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Erittävä Ruumis Englantilaisessa Lääketieteessä Ja Kohteliaisuuskulttuurissa 1700-1780

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Erittävä Ruumis Englantilaisessa Lääketieteessä Ja Kohteliaisuuskulttuurissa 1700-1780 ELÄINRUUMIS — SEURAELÄIN: Erittävä ruumis englantilaisessa lääketieteessä ja kohteliaisuuskulttuurissa 1700-1780 Helsingin yliopisto Historian laitos Yleinen historia Pro gradu -tutkielma 26.4.2007 Terhi Tarkiainen SISÄLLYS 1. JOHDANTO..........................................................................................................................2 1.1. Ruumiin historiaa............................................................................................................2 1.2. Tutkimustehtävä..............................................................................................................5 1.3. Lähdemateriaali.............................................................................................................11 2. ANIMAL OECONOMY...................................................................................................18 2.1. Harmonia.......................................................................................................................18 2.2. Avoimuus.......................................................................................................................23 2.3. Vapaus............................................................................................................................26 2.4. Muuntuvuus...................................................................................................................31 3. "EVERY MAN HIS OWN PHYSICIAN".....................................................................38 3.1. Kohtelias tiede...............................................................................................................38 3.2. Kylpeä ja hikoilla...........................................................................................................43 3.3. Tyhjentää........................................................................................................................50 3.4. Tulkita.............................................................................................................................59 4. "NIHIL HABEO CUM PORCIS!"...................................................................................66 4.1. Sioista ja ihmisistä.........................................................................................................66 4.2. Loukkaava löyhkä.........................................................................................................70 4.3. Vaaralliset huurut..........................................................................................................78 5. "THE WORLD'S ALL FACE".........................................................................................84 5.1. Puhtaat pinnat................................................................................................................84 5.2. Puhdistautuminen.........................................................................................................90 5.3. Pois silmistä...................................................................................................................98 5.4. Alas viemäristä.............................................................................................................105 6. SOCIABLE ANIMAL......................................................................................................112 6.1. Vapautuminen.............................................................................................................112 6.2. Erottautuminen...........................................................................................................117 6.3. Vaikeneminen..............................................................................................................122 6.4. Kieltäminen..................................................................................................................129 7. LOPPUPÄÄTELMÄT......................................................................................................135 LÄHTEET..............................................................................................................................138 1. JOHDANTO Ruumiissa luonto ja kulttuuri kohtaavat. Se on pinta, jolle aika ja tila jättävät jälkensä. Ruu- mis ei ole yksi, ruumis on monta. Se on ideologisen sisällön kantaja, joka huomaamatta imee itseensä sille annetut merkitykset. Ruumis on kieli, jolla ei ole sanoja mutta joka silti käy keskustelua maailman kanssa. Se on eleiden, sairauden, kivun, hiljaisuuden, rituaalien ja käytöksen kieltä.1 Nämä historioitsija Karin Johannissonin perusteesit toimivat lähtökoh- tana myös tälle tutkimukselle, jonka tarkoituksena on tavoittaa käsityksiä ruumiista