolatitudes of the Siberian craton at least since the et al., 2007; Windley et al., 2007; Wan, 2010). According to various end of the Permian (250e275 Ma) (Kovalenko, 2010). No north- estimates (Ruzhentsev et al., 1989; Sengör and Natal’in, 1996; Qin esouth paleo-pole changes in the Cretaceous and Cenozoic means et al., 2013; Zhou and Wilde, 2013; Han et al., 2015), the Solonker no substantial northesouth movement of Asia since that time. paleocean closed in the late Permian or early Triassic, between 275 The Gobi transition layer melting anomaly is located between and 248 Ma. the fragments of the suture zones traced the closed Solonker and In the latest geodynamic stage, volcanism enveloped an area Ural-Mongolian paleoceans. The Baikal and North Transbaikal between the Solonker and Ural-Mongolian sutures in the time in- anomalies are spatially associated with a fragment of the closed terval of 91e31 Ma and shifted northwards (to area of the Tuva- Mongol-Okhotsk Gulf of Paleo-Pacific(Fig. 10).

Figure 10. Spatial relations of the transition zone low-velocity anomalies with the sutures of the closed Phanerozoic paleocean fragments. The sutures are modiﬁed after (Sengör and Natal’in, 1996; Parfenov et al., 2003).

Mongolian microcontinent and western end of the Mongol- distortion of the 660-km boundary and mass transfer between Okhotsk suture) in the last 32 Ma. The lithosphere of the micro- the transition layer and the lower mantle. We speculate that the continent was affected by compression resulted in growing of the Gobi, Baikal, and North Transbaikal melting anomalies of the Hangay orogen, whereas the lithosphere of the western end of the mantle transition layer were due to avalanche collapses of this Mongol-Okhotsk suture underwent extension that led to subsiding slab material into the lower mantle. As a result, hot reverse fluxes of basin in the Central Mongolian rift segment (Fig. 11). It was penetrated through the transition layer from the lower mantle at shown (Rasskazov et al., 2012) that magmatic liquids of alkaline the beginning or just before the latest geodynamic stage (i.e. ca. basalt and andesite compositions erupted in the Hangay orogen 90 Ma). from various sources. The temporal change of the sources demonstrated delamination processes at the thickened lithospheric keel, 5.3. Rate estimates of the lithosphere motion unlike the Central Mongolian rift segment area, where erupted potassic basalt melts, derived from lithospheric-asthenospheric The resulting vector of east-southeastern shift of the lithosphere sources, were indicative for the lithosphere thinning. with the late Cretaceous volcanic fields relative to the Gobi tran- Subduction of slab material from the closed paleocean frag- sition layer low-velocity anomaly, with the amplitude of 600 km, ments under Asia was an important precursor for the formation of was provided mostly by general motion of the Asian lithosphere. A the transition layer melting anomalies of the latest geodynamic small northward drift was supplemented due to the Indo-Asian stage. Slab material stagnated at the transition layer of the convergence. Late Cenozoic volcanism in the Hangay-Belaya mantle. Specific conditions of relatively low viscosity in the lower orogenic zone was derived from the shallow melting anomalies of mantle in the Cretaceous Quiet Period of 119e83 Ma favored the 50e150 km that belongs to the Sayan-Mongolian low-velocity

Figure 11. Spatial distribution of late Cretaceous through Cenozoic volcanic ﬁelds relative to suture fragments of the closed Phanerozoic paleoceans in Central Mongolia (Yanshin, 1974; Belichenko, Boos, 1988; Tseden et al., 1992; Kovalenko et al., 1996; Zorin, 1999; Kozakov et al., 2007; Windley et al., 2007; Parphenov et al., 2003; Wan, 2010). Hangay orogen belongs to the southern part of the Hangay-Belaya orogenic zone.

Please cite this article in press as: Rasskazov, S., Chuvashova, I., The latest geodynamics in Asia: Synthesis of data on volcanic evolution, lithosphere motion, and mantle velocities in the Baikal-Mongolian region, Geoscience Frontiers (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.06.009 S. Rasskazov, I. Chuvashova / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2016) 1e20 13 domain. The resulting east-southeastern vector of the lithosphere direction. The average speed of this motion, referred to the time motion relative to these low-speed anomalies coincided with the range of 90e50 Ma, is as low as 0.1 cm yr 1 (Fig. 13). one in the South Gobi with the amplitude reduction to 300 km. The average speed of the lithosphere motion is estimated to be ca. 5.4. Transition layer distortion under North Transbaikal and its 1 2cmyr in the past 15 Ma. Assuming the same velocity of the possible cause lithosphere motion in South Gobi in the past 15 Ma, we obtain the average velocity estimate of the lithosphere motion in Central A key assumption of plate tectonics is that plates are moved due 1 Mongolia of ca. 0.4 cm yr for the preceding period from 90 to to drag driven by mantle flow acting on the base of the lithosphere 15 Ma (Fig. 12). and boundary forces acting along the edges of plates. In models of The resulting amplitude of 350 km and eastward displacement plate tectonics, flow in the asthenosphere is examined as a conse- of the lithosphere with the Khushinda and Irenga late quence of the plate motion. Counterflow can be induced by drag CretaceousePaleogene volcanic fields relative to the Gobi transition from the lithosphere and pressure-gradient in the asthenosphere layer low-velocity anomaly is due to east-southeast general motion due to its displacement either by a subducting slab or return of Asia and nearly the same additional north-northeastern drift. flowing mantle towards a mid-ocean ridge (Forsyth and Uyeda, The latter was more effective than the convergent drift of the 1975; Smith and Lewis, 2003; Turcotte and Schubert, 2002). How lithosphere in Central Mongolia progressed at the same direction. a subduction begins remains poorly understood (e.g. Niu et al., The initial 16e14 Ma high-Mg eruption at the Bereya volcanic 2003; Stern, 2004). In the context of this study, we propose that center of the Vitim Plateau reflected the local late Cenozoic adia- there was a dynamic connection between mantle melting anoma- batic ascent of hot mantle material beneath Western Transbaikal lies and subduction processes in East Asia. (Chuvashova et al., 2016). The Bereya volcanic center shifted east- On the one hand, the model of progressive west-northwest slab wards over 300 km relative to the low velocity anomaly located at subduction assumes a pool down of oceanic material under the the depth of 250e300 km. This shift yields the average speed es- continental margin, accompanied by a reverse flow directed from a timate for late Cenozoic lithosphere motion to ca. 2 cm yr 1.From the amplitude of the Western Transbaikal displacement, over 300 km in the last 15 Ma for the Irenga volcanic field, the 300-km distance of its movement should be limited by this time interval and explained by a short (50 km long) shift of volcanism from Khushinda to Irenga by movement of the lithosphere at the same

Figure 12. Motion of the lithosphere with volcanic ﬁelds in Central Mongolia relative Figure 13. Motion of the lithosphere with volcanic ﬁelds in the Baikal area relative to to the mantle melting anomalies, located: (a) in the transition layer after model by the mantle melting anomalies: (a) in the transition layer after the model by Kozhevnikov et al. (2014), (b) in the upper level of the upper mantle after model by Kozhevnikov et al. (2014), (b) in the lower level of the upper mantle after the model by Yanovskaya and Kozhevnikov (2003). Yanovskaya and Kozhevnikov (2003).