sellai- sena kuin se 1700-luvun englantilaiselle näyttäytyy toisaalta lääketieteellisenä eläinruumiina ("Animal Oeconomy"), toisaalta kohteliaana seuraeläimenä ("Sociable Animal"). Kuten Johannisson jatkaa, ruumiin historia on peili, jonka kautta on mahdollista tavoittaa ihmisten tapa käsitteellistää maailmaa. Se on ihmisenä olemisen historiaa.2 1.1. Ruumiin historiaa Ruumis on noussut viime vuosina melko muodikkaaksi tutkimuskohteeksi, ja ruumiin historian monimuotoisesta ja poikkitieteellisestä kentästä on löydettävissä useita lähesty- mistapoja naistutkimuksesta politiikkaan ja lääketieteeseen.3 Ennen kaikkea ruumis on kuitenkin päässyt huomionkohteeksi feministisen tutkimuksen piirissä ja pitkälti Michel Foucault'n vallankäytön diskursseihin tukeutuen. Feministitutkijoiden vaikutuksesta suuri osa ruumiin historiasta onkin keskittynyt sukupuoleen ja seksuaalisuuteen, jolloin muut ruumiin osa-alueet ovat jääneet vähemmälle huomiolle. Keskiajantutkija Caroline Bynumin mukaan sukupuolisuuden painottumisen vuoksi ruumiin historiaa luonnehtii tietty vai- vaantuneisuus tutkijoiden puolelta: ruumista kohdellaan ikään kuin ansana ("body-as-trap"). Bynumin mielestä tämä on johtanut ruumiin tutkimiseen vain kielellisellä tasolla, mutta syövä, työskentelevä, kuoleva ja pelkäävä ruumis on unohdettu.4 Itse aion jatkaa tuota listaa ja lisätä siihen vielä erittävän ruumiin, jonka löytämiseen tämä tutkimus tähtää. Ruumiin anatomiassa on aukkoja, jotka muodostavat väylän kahden maailman, sisä- ja ulkopuolen välille. Antropologi Mary Douglasin mukaan juuri ihmisruumiin raja-alueisiin 1 Karin Johannisson, Kroppens tunna skal. Sex essäer om kropp, historia och kultur (Stockholm, 1997), s. 10-11. 2 Ibid., s. 12-13. 3 Roy Porter, "History of the Body Reconsidered" teoksessa New Perspectives on Historical Writing,toim.Peter Burke (Cambridge, 2001), 233-60, s. 242-45. 4 CarolineBynum,"WhyAlltheFussabouttheBody? A Medievalist's Perspective" teoksessa Beyond the Cultural Turn, toim. Victoria E. Bonnell & Lynn Hunt (Berkeley & Los Angeles & London, 1999), 241-80, s. 241-44. 2 kohdistuu erityinen huomio, koska nämä edustavat mitä tahansa rajoja, joiden yksilö tai yhteisö kokee olevan uhattuna. Murtumakohdista vuotava aine rikkoo rajan ja on näin luonteeltaan marginaalista, merkki sisältä, joka ilmentää joko positiivista tai negatiivista voimaa/uhkaa.5 Vaikka aukkojen ja eritteiden tutkiminen valaisee siis laajemminkin ihmisen suhdetta ruumiiseensa sekä sitä ympäröivään maailmaan, suhtautumista erittävään ruumii- seen ei juurikaan ole tutkittu. Esim. kuukautiset ovat olleet kaihdettu aihe historiantutki- muksessa. Aihetta käsitellyt Patricia Crawford uskoo, että kuukautisia on tähän asti pidetty puhtaasti naisellisena asiana, jolla ei ole mitään historiallista arvoa, mutta myös historioitsi- joiden omalla vastenmielisyydellä aihetta kohtaan ja vaikenemisen perinteellä on voinut olla vaikutuksensa. Crawfordin kaltaiset tutkijat ovat kuitenkin ymmärtäneet esim. kuukautisia ympäröivien näennäisen irrationaalisten pelkojen ja uskomusten laajentavan historioitsijoi- den ymmärrystä menneisyyden yhteisöjen toiminnasta ja ihmisten paikasta niissä.6 Tämä käsitys on mielestäni sovellettavissa muidenkin ruumiineritteiden tutkimukseen. Siinä missä kuukautiset on mielletty vain naisten asiaksi, koko erittävä ruumis on kuulunut pikemmin- kin lääketieteen kuin historian tutkimuskohteisiin eikä sen avaamia mahdollisuuksia ole ymmärretty hyödyntää. Sen sijaan ruumiin historiaa sivuavaa kohteliaisuuskulttuuria on tutkittu viime vuo- sina runsaasti. Ruumiin kannalta kohteliaisuuskulttuurintutkimus on ennen kaikkea käsitel- lyt sosiaalisen käyttäytymisen ideaaleja, käyttäen lähteinään pääasiassa käytösoppaiden an- tamia kuvauksia. Tunnetuin ja tämän tutkimuksen kannalta merkittävin näistä on sosiologi Norbert Eliaksen Über den Prozess der Zivilisation (1939). Eliaksen ajatuksena on osoittaa, että historialliset voimat ja ennen kaikkea kansallisvaltioiden syntyminen muokkasivat uuden ajan alun ihmisten käyttäytymissääntöjä, tehden näistä entistä tietoisempia omasta ruumiis- taan ja sen kontrolloinnista. Elias puhuu "häpeänkynnyksen" etenemisestä, ulkoisten sään- töjen vähittäisestä sisäistämisestä: aiemmissa käytösoppaissa kiellettyjä toimintoja (erit. ruumiintoimintoja) ei myöhemmin enää mainita, koska ne ovat muuttuneet sisäistetyiksi häpeän ja vastenmielisyyden tunteiksi. Prosessi ei ole Eliaksen mukaan yhtenäinen vaan sii- hen liittyy aaltomaista vaihtelua, mutta silti kehityksen yleisilme on kohti tiukempia ja si- säistetympiä käytöstä ohjaavia sääntöjä. Elias päättää tämän prosessin käsittelynsä 1700-lu- vun lopulle, jolloin suurin osa ruumiiseen kohdistuvista säännöistä on oppaista kadonnut.7 5 Mary Douglas, Puhtaus ja vaara: Ritualistisen rajanvedon analyysi, käänt. Virpi Blom & Kaarina Hazard (engl. 1966; suom. Tampere, 2000), s. 183, 187-91; Douglasin ajatuksia
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