Please cite this article in press as: Rasskazov, S., Chuvashova, I., The latest geodynamics in Asia: Synthesis of data on volcanic evolution, lithosphere motion, and mantle velocities in the Baikal-Mongolian region, Geoscience Frontiers (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.06.009 14 S. Rasskazov, I. Chuvashova / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2016) 1e20 continent to an ocean. Due to the reverse flow, created above the comparable to the lithosphere movement relative to the Baikal directly-subducted Hokkaido-Amur slab flexure, the lithosphere of transition layer melting anomaly. Apparently, the dynamics of the the northeastern Baikal Rift Zone was stretched at the border be- Baikal and North Transbaikal melting anomalies was due to a tween the Archean basement of the Siberian craton and accreted common cause, although movement took place at the level of the terranes. On the other hand, a similar flow was created above the upper mantle in the Lake Baikal area and at the level of the tran- Honshu-Korea slab flexure, while Southwest Japan was rotated and sition layer in North Transbaikal (Fig. 14). rolled back from the continental edge allowing the Sea of Japan Distortion of the North Transbaikal melting anomaly is indica- opening (Fig. 14). tive of lateral movement of the material in the transition layer From the hypothesis on temperature-dependent phase control of under East Asia that is combined with concentrated pull down of transition layer boundaries, it follows that a thermal (thermo- material into the transition layer along the directly-subducted chemical) flux from the lower mantle should be identified both at the Hokkaido-Amur flexure of the Pacific slab. It is possible that the base and top of the transition layer. The spatially coincided low- transition layer was modified in the late Cretaceouseearly Paleo- velocity anomalies related to the lower and upper boundaries of gene due to the subducting Kula-Izanagi slab before and during the the transition layer beneath both Gobi and Baikal are indicative of the Okhotsk plate accretion to the Asian margin. So far, there is no absence of differential lateral movement of the material at the evidence on separation of effects produced by the Kula-Izanagi and transition layer of this part of Inner Asia during the latest geodynamic Pacific slabs. stage. And vice versa, the mutual spatial separation of the North The peculiar structure of the transition layer beneath North Transbaikal anomalies of 600 km and 400 km reflects lateral motion Transbaikal, highlighted by the lack of distortion in the Gobi and of the material in the transition layer beneath East Asia. Baikal transition layer melting anomalies, is indicative of a possible In North Transbaikal, the resulting displacement vector of the cause of the observed difference. The Gobi anomaly coincides with low-velocity anomaly at the top of the transition layer relative to its the direction of the obliquely-subducted Honshu-Korea flexure, bottom is directed from the west to the east. The offset is made up whereas the Baikal one occurs between the directions of obliquely- of the east-southeast movement provided by the Asia-Pacific and directly-subducted flexures (Honshu-Korea and Hokkaido- convergence and the transversal northenortheast shift. The total Amur, respectively). We suggest that the Gobi and Baikal melting range of motion (about 400 km) and constituent trends is anomalies differ from the North Transbaikal one in connection with

Figure 14. Spatial relations between the selected transition zone melting anomalies in the Baikal-Mongolian region and ﬂexures of the subducted Paciﬁc slab.

Please cite this article in press as: Rasskazov, S., Chuvashova, I., The latest geodynamics in Asia: Synthesis of data on volcanic evolution, lithosphere motion, and mantle velocities in the Baikal-Mongolian region, Geoscience Frontiers (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.06.009 16 S. Rasskazov, I. Chuvashova / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2016) 1e20 different dynamics of the Pacific slab flexures: the passive forma- of the late Cretaceous (90e65 Ma), movement of the Asian litho- tion of the former during the Sea of Japan opening and the active sphere was negligible with the volcanic lull (Fig. 15c). At the late formation of the latter through progressive pull down of the Pacific Cretaceouseearly Paleogene, movement of the lithosphere was slab material into the transition layer at the direction of the Pacific initiated and accompanied with volcanic activity in the Irenga field. Plate and Asia convergence (Fig. 6). At this time, East Asia was affected by a rollback mechanism that was repeated at the beginning of the Pacific slab subduction in the 5.5. The Baikal melting anomaly as a cause of lithospheric extension earlyemiddle Miocene and resulted in opening of the Sea of Japan. at the Baikal Rift Respectively, the motion of the lithosphere, initiated in the time interval of 65e50 Ma, got a new impulse at 22e15 Ma (Fig. 15d and e). The subduction factor of mantle dynamics in the Baikal- The earlyemiddle Miocene structural reorganization facilitated the Mongolian region is complemented by displaying asthenospheric development of a melting anomaly at the upper mantle level to the counterflows under the moving lithosphere. northeast of the primary flow at the transition layer, with a corre- It has long been drawing attention to the asymmetric rise of the sponding shift of volcanism from Khushinda and Irenga to Vitim asthenosphere in the Baikal Rift Zone, its location under the Sibe- Plateau (in Fig. 15, this episode is not shown). At present, due to the rian platform “.at a much greater depth than under the Trans- lithosphere motion, the primary transition layer melting anomaly baikal region” and has been inferred that “.horizontal flowing occurs under the Baikal, a shallow tail stretches towards Transbaikal within the asthenosphere should be directed from the northwest to and a deeper reverse flow towards the Siberian craton. The litho- southeast” (Zorin, 1971, p. 143). The same flowing in the asthenosphere of the Baikal Rift is affected by a deviator flow (i.e. from one sphere was assumed in later papers (Gao et al., 1994a,b; Lebedev point in opposite directions) in the Baikal melting anomaly (Fig. 15f). et al., 2006; Sankov et al., 2011). The movement of the lithosphere in these hypotheses, however, was not taken into account. Extension of the lithosphere beneath the Baikal basin was likely 5.6. The Gobi melting anomaly as a cause of lithospheric provided by a dynamic effect of the asthenospheric counterflow contraction in the Hangay orogen originated in the transition layer melting anomaly. The possible sequence of events is presented in Fig. 15. A counterflow is identified under the moving lithosphere in In the transition layer beneath the closing Mongol-Okhotsk Gulf Gobi (Fig. 16). Low-velocity anomalies in the Sayan-Mongolian of Paleo-Pacific, slab material stagnated until mid-Cretaceous (Fig. domain (150e200 km) and underlying upper mantle with slab 15a). By the beginning of the latest geodynamic stage (i.e. ca. fragments (300 km) are shifted westwards relative to the primary 90 Ma), this material collapsed from the transition layer into the transition layer melting anomaly, centered at depths of 400 and lower mantle with ascent of reverse hot flow resulted in volcanism of 100 km. Overall decreasing velocity is characteristic for the bottom the Khushinda field (Fig. 15b). The hot flux provided local heating of of the lithosphere and underlying asthenosphere (at depth of about the upper mantle beneath Western Transbaikal. In the time interval 50 km).

Figure 16. Counterﬂow in the asthenosphere under the moving lithosphere in Gobi. The interpretation is based on Fig. 8 and space-time distribution of volcanic activity in the past 90 Ma (Rasskazov et al., 2010, 2012).

Similar to the Baikal area, migrating volcanism in Central of westeeast geological structures in this area, i.e. along the Solo- Mongolia marked a melting anomaly that propagated north- nker and Ural-Mongolian sutures (Fig. 10). Lateral westeeast northeastwards in the upper mantle relative to the primary Gobi flowing material in the upper mantle under Gobi took place in transition layer hot flux. In the time interval of 91e31 Ma, volcanic conditions of prevailing orthogonal northesouth contraction of the activity was focused in Gobi (Fig. 11, segment BC in Fig. 16). Then, lithosphere governed by Indo-Asian interaction. Unlike the “free” after the structural reorganization of ca. 32 Ma, volcanic activity eastern continental margin of Asia that caused eastward movement shifted northeastwards to the Hangay-Belaya orogenic zone that of blocks accompanied by subduction, the northern edge of Asia did remained active in the last 22 Ma (Fig. 11, segment CD in Fig. 16) not provide such a scenario. As a result, limited northward pro- (Rasskazov et al., 2010; Rasskazov and Chuvashova, 2013). motion of the Gobi lithosphere and low-viscosity mantle material No extensional structure in the Gobi region, such as the Baikal at the Gobi melting anomaly caused enhanced transfer of tectonic Rift Zone, is explained by acting asthenospheric flow, associated stress to the Hangay orogen with its delamination and respective with the subduction of the Honshu-Korea flexure, along the strike development of the orogen-related melting anomaly (Fig. 17).

6. Conclusion

From the synthesis of data on volcanic evolution, movement of the lithosphere, and mantle velocities in the Baikal-Mongolian region, we infer that the latest geodynamics of Asia were governed by processes related to transition layer melting anomalies. We have identified the Gobi, Baikal, and North Baikal transition layer melting anomalies that are spatially related to west-east trending sutures of the closed Solonker, Ural-Mongolian paleoceans and Mongol-Okhotsk Gulf of Paleo-Pacific. We suggest that by the beginning of the latest geodynamic stage at ca. 90 Ma, the transition layer was destroyed by lower-mantle fluxes due to avalanches of slab material that were stagnated beneath the closed fragments of the paleoceans. The Gobi and Baikal melting anomalies underwent changes by upper mantle counterflows, in contrast to the North Transbaikal one that showed a distorted low-velocity anomaly at the transition layer. We connect these features with subduction processes in East Asia and suggest an explanation that takes into account the different origins of the Honshu-Korea and Hokkaido-Amur flexures of the subducted Pacific slab. The former flexure resulted mostly from the Sea of Japan opening in the earlyemiddle Miocene, the latter formed due to progressive pull down of the Pacific slab material into the transition layer at the direction of the Pacific plate and Asia convergence. At the latest geodynamic stage, Asia was involved in east- southeast movement accompanied by opposite subduction of the Pacific plate. The currently active subduction process began in the earlyemiddle Miocene structural reorganization. In regions of primary transition layer melting anomalies, this change was reflected in formation of upper mantle low-velocity domains associated with the development of rifts and orogens. We suggest that extension at the Baikal Rift was caused by deviator flowing mantle material, initiated under the moving lithosphere in the Baikal melting anomaly. Contraction at the Hangay orogen was created by facilitation of the tectonic stress transfer from the Indo-Asian interaction zone due to the low-viscosity mantle in the Gobi melting anomaly. Rate estimates of the eastesoutheastward motion of the Asian lithosphere relative to the Gobi and Baikal transition layer low-velocity anomalies vary from values as low as 0.1 cm yr 1 in the time range of 90e50 Ma to 2 cm yr 1 in the time interval of the past 15 Ma and 3 cm yr 1 at Present. The latter estimate is obtained by GPS-geodesy. The considered patterns of late Cretaceous through earlyemiddle Cenozoic and late Cenozoic volcanism, possibly related to low-velocity anomalies of the transition layer and upper mantle in the Baikal-Mongolian region, show evidence on connections between evolution of inter- and intraplate mantle processes displayed on a continental scale at the latest geodynamic Figure 17. Facilitating tectonic stress transfer from the Indo-Asian zone of interaction stage. In order to develop a comprehensive geodynamic model for to the Hangay orogen due to the low-viscosity mantle at the Gobi melting anomaly (a) and the development of shallow mantle processes through delamination of the orogen the whole of Asia, this type of connections need to be tested in root (b). other regions.

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Rasskazov Sergei: Head of Laboratory for isotopic and Chuvashova Irina: Research Scientist at the Institute of geochronological studies at the Institute of the Earth’s the Earth’s Crust SB RAS, Irkutsk, Russia (since 2004), as- Crust SB RAS, Irkutsk, Russia (since 1996), Head of Dy- sistant professor of Dynamic Geology Chair at the Irkutsk namic Geology Chair at the Irkutsk State University (since State University (since 2015), M.S. (2006) from the Irkutsk 2012), M.S. (1976) from the Irkutsk State University, Ph.D. State University, Ph.D. (2010) from the Institute of the (1982), Dr. (1992), and Professor (2005) of Petrology and Earth’s Crust SB RAS. She worked in late Mesozoic and Volcanology from the Institute of the Earth’s Crust SB RAS. Cenozoic volcanic ﬁelds of Mongolia, China, Kyrgyzstan, He has studied Cenozoic rifts in Central and East Asia, Sakhalin, Amur region, and Siberia. Results of her research North America, and East Africa. His main interest is origin in geochemistry and petrology of volcanic rocks have been of volcanic rocks, erupted at the latest geodynamic stage of presented in 118 publications that include 6 monographs the evolving Earth. He has published more than 500 works and 18 peer-reviewed papers. that include 17 monographs and 132 peer-reviewed papers.